Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Review article

Bioremediation and pharmacological applications of gold nanoparticles

synthesized from plant materials
Sunday Adewale Akintelu a, b, **, Bo Yao a, Aderonke Similoluwa Folorunso c, *
a
MOE Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 102488, PR China
b
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
c
Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Louisiana, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nanotechnology and nanoscience are gaining remarkable attention in this era due to their distinctive properties
Gold nanoparticles and multi applications. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) is one of the most relevant metal nanoparticles with enormous
Synthesis applications in various field of research and industries. The demand for AuNPs is increasing rapidly. Extensive
Plant materials
awareness has been allotted to the development of novel approaches for the synthesis of AuNPs with quality
Bioremediation and pharmacological
applications
morphological properties using biological sources due to the limitations associated with the chemical and physical
methods. Several factors such as contact time, temperature, pH of solution media, concentration of gold pre-
cursors and volume of plant extract influences the synthesis, characterization and applications of AuNPs. Char-
acterization of synthesized AuNPs is important in evaluating the morphological properties of AuNPs since the
morphological properties of AuNPs affect their potential use in various applications. This review highlights
various methods of synthesizing AuNPs, parameters influencing the biosynthesis of AuNPs from plant extract,
several techniques used for AuNPs characterization and their potential in bioremediation and biomedical
applications.

1. Introduction consume little energy, (v) it is cost effective because no external stabi-
lizing agents are generally required (vii) the possibility of large-scale
Metal nanoparticles have displayed enormous potential in various synthesis is achievable and (viii) reproducibility is production [7, 8, 9,
applications due to their exceptional catalytic property, anticancer 10] have made this approach more rewarding when compared with other
property, medical diagnostic application, antimicrobial activity, conventional methods. Plants phytochemicals such as carbohydrates,
biomedical application, sensory application, food preservation, agricul- flavonoids, terpenes, alcohol, phenolics, proteins and glycosides have
ture, pesticide and insecticide application [1, 2, 3]. AuNPs remain displayed vast potential in reduction of metal ions from their higher
dominant and prominent when compared with other metal nanoparticles oxidation state to low reduction potential [11, 12, 13]. The antioxidant
due to its activities and applications such as; photothermal therapy, drug potential of plant's phytochemicals enhances their rapid conversion of
delivery, immune chromatographic identification, biosensors, photo- gold precursor (chloroauric acid solution) into AuNPs [14,15]. The
catalytic and electronics [4,5] Numerous approaches such as physical, extensive applications of AuNPs synthesized using plant extracts in drug
chemical and biological methods have been used in the synthesis of delivery, tissue imaging and identification of clinical pathogens are due
AuNPs [6]. The following advantages of biological methods of AuNPs to their antimicrobial activities which are linked with the plant's phy-
synthesis; (i) been biologically compatible and offer substantial appli- tochemicals found in the extracts [16]. Despite the numerous literatures
cations in biology and medical field, (ii) It involve the use of natural on synthesis, characterization and applications of AuNPs synthesized
substances e.g. algae, plants, fungi, microorganisms, (iii) it does not using plant extracts, a lot of research is still ongoing in this field owing to
require the use of toxic regents which enhanced its applications in the diversity and potential of plants in production of AuNPs with
pharmaceutical and biomedical fields, (iv) it is simple to achieve and different shapes [10,17, 18, 19]. In this review, we provide a concise

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.A. Akintelu), [email protected] (A.S. Folorunso).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06591
Received 14 August 2020; Received in revised form 23 October 2020; Accepted 22 March 2021
2405-8440/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S.A. Akintelu et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

introduction to the recent development in green synthesis and charac- biochemicals that function as reducing agent to reduce the cytotoxicity
terization techniques involved in AuNPs production. We consequently associated with the use of expensive and toxic reagents in chemical
laid emphasis on the recent advances in the bioremediation and method of AuNPs synthesis. The chemical constituents of biological
biomedical applications of AuNPs biosynthesized from plant materials. materials such as amine, alkaloids, flavonoids, amides, proteins, tannins,
carbohydrates are accountable for the reduction of gold precursor
2. Methods of synthesizing AuNPs because they contain hydroxyl (–OH) functional groups that can donate
electrons to the gold ions. The use of microorganisms in the biosynthesis
2.1. Physical methods of AuNPs is very beneficial due to the global availability of enzymes,
mycelia and fruiting bodies. Nevertheless, this approach is slow, toxic
Evaporation, condensation, high energy ball, milling sputter deposi- and the high cost of incubation of some organisms are the limitations of
tion, pyrolysis, diffusion, laser ablation and plasma arcing are the this method [36].
commonly used techniques associated with the physical methods of The synthesis of AuNPs using mushroom such as Agaricus bisporus and
synthesizing AuNPs [20]. The use of evaporation-condensation approach Pleurotus florida [37,38] have been reported. Literature reports have
for the synthesis of AuNPs involves the use of a tube furnace under at- shown the use of algae Turbinaria conoides [39] as reducing agents in
mospheric pressure from which the source material inside a boat centred AuNPs synthesis. Findings have revealed the synthesis of AuNPs using
in the furnace is been vaporized into the carrier gas [21]. Despite the Fusarium oxysporum [40], Aspergillum sp [41] and Trichoderma viride [42].
merits of this technique the following are its limitation; large space is Bacteria such as Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas
needed to accommodate the tube furnace, high amount of energy and aeroginosa, Escherichia coli, Rhodopseudomonas capsulate, Streptomyces sp
time are been wasted in establishing stable thermal condition [22]. The and Staphylococcus epidermidis have been found beneficiary in AuNPs
laser ablation is another technique adopted in the physical synthesis of synthesis [43]. List of plant extracts that have been reported for the
AuNPs, this process occurs in a chamber under vacuum in the presence of synthesis of AuNPs are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
inert gases [21]. This approach is advantageous in production of colloidal Mechanism for the synthesis of AuNPs using plant extracts
nanoparticles. Spray pyrolysis, energy ball milling by impact collisions The importance of plant extracts in the synthesis of AuNPs was
and plasma-arcing in the presence of high temperatures have been used presented in the reaction mechanism given in Figure 1. The reduction of
as a physical method for the synthesis of AuNPs [23]. gold salt to gold nanoparticles (Au3þ→Au0) using plant extract was
possible due to the presence of some phytochemicals found in the plant's
2.2. Chemical method extract as illustrated with equation I-III. Such phytochemicals have the
potential of donating the needed electrons for the relative conversion of
The most recognized techniques used in the chemical methods of (Au3þ→Au0). The presence of hydroxyl functional groups in plant extract
synthesizing AuNPs are chemical reduction, thermal decomposition, enhanced the interaction of –OH with Au3þ ions to form gold complexes
electrochemical and micro-emulsion techniques. Chemical reduction which can be reduced to a stable Au0 [44].
involve the use of either inorganic or organic reagents as reducing agents. Au3þ þ e → Au2þ (1)
Reports from literatures have shown trisodium citrate dehydrate,
elemental hydrogen sodium borohydride, methoxy polyethylene glycol, Au2þ þ e → Auþ (2)
ascorbate and potassium bitartrate as prominent reducing agents used in þ  0þ
Au þ e → Au (3)
chemical reduction technique [22,24]. Micro-emulsion is another form of
the chemical method, it occurs in aqueous cores (nanoreactors) of the
reverse micelles which are scattered in an organic reagent and stabilized
by surfactant [25]. The micro-emulsion techniques is profitable for the 3. Characterization of nanoparticles
production of AuNPs with control homogeneity, morphological and
geometrical properties [26]. The electrochemical method uses electricity The main parameters studied when AuNPs are characterized are
as the source of electron for the reduction of gold precursor, the elec- surface charge, crystallinity, morphology and particle size. The various
tricity also serves as a controlling force during the synthesis. It demands techniques used for the evaluation and quantification of these parameters
the passage of electric current into two electrodes separated by electro- are summarized in detail below.
lyte and the synthesized AuNPs occurs at the electrode or at the elec-
trolyte interface [27]. Thermal decomposition has been documented to 3.1. Nanoparticle formation analysis
be the most common chemical techniques, nucleation occurs during this
process when the gold precursor (HAuCl4 or AuCl3) is added into the UV-visible spectroscopic analysis is used to ascertain the formation of
heated solution in the presence of surfactant and the growth stage AuNPs by measuring the surface plasmon resonance [SPR] and assessing
happen at a very high reaction temperature [28]. In thermal decompo- the collective oscillations of conduction bands of electrons generated by
sition process the size of synthesized AuNPs is been determined by re- electromagnetic waves [45]. The use of UV-visible spectroscopic analysis
action temperature, time and surfactant [21]. However, literatures have have aided the determination of some morphological features such as
reported the chemical approaches of AuNPs synthesis using several stability, size, structure and shape of AuNPs [46]. Each metal nano-
reducing agents, but some findings revealed that nanoparticles formed particles has a precise absorbance band in representative spectra when
from chemical methods show some threats on human health [29]. incident light encounter some resonance with the conduction band
electrons on the surface of the nanoparticles. Due to the excitation mode
2.3. Biological methods of the surface plasmons, AuNPs have an absorbance peak in the range of
500–550 nm [47]. The shift in the SPR peak towards the blue shift (lower
Many scientist have utilized the potential of biological materials in frequency) had been reported to indicate decrease in size of AuNPs size
development of effective, easy to operate, cheap, less toxic, flexible and whereas the red shift (lower frequency) signifies an increase in AuNPs
environmental friendly route for the synthesis of AuNPs. Biological size. The red shift occurs when the crystal size grows after nucleation and
methods which is also referred to as green synthesis, utilized plant extract the distance between valence band increases [48]. Comprehensive in-
[30,31], algae [32], mushrooms [33], bacteria (sulphate-reducing formation on the use of UV-visible spectroscopy in the confirmation of
bacteria) [34] and truffles [35] in AuNPs synthesis because they contain AuNPs formation is described in Table 1.

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S.A. Akintelu et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

Table 1. Characterization analysis of some biosynthesized AuNPs using plant sources.

S/N Plants name Plants parts SPR peak (nm) Functional group prediction Techniques for Morphological Assessment Shape Size Ref.
1 Alternanthera bettzickiana Leaf 520 3412 O–H EDX, FTIR, TEM, SEM, UV, XRD Spherical 60–80 [78]
2927 C–H
1758 C¼O
1454 C–C
1327 N–O
1250 C–N
2 Musa acuminata colla Flower 540 3421 O–H EDX, UV,XRD, spherical 10–16 [79]
2924 2855 C–H
2357 C–N
1642 C¼O
1549 C–C
3 Flammulina velutipes Fruit 563 3357 O–H FESEM, AFM,UV, DLS, XRD, FTIR triangular 74.32 [49]
2950 C–H
1634 C–N
1389 C¼O
4 Persea americana Oil 520 3009 O–H TEM, XRD, UV,FTIR,DLS decahedral 48.8 [80]
29222853 C–H
1743 C¼O
1653 C¼C
5 Galaxaura elongata - 500–600 3291 O–H FTIR,TEM,ZP,UV Spherical, triangular 3.85–77.13 [81]
2158 C–N
1634 C¼C
6 Mentha arvensis - 538 3450 O–H FESEM,UV,FTIR,DLS spherical 34 [82]
1630 C¼O
7 Pelargonium hirsutum - 537 3500 O–H FESEM,UV,FTIR,DLS spherical 33.80 [82]
1624 C¼O
8 Aegle marmelos Fruit 519 3440–3367 O–H UV,TEM,ZP,FTIR, EDX Spherical 18 [83]
2800–3000 C–H
1620–1606 N–H
9 Eugenia jambolana Fruit 523 3440–3367 O–H UV,TEM,ZP,FTIR, EDX Spherical 24 [83]
2800–3000 C–H
1620–1606 N–H
10 Annona muricata Fruit 526 3440–3367 O–H UV,TEM,ZP,FTIR,SAED,EDX Spherical 16 [83]
2800–3000 C–H
1620–1606 N–H
11 Hygrophila spinosa - 540 3263 O–H UV,EDX,TEM, FTIR, XRD,SEM,ZP Polygonal, rod 68 [84]
2926 C–H
1716 C¼O
12 Vitis vinifera juice 557 975–3650 O–H TEM,FTIR,UV Spherical 82 [85]
1503–1687 C¼O
13 Hylocereus undatus pulp 560 3451 O–H TEM,FTIR,UV,XRD spherical, triangular 0–20 [86]
2922 C–H
1640 C¼O
14 Gracilaria verrucosa Whole plant 520 3448 O–H TEM,FTIR,UV,XRD,ZP Spherical 20–80 [87]
2077 C–H
1637 C¼O
15 Mentha piperita Leaf 540 3399 N–H UV,DLS,SEM,FTIR,FESEM hexagonal 40–60 [88]
2135 C–H
1645 C¼O
16 Commiphora wightii Leaf 533 EDX,ERD,TEM,UV,FTIR Triangular, hexagonal 20 [68]
17 Juglans regia husk 550 - - XRD,EDX,TEM,FTIR,UV Spherical 10–30 [89]
18 Dracaena draco Leaf 554–532 3600–3200 O–H UV,FTIR,TEM,EDX,ZP Spherical 8–30 [90]
2900–2800 C–H
1725-1720 C¼O
1612 1640 C¼O
19 Justicia adhatoda Leaf 537 - - UV,SEM,EDX Spherical 13–57 [47]
20 Sansevieria roxburghiana Leaf 560 3415 N–H.O–H EDX,XRD,UV,FTIR.TEM,DLS, spherical 25 [91]
1585 C¼C
1067 C–N

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )
S/N Plants name Plants parts SPR peak (nm) Functional group prediction Techniques for Morphological Assessment Shape Size Ref.
21 Allium cepa Peel 535 3631 O–H UV,FESEM,EDX,XRD, FTIR spherical triangular 45.42 [92]
1645 C¼O
1321 C–N
22 Eucommia ulmoides Bark 547–536 3776 O–H EDX,XRD,DLSHRTEM,UV,FTIR Spherical 18.2 [93]
3584 N–H
3116 2910 C–H
1643 C¼O
1512 C¼C
23 Muntingia calabura Fruit 531 3430 O–H UV,FTIR,DLS,TEM spherical and oval 27 [94]
2962 C¼O
1617 C¼C
24 Agave potatorum Leaf 540 - - UV, HTREM,XRD pseudospherical 14 [95]
25 Mariposa Christia Vespertillonis Leaf 550 - - UV,TEM Irregular 50–70 [96]
26 Zostera noltii - 550 - - TEM,EDX Spherical 20–35 [97]
27 Pleurotus cornucopiae - 540 3303 O–H HRTEM, FTIR, UV, EDX Spherical 16–91 [65]
2121 C–N
1637 C¼O
28 pueraria lobata 529 3529–3232 O–H FTIR, UV,TEM,XRD Spherical 18 [66]
1628 C¼O

Table 2. Applications of AuNPs synthesized from plants extracts.

S/N Plants name Plants part Salt/ Applications Activities Ref

precursor
1 Cistus incanus. Leaf HAuCl4 luminescence properties The obtained nanoparticles exhibit good multiphoton-excited [111]
luminescence properties.
2 Alcea rosea Leaf HAuCl4 radical scavenging and The obtained AuNPs exhibited antioxidant activity against [112]
catalytic activities DPPH and ABTS radicals, and catalytic activity in
degradation of 4-nitrophenol pollutant
3 Punica granatum Peel AuCl3 Water Purification It exhibit suitable activity for water purification. [98]
4 Juglans regia Bark HAuCl4 Cytotoxicity It enhance the toxicity towards CTX TNA2 cells than [113]
free zonisamide.
5 Xanthium Fruit HAuCl4 Anti-allergic rhinitis The biosynthesized AuNPs considerably inhibit the allergic [114]
strumarium L. effect inflammation in mice models and could function as anti-allergic
rhinitis agents
6 Caulerpa racemosa Whole HAuCl4 Cytoxicity activities The synthesized AuNPs effectively inhibit the growth of [115]
plant human colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29) cells,
7 Vitis vinifera Peel HAuCl4 cytotoxicity the cytotoxicity of the gold nanoparticles against skin cancer [104]
A431 cell lines
8 Eucalyptus globulus bark HAuCl4 Environmental pollution AuNPs demostrared an eco-friendly reduction conditions [116]
9 Citrus limon - HAuCl4 Antibacterial Activity The Au-NPs showed great potential in inhibiting the activities [117]
of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by
damaging their activity
10 Croton caudatus Leaf HAuCl4 Antimicrobial and It shows significance [118]
Geisel antioxidant activities Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.
11 Coccinia grandis Bark HAuCl4 cytotoxicity NAC - Au NPs showed no tocity against fibroblast cells [119]
12 Halymenia dilatata - HAuCl4 antioxidant, anti-cancer Hd-AuNPs exhibit commendable antioxidant, anti-cancer and [120]
and antibacterial antibacterial activities
activities
13 Capsicum annuum Pulp HAuCl4 Catalytic activity. The GNPs synthesized showed potential catalytic activity. [121]
14 Ruellia tuberosa, Leaves, wing HAuCl4 enzyme activity It enhanced the enzyme activity on α-amylase, cellulase, and [122]
Phyllanthus acidus xylanase
15 Cassytha filiformis Leaf HAuCl3.H2O biodegradation It shows promising photocatalytic degradation of cationic dye [123]
16 Alpinia nigra Leaf HAuCl3.H2O biodegradation The synthesized AuNPs in the presence of sunlight catalyzed the [124]
degradation of the Methyl Orange and Rhodamine B with percent
degradation of 83.25% and 87.64% respectively

DPPH ¼ 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate, ABTS ¼ 2,20 -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), HAuCl4 ¼ gold(iii)chloride hydrate, HAuCl4 ¼
Chloroauric acid.

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S.A. Akintelu et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

Figure 1. Mechanism of AuNPs synthesis using Plant extracts.

3.2. Functional group determination (energies in the range of 150 to 60 keV). When the electron beam come in
contact with the sample, most of the electrons are transmitted, while the
Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is used for the rest are scattered. Data generated from the transmitted electrons are used
determination of the functional groups that induced the reduction of for the production of the TEM image [52]. The degree of such interaction
metal precursors [49]. To achieve this, the technique measures the ab- depends on size, elemental composition and sample density. TEM is
sorption of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region of wave- rampantly used for size and shape analysis. TEM does not only offers
lengths (4000-600 cm-1). FTIR spectrum describes the location of bands direct images of nanoparticles it equally gives an accurate estimation of
in relation to the nature of bonds and definite functional groups [49]. The their homogeneity [52,53]. Nevertheless, common limitations of TEM
peaks at the following wavelength specify functional groups associated technique are; it damage samples that cannot withstand the vacuum
with AuNPs synthesis. 3400-3380 for N-Н amines, 3570-3200 for O–H of pressure of the microscope, it produce misleading images as a result of
alcohols, 3130-3070 cm1 for aromatic C–H, 2970-2860 cm1 for Methyl orientation effects, sample preparation is difficult, it waste time because
C–H, 2300-2150 cm1 for C–N of nitriles, 1790-1690 for carbonyl –C¼O, the samples must be ultrathin for electron transmittance and it cannot be
1680-1620 cm1 for C¼C alkenes and 1470-1370 cm1 for Methyl C–H used for the quantification of large number of particles [52,54].
as showed in Table 1. Phytochemicals with the listed functional groups High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) is another
are expected to be capable of reducing gold precursor because they are version of TEM which allows the combination of both the transmitted
capable of donating electrons needed for the reduction of gold ions to a and scattered electrons for the production of its image because it make
lower oxidation state [50]. Comprehensive information from previous use of phase-contrast imaging [55]. This technique offer more benefits
literatures on the use of FTIR as characterization technique in green when compared with TEM it generating high resolution images and can
synthesis of AuNPs are presented in Table 1. also characterize the internal structure of nanoparticles [56]. Detailed
findings on the use of TEM and HRTEM in the determination of size,
shape and morphology of AuNPs is presented in Table 1.
3.3. Morphology and particle size determination

3.3.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

The effective applications of AuNPs depend largely on their
SEM is another microscopic technique that enhances the morpho-
morphological properties and particle size distribution. Hence the need
logical characterization of nanoparticles through direct visualization
for the evaluation of these feacture via characterization are very signif-
[57]. When AuNPs are exposed to electron beams they generate signals
icant. The following microscopy techniques; transmission electron mi-
that are recorded by the detector which gives information about the
croscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Atomic Force
chemical composition, external morphology, orientation and crystalline
Microscopy (AFM) are mostly used to measure the aforementioned
structure of AuNPs [58]. It exhibit several benefits such as prevention of
properties [51].
sample destruction, it permit visualization of morphological properties in
liquid state which prevent destruction of polymeric nanoparticles
3.3.1. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM/HRTEM)
because complete drying could alter their morphological identities.
TEM is a commonly used techniques for the determination of shape,
Despite these advantages the following are its demerits; it doesn't offer
morphology and size of AuNPs. This technique is based on the interaction
accurate information about the true population average and size
between a thin sample and a uniform current density electron beam

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distribution, it is time wasting, costly to operate and it damage samples reported to display a remarkable advantages of rapid identification of
that cannot withstand vacuum pressure [52]. The applications of this NPs from their dissolved ions and bulk counterparts over other tech-
technique in determination of the size and shape of AuNPs are listed in niques [69]. SERS has been successfully used for the size determination
Table 1. of some nanoparticles [70]. The use of SERS imaging in intracellular and
extracellular mapping of AuNPs synthesized using green algae Pseudo-
3.3.3. Atomic force microscopy kirchneriella subcapitata has been documented [71] Lahr et al. reported
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) are used for identification of the that SERS is useful in tracking AuNPs fate in microfluidic paper-based
morphological identities of nanoparticles. The difference between this analytical devices [72]. AuNPs toxicity against microorganisms had
technique and SEM/TEM is the production of three-dimensional images been estimated with the use of SERS [73]. The adsorption of molecules
which enable the evaluation of the particle volume and height [59]. This onto AuNPs surfaces had been monitored via SERS [74].
technique is based on the physical scanning of nanoparticles at
submicron level via a probe tip [60]. With the aid of AFM, the size 3.8. Zeta potential
(length, width, and height), surface texture and morphology of
nanoparticles can be determined with software based image processing Zeta Potential (ZP) is a prominent analytical tool used for the deter-
[61]. This technique has ability to produce images of nanoparticles mination of surface charge of AuNPs in colloidal solution. The surface of a
without any further treatment [62]. Reports on the morphological charged nanoparticles attracts a tiny layer of oppositely charge ions and
characterization of AuNPs via AFM are presented in Table 1. binds firmly to form a thin liquid layer. The diffusion of the particles
through the solution involve an outer diffuse layer which consists of
3.4. Dynamic light scattering roughly associated ions thereby forming an electrical double layer [75].
ZP values are used in predicting the stability of nanoparticles and the
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) is a popular technique used for esti- values ranges from þ100 to -100 mV. AuNPs with ZP values greater than
mating particle size distribution. DLS has been reported to be a good þ25 mV or lesser than –25 mV are regarded as been stable. Lower ZP
technique for the measurement of Brownian nanoparticles sizes in values are associated with aggregation or coagulation as a result of van
colloidal suspensions [63]. DLS make use of diffusion coefficient in the der Waals attraction [76]. The ZP values in the range of -33.59 to -29.1
computation of size distribution and nanoparticles motion [64]. Reports mV has been reported for AuNPs synthesized using Leucosidea sericea [77].
on the application of DLS in size distribution of AuNPs are stated in
Table 1. 4. Applications of AuNPs synthesized from plant extracts

3.5. Elemental composition 4.1. Catalytic application

Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectra (EDX) had been reported by several The aquatic ecosystem are polluted when municipal and industrial
researchers to be a good technique for the estimation of elemental effluent are discharged into them, this happening had cause enormous
compositions and purity determination in AuNPs synthesis [65]. This is environmental and health menaces. Several techniques such as osmotic
achieved from the quantification of X-rays emissions from nanoparticles pressure, adsorption and coagulation have been utilized in treating the
after they are bombarded by electron beam [46]. EDX detector are con- effects of wastes and effluents from the aquatic ecosystem but each
nected to SEM for the detection of number of X-rays emitted so as to techniques have some unique merits and demerits. Interestingly, the
balance the difference in energy of two electrons. The energy generated photocatalytic treatment using biosynthesized AuNPs from plant sources
by the emitted X-ray is a characteristic property of the element, which provides a cost effective and environmental friendly approach of solving
when qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed gives the composition of this problem [98]. The effective use of AuNPs as photocatalytic agent in
the element present in the synthesized AuNPs [66]. degradation of organic pollutants are linked to their large surface area or
the quantum confinement effects [99]. The catalytic efficiency of AuNPs
biosynthesized from Mimosa tenuiflora extract has been stated [100]. Also
3.6. Crystallinity analysis
the investigation of biosynthesized AuNPs using Trichoderma sp as
catalytic agent in degradation of azo dyes has been established [101].
The crystallinity of nanoparticles is determine via X-ray Diffraction
Furthermore, AuNPs Phyto-synthesized from Delonix regia leaf extract
(XRD) technique [67]. This technique measures the diffraction angle
demonstrated potential catalytic activity [102]. More relevant informa-
obtained from the structure and lattice parameters of the diffracted
tion on the catalytic application of AuNPs mediated from plant extracts
powder samples when X-ray beam incident on them. The particle sizes
are presented in Table 2.
are then estimated according to the width of the X-ray peaks via the
Possible catalytic mechanism
Scherrer formula in equation iv [68].
Two mechanisms have been proposed for the photocatalytic effi-
D ¼ kλ / β cos2θ (4) ciency of AuNPs; Firstly, AuNPs are capable of inducing localized surface
plasmon resonance (LSPR) by absorption of visible light with equivalent
where D represent the average thickness of crystalline grains at the wavelengths of their plasmonic absorption bands. The electromagnetic
crystal plane (n), K denote the Scherrer constant (0.89), β stand for the field associated with LSPR can enhance the production and separation of
Full-Width Half Maximum, θ represent diffraction angle and λ signify electron/hole pairs in the semiconductor. Secondly, AuNPs can serve as
X-ray wavelength (0.15418 nm). electron sinks to attract photogenerated electrons, thereby causing an
effectual separation of electron/hole pairs. However, the aforementioned
3.7. Raman spectroscopy/surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) mechanisms depend on the AuNPs sizes, larger-sized AuNPs follows the
LSPR effects whereas smaller-sized AuNPs generally behaves as electron
SERS technique incorporates nanotechnology into normal Raman sinks [28]. The schematic representation of the degradation mechanism
spectroscopy. The normal Raman technique depends on the inelastic of AuNPs is showed in Figure 2.
scattering irradiated analyte produced by laser. Therefore, any polariz-
able sample under laser irradiation will be detected by Raman 4.2. Anticancer application
spectroscopy [69]. SERS was design to solve some problems associated
with Raman spectroscopy such as difficulty in determination of samples Biosynthesized AuNPs are found to possess distinctive anticancer
at low concentrations and poor fluorescence interference. SERS has been activities, because biomolecules can easily absorb to their surfaces

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S.A. Akintelu et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

Sources of Sunlight
Pollutant (dyes) Energy

O2

Organic
Release of
Pollutant
Degradation
Product
AuNPs

OH-

Figure 2. Schematic representation of degradation of some dyes using the AuNPs.

making it superior to other materials in inhibiting the growth of cancer 4.3. Antioxidant application
cell [103]. AuNPs produced using plants were reported to have huge
anticancer potential since they demonstrated toxic activity against cancer The results obtained from 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate
cells [104]. The efficacy of AuNPs produced using Vitis vinifera peel (DPPH) assay of AuNPs mediated from Alium cepa displayed moderate
showed commendable biocompatibility towards normal human cell line antioxidant activity of 14.44% at 100 μg/ml while the reference standard
and selective toxicity against skin cancer A431 cell lines rendering it a showed scavenging activity of 36.54% at same concentrations when
good anticancer agent [105]. The cytotoxic investigation of AuNPs compared [92]. The DPPH scavenging potential of phytosynthesized
against the growth of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) showed 60% AuNPs are linked to the presence of secondary metabolites in plant
cell death at concentrations of 120 mg/ml. It was also observed that the extracts [107]. The antioxidant analysis of AuNPs prepared from
cytotoxicity increased with the increase in concentration of AuNPs [83]. avocado oil showed an antioxidant efficiency of 30.49 % at 40 μL. The
Findings had shown that the anticancer efficiency of AuNPs depends on antioxidant efficiency was ascribed to the functionalization of AuNPs
the stabilizing agent and size [106]. Other useful information on the with some organic constituents derived from the avocado oil [80]. Re-
anticancer application of green synthesized AuNPs are showed in ports from previous studies have claimed that the interaction of AuNPs
Table 2. The Schematic representation of the anticancer activity of AuNPs with free radicals are influenced by some factors such as specific surface,
is showed in Figure 3. concentration and size. Furthermore, the authors equally stated that
larger size AuNPs exhibits lower antioxidant potency when compared

Figure 3. Schematic representation of the anticancer activity of AuNPs.

7
S.A. Akintelu et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

Figure 4. Schematic representation of the antioxidant activity of AuNPs.

with smaller size of AuNPs [80,84]. Relevant information on the Table 2. The Schematic representation of the antibacterial mechanism of
antioxidant efficiency of AuNPs synthesized using plant extracts are AuNPs is showed in Figure 5.
presented in Table 2. The Schematic representation of the antioxidant
activity of AuNPs is showed in Figure 4. 5. The challenges and future of AuNPs for bioremediation and
biomedical applications
4.4. Antimicrobial application
The applications of AuNPs is on a widespread across the globe as its
AuNPs synthesized from the powder of Galaxaura elongata was found usefulness in most life fields such as dye, electronics, textile, food,
to be an effective antibacterial agents judging from the inhibition zones medicine and other industries are increasing on daily basis [125].
of 13.5 and 13 mm demonstrated against the growth of E. coli and Recently nanoscience and nanotechnology are providing remarkable and
K. pneumoniae respectively [81]. The proteomic study of AuNPs against promising bioremediation and biomedical applications than what is
the growth of E. coli cells showed an alterations in the expression of heat recorded in previous decades. The quest to search for a lasting solution to
sock protein even at short exposure [108]. Green synthesis of AuNPs improve human health status through disease diagnosis and production
using Alternanthera bettzickiana leaf extract demonstrated a significant of novel medicine had made Nano research a very relevant field of study
antibacterial effect rendering it a promising antibacterial agent. Inter- [126]. This move will continue to grow rapidly with provision of
estingly, report had shown that biosynthesized AuNPs displayed more prominent contributions to public health and other fields [127].
efficient antibacterial activity than chemically synthesized AuNPs when However, the safety level of AuNPs in bioremediation and biomedical
compared, such antibacterial potency may be due to the synergistic effect applications are becoming worrisome and its raising some future chal-
of the plant extracts [78]. Several finding have shown that AuNPs lenges due to nanotoxicity because the interaction of AuNPs with
synthesized from plant extracts exhibit remarkable antimicrobial activ- biological systems are govern by several factors such as cell type, uptake
ities against several microbes [109,110]. Additional findings on the routes or directing different organelles which might sometimes be
antimicrobial application of phytosynthesized AuNPs are showed in harmful [128]. Also investigation of the mechanism of interaction,

Figure 5. Schematic representation of the antibacterial mechanism of AuNPs.

8
S.A. Akintelu et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06591

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