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AQA A Level Biology

2.4 Cell Membranes & Transport

Contents
2.4.1 The Structure of Cell Membranes
2.4.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes
2.4.3 The Cell Surface Membrane
2.4.4 Diffusion
2.4.5 Osmosis
2.4.6 Osmosis in Plant Cells
2.4.7 Osmosis in Animal Cells
2.4.8 Comparing Osmosis in Animal & Plant Cells
2.4.9 Water Potential Calibration Curves
2.4.10 Active Transport & Co-transport
2.4.11 Adaptations for Rapid Transport
2.4.12 Specialised Cells
2.4.13 Factors Affecting Membrane Fluidity

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2.4.1 The Structure of Cell Membranes

The Fluid Mosaic Model of Membranes

Membranes are vital structures found in all cells
The cell surface membrane creates an enclosed space separating the internal cell environmentfrom the external
environment, and intracellular membranes form compartments within the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria and
RER
Membranes do not only separate different areas but also controlthe exchange of material across them, as well as
acting as an interface for communication
Membranes are partially permeable
Substances can cross membranes by diffusion, osmosis and active transport

Cellular membranes are formed from a bilayer of phospholipids which is roughly 7nm wide and therefore just visible
under an electron microscope at very high magnifications
The fluid mosaic model ofthe membrane was first outlined in 1972 and it explains how biological molecules are
arranged to form cell membranes
The fluid mosaic model also helps to explain:
Passive and active movement between cells and their surroundings
Cell-to-cell interactions
Cell signalling

Phospholipids

Phospholipids structurally contain two distinctregions: a polar head and two nonpolartails The phosphate head of a
phospholipid is polar(hydrophilic) and therefore soluble in water The lipid tail is non-polar(hydrophobic) and insoluble
in water
If phospholipids are spread overthe surface of waterthey form a single layer with the hydrophilic phosphate heads in
the water and the hydrophobic fatty acid tails sticking up away from the water This is called a phospholipid monolayer
 A
phospholipid monolayer
If phospholipids are mixed/shaken with waterthey form spheres with the hydrophilic phosphate heads facing
outtowards the water and the hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing in towards each other This is called a micelle

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A micelle

Alternatively,two-layered structures may form in sheets

These are called phospholipid bilayers – this is the basic structure ofthe cell membrane

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A phospholipid bilayeris composed of two layers of phospholipids; their hydrophobic tails facing inwards
and hydrophilic heads outwards

Phospholipid bilayers can form compartments – the bilayerforming the cell surface membrane
establishing the boundary of each cell
Internally, membrane-bound compartments formed from phospholipid bilayers provide the basic
structure of organelles, allowing for specialisation of processes within the cell
An example of a membrane-bound organelle is the lysosome (found in animal cells), each containing
many hydrolytic enzymes that can break down many different kinds of biomolecule
These enzymes need to be kept compartmentalised otherwise they would breakdown most ofthe
cellular components

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Membranes formed from phospholipid bilayers help to compartmentalise different regions of the cell

Structure of membranes

The phospholipid bilayers that make up cell membranes also contain proteins
The proteins can either be intrinsic (or integral) or extrinsic (peripheral)

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Intrinsic proteins are embedded in the membrane with their arrangement determined by their hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions
Extrinsic proteins are found on the outer or inner surface ofthe membrane
The fluid mosaic model describes cell membranes as ‘fluid’ because:
The phospholipids and proteins can move around via diffusion
The phospholipids mainly move sideways, within their own layers
The many differenttypes of proteins interspersed throughoutthe bilayer move about within it(a bit like icebergs in the
sea) although some may be fixed in position
The fluid mosaic model describes cell membranes as ‘mosaics’ because:
The scattered pattern produced by the proteins within the phospholipid bilayer looks somewhat like a mosaic when
viewed from above

The distribution of the proteins within the membrane gives a mosaic appearance and the structure of proteins
determines their position in the membrane

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Examiner Tip
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You must know how to draw and labelthe fluid mosaic model, as well as ensure that you can describe why
the membrane is called the fluid mosaic model.

An example of the diagram you could draw

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2.4.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes

Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Glycolipids, Proteins & Glycoproteins

The cell membranes of all organisms generally have a similar structure
Cell membranes contain several differenttypes of molecules:
Three types oflipid:
Phospholipids
Cholesterol
Glycolipids (also containing carbohydrates)

Two types of proteins:

Glycoproteins (also containing carbohydrates)
Other proteins (eg.transport proteins)

Phospholipids:
Form a bilayer(two layers of phospholipid molecules)
Hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains) pointin towards the membrane interior
Hydrophilic heads (phosphate groups) point outtowards the membrane surface Individual phospholipid molecules can
move around within their own monolayers by diffusion

Cholesterol:
Cholesterol molecules also have hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
Fit between phospholipid molecules and orientated the same way (head out,tail in) Are absentin prokaryotes
membranes

Glycolipids:
These are lipids with carbohydrate chains attached
These carbohydrate chains project outinto whatever fluid is surrounding the cell (they are found on the outer
phospholipid monolayer)

Glycoproteins:
These are proteins with carbohydrate chains attached
These carbohydrate chains also project outinto whatever fluid is surrounding the cell (they are found on the outer
phospholipid monolayer)

Proteins:
The proteins embedded within the membrane are known as intrinsic proteins (or integral proteins) They can be
located in the inner or outer phospholipid monolayer
Most commonly, they span the entire membrane – these are known as transmembrane proteins Transport proteins
are an example oftransmembrane proteins as they cross the whole membrane Proteins can also be found on the
inner or outer surface ofthe membrane,these are known as extrinsic proteins (or peripheral proteins)

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Examiner Tip
Make sure you can draw and label allthe above structures on a diagram ofthe fluid mosaic model of cell
membranes.You can use an annotated diagram to state the functions ofthe above structures.
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2.4.3 The Cell Surface Membrane

Cell Surface Membranes
Phospholipids

Form the basic structure ofthe membrane (phospholipid bilayer)

The tails form a hydrophobic core comprising the innermost part of both the outer and inner layer ofthe membrane
Act as a barrier to most water-soluble substances (the non-polarfatty acid tails prevent polar molecules or ions from
passing across the membrane)
This ensures water-soluble molecules such as sugars, amino acids and proteins cannot leak out of the cell and
unwanted water-soluble molecules cannot getin
Can be chemically modified to act as signalling molecules by:
Moving within the bilayerto activate other molecules (eg. enzymes)
Being hydrolysed which releases smaller water-soluble molecules that bind to specific receptors in the cytoplasm

Cholesterol

Cholesterolregulates the fluidity ofthe membrane

Cholesterol molecules sitin between the phospholipids, preventing them from packing too closely together when
temperatures are low;this prevents membranes from freezing and fracturing. Interaction between cholesterol and
phospholipid tails also stabilises the cell membrane at higher temperatures by stopping the membrane from
becoming too fluid
Cholesterol molecules bind to the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids, stabilising them and causing phospholipids to
pack more closely together
Cholesterol also contributes to the impermeabilty ofthe membrane to ions and increases mechanical strength and
stability of membranes; withoutit membranes would break down and cells burst

Glycolipids & glycoproteins

Glycolipids and glycoproteins contain carbohydrate chains that exist on the surface (the periphery/extrinsically), which
enables them to act as receptor molecules
This allows glycolipids and glycoproteins to bind with certain substances at the cell’s surface There are three main
receptortypes:
signalling receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters
receptors involved in endocytosis
receptors involved in cell adhesion and stabilisation (as the carbohydrate part can form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules surrounding the cell

Some act as cell markers or antigens,for cell-to-cellrecognition (eg.the ABO blood group antigens are glycolipids and
glycoproteins that differ slightly in their carbohydrate chains)

Proteins

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Transport proteins create hydrophilic channels to allow ions and polar molecules to travel through the membrane.
There are two types:
channel (pore) proteins
carrier proteins

Each transport protein is specific to a particularion or molecule

Transport proteins allow the cellto control which substances enter or leave

Examiner Tip
Membranes become less fluid when there is:

An increased proportion of saturated fatty acid chains as the chains pack togethertightly and therefore there is a high
number ofintermolecularforces between the chains
A lowertemperature as the molecules have less energy and therefore are not moving as freely which causes the
structure to be more closely packed
Membranes become more fluid when there is:

An increased proportion of unsaturated fatty acid chains as these chains are bent, which means the chains are less
tightly packed together and there are less intermolecularforces At highertemperatures,the molecules have more
energy and therefore move more freely, which increasing membrane fluidity
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2.4.4 Diffusion
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Diffusion & Facilitated Diffusion

Diffusion is a type of transportation that occurs across the cell membrane
It can be defined as:
The net movement, as a result of the random motion of its molecules orions, of a substance from a region
of its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration.
The molecules or ions move down a concentration gradient
The random movementis caused by the natural kinetic energy ofthe molecules or ions

Diffusion across the cell membrane

As a result of diffusion, molecules or ions tend to reach an equilibrium situation (given sufficienttime),
where they are evenly spread within a given volume of space
The rate at which a substance diffuses across a membrane depends on severalfactors

Diffusion Factors Table

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Facilitated diffusion
Certain substances cannot diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes. These include: Large polar
molecules such as glucose and amino acids
+-
Ions such as sodium ions (Na ) and chloride ions (Cl )

These substances can only cross the phospholipid bilayer with the help of certain proteins This form of diffusion is
known as facilitated diffusion
There are two types of proteins that enable facilitated diffusion:
Channel proteins
Carrier proteins

They are highly specific (they only allow one type of molecule or ion to pass through) Channel proteins

Channel proteins are water-filled pores

They allow charged substances (eg. ions)to diffuse through the cell membrane
The diffusion ofthese ions does not occurfreely, most channel proteins are ‘gated’, meaning that part ofthe channel
protein on the inside surface ofthe membrane can move in orderto close or open the pore
This allows the channel protein to controlthe exchange ofions

A
channel protein (open and closed)
Carrier proteins

Unlike channel proteins which have a fixed shape, carrier proteins can switch between two shapes This causes the
binding site ofthe carrier protein to be open to one side ofthe membrane first, and then open to the other side ofthe
membrane when the carrier protein switches shape The direction of movement of molecules diffusing across the
membrane depends on their relative concentration on each side ofthe membrane

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Net diffusion of molecules or ions into or out of a cell will occur down a concentration gradient (from an
area containing many ofthat specific molecule to an area containing less ofthat molecule)
Your notes
 A carrier protein changing shape during facilitated diffusion

Examiner Tip
Remember – the movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration is diffusion. If this
movementrequires the aid of a protein (for example because the molecule is charged and cannot pass
directly through the phospholipid bilayer)this is facilitated diffusion.

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The Process of Osmosis

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2.4.5 Osmosis
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All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane which is partially permeable
Water can move in and out of cells by osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution (high concentration of water)to a more
concentrated solution (low concentration of water) across a partially permeable membrane In doing this,
water is moving down its concentration gradient
The cell membrane is partially permeable which means it allows small molecules (like water)through but
notlarger molecules (like solute molecules)

Osmosis and the partially permeable membrane

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute
solution)to a region oflower water potential (concentrated solution),through a partially permeable
membrane
Water potential describes the tendency of waterto move out of a solution. This term is used to avoid
confusion between water concentration and concentration of a solution
A dilute solution has a high water potential (the right-hand side ofthe diagram below) and a
concentrated solution has a low water potential (the left-hand side ofthe diagram below)

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 How osmosis works

The water potential of pure water(without any solutes) at atmospheric pressure is 0kPa,therefore any
solution that has solutes will have a water potential lowerthan 0kPa (it will be a negative value)

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Examiner Tip
Water can pass through the phospholipid bilayer because water molecules are small molecules that can pass
between phospholipids in the cell membrane. Although water molecules are polar,they can still pass through the
bilayer because oftheir small size.When interpreting questions on water potential, remember – the more negative the
water potential,the lowerthe water potential (the further itis away from pure water which has a water potential of 0
kPa).

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2.4.6 Osmosis in Plant Cells

Osmosis: Plant Cells
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution)to a region
oflower water potential (concentrated solution),through a partially permeable membrane
If a plant cell is placed in pure water or a dilute solution, water will enterthe plant cellthrough its partially permeable
cell surface membrane by osmosis, as the pure water or dilute solution has a higher water potentialthan the plant cell
As water enters the vacuole ofthe plant cell,the volume ofthe plant cell increases The expanding protoplast (living part
ofthe cell inside the cell wall) pushes againstthe cell wall and pressure builds up inside the cell – the inelastic cell wall
prevents the cellfrom bursting The pressure created by the cell wall also stops too much water entering and this also
helps to prevent the cellfrom bursting
When a plant cell is fully inflated with water and has become rigid and firm, itis described as fully turgid This turgidity
is importantfor plants as the effect of allthe cells in a plant being firm is to provide support and strength forthe plant –
making the plant stand upright with its leaves held outto catch sunlight
If plants do notreceive enough waterthe cells cannotremain rigid and firm (turgid) and the plant wilts

Osmosis of waterinto a plant cell

If a plant cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potentialthan the plant cell (such as a concentrated sucrose
solution), water will leave the plant cellthrough its partially permeable cell surface membrane by osmosis

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As water leaves the vacuole ofthe plant cell,the volume ofthe plant cell decreases
The protoplast gradually shrinks and no longer exerts pressure on the cell wall
Your notes
As the protoplast continues to shrink, it begins to pull away from the cell wall
This process is known as plasmolysis – the plant cell is plasmolysed
Plasmolysis of a plant cell that has been placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the cell itself

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Examiner Tip
Remember – plant cell membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer and are partially permeable (only certain
molecules can cross), whereas plant cell walls are made of cellulose and are freely permeable. Thus, in a
plasmolysed cell,the external solution will be exerting pressure on the protoplast,thatis,there is not an empty space
between the cell wall and protoplast.Pure water has a water potential of 0 kPa, so all other solutions will have
negative water potentials.

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2.4.7 Osmosis in Animal Cells

Osmosis: Animal Cells
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution)to a region
oflower water potential (concentrated solution),through a partially permeable membrane
Like plant cells, animal cells can also lose and gain water as a result of osmosis
As animal cells do not have a supporting cell wall (unlike plant cells),the results ofthis loss or gain of water on the cell
are more severe
For example, if an animal cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potentialthan the cell (such as a concentrated
sucrose solution), water will leave the cellthrough its partially permeable cell surface membrane by osmosis and the
cell will shrink and shrivel up
This occurs when the cell is in a hypertonic environment (the solution outside ofthe cell has a higher solute
concentration than the inside ofthe cell)

Conversely, if an animal cell is placed in pure water or a dilute solution, water will enterthe cellthrough its partially
permeable cell surface membrane by osmosis, as the pure water or dilute solution has a higher water potential. The
cell will continue to gain water by osmosis untilthe cell membrane is stretched too far and the cell bursts (cytolysis),
as it has no cell wallto withstand the increased pressure created
This occurs when the cell is in a hypotonic environment (the solution outside ofthe cell has a lower solute
concentration than the inside ofthe cell)
This is why a constant water potential must be maintained inside the bodies of animals If an animal cell is in an
isotonic environment (the solution outside ofthe cell has the same solute concentration as the inside ofthe cell),the
movement of water molecules into and out ofthe cell occurs atthe same rate (no net movement of water) and there is
no change to the cells

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Effect of osmosis on animal cells

Examiner Tip
Be careful with your scientific terminology – animal cells do not plasmolyse because they do not have a cell
wall. In a solution with a lower water potentialthan the cell itself, animal cells will shrink.
Plasmolysis only occurs in plant cells.

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2.4.8 Comparing Osmosis in Animal & Plant Cells

Osmosis in Cells: Comparison

Comparing & Contrasting the Movement of Water by Osmosis in Plant & Animal Cells Table
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2.4.9 Water Potential Calibration Curves

Required Practical:Investigating Water Potential Using Calibration Curves

Itis possible to investigate the effects ofimmersing planttissue in solutions of different water potentials and then use
the results to estimate the water potential of the plant tissue itself The most common osmosis practical ofthis kind
involves cutting cylinders of potato and placing them into solutions with a range of different water potentials (usually
sucrose solutions of increasing concentration – atleast 5 different concentrations are usually required)

Method

The required number of potato cylinders are cut(one for each ofthe solutions you are testing – or more than one per
solution if you require repeats)
They are all cutto the same length and, once blotted dry to remove any excess moisture,their initial mass is measured
and recorded before placing into the solutions
They are leftin the solutions for a set amount oftime (eg. 30 minutes), usually in a water bath (set at o
around 30 )
They are then removed and dried to remove excess liquid
The final length and mass of each potato cylinder is then measured and recorded
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You will need to use apparatus appropriately to measure out the volumes of your solutions and record your
measurements

Analysis

The percentage change in mass for each potato cylinder is calculated

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To find the percentage change in mass, the change in mass must be divided by the initial mass and then multiplied by
100

A positive percentage change in mass indicates thatthe potato has gained water by osmosis (net movement of
waterfrom the solution into the potato) meaning the solution had a higher water potentialthan the potato
This would make the potato cells turgid, as the water exerts turgor pressure (or hydrostatic pressure) on the cell walls
– the potatoes willfeel hard

A negative percentage change suggests the opposite,thatis,the solution had a lower water potential than the potato
The potato cylinder in the strongest sucrose concentration will have decreased in mass the most as there is the
greatest concentration gradient in this tube between the potato cells (higher water potential) and the sucrose solution
(lower water potential)
This means more water molecules will move out ofthe potato cells by osmosis, making them flaccid and decreasing
the mass ofthe potato cylinder – the potato cylinders willfeel floppy

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Iflooked at underneath the microscope, cells from this potato cylinder might be plasmolysed, meaning the cell
membrane has pulled away from the cell wall
Ifthere is a potato cylinderthat has neither increased nor decreased in mass, it means there was no overall net
movement of waterinto or out ofthe potato cells
This is because the solution thatthis particular potato cylinder was in had the same water potential as the solution
found in the cytoplasm ofthe potato cells, so there was no concentration gradient and therefore no net movement of
water into or out ofthe potato cells

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Maths Skill: Graph Intercepts

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The concentration of sucrose inside the potato cylinders can be found if a graph is drawn showing how the
percentage change in mass changes with the concentration of sucrose solution – the point at which the line
of best fit crosses the x-axis is the concentration of sucrose inside the potato
cylinders
A positive percentage change in mass indicates that the potato has gained water by osmosis (net movement of
water from the solution into the potato) meaning the solution had a higher water potential than the potato. A
negative percentage change suggests the opposite

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Maths Skill: Plotting Data

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Plotting data from investigations in the appropriate format allows you to more clearly see the relationship between two
variables
This makes the results of experiments much easierto interpret
First, you need to consider what type of data you have:
Qualitative data (non-numerical data e.g. blood group)
Discrete data (numerical data that can only take certain values in a range e.g. shoe size) Continuous data (numerical
data that can take any value in a range e.g. height or weight)

For qualitative and discrete data, bar charts or pie charts are most suitable
For continuous data, line graphs or scatter graphs are most suitable
Scatter graphs are especially usefulfor showing how two variables are correlated (related to one another)

Tips for plotting data

Whatevertype of graph you use, rememberthe following:

The data should be plotted with the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis
Plot data points accurately
Use appropriate linear scales on axes
Choose scales that enable all data points to be plotted within the graph area
Label axes, with units included
Make graphs that fill the space the exam paper gives you
Draw a line of best fit. This may be straight or curved depending on the trend shown by the data. If the line of best fitis
a curve make sure itis drawn smoothly. A line of best-fit should have a balance of data points above and below the
line
In some cases,the line or curve of best fit should be drawn through the origin (but only ifthe data and trend allow it)

Examiner Tip
Questions involving osmosis experiments are common and you should be able to use your knowledge of osmosis to
explain the results obtained. Don’t worry ifitis an experiment you haven’t done – simply figure out where the higher
concentration of water molecules is – this is the solution with the higher water potential – and explain which way the
molecules move due to the differences in water potential.When drawing graphs, students often make mistakes when
choosing the scales fortheir graphs. If possible, you should try to avoid scales thatinvolve using parts of grid squares
on the graph paper and instead try and use whole grid squares, as this makes it much easierto plot data points
accurately.

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2.4.10 Active Transport & Co-transport

The Process of Active Transport & Co-transport
Active transport
Active transportis the movement of molecules and ions through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration
to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration Active transportrequires carrier proteins (each
carrier protein being specific for a particulartype of molecule or ion)
Although facilitated diffusion also uses carrier protein, active transportis different as itrequires energy The energy is
required to make the carrier protein change shape, allowing itto transferthe molecules or ions across the cell
membrane
The energy required is provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) produced during respiration. The ATP is hydrolysed
to release energy

Active transport diagram

A
carrier protein changing shape during active transport
Active transportis importantin:
Reabsorption of useful molecules and ions into the blood after filtration into the kidney tubules Absorption of some
products of digestion from the digestive tract
Loading sugarfrom the photosynthesising cells ofleaves into the phloem tissue fortransport around the plant
Loading inorganic ions from the soil into root hairs

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Co-transport
Co-transportis the coupled movement of substances across a cell membrane via a carrier protein This means thattwo
types of molecule are moved across the membrane atthe same time;the movement of one is dependent on the
movement ofthe other
Itinvolves a combination of facilitated diffusion and active transport
A well-known example of a co-transporter protein can be found on the cell surface membrane ofthe epithelial cells
lining the mammalian ileum
This specific co-transport protein is involved in the absorption of glucose and sodium ions as follows:
The active transport of sodium ions from the epithelial cell into the blood lowers the sodium ion concentration inside
the cell and generates a sodium ion concentration gradient between the ileum and the epithelial cell
Sodium ions move into the cellfrom the ileum by facilitated diffusion, carrying glucose molecules along with them via
a cotransport protein
The glucose concentration inside the epithelial cell increases, and glucose molecules enter the blood via facilitated
diffusion
Note thatit can help to explain cotransport by beginning with the active part ofthe process (as above);this may seem a
bit backwards, but active transport generates the concentration gradient needed for cotransportto occur, so this is a
logical starting point

Cotransport of sodium and glucose diagram

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Both facilitated diffusion and active transport occur during co-transport. Glucose molecules can only enter the
epithelial cell when sodium ions are present.
Examiner Tip
Be careful notto get carrier proteins and channel proteins confused when answering questions on active transport.
Active transportrequires carrier proteins (transmembrane transport proteins that undergo conformational change) not
channel proteins.

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2.4.11 Adaptations for Rapid Transport

Adaptations for Rapid Transport

The rate at which diffusion (including both simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion) occurs across external and
internal cell membranes varies
Some cells are adapted forrapid transport (diffusion) of molecules across their internal or external membranes
The rate of diffusion depends on several factors. These include:
Temperature
The surface area ofthe exchange surface
The concentration gradient across the exchange surface
The thickness ofthe exchange surface

Simple diffusion

The rate of simple diffusion depends on three main factors:

Facilitated Diffusion

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The rate of facilitated diffusion depends on two main factors

 Your notes

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2.4.12 Specialised Cells

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Explaining Adaptations in Specialised Cells
Specialised cells for diffusion

Root hair cells and epithelial cells of the small intestine are examples of cells that are adapted forthe rapid
transport of molecules across their membranes
Root hair cells:
Are adapted forthe absorption of water and mineral ions from soil
Have a specialised shape (the root‘hair’)thatincreases the cell’s surface area so the rate of water
uptake by osmosis is greater(can absorb more water and mineral ions than ifthe surface area was
lower)
Have thinner walls than other plant cells so that water can move through easily (due to shorter
diffusion distance)
Have a permanent vacuole containing cell sap, which is more concentrated than soil water. This
ensures a high water potential gradient is maintained

Epithelial cells ofthe small intestine:

Have microvilli (highly folded sections ofthe cell membrane), which increases the cell’s surface area
so the rate of diffusion ofthe products of digestion is greater(more particles can be exchanged in the
same amount oftime)
Each villus ofthe small intestine has a constant blood supply, which continually transports the products
of digestion away from the epithelial cells. This maintains a high concentration gradient across the
epithelial cell exchange surface (between the lumen ofthe small intestine and the interior ofthe
epithelial cell)

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Many cells that are adapted for diffusion have an increased surface area in some way – for example, root hair cells in
plants and cells lining the ileum in animals

Specialised cells for facilitated diffusion

Neurones, muscle cells and some kidney cells are examples of cells that are adapted forthe rapid transport of
molecules across their membranes via facilitated diffusion
Certain kidney cells:
Have cell membranes that contain a very high number of aquaporins
Aquaporins are special channel proteins that allow the facilitated diffusion of waterthrough cell membranes
The aquaporins allow these kidney cells to reabsorb water, stopping itfrom being unnecessarily excreted by the body

Neurones and muscle cells:

Are involved in the transmission of electrical impulses around the body
They have cell membranes that contain channel proteins for sodium, potassium and calcium ions The opening and
closing ofthese channel proteins (and the resulting facilitated diffusion ofthese differentions), as well as the number
ofthese channel proteins, plays an importantrole in the speed of electrical transmission, both along the membranes of
neurones (during nerve impulses) and in muscle cells (during muscle contraction)

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Examiner Tip
In the case ofthe kidney cells described above, water is transported across the cell membrane via facilitated diffusion
through channel proteins. Don’tforget, however - water can also diffuse through cell membranes (this can occur even
though itis a polar molecule because itis a relatively small molecule).

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2.4.13 Factors Affecting Membrane Fluidity

Required Practical: Factors Affecting Membrane Permeability
The permeability of cell membranes is affected by different factors or conditions, such as: Temperature
Solvent concentration

You can investigate how these factors affect permeability using beetroot
Beetroot cells contain a dark purple-red pigment
The higherthe permeability ofthe beetroot cell membrane,the more ofthis pigmentleaks out of the cell

Investigating the effect of temperature on membrane permeability

Apparatus

Scalpel
Cork borer (optional)
Cutting board
Ruler
Testtubes
Water baths
Stopwatch
Colourimeter (a machine that passes lightthrough a liquid sample and measures how much ofthatlight is absorbed)

Method

Using a scalpel, cut five equal-sized cubes of beetroot

The pieces must have the same dimensions so thatthey all have equal surface areas and volumes, as these factors
could affectthe rate at which the pigmentleaks out
A cork borer can also be used, as long as the cores are cutto the same length

Rinse the beetroot pieces

To remove any pigmentreleased during cutting

Add the beetroot pieces to five differenttesttubes, each containing the same volume of water(e.g. 3
5cm )
Put each testtube in a water bath at a differenttemperature (e.g.10℃, 20℃, 30℃, 40℃, 50℃)forthe same length of
time
The time should be long enough to allow the pigment diffuse into the water(e.g. around 30 minutes)

Remove the beetroot pieces, leaving justthe coloured liquid in the five testtubes

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Use a colourimeterto measure how much light is absorbed as it passes through each ofthe five samples of coloured
liquid
The higherthe absorbance,the more pigment must have been released, due to a greater membrane permeability

Results

The general pattern you would expectto see is that as temperature increases, membrane permeability also increases
As temperature increases,the phospholipids within the cell membrane move more because they have more energy
This means the phospholipids are not as tightly packed together, increasing the permeability of the membrane
At high temperatures,the phospholipid bilayer may even startto melt and breakdown,further increasing the
permeability ofthe membrane
In addition,the volume of water inside the cells expands, putting pressure on the membrane, causing channel and
carrier proteins to deform so they can no longer control what enters and leaves the cell. These factors also increase
the permeability ofthe membrane
Temperature also affects the conformation (3D shape) of proteins as at high temperatures the intermolecular forces
between amino acids are broken which affects the protein’s specificity and function

If experimenting with temperatures below 0℃, membrane permeability may also be increased (once the cells have
thawed again)
This can be caused by channel or carrier proteins deforming atthese low temperatures Ice crystals thatform can also
pierce the cell membrane, making it highly permeable
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Example results showing the effect of temperature on membrane permeability Limitations
Cuvettes are the small cuboid containers that hold the liquid to be measured in a colourimeter Cuvettes may differ in
thickness (very slightly). A thicker (or scratched) cuvette will absorb slightly more light than a thinner unscratched
cuvette
This can be overcome by using the same cuvette for every reading, orrepeating the investigation many times and
finding a mean

The beetroot pieces may not be identical in size and shape, meaning some testtubes could contain slightly more
beetroottissue than others
This can be overcome by cutting the discs as accurately as possible using a scalpel and ruler, and by repeating each
investigation severaltimes to find a mean

Some parts of beetroottissue have more pigment in their cells than others
This can be overcome by severalrepeats, using different parts ofthe beetroot and finding a mean

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Examiner Tip
You could also investigate how solvent concentration affects cell
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membrane permeability by placing beetroot pieces in testtubes Past Papers
containing increasing concentrations of solvents (such as alcohol Your notes
or acetone). Solvents can increase cell membrane permeability as
they dissolve the lipids in the membrane, causing the membrane to
lose its structure.

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