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 THE RIGVEDA:

THE OLDEST LITERATURE OF THE INDIANS.

BY

ADOLF KAEGI,
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH.

AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION WITH ADDITIONS

TO THE NOTES

R. ARROWSMITH, PH.D.,
INSTRUCTOR I N S A N S K R I T , R A C I N E C O L L E G E , R A C I N E , W I S .

GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON • NEW Y O R K - CHICAGO • LONDON
ATLANTA • D A M . \S • COLUMBUS . SAN FRANCISCO
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1886, by
R. ARROWSMlTH,
in the Office of the librarian of Congress at Washington.
317.1

The Athenæum Bress

GINN AND COMPANY • PRO-.
PRI TORS • BO FON . U S A.
 TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.

T H E translation o f the present w o r k was undertaken i n order

to place at the command of E n g l i s h readers interested in the
study of the Veda a comprehensive and, at the same time, con-
densed manual of Vedic research. It has been the aim to make
the translation as close as possible; especially in the metrical
quotations the author's renderings have nearly always been
adhered to, though w i t h continual reference to the t e x t of the
hymns.
Since the second German edition appeared, in 1880, much
w o r k has been done in the study of the Veda, and many addi-
tions made to the literature. These PROCESSOR K A E G I k i n d l y
offered to incorporate in the Notes, and, to some extent, to re-
model the latter, but was prevented from doing as much as he
had intended by stress of w o r k and ill-health. The translator
has endeavored to complete the references to the literature to
date, and has extended a number of the Notes in some particu-
lars. A l l such additions are designated by brackets [ ]. The
only addition to the t e x t is the F r o g S o n g on p. 81 f.
The thanks o f the; translator are due to D R . K A E G I for his
ready consent and interest in the undertaking, to PROFESSORS
W H I T N E Y and LANMAN for suggestions and material, and to
DR. A. V. W. J A C K S O N , of Columbia College, for revising the
portions of the Notes pertaining to the A v e s t a .
T h e references have been verified as far as practicable, and
it is believed that a reasonable degree of accuracy has been
attained. It is requested that the translator be notified of the
discovery of any mistakes which may have been overlooked.
R. A .
RACINE COLLEGE,
RACINE, W I S . , February, 1886.
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

T H E invitation of my publishers to have my treatise on the

Rigveda (Two Parts, Wissenschaftliche Beilage zum Programm
der Kantonssohule in Zurich, 1878 and 1879) published in a
somewhat revised and extended form, seemed to me the more
to be accepted, since I had repeatedly been urged to do so from
the most varied sources, and the article was frequently inquired
for in the trade. It is plain that to specialists in the subject,
to investigators in the field of the Veda, it cannot offer anything
really new; its aim is to embrace the results of Vedic investiga-
tion, as well for beginners in the study as for all those who have
a more special interest in this literature, the importance of which
is perceived and admitted in ever-widening circles, especially
for theologians, philologists and historians. That, however, it
is founded throughout on personal investigation of the sources
and examination of the investigations of others will be easily
perceived by every one who takes the trouble to subject the text
and notes to a more minute survey.
Here let me once more call attention to the fact that, in the
sections upon the Vedic Belief and the Divinities, I have con-
fined myself as closely as possible to the language of the hymns,
so that almost the whole of this text (pp. 28-32, 34-71) is
made up of the words of the poets. The quotations from the
Siebenzig Lieder (cf. pp. 34 and 92) being given throughout in
Italics, make it possible even for the non-Sanskritist to prove
the method by which this is accomplished, at least in some
short portions.
vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

I f , especially in the treatment of Varuna, I have somewhat

more fully followed out the similarities of the Vedic and the
Biblical language (of. now A. Holzman in the Zeitschrift fur
Volkerspsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1880, p. 251 f . ) ,
I shall now hardly have to meet the criticism that in so doing
non-Indian, or even Christian, conceptions are put into the
Veda; translation stands beside translation; it is left to the
reader to prove similarity, as well as difference.
The great extent of the notes is explained by the fact that
they are intended not only to prove, sustain and amplify the
material presented in the text, but also to facilitate for others
the survey of Vedic literature, and to point out the historical
significance of the Rig. If some may criticise here too much
or too little, others perhaps will be glad to utilize what is pre-
sented, even if only the references to the literature, for which
the Indices may be welcome. On the letter, as well as on the
correction, much care has been expended; if, notwithstanding,
mistakes are discovered, it will surely be pardoned, especially
in the very large quantity of numbers, by those who are expe-
rienced in such matters.
May the work in its new form serve to carry the knowledge
of this ancient and highly important poetry and the interest in
our studies into further circles.
DR. ADOLF KAEGI.
ZURICH, November, 1880.
 TABLE OP CONTENTS.

I N T R O D U C T I O N : p. 1.
Vedic Literature and Exegesis: p. 2; the Vedic People and its
Civilization: p. 11.
T H E R I G V E D A : p . 21.
The Collection: p. 2 1 ; Language and Form of the Hymns:
p. 22; Contents : p. 24.
Religious Poetry: p. 26; Religious Thought s p. 27; The Vedic
Belief: p. 32.
T H E D I V I N I T I E S : p. 34.
On Earth : A g n i : p. 35;
In the Air-region: Rbhus: p. 37; Vata: p. 38; Rudra: p. 38;
Maruts: p. 39; Parjanya: p. 40; I n d r a : p. 40,
In the Bright Heaven: Aevins : p. 40; Usas: p. 52; Surya:
p. 54; Pusan: p. 55; Visnu: p. 50; Savitar: p. 56.
The Adityas: p. 58; Varuiia: pp. 61-69.
Belief in I m m o r t a l i t y : p. 69.
Soma: p. 72; Brhaspati: p. 73; A l l Gods: p. 74.
SECULAR POETRY : p. 74.
Wedding H y m n : p. 74; Funeral H y m n : p. 7 6 ; Historical
Compositions: p. 78; Humorous: p. 8 1 ; Didactic-gnomic:
p. 84; Incantation and Exorcism: p. 85; Poetical Riddles:
p. 86; Philosophical: p. 87.
N O T E S : p. 92.
Index of Matters, Names, and Words: p. 181; of B i b b
Passages: p. 197.
 INTRODUCTION.

IT is well known with what enthusiasm Voltaire, in his

writings, especially in the Essai sur les moeurs et l'esprit
des nations, repeatedly praised the ancient wisdom of the
Brâhmans which he thought to have discovered in the
Ezonr-Veidam, brought to his notice from India about the
middle of the last century.1 But even Voltaire's eloquence
persuaded but few of his contemporaries of the authenticity
of the book. Although scholars were not in a position to
disprove its genuineness,2 they preserved a suspicious and
skeptical attitude toward it. Soon after Voltaire's death,
J. G. Herder, in the tenth book of his Ideen zur Greschichte
der Menschheit, unhesitatingly expressed his opinion that
whatever knowledge Europeans had hitherto gained of the
mysteries of the Indians, was plainly only modern tradition;
" for the real Weda of the Indians," he adds, " as well as for
the real Sanskrit language, we shall probably have long to
wait." 8 Although, happily, Herder's prophecy as to the
language itself was not fulfilled, 4 yet in fact a number
of decades passed before more trustworthy and detailed
information was gained of these oldest literary memorials
of the Indians. Colebrooke's celebrated Essays On the
Vedas5 did indeed (in 1805) give a valuable survey of the
whole territory of Vedic literature, with some scattered
quotations from various Vedic books; but it was not possi-
ble for Colebrooke to examine all the extraordinarily exten-
sive works which are embraced in India under the name
Veda, to distinguish properly the individual writings, or to
determine their mutual relations.
About twenty years later a German, Friedrich Rosen,
recognized in the rich collection of Vedic manuscripts
2 INTRODUCTION.

which had come to London, in great part through the

efforts of Colebrooke, the true w o r t h of this literature,
and the need of making it accessible to European scholar-
ship. He undertook w i t h zeal the editing of the oldest
portion, the Rigveda, b u t died in 1837, before the first
eighth was published. 6
The first enduring impulse was given by the small but
epoch-making Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda,
Drei Abhandlungen von Rudolph Roth, Stuttgart, 1846.7
It inaugurated a movement which since then has irresis-
t i b l y led a l l Sanskritists to the study of the Veda. As
early as 1852, aided by the recent purchase of a rich col-
lection of Sanskrit manuscripts by the Royal L i b r a r y of
Berlin, A. Weber was enabled to give, in his Acadernische
Vorlemngen uber indische Literaturgeschichte, a very
detailed and valuable survey of the Vedic books, which
was afterwards supplemented in many points, especially
for the later periods, by M a x Muller's History of Ancient
Sanskrit Literature, London, 1859. D u r i n g the last
twenty years, through the efforts of Benfey, Weber, Roth
and W h i t n e y , and Aufrecht, the most important texts,
since followed by many more, have been accessible in
printed f o r m ; and this investigation opens to the his-
torical sciences, in the broadest sense of the word, sources
of unexpected wealth.

VEDIC LITERATURE AND EXEGESIS.

Veda is primarily ' knowledge' in general, and among
the Indians designates knowledge — the
sacred k n o w l e d g e , — t h e s a c r e d w r i t i n g s , o f which
a brief survey follows.
The oldest division, the M a n t r a (saying, song), is dis-
tributed in four Sanhitâs (collections), — the Rig-, Sâma-,
Yajur-, and Atharva-Sanhitâs. The oldest and most valu-
able portion of these collections, the foundation of the
whole Vedic literature, is composed of songs, in which, in
 INTRODUCTION. 3
primeval times, at the first stage of their history as an in-
dependent nationality, s t i l l at the threshold of the land
w h i c h they afterward filled w i t h their culture, — more
than 1000 years before the expedition of Alexander the
Great in the same regions, centuries before the production
of the Indian Pantheism or of the gods Brahma, Visnu, (Civa,
— in which that people in childlike simplicity praised and
entreated their gods, w i t h which they accompanied their
sacrifices and strove to propitiate the revered ruler of their
destiny, to gain for themselves and their flocks prosperity
and secure habitations. From the whole treasury of song
which, as its best possession, the Indian race had brought
w i t h it from earlier homes to the land of the Ganges,
learned men and teachers in later centuries made a selec-
tion of the hymns, which had already become partially un-
intelligible ; these they divided, arranged, and used in their
schools (carana). Such a selection (cakha, recension), has
been preserved to us, v i z . :
The R i g v e d a ; the knowledge of the h y m n s ,
which w i l l be considered more at length below. 8 It was
made w i t h the intention of protecting this heritage of
ancestral times from further corruption, and from destruc-
tion ; and is therefore, to an extent, a s c i e n t i f i c , histor-
ical collection, while the two following sanhitâs had their
origin i n p r a c t i c a l , liturgical uses.
The S â m a v e d a , the knowledge of the s o n g s , con-
tains about 1800 separate verses, for the greater part taken
from the hymns of the Rig, but here torn out of their ori-
ginal relation and put together almost w i t h o u t any internal
connection. Remodeled w i t h certain musical modifica-
tions, they are called adman, songs, in which form they
were recited at the Soma sacrifice * by a special priest-class,
whose s o n g - b o o k therefore this Veda is. By the musi-
cal modification of single verses, the whole number of
Sâman could naturally be greatly increased. 9
* This is the favorite sacrifice of the Vedic period, at which the sap of
the Soma plant, mixed with milk or barley, was offered; of which more
below.
4 INTRODUCTION.

The Y a j u r v e d a contains the knowledge of the

p r a y e r s . W h e n in time the sacrifice became no lon-
ger a simple act of divine worship and offering, left to the
free-will and impulse of the individual, but when more and
more in every detail an established r i t u a l was set up, the
exact observance of w h i c h fell to various priest-classes, not
only the verses to be recited during the ceremony, but
also a quantity of formulas and phrases of explanation, of
excuse, blessing, etc., for practical use, began to be put
together. Such words, formulas, and passages, partly in
connected, partly in unconnected form, among them, too,
not a few verses from the Rig, were called yajus ; and the
books containing the yajus for the whole sacrificial cere-
mony, Yajurveda. We hear of a considerable number of
such p r a y e r - b o o k s ; two of them, related in contents,
but differing in arrangement, have already been edited ; a
t h i r d , in a l l probability the oldest of the existing ones, has
been disclosed only w i t h i n the last few years.10 The
composition of all these books belongs to a period when
the priest-class had already gained a decided ascendency
over the other classes.
It was only at a time considerably later than these col-
lections (trayi vidya threefold knowledge), that a fourth
attained to canonical recognition, the A t h a r v a - or
B r a h m a v e d a , knowledge o f i n c a n t a t i o n s . This
probably contained originally the poetry more properly
belonging to the people and current among them, which
only secondarily was admitted into the circle of the
priests, and distributed among their productions. 11 As a
historical collection of songs it has most similarity to the
Rigveda, though the spirit of the two collections is quite
different. ' T h e R i g is permeated by a lively sympathy
and love of nature ; in the Atharvan rule only shrinking
dread of its evil spirits and their magic powers.' The word
brahman (whence Brahmaveda), here means no longer, as
in the Rig, ' devotion, prayer,' b u t ' charm, spell, enchant-
ment (carmen, incantamen, devotio).' By the use of such
 INTRODUCTION. 5
a formula the skilled priest is enabled to attain everything,
and to force even the gods to the fulfillment of his w i l l .
Side by side w i t h later passages are found here many for-
mulas, whose perfect agreement w i t h Old-Germanic spells
reveals their origin from the ancient Indo-Germanic
period. 12 Of this Veda too a new recension has lately
become known, and w i t h it a considerable quantity of new
Vedic texts. 1³
The second grand division of Vedic literature is formed by
the B r a h m a n a , i.e., writings relating to brahman, to prayer
and sacrificial ceremony. 14 These clearly belong to a
much later period, when the old hymns were regarded as
ancient and sacred revelation, acquaintance w i t h which
was confined to a small number of wise priestly teachers,
among whom, however, even at this period, its interpreta-
tion was a matter of strife, because the language had mean-
time become a different one. The Brahmanas, all of them
marvelous products of priestly knowledge and perverted
imagination, are throughout in prose, and for the greater
part, like the Sanhitâs, furnished w i t h accents. They
develop the theories of celebrated teachers concerning the
sense of the old hymns, their relation to the sacrifices, the
symbolic meaning of the latter, etc. Dogma, mythology,
legend, philosophy, exegesis, etymology, are here inter-
woven in reckless confusion. Since these works furnish
the oldest prescriptions for the ritual and explanation of
the language, as well as the oldest traditions and philosoph-
ical speculations, they are not without value for the his-
tory of language and civilization ; but the gold is largely
hidden under a mass of dross.
The Brahmanas themselves, of which a considerable
number are preserved, 14a are in later times looked upon
as inspired, and united w i t h the hymns as cruti, revelation,
excepting only the youngest portions, the A r a n y a k a s ,
writings for the wood-dwellers ( ), 1 6 and the U p a n -
i s a d s, instructions. B o t h classes of works show a method
of thought totally different from that of the old Vedic
6 INTRODUCTION.

books; and w i t h their speculations on cosmogony and

eschatology lead into the' midst of the system of the Ve-
danta ( ' a i m or end of Veda'). 1 6
The t h i r d and youngest stage of Vedic literature is the
Vedanga (' members of the V e d a ' ) , also called Sutra. The
more Vedic study gained in extent, the more difficult it
became to master i t . ' The mass of material became too
large ; the fullness of description in details had to y i e l d to
a short survey of the sum of these details, in which the
greatest brevity was necessary.' Therefore the most con-
cise rules were invented w i t h a conventional system for the
designation of termini technici, expressed in algebraic for-
mula. These rules, as w e l l as the books embracing them
in almost unbroken succession, are called S u t r a (thread,
guide, r u l e ) ; they do not confine themselves to one school
or recension, and, especially in later times, attain the last
imaginable degree of brevity. H o w far this principle was
pushed may be seen from the saying of the Indian scholars,
that " an author should rejoice as much over the saving of
half a long vowel as over the b i r t h of a son "; in which it
must be remembered that without a son to perform the
death rites, a Brahman was not thought capable of gaining
heaven. 17 We must confine ourselves to mentioning the
six Vedanga- or Sutra-groups in the traditional order, and
to pointing out briefly their signification. They are:
1. C i k s a : pronunciation.
2. Chandas: metre.
3. Vyakararia, ( l i t . ' analysis'): grammar.
4. N i r u k t a (word-explanation) : etymology.
5. Kalpa : ritual.
6. Jyotisa: astronomy.
The first four are chiefly occupied w i t h the reading and
understanding of the sacred t e x t s ; the last two princi-
pally w i t h the s a c r i f i c e and its seasons.18
As from the study of Homer the Greek grammar rose,
so from the study of the Veda grew the I n d i a n ; b u t the i n -
vestigations of the Indians, favored by the constitution of
 INTRODUCTION. 7
their language, were incomparably deeper and more last-
ing than those of the Greek grammarians. Prominent
among the grammatical writings are the N i r u k t a , a col-
lection of strange or obscure words of the
Veda, together w i t h the interpretation of the Vedic inves-
tigator Y a s k a (about 500 B.C.), 19 and the P r â c t i c a k h -
y a s , each of which contains, for the various recensions
of a single Veda, the most precise statements of phonetic
changes, pronunciation, accentuation, metre, etc.20 In
connection, they display a number of delicate observations
in phonetics, such as only the science of our o w n day has
begun to institute and t u r n to account.* The above
named works therefore do not treat of grammatical forms;
of older works on this subject l i t t l e has been left us, clearly
because a later work, in its comprehensive and practical
presentation surpassed all earlier ones and made them
superfluous; namely, the grammar of P a n i n i , who prob-
ably lived in the t h i r d century B.C.21 " In them is presented
the scientific treatment of a single tongue in a perfection
w h i c h arouses the wonder and admiration of all those who
are more thoroughly acquainted w i t h i t ; which even now
stands, not only unsurpassed, b u t not even attained, and
w h i c h in many respects may be looked upon as the model
for similar work. In this presentation of the Sanskrit the
method of the Indian grammarians was displayed; and it
found so much the more speedy acceptance, since it is
nearly allied to the tendency w h i c h since the beginning of
this century has made itself felt w i t h ever increasing
power in other sciences. This is the method applied to
the natural sciences; the method which seeks to gain
knowledge of a subject from itself, by analysis into its ele-
ments. It views language as a natural phenomenon, the
character of which it strives to determine by analysis into

* I believe I shall not be contradicted by Helraholtz, or Ellis, or other

representatives of phonetic science, if I say that, to the present day, the
phoneticians of India of the fifth century B.C. are unsurpassed in their
analysis of the elements of language'.—Max Muller, OGR. 150.
12 INTRODUCTION.

after receiving a l l its tributaries, reaching so great a w i d t h

that boats midway between its shores are invisible from
either. The singers in inspired strains sing its greatness:
" W i t h nourishing waves it rushed forth, a firm stronghold
and brazen fortress for us; like a fighter in his chariot, the
stream flows on, overtaking a l l others. It alone among
the rivers flows w i t h pure water from the mountains to
the sea; w i t h regard for riches, for many men, it brings
fatness and a refreshing draught to the dwellers on the
shore."
Simple tribes, like the Gandhâri s t i l l re-
mained in the valley of the Kubhâ {Kabul) and the
Suvâstu (Swat), a northern t r i b u t a r y ; to the south the
settlements had been pushed beyond the mouths of the
K r u m u (Kurum) and Gomati (Gomal), but not far beyond
the union of the Sindhu w i t h the Pancanada,* though
they knew of the Sindhu's emptying into the ocean. In the
north, the western and middle Himalaya formed an impas-
sable w a l l ; to the east the Qutudri (Satlaj) must for a
long time have formed the boundary, across which from
time to time they moved forward to the Yamunâ, (Jumna)
and Gangâ (Ganges), enticed by the beauty of the land
and pressed on by advancing tribes behind. 39
I n E a s t K a b u l i s t a n and the P a n j a b , therefore,
where the condition of climate and soil was about the
same as now, 40 the A r y a n colonists lived in their houses;
for they had already changed the movable tent of the shep-
herd and nomad for a more fixed shelter. " Columns were
set up on firm ground, w i t h supporting beams leaning
obliquely against them, and connected by rafters on which
long bamboo rods were laid, forming the high roof. Be-
tween the corner-posts other beams were set up, according
to the size of the house. The crevices in the walls were
filled in w i t h straw or reeds, tied in bundles, and the whole
* Pancanada, the five rivers, signified primarily the union of the five
rivers, Vitasta, Asikni, Parusni or Iravati, Vipac, and Cutudri; then the
whole region, as to-day, the Panjab. See Note 30.
 INTRODUCTION. 13

was to some extent covered with the same material. The

various parts were fastened together with bars, pegs, ropes
and thongs." The house could be shut in by a door,
which, as in the Homeric houses, was fastened with a
strap.41 A number of such dwellings form the village;
fenced and enclosed settlements give protection against
wild animals; against the attacks of enemies and against
inundations large tracts were arranged on higher ground,
protected by earthworks and ditches. But of cities, i.e.,
of collections of adjoining houses, surrounded by wall and
moat, there is no mention. 42
The principal means of sustenance was cattle-keeping.
Repeatedly in the hymns we meet with the prayer for
whole herds of cows and horses, sheep and goats, heifers
and buffaloes, but especially of milch-cows, which are to
more than one singer the sum of ' all good which Indra
has created for our enjoyment.' By divine power the red
cow yields the white milk, from which is prepared mead
and butter, ' the favorite food of gods and men,' and per-
haps also cheese.43 After the cattle, the most important
interest is the cultivation of the soil. The ground is worked
with plough and harrow, mattock and hoe, and when neces-
sary watered by means of artificial canals. Twice in the
year the products of the field, especially barley, ripen; the
grain is threshed on the floor, the corn, separated from
husk and chaff by the winnowing, is ground in the mill
and made into bread. Men still engage in hunting game
with bow and arrow, snares and traps, but this occupation
has no importance as a means of livelihood, and fishing
still less.44 The chief food consists, together with bread,
of various preparations of milk, cakes of flour and butter,
many sorts of vegetables and fruits; meat, cooked on the
spit or in pots, is little used, and was probably eaten only
at the great feasts and family gatherings. Drinking plays
throughout a much more prominent part than eating.
" The waters are indeed pre-eminently praised; in them lie
all healing properties, and they secure to the body health,
14 INTRODUCTION.

protection and long-continued sight of the s u n ; — b u t it

no more occurred to the Vedic people to quench their
thirst w i t h water than to the ancient Germans. They
bathed in i t , and the cattle drank i t ; man had other bev-
erages," — surâ, a brandy made from corn or barley, and
above all, the sorrow-dispelling Soma, which, on account of
its inspiring power, was raised to the position of a god,
and w i l l therefore be considered below. 45
A m o n g o c c u p a t i o n s that of the wood-worker is most
frequently mentioned; he is s t i l l carpenter, wheelwright
and joiner in one, and is skilled not only in building war-
chariots and wagons w i t h all their parts, but also in more
delicate carved work, such as artistic cups, etc. The tan-
ner prepares leather from the hide of the slaughtered cattle,
and uses it for water-bottles, bow-strings, slings and other
articles. Metal-workers, smiths and potters ply their craft
for the purposes of common life. N a v i g a t i o n , being
confined to the streams of the Panjab, could not be very
important, and t r a d e exists only as barter, the foundation
of which, as w e l l as the money unit, is the cow, in reference
to which all things are valued. B u t the transition to the
use of coined money was being prepared by the various
golden ornaments and jewelry; active tradesmen and usu-
rers come to v i e w ; while the occurrence of the Babylonian
mina as an accepted gold standard proves, in connection
w i t h other facts, a very early intercourse between India
and the western Semitic colonies.
The women understood the plaiting of mats, weaving
and sewing; they manufactured the wool of the sheep
into clothing for men and covering for animals, and were
especially occupied w i t h their many ornaments and deco-
rations. 46
The foundation of the state was formed by the F a m i l y ,
at the head of which stood the father as l o r d of the house.
The foundation of a family proceeded from the man. At
festal gatherings and similar occasions there were often
opportunities for forming acquaintance between youth and
 INTRODUCTION. 15
maiden, and even then careful mothers did not neglect, at
such times, to come to their daughters' assistance w i t h
advice and action. If such an acquaintance proved last-
ing, permission for the marriage had to be sought from the
father or, after his death, from the eldest brother. This
office was assumed by a friend of the suitor, who is always
the oldest unmarried son of a family, for it was a settled
custom for the children of a family to marry in order of
age. If the suitor was acceptable, he had to purchase his
bride by rich gifts to his future father-in-law. Thereupon
the marriage was celebrated in traditional form in the
presence of both families and their friends in the house of
the bride's parents. Further on we shall have opportunity
for a fuller description of the ceremony. That a marriage
portion was given w i t h the young wife is not distinctly
stated but is yet indicated, as also that a rich inheritance
helped many a g i r l to gain a husband, who otherwise
would have remained in her father's house. In the new
home the young wife is subject to her husband, but at the
same time mistress of the farm-laborers and slaves, and of
parents- and brothers-in-law. The Vedic singers know no
more tender relation than that between the husband and
his w i l l i n g , loving wife, who is praised as "his home, the
darling abode and bliss in his house." The high position
of the wife is above all shown by the fact that she partici-
pates in the sacrifice w i t h her husband; w i t h harmonious
mind at the early dawn both, in f i t t i n g words, send up
their prayers to the Eternals. 47 These relations are com-
prehensible only if m o n o g a m y was the rule ; and to this
the texts point directly. Though there were instances of
polygamy, especially among kings and nobles, yet the ordi-
nary condition was " a united pair, w i t h one heart and one
mind, free from discord." Marriage was looked upon as
an arrangement founded by the gods, the aim of which
was the mutual support of man and wife and the propaga-
t i o n of their race; therefore it is the often-repeated wish
of the Vedic singer to beget a son of his own flesh, whose
16 INTRODUCTION.

place could never be filled by adoption; while the birth

of a daughter is nowhere distinctly desired, but is even
plainly asked to be averted.48 That exposure of new-born
children 49 and of old people enfeebled by age60 occurs
offends our feelings no more than the well-known custom
of burning the widows, for thousands of years demanded
by the Brâhmans. The latter, it is true, is nowhere evi-
denced in the Rigveda; only by palpable falsification of a
hymn, which will be examined later, has the existence of
the custom been forcibly put into the texts, which, on the
contrary, prove directly the opposite,—the return of the
widow from her husband's corpse into a happy life, and
her re-marriage. Yet from other indications we have to
accept the probability that the custom, which in the oldest
times was wide-spread, of causing the widow to follow her
husband to death, was also observed now and then in the
Vedic period.61 Such features might easily modify our
general verdict regarding the stage of morality and culture
of the Vedic Aryans; but we must not forget that " peo-
ple in a condition of nature are not sentimental, as to-day
peasants are not; and that the death of a relative, or the
thought of their own, leaves them indifferent."52 When,
in addition to what has been said above of the tender rela-
tion between husband and wife, we learn that violence to
defenceless maidens and unfaithfulness on the part of a
married woman belong to the heaviest offences, we must
infer that true womanliness and morality generally pre-
vailed. It is a matter of course that the picture had its
shadows. Even at that time the woman was charged with
fickleness, light-mindedness, and lack of judgment; men-
tion is here and there made of the sons of unmarried
women; fallen ones tried to free themselves from the con-
sequences of their misdeeds in criminal manner, and even
prostitutes were not wanting.53
On the foundation of the family rests the S t a t e , the
organization of which in the Vedic period is very near that
of the primitive times. For protection against threatened
 INTRODUCTION. 17
attacks and for the purpose of marauding incursions into
the territory of other peoples, coalitions were formed be-
tween tribes; b u t having returned home after a victory,
in times of peace the individual people or tribe formed the
highest political u n i t , which was divided into districts,
which in t u r n were composed of single clans or hamlets.
The latter were originally, as the expressions in the texts
make evident, each a single kindred, a number of families
more nearly connected among themselves. This tribe d i v i -
sion was applied not only in time of peace but also, as
among the Afghans to-day, in battle; warriors of the same
families, localities, districts, and tribes fought side by
side, in the manner which Tacitus describes as character-
istic of the Germans, and as Nestor advises Agamemnon to
make his arrangement. 54
The government of the A r y a n states thus organized was
naturally, in consequence of their origin in the family, a
monarchical, at the head of which the k i n g stands as
leader, his dignity being in many instances hereditary. In
other cases, he was elected by all the districts in assemblies
of the tribe, or in times of peace several members of the
royal family exercised the power in common. At a l l
events the kingship was nowhere absolute, but everywhere
limited by the w i l l of the people, which made its power
felt in assemblies of the nation, the district, and the tribe.
In peace the k i n g was " judge and protector " of his peo-
ple, who owed him lasting obedience but no settled t r i b -
ute ; only .voluntary gifts were brought to him. In war
he held the chief command and it was his duty, at serious
junctures, e.g., before a battle, to prepare a sacrifice for
the tribe, either performing it himself or causing a priestly
singer to perform i t . 5 5 In this custom of the kings to be
represented by a priestly substitute, is to be recognized
the beginning of the historically unique Indian hierarchy
and the origin of the castes, the existence of which in the
oldest Vedic times, in spite of all assertions to the con-
trary, must be denied. 66
18 INTRODUCTION.

T h a t developed ideas of Law were present in the old-

est period is taught by the common legal terms existing
in the various languages of our family. The Vedic texts
present a further list of such terms, and the hymns strongly
prove how deeply the prominent minds in the people were
persuaded that the eternal ordinances of the rulers of the
w o r l d were as inviolable in mental and moral matters as
in the realm of nature, and that every wrong act, even the
unconscious, was punished and the sin expiated. B u t the
same hymns also show that the relations of the various
members of the community among themselves were not
always the best. Deceitful men strove to injure in every
way, by slander, l y i n g , and f r a u d ; thieves plied their
vocation under the concealing shadow of n i g h t ; daring
swindlers, highwaymen, and robbers terrorized the peace-
able and embittered the life of the upright. I n cases of
doubt as to g u i l t or the g u i l t y one, recourse was had to
oath, on more serious occasions to the decision of the gods
in various forms; unworthy men were expelled from the
clan and became fugitives. 57 B u t there are also more
pleasing features. Praise is given to those who from their
abundance w i l l i n g l y dispense to the needy, to those who
do not t u r n away from the hungry, but who by deeds of
kindness to the poor increase their own possessions, and
who in change of fortune never swerve from their faith-
fulness to old friends. 68
W h e n business is despatched in the assembly, the
shrewd men gather together; " t h e y sift their,words like
corn in a sieve and remember their friendship." Others
engage in sport and j o k i n g over their d r i n k i n g , and pour
forth irony and boasts or indulge in play w i t h dice, which
was passionately loved, and at which many a man gambled
away his possessions, and finally even his own person.
" Of no effect is the father's punishment of the dissolute
son; the player is unmoved by the destruction of his
home ; he remains indifferent though his wife become the
property of others ; he rises early and indulges in the pas-
 INTRODUCTION. 19
sion of play t i l l evening; defeat i n play is equivalent to
starvation and thirst." 59 Wives and maidens attire them-
selves in gay robes and set forth to the joyful teast;
youths and girls hasten to the meadow when forest and
field are clothed in fresh verdure, to take part in the
dance. Cymbals sound, and seizing each other lads and
damsels w h i r l about u n t i l the ground vibrates and clouds
of dust envelop the gaily moving throng. 6 0
A more earnest trait appears in the favorite contests in
the chariot race,61 for it is the peaceful preparation for the
decisive struggle on the battle-field, for the joyous war in
which they delighted, and which plays so large a part in
the songs as well as the life of the people. In the battle
Indra seeks his friend, battle and struggle give the hero
experience and renown, when w i t h his fellow-warriors he
helps to conquer new homes or to protect those already
won, whether against other Aryans or the hosts of abo-
rigines (dasyu), from whom the colonists were sharply sep-
arated by different color, different customs, and above all,
by different religion. 6 2 When an enemy approaches the
A r y a n boundaries, earthworks are thrown up, a barricade
of timbers erected, impassable bulwarks of bronze made,
and sacrifices offered to the gods to secure their help.
Then the army advances w i t h loud battle-songs, w i t h the
sound of drums and trumpets, w i t h waving banners,
against the opposing force. The warrior stands at the left
of the chariot, and beside him the charioteer, and the foot-
soldiers fight in close lines, village beside village, tribe
beside tribe (cf. page 17). The warrior is protected by
brazen coat of mail and helmet; w i t h the bow he hurls
against the enemy feathered arrows w i t h poisoned tips of
horn or metal, or presses on w i t h spear and axe, lance and
sling. A n d when the enemy is conquered, loud rejoicing
resounds w i t h the beat of drums, like the noise of the ris-
i n g storm; the sacred fire is kindled to offer to the gods a
song and sacrifice of thanksgiving, and then to divide the
spoil. 63
20 INTRODUCTION.
In arts and sciences the race still stood on the lowest
stage. The art of writing it did net possess (and even for
a long time afterward),64 and little was known of the ideas
of number or of measure.66 The theories of cosmogony
are altogether childish.66 Among the countless stars cer-
tain ones had already been observed and named, before all,
the Bear, followed by Sirius and the five planets.67 The
lunar year of 354 days was in various ways brought into
harmony with the solar year; either the twelve extra days
were added yearly (cf. below, p. 37*), or they were allowed
to accumulate, and a thirteenth month from time to time
was added to the twelve. 68 —Their m e d i c a l art distin-
guished quite a number of diseases, but almost the sole
curatives and preventives known were charms and the use
of amulets and healing herbs, whose power was brought
forth and made effectual only by the sacred formula.69
Deeper natures indeed only hoped to be freed from their
ills by repentance and reformation; for sickness was to
them "divinely sent chains" with which Varuna, the
world's ruler, bound those who transgressed his eternal
laws.70
Only one art had long been in full bloom, that of
p o e t r y ; of this we have the most convincing evidence in
that collection of songs, to the more detailed examination
of which we now proceed.
 THE RIGVEDA.

THE COLLECTION.— FORM AND CONTENTS OF

THE HYMNS.
T H E recension which has come down to us, the received
text of the Câkala school ( ( C a k a l a c a k h a ) , contains in
ten books ( M a n d a l a ) 7 1 1017 (or 1028) hymns, 72 the ex-
tent of which about equals that of the Homeric poems.
As a rule, the oldest hymns are contained in Books 2 - 7 ;
these show only portions, each assigned by tradition to a
single family, 7 3 in which they were long preserved as a
family inheritance. These are in order the hymns of
Grtsamada, Vicvâmitra, Vamadeva, A t r i , Bharadvâja,
Vasistha and their descendants. The internal arrange-
ment of these Martdalas bears distinct traces of the work
of a single school; the hymns in each are arranged in groups
according to the gods addressed; and these groups always
follow the same order, — first the hymns to A g n i , then
those to Indra, etc. Inside the groups the position of the
hymns is determined by the number of verses in diminish-
i n g order; where this principle seems violated, the hymns
are either to be separated into shorter ones or they found
a place in the collection only at a later date.74 The eighth
book contains chiefly hymns of the Kanva gens, b u t shows
no prevailing principle in their arrangement. Book 9
seems to betray a different origin, all its hymns being
addressed to one d i v i n i t y , the inspiring Soma, honored as
a god, and being arranged w i t h reference to the metres.
The youngest portion is Books 1 and 10, which, w i t h beau-
t i f u l examples of Vedic l y r i c a l poetry, also show productions
of the latest period of Vedic time, and even of the time of
22 THE RIGVEDA.

compilation. The fourteen groups of the first book, each

hymns of one family, show the same principle in their
arrangement as the family books; the tenth shows smaller
collections (e.g., l i t u r g i c a l ) ; the whole Mandala gives the
impression of a subsequent compilation of religious and
secular pieces not collected before.
Since the time at which our collection was closed, about
the year 1500 B.C.,76 the text has been handed down,
though for centuries orally, 76 w i t h the most painstaking
care, so that since that time, nearly 3000 years ago, it has
suffered no changes whatever; — w i t h a care such that the
history of other literatures has nothing similar to compare
w i t h i t . The Indians were not satisfied w i t h one form of
the text, but made several; 77 grammatical treatises were
w r i t t e n upon the mutual relations of the various forms 7 8
and other like precautions taken. B u t it is true that at
the period of compilation much had become unintelligible;
a method of exposition had gained currency which to a cer-
tain extent replaced the text, and it is probable that only
few hymns then preserved exactly the same form in which
they were composed. For example, it is easy to show that
in many hymns the order of the verses is changed and that
in others verses not belonging to the hymn have been
interpolated. Many such erratic portions were collected
by the scholiasts in places where from the occurrence of the
same or similar words they inferred a similar sense (cf.
p. 10*) ; others show themselves to be modern, and in part
very senseless, variations of o l d hymns or additions made
by the priests for the support of their doctrine. 79
L i t t l e need be said of the external form of the hymns;
this language is an exceedingly ancient popular dialect, 80
which differs, in a l l grammatical points (accentuation,
phonetics, word-formation, declension, conjugation, syn-
t a x ) and in its vocabulary, from the later artificial Indian
language, the Sanskrit* of the law-books, epics, dramas,etc.,
* Sanskrit is the artificial, adorned speech of the three higher castes and
the learned literary language in distinction to the popular dialect, Prakrit
 THE RIGVEDA. 23
in a much greater degree than, e.g., the language of Homer
from the A t t i c . Here the wonderful imagery of the lan-
guage shines out in transparent clearness and exuberance
of sparkling b r i l l i a n c y ; its forms of expression are poured
forth as from an inexhaustible s p r i n g ; we meet everywhere
originality, richness of diction, pushing g r o w t h and buoy-
ant life, which, not yet fettered as in later Sanskrit by the
iron-bound canons of a learned grammar, give us glimpses
of the development and history of the language, in the
laboratory of that immense intellectual product, through
which the languages of our family have become the most
cultivated of a l l tongues. 81 In a certain sense this dialect
too is artistic; it is, like the language of Homer, though to
a smaller degree, a popular artistic or poetic speech devel-
oped in the guilds of singers, and the many conventional
turns of expression in it plainly prove that the art of song
had long been fostered and practised among the people. 82
Here, as in Homer, we often find fixed epithets, formulaic
expressions confined to certain connections, rhetorical
adornments, idioms and whole passages which repeatedly
re-occur unchanged or w i t h slight variations. Assonance,
Homoioteleuta, Parachesis and other rhetorical figures, and
especially the most varied play upon words, are of frequent
application; the refrain, repeating some principal thought,
is used w i t h great freedom. 83
The syntactical relations are usually clear; in the use
of case and mode much more of the original fullness of
the language is preserved than in Sanskrit or the classical
tongues. B u t since pure S y n t a x , the developed struc-
ture of periods, was not yet matured, it is sometimes im-
possible to fix upon one or another translation and explan-
ation of a verse as the sole possible and only correct one,
even in passages where every individual w o r d is fully
clear.84
It is used in the Indian drama only by gods and male members of the first
two castes, priests and warriors, while all females (including goddesses),
children, and people of lower class speak Prakrit.
•24 THE RIGVEDA.

The metrical laws are simple; the stanzas consist

throughout of three or more, generally of three or four
verses; the latter contain eight, eleven, or twelve syllables,
seldom five, more seldom four or more than twelve, and
are therefore usually dimeter, trimeter, or trimeter cata-
lectic; the caesura occurs after the fourth or fifth syllable.
The first syllables of the verse are not fixed in regard to
quantity (ancipites), while the last four are in general
strictly measured,, iambic in verses of twelve syllables
trochaic in those of eleven ; only a
few older hymns w i t h verses of eight syllables show a
trochaic cadence.85
In many hymns two or three stanzas are more closely
connected, and thus form a s t r o p h e ; in others a k i n d of
chain-structure is noticeable, in which the beginning of a
stanza or strophe takes up the closing thought of the last
stanza or strophe. There are, even at this early date, iso-
lated instances o f l y r i c a l d i a l o g u e ; o f which there
are also forms which picture the progress of the action and
describe past events, and which therefore correspond in
nature to the ballad. 86
As to the contents, it has already been pointed out
above (page 3 ) , that the far greater proportion of hymns
belongs to the religious l y r i c ; a small number only of sec-
ular songs is preserved in the tenth book. The great ma-
j o r i t y of the hymns are invocations and adoration of the
gods respectively addressed; their keynote is a simple out-
pouring of the heart, a prayer to the eternals, an invitation
to them to accept favorably the gift reverently consecrated.
Of the later theory of inspiration the hymns recognize
nothing. The singer's wish is to give eloquent expression
to the sentiments which a god has placed in his soul, —
to give vent to the crowding emotions of his heart. " As
a skilled workman builds the wagon, like well-adorned and
fitted garments he forms his song as best he can according
to his knowledge and ability." 87
Therefore the hymns vary greatly in value; by the side
 THE RIGVEDA. 25
of the splendid productions of divinely inspired poets we
find a large number of unimportant, tiresome, and over-
burdened compositions. B u t this does not appear strange,
when we remember that the Rigveda furnishes us the works
of the most various poets of a whole people, some of whom
are separated by a period of at least 1000 years ; that indi-
vidual genius is confined neither to locality nor age, and
that these productions at the time of compilation, even
then partially unintelligible, were looked upon as ancient,
divinely inspired wisdom, and therefore protected against
a l l human criticism. Even the flower of the Vedic lyric
suffers from monotony and endless repetition, since almost
all the hymns are variations of the same theme ; b u t through
them all we feel the fresh breath of a vigorous poetry of
Nature. If one w i l l only take the trouble to project him-
self into the life and thought, the poetry and action of a
people and age, which best display the first development
of intellectual activity in our own race,* he w i l l find him-
self attracted by these hymns on many sides, now by their
childlike simplicity, now by the freshness or delicacy of
their imagery, and again by the boldness of their painting
and their scope of fancy. A n d most certainly these t r u l y
unique literary remains, which throw the strongest l i g h t
on the most varied conditions of life, of classical as well as
present peoples, w i l l remain sealed for all who do not take
that trouble, — who are used to recognize a common hu-
manity and pure beauty only when clothed in the most
modern forms. They w i l l be closed for all who have never
experienced the delight of following back to its distant
mountain-sources the mighty river of human thought, on
whose surface we ourselves are hastening toward the F u -
ture, who no longer have any soul for that which has freed
the minds of millions of human beings w i t h their noblest
hopes, fears, and endeavors; who lack the sense for the
History of Humanity. 8 8
T u r n i n g now to the
* " In so far as we are Aryans in speech, that is, in thought, so far the
Rigveda is our own oldest book.'—Max Muller,
26 THE RIGVEDA.

RELIGIOUS' POETRY,
we shall not, from what has preceded, expect to find any
unified views or defined prevailing conceptions. Each one
of the poets so far separated in time follows his own imag-
ination, his i n d i v i d u a l feeling, his momentary perception,
which may conform w i t h those of most of his contempo-
raries, or may be centuries ahead of them. The whole sig-
nificance of the Rigveda in reference to the general history
of religion, as has repeatedly been pointed out in modern
times, rests upon this, that it presents to us the d e v e l o p -
m e n t of religious conceptions from the earliest beginnings
to the deepest apprehension of the godhead and its relations
to man. " V e r y differently," says L. Geiger, " f r o m all
others of the oldest literatures k n o w n to us, which show
new forms rising on the ruins of a past sunk in oblivion or
produced by the contact and commingling of the spiritual
characteristics of various peoples, we have in these hymns
the picture of an o r i g i n a l , primitive life of mankind,
free from foreign influences, not restored in new forms
from the destruction of the past, b u t springing forth new
and young from the bosom of Nature, — a spiritual form
s t i l l unspoiled in w o r d and deed; and that w h i c h every-
where else we see only as complete and finished, is here
presented in process of formation. Therefore in these
hymns lies the key to understanding not only the subse-
quent development of the Indians, nor alone that of all
peoples in part springing from the same root, b u t also, from
the u n i t y of nature recognized in the whole process of devel-
opment of our race, the key to the productions of a l l specu-
lative power on earth, or to the whole contents of mind,
i.e., its lasting acquisitions, from the period when convic-
tions formed from impressions retained in memory first
took shape among men, and manifold opinions, beliefs, or
knowledge were at all possible." 89
 THE RIGVEDA. 27

THE RELIGIOUS THOUGHT

is here in greater part filled w i t h the productions of
sense. A maze of marvellous stories and myths reveals
the mighty influence of the ever-changing phenomena of
nature upon the son of earth. The forces of nature im-
press him now as friends, again as enemies, and he views
the wonders of the great creation w i t h the unaccustomed
eyes of the child. As a German nursery rhyme asks :
" T e l l me how white m i l k can come from the red cow," — so
an Indian sage is struck w i t h wonder that the rough red
cow gives soft white m i l k , and this miracle is praised again
and again as an evidence of divine power. 90 There is of
course no recognition of the laws of nature, and science
does not, as now, spring up at every step as an obstacle to
imagination. Now we calculate at what moment a certain
star w i l l he visible at a certain spot on the earth, and the
rising of the sun causes us no astonishment, — we k n o w
that it happens necessarily. N o t so the man of that t i m e ;
when he sees the sun moving freely through the heavens,
so evidently producing all life upon the earth, seen and
k n o w n by all, and yet to a l l a mystery from beginning to
end, what it is, whence it comes, whither it goes, — then
he asks:
" Unpropped beneath, not fastened firm, how comes it
That downward turned, he falls not downward?
The guide of his ascending path,—who saw i t ? " — 4 . 13. 5.
F u l l of wonder he begins to conjecture " w h i t h e r the
Pleiades, that show themselves in the night, go by day,"
and it seems a miracle to h i m that " the sparkling waters
of all rivers flow into one ocean, w i t h o u t ever filling
i t . " * 9 1 Such expressions of wonder, if we t r y to place
ourselves in sympathy w i t h the childlike mental conditions
of that primitive time, we shall not find childish ; we shall
rather wonder at the happy and graphic expressions w i t h
which man is able to clothe his thoughts when beginning
* Cf. Eccle8.1. 7 : All the rivers run into the sea; yet the sea is not full.
28 THE RIGVEDA.

for the first time to grope about him, to perceive, to ob-

serve, and from repeated observations to draw conclusions.
In all the phenomena of nature he observes movement and
action similar to his own or those of his immediate sur-
roundings ; b u t because he never sees movement or action
here behind which a moving or acting person does not
stand, he logically refers these occurrences in nature to
acting persons, who for h i m coincide w i t h the phenomena.
The bright all-containing heaven is him the " Lightener "
(Dyaus) or the "Surrounder" (Varuna) ; the moon is
the " Measurer " (Mas, Gr. ; the sun, the " I l l u m -
i n a t o r " (Surya) or the " E n l i v e n e r " (Savitar) or the
" N o u r i s h e r " (Pusan), etc. This silent " w a n d e r e r "
through space, — this majestic ruler of the firmament, —
this friend, departing in the dark West and returning in
the shining East, in its daily and yearly courses first
showed men an unbroken rule, a strict, unchanging o r d e r
(rta).n A n d as the " t h i n k i n g one" (mânusa, Mensch,
man) looks further about him, he observes that, while his
own plans are so often crossed and destroyed, while noth-
ing in his daily life has permanency, throughout the whole
realm of Nature order, unchangeable and " i n i m i t a b l e , "
prevails. " In ever-varying alternation w i t h the day-star,
the moon light-giving moves through the n i g h t ; solitary it
wanders through the gathering of m a n y ; it waxes and
wanes; the* breathing being of yesterday dies to-day and
returns l i v i n g to-morrow." " Every day, in unceasing i n -
terchange w i t h night and her dark wonders, comes the
dawn w i t h her bright ones, to reanimate the worlds, never
failing in her place, never in her time, — both ever enter-
ing on their paths w i t h renewed y o u t h . " " Day and night
know their seasons, when the dark sister must give place
to the b r i g h t ; they halt not, nor stand s t i l l ; unlike in
color but of like mind both pursue their endless way," and
unchangingly the hot and "cold seasons follow each other. 9³
A l l these occurrences and the forces behind them, these
natural phenomena conceived of as personal, are pictured
 THE RIGVEDA. 29
by man as being similar to himself; human in their think-
ing, feeling, and acting; but, since their order is never dis-
turbed, their w i l l never bent, and their power never broken,
infinitely more powerful and exalted and wise ; to him they
are creatures against whose w i l l no one on earth can
contend. 94 As l i g h t is to h i m the symbol of all happiness
and blessings, he calls these wise powers, these infallible
guardians of the eternal order of the worlds the Shining
Ones (devds, dìvi), and he adores them as givers of good, 95
as gods. In pressing need there rises in his heart a yearn-
i n g for a helper; he looks about among his kinsmen and
companions for aid, but in vain. " W h o w i l l take pity,
who w i l l give us refreshment, who w i l l come nigh w i t h
help ? The counsels counsel, the thoughts in the hearts,
the wishes wish, they fly out into the worlds; no other
merciful one is found but them : therefore my longing lifts
itself to the gods." 96 Anxiously the hopeful ask:

" Who is it knows, and who can tell us surely

Where lies the path that leads to the Eternals ?
Their deepest dwellings only we discover,
And hidden these in distant secret regions."—3. 54. 5.

That path the experienced singer has seen, " who sees
further than others; he, who has learned to mark the
Eternals and in the course of nature to perceive their might
and wisdom." 9 7 He says to mortals that not without
effort can gods be gained for friends; the idle and negli-
gent are not pleasing to t h e m ; they desire Soma-pressers,
constant in prayer and zealous in sacrifice; when the tribes
meet in conflict over their possessions, they come as allies
to those who offer sacrifices; the M i g h t y Ones have no
friendship for such as bring no gifts. 98 A n d so man gladly
offers the sacrificial food and freely pours the Soma for
their enjoyment, and the " span " of his pious songs, that
perchance the god may heed and accomplish the singer's
wish. W i t h the most pleasing hymns he lays hold on the
hem of the Exalted's garments, as a son touches the father's;
30 THE RIGVEDA.

w i t h l o u d rejoicing, as the streams rush from the heights,

he sends up his devotion to heaven that the god implored
may take it up as the mother clasps the darling son; that
he may bind the long rows of songs about him for adorn-
ment like the stars in heaven, and rejoice in them as a
bridegroom in his bride." Superficial natures, indeed,
naively t h i n k to talk the gods over: " If I possessed as
as much as you, O God, I would not give the singer over
to poverty, and day by day would give my adorer r i c h
possessions, wherever he might be. ,, " If you were a mor-
tal and I immortal, I would not abandon you to misfortune
nor poverty; my singer w o u l d not be needy, not in evil
case, not lacking his deserts." 100
Another, oppressed by heavy trouble, turns to the l o r d
of the old home, to whom his father called, — to that god
who has so often aided before, the support of the sacrificer
and the friend of his ancestors, who rejoices in being i m -
plored, and who cares for him like a loving father; for he
knows from experience : " If I asked again and again, the
ever victorious Indra fulfilled all my prayers." 101
A n d if unable to offer an ox or cow, he hopes that
even small gifts from the heart, a fagot, a libation, a bun-
dle of grass, offered w i t h reverence, or a specially powerful
verse, w i l l be more acceptable to the god than butter or
honey. 102 Therefore men honor the gods as frequently
as they c a n ; to them, the mighty ones above, they
pray at early morning, at midday, and at the setting
of the sun, for wealth and happiness, for health and long
life, for a hundred autumns w i t h o u t the burdens of old
age, which causes the beauty of the form to disappear like
mist; 1 0 3 for the blessing of offspring and an honorable
position among friends and the whole people; for protec-
tion against all dangers and adversaries, at home and
abroad; for victory and r i c h booty from every enemy,
A r y a n and barbarian. 104 " Grant me," cries Grtsamada to
Indra, —
 THE RIGVEDA. 31
" Grant me, O God, the highest, best of treasures,
A judging mind, prosperity abiding,
Riches abundant, lasting health of body,
The grace of eloquence, and days propitious." 105 —2. 21. 6.
A n d others in the people pray to the Highest, to " the
gods, bright and clear as a spring, superior to blemish, de-
ceit, and harm," that to their former benefactions they
may add the protection which frees even the guilt-laden
from his g u i l t , like the captive from his bonds ; " for every
one," cries a singer, " returning from his sins, you, wisest
gods, make live again." 106 They are besought from g u i l t
incurred or unaccomplished to guide to well-being and to
protect from sins great and small. Man hopes that in the
presence of these pure ones he shall again see his father
and mother, and .be united w i t h his ancestors who have
gone before.107
Beside this purer conception, which regards the gifts of
sacrifice as the free-will offerings of a heart filled, w i t h
thankfulness, though perhaps hoping too for new aid, the
calculating spirit, here as elsewhere, shows itself from the
very beginning, which regards the god as under obligation
for the gifts, and permits the sacrifice!' to expect, or almost
to demand, a gift in return. 108 " I give to thee, — do thou
give to me," is the keynote of many hymns; and many a
singer declares that only the songs and sacrifices, and
above all the Soma, first gave the gods the courage and
power for their saving deeds of might. B u t when once
such results were confidently awaited from such gifts, it
was only a step to the further conclusion that these deeds
of the gods had been made possible o n l y by the men's
gifts, and that the gods were therefore dependent upon the
acts and w i l l of men, especially of those men who were
familiar w i t h the ancient songs and the conduct of the
sacrifice, — the p r i e s t s . In t h e i r hands remained the
knowledge of the hymns and the r i t u a l connected w i t h
them, while the mass of the people had in general far too
much to do in waging war against the aborigines to be
32 THE RIGVEDA.

able to occupy themselves w i t h other matters; all their.

energy was employed in maintaining their position and
conquering new homes. In the strange land, where the
customs of home are always invested w i t h a sacred charm,
the guardians of the old worship came more and more into
the foreground. 109 A creation and at the same time a per-
sonification of priestly action is seen in B r h a s p a t i or
B r a h m a n a s p a t i , i.e., the L o r d of Devotion. To him are
ascribed by later singers the deeds for which formerly other
gods, notably Indra, were celebrated, and in very many
old hymns interpolations and additions are plainly recog-
nizable for the purpose of confirming the superiority of the
human lords of prayer, the priests, over all the other
classes, because only t h e y knew how to present the effec-
tual song and sacrifice, and therefore alone could secure
the aid of the gods. Even in the second period of Vedic
literature, in the Brâhmana, we read that " there are two
kinds, of gods, the devas and the brâhmanas (i.e., the
priests), who are to be held as gods among m e n . ' " The
wise Brahman has the gods in his power," etc.110 Such a
conception is naturally foreign to the old hymns; on the
other hand, even then success and a continuance of prosper-
i t y seem to have led to a denial of gods who ordered all things
w i t h strong hand. " The sun and moon in t u r n f u l f i l l their
course, that man may look and believe in God," but the
people l i v i n g in prosperity does not heed this. " Nowhere,
Indra," cries a singer, " canst thou find a r i c h man for t h y
f r i e n d ; men insolent from d r i n k i n g hate thee; but when
thou thunderest loud, thou bringest them together; then
as a father thou art called upon." " W h e n he hurls hither
and thither his lightning, t h e n t h e y b e l i e v e o n
the g l e a m i n g god."111

THE VEDIC BELIEF.

The individual gods, corresponding to their origin from
the personification of natural phenomena, are depicted as
supreme in their own spheres, and in the Rigveda a
 THE RIGVEDA. 33

younger race of gods stands plainly in the foreground.

The o l d Father of Heaven, Dyaus (Zeus, Diespiter, T y r ,
Z i o ) , the divine parents, Heaven and Earth ( D y â v â p r t h i v i ) ,
T r i t a and others have almost entirely disappeared 112 and
have been superseded by new forms, the representatives of
those phenomena w h i c h in their new homes made a spe-
cially v i v i d impression on the minds of the Aryans, or
exercised a special influence on their manner of life. Thus
in one tribe we find one god pre-eminently reverenced, in
another, another. A n d since there are many phenomena,
and hence many gods, we are at first impelled to designate
the Vedic religion as polytheism; it is not, however, poly-
theism in the usual sense, but it presents to us throughout
a stage of religious thought which, elsewhere hardly ob-
served, in India developed partly into monotheistic, partly
into polytheistic conceptions, and which M a x Muller has
proposed to designate by the name H e n o t h e i s m or
Kathenotheism; — a belief in s i n g l e gods, each in t u r n
standing out as the highest. A n d since the gods are
thought of as specially r u l i n g in their own spheres, the
singers, in their special concerns and desires, call most of
a l l on that god to whom they ascribe the most power in
the matter, — in whose department, if I may say so, their
wish comes. This god a l o n e is present to the m i n d of
the suppliant; w i t h h i m for the time being is associated
everything that can be said of a divine being; — he is
the highest, the o n l y god, before whom a l l others dis-
appear, there being in this, however, no offense or depre-
ciation of any other god. 113
Since that which was t o l d of one god could so easily be
spoken of others, it was natural to combine individual
related gods, possessing certain qualities or rights in com-
mon, into d u a l d i v i n i t i e s . Thus Indra (the conqueror
of every enemy) and A g n i (the conqueror of darkness and
the dark hostile demons), the two lords, " I n d r a , the hero,
and Varuna, the k i n g , " Indra and V â y u , Rudra and Soma,
and others, are praised and reverenced together. Later on
34 THE RIGVEDA.

the composers of a large number of hymns sought to w i n a

unified expression for the numerous individual gods by
grouping them together under the comprehensive name of
vicve devas, i.e., all gods. Others distinguish older and
newer gods whom they t r y to systematize, or declare openly
that a given god is identical w i t h several others, and show
in this an inclination toward a monotheistic conception,
which w i l l occupy us later on in the philosophical
poetry. 114
THE GODS.
Passing on to the consideration of the individual gods, I
remark that I do not propose to give a complete Vedic
mythology, examining all the mythological representations
contained in the Veda w i t h respect to their origin, history,
chronology and order; 1 1 5 but on the other hand, I have
been careful to collect all the e s s e n t i a l characteristics
given in the hymns into a general view of each divinity.
In this I have confined myself as closely as possible to the
w o r d s of t h e h y m n s , so that the whole work is, so
to speak, made up of the words of the poets themselves.
The metrical citations are for the greater part taken from
Siebenzig Hymnen des Rigveda, ubersetzt von K a r l Geld-
ner und Adolf Kaegi. M i t Beitriigen von R. Roth, Tubin-
gen 1875, which give the reader a general view of the
poetry of the Rigveda. 116
In the classification of gods I follow a very old division
of the universe, contained in the hymns themselves, into
the three realms of the E a r t h , the A i r and the b r i g h t
H e a v e n . 1 1 7 The basis of this threefold division is the
separation of air and light. The realm of light is not in
the air-region, but beyond i t , in the infinite space of the
heaven; it is not confined to the shining mass of the sun,
but is an independent, eternal force. Between this world
of l i g h t and the earth lies the region of the air, which is
under the control of gods, in order to keep the path of the
l i g h t to earth unobstructed, to give passage to its enliven-
ing force, and at the same time to allow the heavenly
 THE RIGVEDA. 35
waters, whose home is also in the l i g h t region, to fall on
the fields of the earth. 118
The E a r t h was given by the gods to men for a dwel-
ling-place. B u t aside from the fact that all the gods, hi
heaven and on earth, everywhere reveal their power in the
waters, herbs and trees, and have implanted W i l l in man's
body, they have chosen a representative from their midst
to dwell here, among mortals immortal. L i k e a loving
friend they have placed in the dwellings of men Agni,
the god of fire. 119 Born from the floods of heaven (the
clouds), he first came down to earth as lightning, and
when he had disappeared and remained hidden, Mâtarigvan,
a demi-god, another Prometheus, brought him back again
from afar from the gods to men, to the tribe of Bhrgus. 120
From that time the latter have been able to create him
anew for themselves; in a multitude of hymns and innu-
merable images is sung his production from two sticks
rubbed together, — his "parents." He lies concealed in
the softer wood, as in a chamber, u n t i l , called forth by the
rubbing in the early morning hour, he suddenly springs
forth in gleaming brightness. The sacrificer takes and
lays h i m on the w o o d ; greedily he stretches out his sharp
tongue and melts the wood. W h e n the priests pour melted
butter upon him, he leaps up crackling and neighing like
a horse, — he whom men love to see increasing like their
own prosperity. 121 They wonder at him, when, decking
himself w i t h changing colors like a suitor, equally beauti-
f u l on all sides, he presents to all sides his front.
" All-searching is his beam, the gleaming of his light,
His, the all-beautiful, of beauteous face and glance,
The changing shimmer like that floats upon the stream,
So Agni's rays gleam ever bright and never cease." — 1. 143. 3.

A l t h o u g h the first of the gods, he is yet, because every

morning kindled anew, the youngest; gleaming w i t h
brightness he whirls upward the sacred, light-red smoke ;
growing from his flames, which never age, from himself, he
36 THE RIGVEDA.

mounts on high, sweeps the heavenly vault w i t h his flow-

i n g locks, and mingles himself with the sunbeams. Then
they offer to him prayer and song, the devout sacrificial
gift, that he may carry it on his gleaming chariot to the
I m m o r t a l s ; or he can bring down the gods, ready to give
aid, to the pious worship of men, to the d r i n k i n g of the
Soma at the sacred place of sacrifice; for gods and men
have chosen h i m , who rules over heavenly as w e l l as
earthly things, for their messenger, the sacrificial carrier. 122
Once, it is said, he was weary of the service, so that he
refused longer to f u l f i l l the office; from Varuna, who tries
to persuade him, he demands remuneration for his labor:

" Then give me all the first and last libation,

And give the juciest sacrificial portion,—
The cream of water and the herbs' aroma,
And long, 0 Gods, shall Agni's life continue." —10. 51. 8.

As Varuna grants all this, A g n i yields and remains there-

after the H i g h P r i e s t of men, who above all knows the
sacred institutions and times. 123 If at any time men un-
knowingly transgress the laws of the knowing (gods), or
if in foolishness mortals, weak in discernment, neglect the
sacrifice, he, the best sacrificer, makes everything right.
A n d when the l i g h t of day, the sun, has departed, A g n i is
visible through the darkness of night, and by this divine
power he proves himself the v i c t o r i o u s c o n q u e r o r of
g l o o m and its evil spirits, the ghosts and goblins, the
magicians and witches. 124 So the god becomes a vis-
ible savior, a strong fortress for the devout. He drives
away the noxious tribes from their dwelling-places; he
burns them down like dry bushes, and the Immortal,
bringing joy to mortals, finds a home in their midst. He
orders their hosts and protects their settlements; from
fear of h i m , whom the gods placed as a l i g h t to the
Aryans, the black tribes fled; scattering, they abandoned
their possessions, and the god breaks their strongholds.
He overthrows barbarian and A r y a n enemies, and sweeps
 THE RIGVEDA. 37
away their wealth from field and mountain. 125 In him, the
l o r d of riches, lies all wealth, as the rays lie hid in the sun;
like a k i n g he protects a l l treasures, whether they are con-
tained in the mountains, in the plants, in the waters, or
among men. From h i m proceed all gifts of fortune, as
branches from the tree, and to him are directed the
thoughts of the devout as man's eyes t u r n to the sun.
He may be looked upon as father and relation, dear friend
and brother; called upon and reverenced, he brings w i t h
bounteous hands rich wealth into the house of the highly-
favored singer. Therefore he is a welcome guest to all
men,and in everyplace a beloved f a m i l y f r i e n d . 1 2 6
In the middle realm of the A i r , various divinities of the
w i n d and storm are supposed to live, as well as the genii
of the seasons, the Rbhus. 127 These three s k i l l f u l men
by their dexterity gained divine honors, a share in the
sacrifice and i m m o r t a l i t y . Since they made the chariot
of the Aevins, the daily course of these gods, bringing
blessing to man, is t h e i r deed; by them too were
formed Brhaspati's miraculous cow and Indra's obedient
team, which harness themselves at his command. 128 They
cherished and cared for their parents, long since broken
down by age, w i t h miraculous powers, u n t i l their youthful
vigor returned; 1 2 9 and many other wonderful deeds they
accomplished on their journey, u n t i l they were received as
guests in Agohya's * house. Here they spend twelve days
in enjoyment; then the course begins anew, and anew the
earth brings f o r t h f r u i t , the streams flow; plants cover the
heights, and waters the depths.130 Impressed by all these
things, the gods wish to t r y their s k i l l and send A g n i as
messenger to commission the Rbhus to fashion, from the
one cup of the gods, the masterpiece of the gods' w o r k -

*Agohya is the " unconcealable" sun-god, with whom the Rbhus rest
after their year's course; i.e., the year is at an end; the three seasons and
the sun, which has reached its lowest point, apparently rest twelve days, —
the twelve intercalary days of the winter solstice; vid. above, p. 20
and Note 68.
38 THE RIGVEDA.

man T v a s t a r , four others like i t . They at once ac-

complish the work and more; so that Tvastar, overcome
by jealousy, hides himself. B u t fne gods rejoice in the
work, looking at it w i t h understanding and appreciation;
and they search everywhere for the Rbhus and lead them
to the company of the gods, where they find the reward of
their zeal.131
V â t a ( V â y u ) , the w i n d , first arises in the early
morning to drink the Soma and leads in the dawn. Then
a l l the winds follow him like maidens to the feast. His
approach is perceived by the waving of the flame; he is
recognized hastening along the paths of the air in his swift
car, never stopping; but each one asks:
" In what place was he born, and from whence comes he?
The vital breath of gods, the world's great offspring,
The God where'er he will moves at his pleasure:
His rushing sound we hear — what his appearance, no
one." 132 * —10. 168. 3. 4.
R u d r a , the god of the destroying storm, 133 is loudly
sung because he, most beautiful of those that were born,
strongest of the strong, w i t h the l i g h t n i n g in his hands
from his high seat looks out upon the inhabitants of the
earth and the heavenly race. Where he sees a wrong,
there he casts his mighty spear or sends a swift arrow
from his strong bow and strikes the evil-doer. 134 B u t he
is glad to be called upon by the upright, who look for his
coming as the child seeks his father's embrace. From
them he wards off all affliction and h u r t ; purifying the
air from a l l harmful miasmas, he furnishes to men and
cattle the best nourishment; therefore he is called the
very best of physicians. 135
" Let me through thy best medicines, O Rudra,
My life on earth prolong a hundred winters;
* The same Zeugma is in the text. St. John 3. 8: " The wind bloweth
where it listeth, and thou nearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell
whence it cometh, and whither it goeth." — Cf. Note 132.
 THE RIGVEDA. 39
From us dispel all hatred and oppression,
On every side calamity drive from us.
Where then, O Rudra, is thy hand of mercy,
The hand that healing brings and softens sorrow,
That takes away the ills even which the gods send?
Let me, 0 mighty one, feel thy forgiveness.
The hero gladdened me amid the tumult
With greater might when I his aid entreated.
Like some cool shade from the sun's heat protected,
May I attain to Rudra's grace and refuge."—2. 33. 2. 7. 6.
Rudra's sons and companions are the richly-adorned,
well-armed M a r u t s , t h e g o d s o f t h e thunder-
s t o r m , "the heavenly singers." 136 L o u d l y thundering,
they are visible far off as the stars of heaven, and deck
their forms like a prosperous wooer. On their heads
golden helmets gleam, on their shoulders they carry gaily-
colored skins and spears, on their breasts golden breast-
plates, about their ankles golden bracelets and clasps, in
their hands gleaming, fire-darting weapons, and in their
strong arms rich wealth for the worshiper. 137 Now they
set out w i t h battle-axe and spear, w i t h bow and arrow, as
the active and daring allies of I n d r a ; again, they equip
themselves for battle alone, rushing forth in golden chariot
borne through the air untiringly by golden-hoofed horses
or dappled mares. When they approach roaring and
throw out their lines to measure the sun's path, when the
rivers reverberate w i t h the rumbling of their wheels, —
when they raise their song of the storm-clouds and down
upon the earth the lightnings smite, — then both men
and the mighty, lofty mountains are terrified; the heav-
enly canopy trembles at their raging, the immovable
rocks quake, the earth is moved, and like elephants the
heroes destroy the forests; the mountains yield to their
coming and the streams to their command. Even in
bright daytime they make darkness when they shake
down the m i l k of the clouds,138 or when they summon the
40 THE RIGVEDA.

rain-god Parjanya. 1 3 9 L i k e as a driver whips and urges

his horse, he rouses up his rain-messengers w i t h w i l d up-
roar, deep as the distant roar of the l i o n . S w i f t l y Par-
janya collects his clouds for r a i n ; the winds rush, the
lightnings, fall stroke on stroke, w i t h w h i c h the mighty
one smites the blasphemer and terrifies even the pure; the
heaven strains and swells; then at once the floods rush
down,
" And every creature then receives the quickening draught,
When o'er the land Parjanya's grateful stream descends.
The thirsty fields he covered with the waters
Of plenteous falling rains ; but 'tis enough now.
He caused the herbs to spring for our refreshment,
And what his people sought of him has granted.'* 140
5.83.4.10.
B u t the chief figure in the air-space is Indra, 1 4 1 the
most celebrated god of the Vedic period. D u r i n g this
time he assumes a more and more dominating position,
and becomes the real national god of the Indians. 142
In numberless hymns his deeds are celebrated, above all
his c o n q u e s t o f t h e d e m o n s , V r t r a ( " s u r r o u n d e r " ) ,
A h i ( " c o n f i n e r " ) , Cusna ( " p a r c h e r " ) and others, who,
in the form of mighty serpents or dragons, encompass
the waters and shut off their path, as w e l l as that of the
light, from the heights of heaven to man's earth. The
ever-recurring celebrations of this victory are often tire-
some, b u t their explanation is found in the climatic condi-
tions of the land. These descriptions and images, as, e.g.,
John M u i r , the accomplished investigator, assures us, are
perfectly natural and easy of comprehension, especially for
those who have lived in I n d i a and witnessed the phenomena
of the various seasons there. 143
The heavens themselves, the songs say, shrink back at
the roaring of the dragons; even the gods, a l l of them
Indra's friends, at Vrtra's snorting leave their champion
to his fate, and the young hero's mother is concerned for
him. B u t he, inspired by the songs of his adorers, strength-
 THE RIGVEDA. 41

ened by deep draughts of Soma and r i c h sacrificial gifts,

armed w i t h the thunder-bolt, w h i c h Tvastar made for him,
advances boldly w i t h his companions, the warlike Ma-
ruts; 1 4 4 he encompasses the Encorapasser; him, relying
on his wiles, fighting w i t h o u t hands or feet against Indra,
he overpowers by h i s craft, s t r i k i n g h i m in the face and
back w i t h his swift l i g h t n i n g ; he finds the vulnerable parts
of h i m who thought himself invulnerable, and w i t h mighty
blows smites the l u r k i n g encompasser of the waters.
L i k e the branch hewn off by the axe, A h i lies prone on
the earth; and over his body the m i g h t y waves rush joy-
fully ; while Indra's enemy sinks into lasting darkness, the
god, the Thunderer, brings the sun to believing mortals. 145
At another time the fight goes thus. The gods have all
declined on account of old age and put h i m forward as the
only strong one, giving over to him all their power and
intelligence; even the Maruts, who on other occasions
remain true, stay behind. 146 The demon shatters the god's
cheek; but he, though wounded, soon masters the enemy;
as soon as Indra becomes really earnest in his wrath, he
who believed himself alone unconquerable, who considered
himself a l i t t l e god and immortal, finds a mightier, who
does not yield in defiance even to the Defiant, whose might
no one has attained, now or formerly. He whets his
thunderbolt like a sharp knife on the rock, and the weapon
rings loud when man's friend strikes down man's enemy,
like the oak struck by the lightning, ' o n wide meadow
shortening the demon's days.' 147 The foaming of the
waters rushing forth carries away the demon's head; then
the god first holds the floods together, that they may not
(unnecessarily) flow asunder, but afterward lets them r u n
freely in streams and sets the sun in the heavens. The
victor, into whose own heart fear has crept at the thought
of the avenger of the evil, receives the god's jubilations;
the wives of the gods bring h i m a song of praise; mortals
praise him w i t h music and song and at their feasts loudly
celebrate the Mighty's m i g h t y deeds,148
42 THE RIGVEDA.

In another account the story tells that the Panis (the

avaricious ones) have driven off the rainclouds, pictured
as herds of cows, and are keeping them in the caves of the
rocks. To them comes Indra's messenger S a r a m â , to
demand the return of the stolen herds. W h e n they
defiantly mocking ask:
" Who is he? What does he look like, this Indra,
Whose herald you have hastened such a distance ?
Let him come here, we'll strike a friendship with h i m ;
l i e can become the herdsman of our cattle,"
Sarama answers warningly :
" Ye cannot injure him ; but ho can injure,
Whose herald I have hastened such a distance.
Deep rivers cannot cover him nor hide him ;
Ye Panis soon shall lie cut down by Indra!" —10. 108. 3. 4.
In v a i n ; — trusting in their sharp weapons they remain
defiant: " Y o u have come to no purpose ; nothing is to be
found here." B u t now, united w i t h the Angiras,* the
mighty god draws near, at whose breath both worlds
tremble. He drives asunder the mountain strongholds
and sweeps away the cunningly b u i l t walls. Fearing his
blow the cavern opens and from its depths Indra drives
forth the herds on pleasant ways; as the trees grieve over
their plumage (foliage) stolen by the cold, so Vala (the
cave-demon) laments the stolen cattle. 149
A n d in the mighty strife of the elements he is always
victor:
" When heaven and earth together join in battle,
Marshalled by thee, like men that call upon thee, —
For surely thou wert born to might and power, —
Thou active dost destroy the slothful demon." — 7. 28. 3.
The immovable, too, he moves, and shakes everything that
is to its deepest foundation; even the mighty mountains
from fear of him are moved like atoms:
* Demigods, mediators between gods and men
 THE RIGYEDA. 43
Through fear of thee upon the earth is shaken
E'en the immovable,— the ether, — all things,
The earth, the heavens, mountains, forests tremble;
The firm foundation trembles at thy going. — 6. 31. 2.
B u t he calms them all again; he hews down the summits
of the mountains; demons stealthily climbing up, seeking
to mount up to heaven, he shakes off and thrusts them
back. He steadies the trembling earth and brings the
staggering mountains to rest; at h i s command they stand
fast; the great heaven bows in reverence to I n d r a and this
earth to his might. 150
Indra is thus a g o d of b a t t l e , the ideal of an ever-
lighting, never conquered hero, and, therefore, the favorite
of the race fighting for new homes and rich herds; for, as
in the battle w i t h V r t r a all power was yielded to him, so
in subduing men, lordship and victory were given him by
the gods.
The man who trusts him in the decisive hour carries off
1 he spoils of v i c t o r y : in him the A r y a n has found an ally
able to contend w i t h the barbarians, who overthrows fifty
thousand of the dark race, and casts down their strongholds
as the cloak slips from the shoulders of old age.161 Men
seek to draw the "son of mighty deeds" near w i t h the
most pleasing song, the richest sacrifice, and the strongest
draughts of Soma. For he is no friend or companion of
the man who provides no Soma, and has no favor for the
rich miser who grudges g i f t s ; but gladly he enters the
house where the sacrificial straw is prepared for him,
where songs rise to heaven, and the Soma is cheerfully
pressed, and where the god is sought w i t h the whole
heart. Such a man's herds he never allows to perish; for
the sacrificing hero he secures freedom, and plenteous
riches for the singer who praises him. 162
On him all men must call amid the battle;
He, high-adored, alone has power to succor.
The man who offers him his prayers, libations,
Him Indra' s arm helps forward in his goings.
44 THE RIGVEDA.

They cry aloud to him amid the contest,

Rushing to deadly combat; to protect them,
When friend and foe lay down their lives in warfare,
In strife to conquer peace for child and grandchild.

They gird themselves, 0 Mighty, for the conflict,

Provoking each the other to the quarrel;
And when the hostile armies stand opposing,
Then each would have great Indra for his ally.

Then their oblations all they bring to Indra,

And freely then the meats and cakes are offered ;
Then they who grudged before come rich with Soma, —
Yea, they resolve to sacrifice a bullock.

Yet still the god gives h i m success who truly

W i t h w i l l i n g mind pours out the draught he longs for,
With his w h o l e heart, nor feels regret in giving; —
To h i m great Indra joins himself in battle. — 4. 24. 2-6.

So he allied himself w i t h the Indian race in their expedi-

t i o n and conquered their enemies; he alone subdued the
nations under the Aryans and gave them the l a n d ; the
barbarians he put aside to the left, gaining far-spread
brightness (great happiness) for the A r y a n , and increas-
i n g his power, so that he can lead his enemies hither and
thither at pleasure. He turned the broad-spreading floods
into an easily passable ford for Sudâs, the pious T r t s u k i n g ,
and, in the battle of the ten kings, rescued h i m from the
onslaughts of innumerable enemies. W i t h Sugravas, who
was without allies, he crushed w i t h fatal chariot wheel
twice ten chieftains and their 60,099 warriors. 158

" T h e mighty stream, with flood o'erwhelming all things,

Thou heldest back for Vayya and T u r v l t i ;
Obedient stood the rapid flood, O Indra,
And through its bed thou mad'st an easy pathway."
4. 19. 6.
 THE RIGVEDA. 45

A n d I n d r a restrained the waters also for Y a d u and Tur-

vaca when they desired to cross the stream ,• * and even all
the gods could not withstand I n d r a when he prolonged
day into the night, and the sun unharnessed his chariot
in the midst of heaven ( d a y ) .† 1 5 4
F r o m these acts men grew to see in h i m the c r e a t o r
and s u s t a i n e r of the w o r l d , the l e a d e r of the races of
men and gods, the mighty, unrestricted l o r d and m a s t e r ,
the h a r s h p u n i s h e r of the godless, and the unfailing
shield of the righteous. He made the heaven, the sun
and the dawn and the earth as a likeness of heaven; he
placed bounds to the air and pillars to the heavens; like
two wheels upon one axle he set heaven and earth apart, and
fixed them both. He placed the moon in the sky, he bids
the sun traverse the wide space, and brings it to rest when
it has finished its course. He created the matchless light-
ning of heaven, and the cloudy vault around ; on earth, he
divided the brooks according to their order, and in the
field the plants bearing flowers and those w i t h f r u i t s ; rely-
i n g on him, the farmer puts his hand to the sickle. 166 From
h i m come r i g h t thoughts, and every good intention in man;
he is the k i n g of the worlds and peoples, seeing and hear-
i n g a l l ; he leads the human and divine hosts, and none
equals him ; — how should any surpass h i m ? 156
The poets never tire of praising his greatness and m i g h t ;
one doubts whether before h i m wise men ever reached the
w h o l e of a l l Indra's greatness, and another, rescued from
great need, declares that he does not know the whole
greatness of the god, the might of the mighty one, and
that no one comprehends the divine power of his present
favor. He overtops both heaven and earth; both together
cannot reach his greatness; the air, and the depths of the

* Exodus 14. 21. Ps. 78. 13 : He divided the sea and caused them to
pass through; and he made the waters to stand as a heap. Is. 63. 12.
† Joshua 10. 13. Lo, the sun stood still in the midst of heaven and
hasted not to go down about a whole day. And there was no day like that,
before it or after it.
46 THE RIGVEDA.

sea, the winds and the ends of the earth cannot contain
h i m . I n d r a rejoices far out beyopd stream and land. 157
B o t h worlds (earth and heaven) form ideas of his sub-
l i m i t y , b u t they cannot comprehend i t ; his h a l f equals
both of t h e m ; when he grasps both these unbounded
worlds together, they are but a handful; as a skin his
power rolls heaven and earth together; they both r o l l
after h i m ( b y the necessity of nature) as the wheel after
the horse.158 His days do not pass in human fashion; *
neither years nor moons make h i m old ; the course of days
do not cause him to fade, and when he thinks, " I shall
not die," w i t h h i m even this remains true. 159 Not the
heavens can restrain his, the Mighty's, m i g h t ; not days,
not years, not moons: the w o r k the hero sets about he
accomplishes, and no one is able to hinder him. To-day
he performs one act, to-morrow another; he calls that
which does not exist into being, and even through weak-
ness accomplishes wonderful deeds.160 In his two hands
he holds the nations and their possessions; he causes their
hosts to war and again leads them to peace; lie animates
the spirit of heroes in battle against their enemies, though
unnoticed by the wise and by the hosts, numerous as the
stars.161 He gives over the great into the hand of the
small; those who t h i n k themselves great he entangles in
battle, and is the subduer of the haughty. The powerful
one hurls aside the proud f o o l ; the M i g h t y overthrows
h i m who decks his body, who joins himself to the nig-
gardly, and trusts in his own arm. One he makes home-
less, to another he gives a home; as a man puts his feet
in t u r n one before the other, he makes the first last; he
breaks friendship w i t h the former, joins himself in t u r n to
the latter, and shakes off those who are not devoted to
him. 1 6 2
The hero — listen — overcomes the mighty,
Now to the front brings one and now another;
*Job 10. 5. Are thy days as the days of man ? Are thy years as man's
days?
 THE RIGVEDA. 47
The lord of both the worlds hates all the haughty,
He cares for those who feel themselves but h u m a n . *
6. 47. 16.
A l l those who are g u i l t y of great crime he strikes w i t h
his arrow when they least expect i t , and smites down every
one who does not keep his promise, who perverts the t r u t h ,
the scheming, foolish mocker. The rich man, who presses
no Soma for him, he drags forth from his concealment, un-
summoned he destroys the haters of prayer; he disperses
the assemblies of the unsacrificing on all sides; even in
unapproachable strongholds those who have enkindled his
wrath, all together cannot withstand his strength. 163 For
them there is no help if they t u r n to the god in the day
of need and promise him the richest gifts.

"I never knew a man to speak so to me,

When all the enemies are safely conquered;
Yea, when they see how fierce the battle rages,
They even promise me a pair of bullocks.

When I am absent far in distant places,

Then all with open hand their gifts would bring me;
I ' l l make the wealthy niggard needy,
Seize by the foot, aud on the hard rock dash him." 164
10. 27. 3. 4.
B u t to the upright man, whose strength rests on Indra,
who has never led another aside to godlessness, and has
never k n o w i n g l y neglected the god's songs ; whose hope
ever seeks the god anew, calling to h i m at morning and
evening, by day and n i g h t ; who from love toward him
relinquishes his desire, 165 — to him the world's l o r d offers
riches w i t h his left hand and is not doubtful w i t h his
r i g h t ; to him he shows himself as his friend and savior
and liberator, as his present and future protector by day
and night, as the p i t y i n g supplier of his needs, who wards
* i.e., who acknowledge their weakness in relation to the gods. Dis te
minorem quod geris, imperas: cf. Note 162.
48 THE RIGVEDA,

off want and hunger and frees even from great guilt. 1 6 6
The singer is dear to the god, who loves above all to listen
to prayer; not the deep stream and not the lofty firm rock,
no mortal and no god can hinder h i m when he desires to
grant the upright man his desires, to give him protection
and bestow rich herds upon him. Sometimes, indeed, he
keeps his adorers in suspense, so that they anxiously ask
w h e n he w i l l heed their words.
" W h a t now shall be with hymns thy fitting service?
How shall we honor thee aright, O Indra?
I bring in love to thee all my devotion;
Hear therefore now, O Indra, this my crying." 167 —7.29.3.
Then the skeptic scoffingly seeks to undermine the faith
of the believer when he exerts himself in holy acts, asking
him if the god has ever stood by him.
" H o w then can India hoar when men entreat him?
How, if he hears, could he find means of succor?
And where is all his wondrous consolation ?
How can men call him generous to the singer?
How does the man who serves him, even zealous
And full of piety, obtain his promised bounty?"
" The god be witness of my deeds' devotion,
My prayer receiving and rejoicing in il."*168—4. 23.3.4.
A n d when the man, now wavering in his trust, cries o u t :
" Lift up loud songs of praise to gain his favor,
Real praise to Indra, if there really be one.
' There is no Indra,' many men are saying ;
' Who ever saw him? Why should we adore him?' "
— then the god appears to h i m and speaks:
" I a m , O singer, look o n me, here a m I ,
And I am greater than all living creatures.
The service of the sacred rite delights me,
Destroying, I creation hurl to ruin." † — 8. 89. 8. 4.
i.e., let my devotion please the god, so that he may not let me come
to shame before the mockers,
† He helps the devout, but destroys the godless.
 THE RIGVEDA. 49

So men seek more and more to w i n Indra for a friend,

whether praising him in the dwelling of the singer or in
the stillness w i t h a song.169 Whoever strives to gain any-
t h i n g chooses Indra for an a l l y :
The former, middle, latter call upon h i m ,
On I n d r a , wanderers and the home-returning,
On I n d r a , those in peace and those in warfare,
On I n d r a , heroes striving after booty.170 — 4, 25. 8.
The voice of all i s :
" Praise the great praiseworthy Indra,
Ruler of the world, with singing,
Him the richest man, the victor.
Him let every creature honor,
Him in works and him in action;
Indra 'tis who brings us freedom.
A l l the mortals, all the peoples,
Ever in their hymns praise Indra,
Him in songs and him in measurea4
Who to highest weal conducts us,
Lends success and fame in battle
And our foes subdues in conflict.
Carry us across as boatman,
Often praised, on ships to fortune,
Indra over every rival.
Help us, Indra, with refreshing
Paths prepare us through thy goodness
And to happiness conduct us." — 8. 16. 1. 6. 9. 10-12.
A m o n g the divinities of the l i g h t heaven we have first to
mention the two Acvins, the " horse-guiders." 171 These A r -
yan Dioskuroi are the earliest light-bearers in the morning
sky. As soon as the first beams shine in the east at break
of day, the sacrifice is made ready for the two sons of
heaven, two eternally young and beautiful heroes of mirac-
ulous power and deep wisdom. 172 W i t h uplifted hands
50 THE RIGVEDA.

the singer sends up his devout song of praise as a messen-

ger to the twins, who overcome all darkness; he calls to
these two helpers as a son to his parents.173 At their sig-
nal the golden sun-like chariot is harnessed, which stretches
over all peoples, and w i t h its wheels touches the ends of
heaven and earth. The s k i l l f u l Rbhus fashioned his
chariot w i t h three seats and three wheels; without horse
and without bridle it glides sure and unwavering, as though
on wings, to the house of the upright, bringing prosperity
like a stream from the m o u n t a i n ; 174 or, drawn by gold-
winged steeds like eagles, it hastens daily w i t h the speed
of w i n d through all the regions of air, through sea and
rivers, swift as thought, — swifter even than a mortal's
thought, swifter than the t w i n k l i n g of an eye.175 Toward
the end of the night, the noble drivers mount the chariot,
and w i t h them S ù r y â , the fair daughter of the Sun-god;
she yielded herself to the beauteous heroes and chose both
youths for husbands, — and all the gods assented from the
heart. The journey begins; day and night d i v i d e ; the
limits of darkness gradually become visible; the Helpers
approach from night and need, rich in joy and rich in
wealth, the two guardians of treasure, w i t h abundant,
never-failing aid. 176 As divine physicians they drive away
sickness, bring medicines from far and near, and heal all
that is h u r t f u l ; they give sight to the blind and make the
lame w a l k ; they help onward the outcast and the slow,
even though left far behind. L i k e rotten cords they snap
asunder the net of calamity, and at the feasts their deeds
of wonder in the fathers' times are loudly praised among
the people.177
Upon your chariot ye brought to Vimada
The daughter fair of Purumitra for his wife.
The eunuch's wife sent up her prayer to you, — ye came,
A n d made Puramdhi happily bring forth a child.178
Ye gave to Kali, when he had grown old in years,
To him, the singer, all his youthful strength again;
 THE RIGVEDA. 51
A n d Vandana ye rescued from the deep abyss,179
And quickly Vicpala the maimed ye made to walk.180
To Pedu ye, O Acvins, gave the snowy steed,
The runner strong, whose ninety-nine fold wondrous strength
Bears on his rider in his flight; they cry to him
As to the goodness of a rich and kindly lord. 181
10. 39. 7. 8. 10.

The wise A t r i , through the wiles of a hostile monster,

has fallen w i t h all his host into a burning chasm; at his
entreaty the Acjvins approach w i t h eagle's speed, bringing
a cooling and quickening draught; they protect him from
the glowing flames, and finally lead him and his followers
out to the life-giving air in f u l l youthful strength. 182 The
Helpers took the body of the aged C y a v a n a like a cloak,
made it young and beautiful again, prolonged the life of
the lonely one, and made him the husband of a young
maiden. 183 Rogues had kept R e b h a hidden like a horse
in the water, bound, wounded, overwhelmed by the flood;
ten nights and nine days he lay there, t i l l the Acvins, w i t h
their wonder-working power, brought the dead forth and
revived him. 1 8 4 To the Pajrid K a k s ì v a n t they grant
blessings in abundance; from the strong horse's hoof as
from a sieve, they poured him forth a hundred jars of
wine; 1 8 5 and to G h o s a , remaining in her father's house,
they gave a husband in her old age.186 The quail, seized
by the wolf, they free from his jaws,187 and bring the sweet
honey to the bees.188
B u t among the many wonders for which they are cele-
brated,— and there are very many, — none is sung so
loud and so often as the r e s c u e of B h u j y u , whom his
father Tugra left behind, in the midst of the swelling
waves, as a dead man abandons his possessions. Tossed
about in the darkness he calls upon the youthful heroes,
and they again are mindful of him, according to their
wont, and hasten up w i t h their red, flying steeds, self-har-
nessed, in their chariot, swift as thought. In the sea,
52 THE RIGVEDA.

w h i c h is w i t h o u t support, unceasing and unresting, they

accomplish their heroic w o r k : the struggling man is
drawn into the hundred-oared craft, and the heroes, w i t h
miraculous power, bear the exile in the ship floating in
mid-air to his home on the other side of the r o l l i n g sea,
journeying three nights, and thrice by day.189 W h a t won-
der that every oppressed one longs for s u c h helpers, who
so often since the fathers' times, in every need, have
stretched f o r t h a saving hand, and that his desires look to
them ? As the w i n d drives the clouds, so the singer drives
his songs of praise toward the lords of l i g h t ; he calls upon
them at home and on the journey; he seeks to attract
them from far and near, from east and west, w i t h the
pleasing draught of m i l k ;190 like buffaloes panting for the
water's gleam, they are besought at milking-time, early in
the day, at noon and at sunset, by day and night, to draw
near the devout w i t h blessing and support in his necessity.191
Since their former deeds never flag, they are both, for all
time, the helpers of a l l men ; ever regarding ancient friend-
ships and relations, they ward off evil from their adorers,
chase away hate and envy, lengthen their life, and
overthrow their contemners. The man who reverences
and praises them they bring to old age w i t h seeing eye;
they reward him w i t h riches and the blessing of children,
song for song, so that he enters into old age as into his
own house.192
A f t e r these much-praised lords of light, the Agvins, in
the far East, out of the darkness from the boundary of
heaven and earth, rises the friendly Usas, Eos, A u r o r a , *
the golden daughter of heaven, w i t h k i n d l y countenance,
to show herself to the dwellings of men. 193 The two sis-
ters, N i g h t and Dawn, are unlike in color, but of harmoni-
ous m i n d ; in fixed succession they follow each other in
daily interchange; as soon as the dark sister descries the
l i g h t , she w i l l i n g l y gives place to her.194 Now, the fairest
l i g h t of lights puts to flight the darkness of the night w i t h
* The Dawn; v. Max Muller in Note 193.
 THE RIGVEDA. 53

its terrors; the pure goddess drives away haters and evil-
doers.* 196 She makes the undesired darkness give way to
sight, she opens the gates of heaven for every creature, and
begins then to fill the wide spaces.196 W h i t e steeds, or bul-
locks, draw the well-adorned chariot of the goddess, self-
y o k i n g ; in it she clears a goodly road and way first upon
the mountains, then everywhere in the paths of men.197
She awakens a l l creatures, — only the miser must sleep on
in the midst of darkness, w i t h o u t waking,—she brings
renewed life and impels a l l things that live to m o t i o n ; the
winged flocks of birds fly f o r t h ; two-footed and four-footed
creatures arouse themselves at her l i g h t ; men take their
morning meal and all the five peoples,! whom daily she
encircles, go forth to their occupations. 198
" T h e goddess radiant bringing every splendor
Appeared in light, and threw the portals open;
A l l life arousing, she has shown us treasures, —
The Dawn has wakened every living creature.
The sleeping man the goddess wakes to motion,
One to enjoyment, one to gathering treasure,
The dim in sight to gaze afar about them, —
The Dawn has wakened every living creature.
To lordship one, to win renown another,
One to get gain, one to his occupation,
Through all the various paths of life to journey, —
The Dawn has wakened every living creature."
1. 113. 4-6.
L i k e a dancer the goddess puts on rich adornment; in all
her form gleaming w i t h fullness of beauty, like a maiden
whom her mother has decked out, the radiant one w i t h
gracious smile displays her charms to the adorer, and brings
rich treasure into the house of the man of upright m i n d :
much life-sustaining wealth, in which the mortal rejoices,
from which his fame grows wide among men. 199
* Job 38. 12 f. Hast thou commanded the morning since thy days,
and caused the dayspring to know his place; that it might take hold of
the ends of the earth, that the wicked might be shaken out of it ?
† A frequent designation for "the whole world "; Note 198.
54 THE RIGVEDA.

T h r o u g h t w o things, especially, this much-sung goddess

awakened the astonishment of t h e Vedic singers. Know-
i n g precisely the first sign of day, daily she accomplishes
faultlessly her long journey, never transgressing the ordi-
nance of the r i g h t and of the gods; skillfully she follows
straight the path laid down, never failing in the direction,
b u t appears day by day at the place appointed by the
gods' commands.* 200 A n d when the singer sees these
dawns come again and again, ever w i t h the same beauty,
old as time, yet eternally young, in appearance to-day
alike, and alike to-morrow, following the path of those
preceding, at the same time the first of a l l that shall come
after,201 — then, full of sadness, he reflects:
" Vanished and gone long since are all the mortals
Who looked of o l d upon the dawn's bright radiance ;
T o - d a y she shows herself to us; and others
Shall come in f u t u r e time to gaze upon her.
So oft before has goddess Usas risen,
And now the rich one clothes the world with glory,
And still in l a t e r days will gleam her brightness,
As pleases her, unaging, never-dying." — 1. 113. 11. 13,
44
She comes in radiant colors, never fading,
And leads to age the life of every mortal;
Even as a gambler hides the dice with cunning,
So she removes the human generations." 202 —1. 92. 10. 11.
Then soon Sùrya himself follows the shining goddess
of the morning, as the y o u t h the maiden's footsteps; the
God-born l i g h t visible from afar, the son of heaven w i t h
golden hair, the Sun. 2 0 3 Streaming forth in beams from
the bosom of the dawn, the arouser of all men rises, saluted
by the joyful exultation of the singers; he throws off the
black cloak, his beams shake the darkness from h i m like a
skin, and the stars w i t h their gleam slink away like
thieves.204
* Hosea 6. 8. His going forth is prepared as the morning. Cf. Job
as. 12.
 THE RIGVEDA. 55
Whom they, whose home is fixed, their aim unwavering,*
Have made to drive away the hostile darkness,
The sun-god, all the ends of earth surveying,
By seven steeds, all light and swift, is carried. — 4 . 13. 8.
The light and bright and beauteous steeds of Surya,
The gleaming steeds, by songs of joy saluted,
They reverently climb the heights of heaven,
In one day all the realm of light traversing.205 — 1. 115. 3.

The golden ornament of heaven far-seeing

Mounts, pressing to his distant goal, bright gleaming.
Impelled by Surya's power, let all the mortals
Pursue their aims and carry on their labors.|— 7. 63. 4.
So Sùrya rises every morning, an all-seeing searcher,
mounts the high plains, looks down on right and wrong
among men, guards the path of the upright, observes at
bidding the occupation of each, and when at evening, his
journey accomplished, he unharnesses his mares from the
chariot, he commands to lay aside the work assigned in
the morning, even though it be uncompleted; then N i g h t
spreads her veil over all. Unceasingly Surya's steeds
carry now the bright gleam, now the dark, over the dome
of the sky. 206
It is evident that the sun, this v i t a l breath of animate
and inanimate things, this bright divine countenance,
imperishable in the heavens, prospering mankind without
distinction, — this eye all-seen and all-seeing, which above
all publishes the Immortals' might and wisdom, since it
exalts them high in the heavens,207 — that the s u n should
be honored and sung in a very special manner; and we
find its variously displayed activity praised under various
names.208
In Pusan, i.e., the ' N o u r i s h e r , ' the great bringer of
sustenance and lord rich in treasure is praised. As be-
* The highest gods, the Adityas: p. 58 f.
† Ps. 104. 22. The sun ariseth. . , . man goeth forth unto his work and
to his labor until the evening.
56 THE RIGVEDA.

stower of riches, making all men prosper, he also brings

hidden treasure to light, compels the niggardly to give,
and softens the heart of the miserly ; he paves the way to
gaining wealth, pierces the niggards' heart w i t h his spear,
and brings what was dear to them to his adorer.209 F i l l -
i n g both the broad spaces, the flame-radiating god sits in
the midst of heaven, and as s h e p h e r d of the w o r l d over-
looks all creatures, accurately distinguishing them and
surveying them a l l ; as guardian of the herd, who governs
animate and inanimate life, he weaves the sheep's dress
and smoothes her coat; he follows the cattle and guards
the steeds, that none of them may be lost or come to harm,
none be dashed to pieces in the ravine, and that a l l may
return unharmed. 210 A s g u a r d i a n o f e v e r y r o a d h e
clears and makes level the paths, goes before, sends on the
skillful man and protects on every journey. 211 A n d since
he knows the ways of heaven as w e l l as earth and a l l the
spaces, he goes before the souls of the dead on their jour-
ney to the abodes where the upright have gone, where they
dwell. 212
The far-striding ruler of the heights, V i s n u , i.e., the
' W o r k e r , ' is ever and anon praised for his great heroic
deed, because he measured the whole wide earth in three
strides, made supports for the kingdom on high and fast-
ened the earth all about w i t h pegs.213 His footprints are
f u l l of sweetness, a never-ceasing source of j o y ; he gave
the vast expanse of earth w i t h rich pastures to man for a
sure dwelling-place. 214 T w o steps of the Sun-like we
can recognize, though a mortal who w o u l d see them must
diligently exert himself; but the t h i r d highest none dare
approach, not even the winged birds in their flight; it is
known only to the Savior f u l l of mercy. Toward this
highest footprint, placed like an eye in heaven, the wise
ever l o o k ; there, at the spring of sweetness, the men de-
voted to the gods dwell in happiness.216
Closely connected w i t h Surya is Savitar, the ' I n c i t e r ,
I n s p i r e r , E n l i v e n e r ' ; the two words are, indeed, em-
 THE RIGVEDA. 57

ployed without distinction.216 But with Savitar the ety-

mological meaning especially stands out clearly 217 ; the
difference in the use of the names is usually this, that
S ù r y a signifies more the sun-body, S a v i t a r the di-
v i n e p o w e r behind i t ; e.g., when we read,

With golden hands conies hastening S a v i t a r the god,

Pursuing busily his work twixt heaven and earth ;
He drives away oppression, leads the sun-god f o r t h ;
Through the dark realm of air he hastens up to heaven.
1. 85. 9.
Or, in another passage,
The sun's uprising floods the air with brightness;
God Savitar sends all men forth to labor, etc.218 — 1. 124. 1.

Of Savitar it is described, in even more glowing colors

than of Sùrya, how he with care and ceaselessly conducts
day and night, defining their limits. Cunningly envel-
oped in the brilliancy of every color, Savitar follows the
path of Usas; first the beloved god passes through this
lower realm of air; enlivening, he stretches aloft his beau-
teous, slender golden arms, and, as he yesterday laid them
to rest, to-day he awakens all creatures, — whatever has
two feet or four, whatever is mortal and immortal, — to
new life; man and beast must move again.219 W i t h golden
steeds in golden chariot he drives up the heights to the
light world of the heavens and rests there, enjoying the
brightness of the sun's beams. Wherever the faithful god
appears with his golden radiance he drives away all oppres-
sion and brings contentment for man and beast.220 He
sends infallible guardians about the house and home; he
iuspires courage, and with full hands brings rich store and
comfort for man. Yet his best gift is that he awakens first
immortality for the exalted gods, but for men, as their
portion, life that follows life; he frees them from the
guilt of sin and guides them to the resting-places of the
blessed.221 So he blesses daily; in the morning he brings
58 THE RIGVEDA.

life and at evening rest; then he cloaks himself in brown-

red mantle and hastens down the heights on well-paved,
dustless paths; in the dark night, following his settled
custom, Savitar guides the great host of stars.222
The god his mighty hand, his arm outstretches
In heaven above, and all things here obey h i m ;
To his commands the waters are attentive,
A n d even the rushing wind subsides before him.*
Driving his steeds, now he removes the harness,
And bids the wanderer rest him from his journey.
He checks the serpent-smiter's eager onset;
At Savitar's command the kindly Night comes.
The weaver rolls her growing web together,
And in the midst the workman leaves his labor;
The god arises and divides the seasons,
God Savitar appears, the never resting.
In every place where mortals have their dwelling,
The house-fire far and wide sheds forth its radiance.
The mother gives her son the fairest portion,
Because the god has given desire of eating.
Now he returns who had gone forth for profit;
For home the longing wanderer's heart is yearning;
And each, his task half finished, homeward journeys.
This is the heavenly Inciter's ordinance.
The restless, darting fish, at fall of evening,
Seeks where he may his refuge in the waters,
His nest the egg-born seeks, their stall the cattle;
Each in his place, the god divides the creatures.
2. 38. 2-6. 8.
THE ADITYAS.
The personifications of l i g h t already named, the Acvins,
Usas, the.Sun-gods, dwell in the h i g h e s t r e a l m , in the
clear space of the heaven, but they are not the h i g h e s t
* St. Matth. 8.27: But the men marvelled, saying, What manner of
man is this, that even the winds and the sea obey him! Ps. 104. 7; 107.
29. Is. 60. 2.
 THE RIGVEDA. 59

g o d s . A l m o s t always their activity is pictured as bound to

special phenomena, therefore confined to a relatively nar-
row sphere and not at a l l independent and unlimited. W h e n
Usas each day intelligently appears at the r i g h t spot, she
only follows higher laws, and when Savitar, like a spirited
warrior swings high his banner, it is s t i l l Varuna and M i t r a
who, according to t h e i r decree, cause the sun to mount
high in the heavens.223 W h i l e the poet praises Surya in
inspired songs, he s t i l l knows that the d i v i n i t y is only an
instrument in the hands of higher powers, — that he is
only the eye of Varuna and M i t r a ; like an eagle soaring
Surya follows the path where these immortals laid out the
road for h i m . Therefore the libation and songs at sun-
rise are homage t o V a r u n a and M i t r a and A r y a -
m a n , 2 2 4 the most celebrated among the A d i t y a s , t h e
sons of A d i t i .
T o A d i t i , ' e t e r n i t y , ' n o hymns are directed; but
she is often praised as the friend of a l l men, the glorious,
heavenly sustainer of the nations, the rich bestower of
blessings, who gave life to Varuna and M i t r a , the most
mighty lords, as a revelation of the highest divine power.
Men entreat her for sure protection and defense, and de-
sire to be freed by her from the debt of sin. 225 B u t her
sons, t h e s e v e n A d i t y a s , are the absolute, the highest.
"The gods, all light and clear as flowing fountains
Uplifted above harm, deceit and blemish." 226 — 2. 27. 2.
From some of their names, in part of rare occurrence, 227
one might be inclined to infer that, excepting Varuna,
they had their origin not, as the other gods, in natural
phenomena, b u t in moral ideas; b u t we have rather to see
in them deep spiritual personifications of the heavenly
light and its various developments. They, the righteous
rulers, created the eternal order in the realm of nature as
well as spirit, and they watch over i t , that this their an-
cient ordinance of the world's government may ever have
eternal continuance. 228 In the hymns to these ' l i v i n g spir-
60 THE RIGVEDA.
its of the gods' the religious feeling finds expression in the
greatest depth, fervency and purity.
A l l the gods together chose these pure-minded, wise sons
of wise parents for the highest divine power, and gladly
gave over the dominion to them, so that they embrace
both the wide worlds.229
The Adityas, through depth and breadth extending,
Unharmed by any, harming at their pleasure,
They, many-eyed, discern the straight and crooked;
For them all things are near, the furthest even.230
Inanimate and animate sustaining,
The heavenly guardians of the whole creation 231
Watch over their divinity, far-seeing;
Each evil deed with justice strict they punish.282
No right or left, no back or front, Adityas,
By mortal eyes in you can be distinguished.*
No weariness can dim your eyes, nor slumber;
Afar your guardianship protects the upright.†283
2. 27. (v. Note 229.)
Ever the pure ones, whose very breath suffices to hold the
world in bounds, assert their dominion; as the unharmed,
infallible heads of the races of men, they guard everywhere
their firm decrees which no god dares to disturb, and woe
to the mortal who should attempt to violate them.234
They see into the hearts of men and their thoughts,:): the
false and those without deceit; to him who, clean from
any sin, never practises what the good ones punish, the
spotless sons of Aditi bring freedom out of need and
oppression.235 They are his providers and his strength;
* i.e., ye are not risible to human eyes. Cf. Note 233 and Job 9.11:
Lo, he goeth by me, and I see him not; he passeth on also, but I perceive
him not.
† i.e., accompanies and protects him everywhere. Ps. 121.4: Behold,
he that keepeth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep.
‡ 1 Samuel 16. 7: Man looketh on the outward appearance but the
Lord looketh on the heart. Jer. 17.10: I the Lord search the heart.
 THE RIGVEDA. 61
when he trembles at danger and death, he flees for refuge
to their heart; in them he finds protection and defense
and comfort, and he entreats the infallible for their alli-
ance. W h e n he turns back from his sin, then they put
far away the evil done openly or in secret, and prolong the
life of the penitent. A l t h o u g h as man he is subject to
death, yet the arrow of the death-god shall not strike him
before a ripe old age, shall not h u r r y h i m away before his
time in the midst of his work.* 2 3 6

I pray for your protection, ye Adityas,

I seek your strengthening power in hours of danger.
Led by your hand, Varuna-Mitra, may I
Escape from need as from a yawning chasm.287
Your path is easy, Aryaman and Mitra,
And thornless, Varuna, it leads straight onward.
On it, Adityas, lead us with your blessing,
A n d cover us with a defence enduring.288
He dwells in peace in richly watered regions,
The pure one, rich in sons and armed with power.f
No hostile weapons, far or near, can reach him
Who dwells defended by the great Adityas. 289
Forgive, O A d i t i , Varuna, Mitra,
If we in anything have sinned against you.240
Let me attain the realms of peace and brightness,
Led by your hand, in folly or in wisdom. J
2. 27 (v. Note 229).

The might and greatness of these eternal highest beings,

their wisdom and justice, their sublimity and kindliness
are united i n the c h i e f A d i t y a , Varuna, originally the
* Psalm 102.24: I said, 0 my God, take me not away in the midst of
my days.
† Psalm 1.3: And he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water,
that bringeth forth his fruit in his season; his leaf also shall not wither;
and whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. Jerem. 17. 8.
‡ i.e., let me enter the bright world of the blessed, who according to my
powers now err, now do right.
62 THE RIGVEDA.

personification o f the a l l - e m b r a c i n g h e a v e n . 2 4 1 I n
the preserved hymns he stands compared w i t h the na-
tional I n d i a n god of battle, Indra, more in the background,
and in many places the contrast appears prominently be-
tween the g o v e r n i n g k i n g o f p e a c e Varuna and the
warlike m a r t i a l h e r o Indra, loved and celebrated by
the warlike nation; 2 4 2 but the relatively few hymns to
Varuna belong to the most exalted portions of the Veda.
They recall especially the tone of the Psalms and the lan-
guage of the Bible in general; to this point more atten-
tion w i l l be directed hereafter. They picture the god as
the all-wise creator, preserver and regent of the worlds,
the omniscient protector of the good and avenger of the
evil, holy and just, yet f u l l of pity.
L i k e a cunning artist * the all-wise god called all things,
the heaven and the earth here, into existence.† T h r o u g h
his might the broad, deep, double realm of air stands fast;
he propped the heavens and marked out the spaces of
earth † ; as the butcher stretches a hide, he spread out the
earth as a carpet for the sun, ‡ which itself he created in
the heavens, a golden swinging l i g h t . § He fills both
worlds w i t h his greatness, || and bestows on every mortal
that which gives him his value and worth. 2 4 8
His works bear witness to his might and wisdom,
Who fashioned firm supports for earth and heaven,
Who set on high the firmament uplifted,
And fixed the stars and spread out earth's expanses.
7. 86. 1.
* Eccl. 11. 5: God who maketh all.
† Jerem. 10.12; 61. 15: He hath made the earth by his power, he hath
established the world by his wisdom, and hath stretched out the heavens
by his discretion. — Is. 44.24. That stretcheth forth the heavens alone;
that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself. Job 9. 8. — Job 38.4 : Where
wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth ? Declare if thou hast
understanding. Ps. 104.5; 89.12; 102.26.
‡ Cf. Ps. 104.2: Who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain. Is.
40.22.
§ Jerem. 31.35: Which giveth the sun for a light by day. Ps. 136.8.
|| Jerem. 23.24: Do not I fill heaven and earth? saith the Lord. Job
38.33.
 THE RIGVEDA. 63
He mingled with the clouds his cooling breezes,
He gave the cow her milk, the horse his spirit,*
Put wisdom in the heart, † in clouds the lightning, ‡
The sun in heaven, on the rock the Soma.§ 244 — 5. 85. 2.
The sun's sure courses Varuna appointed, ||
He sent the streaming waters flowing on ward,¶
The mighty path of days he first created,
A n d rules them as the riders guide their horses.245 — 7. 87. 1.
Enveloped in golden cloak, in robes of glory,** the l o r d
of all stands in the a i r ; w i t h the cord he measured the
ends of heaven and earth and w i t h the sun as w i t h a meas-
u r i n g staff he laid out the spaces of the earth,ff on which
he places his mountains. 246
A n d the world which he created the lord of all life
supports and carries; his breath blows as w i n d through
the a i r ; his eye, the sun, is the soul of the animate and
inanimate; he gives d r i n k to a l l creatures, as the rain
to the fruits of the field.‡‡ 247 Sitting in his house w i t h

* Job 39.19 : Hast thou given the horse strength 1

† Job 38. 36 : Who hath put wisdom in the inward parts ? or who hath
given understanding to the heart 1
‡ i.e., the lightning in the clouds; above, p. 35. 64. Jerem. 10.13; 61.10:
He causeth the vapors to ascend from the ends of the earth; he maketh
lightning with rain.
§ Ps. 147.8: Who maketh grass to grow upon the mountains; cf. Ps.
104. 13. 14.
|| Ps. 74.16; 104.19: Thou hast prepared the light and the sun; the sun
knoweth his going down.
¶ i.e., since Varu. a showed them the path; Note 245. Ps. 104. 10: He
sendeth the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. Ps. 74.15,
etc. —Job 38.26: Who hath divided a water-course for the overflowing of
waters ? Job 26.10, etc.
** Ps. 104.2: Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment; Note
246.
†† Job 38. 6: Who hath laid the measures of the earth, if thou knowest.'
or who hath stretched the line upon it ? Verse 18: Hast thou perceived
the breadth of the earth ?
XX Job 6.10: Who giveth rain upon the earth and sendeth water upon
the fields. — Ps. 72. 6: He shall come down like rain upon the mown grass;
as showers that water the earth. Hosea 6.3.
64 THE RIGVEDA.
a thousand doors, he holds sway over the broad earth
and high heaven,* over gods and mortals, as absolute,
unrivalled prince; in the foundations of the earth as
in the air his dominion extends to the boundaries of the
world, and nothing can withdraw itself from his sway.248
Immovably he protects his ancient, inviolable laws, his
infrangible decrees in nature as well as in the life of men;
for firmly on him as on a rock the ordinances are fixed eter-
nally ; for he is the o m n i s c i e n t r u l e r of all. 2 4 9 He
knows where the Pleiades, which show at night, go by
day; he knows the secret hidden names of the dawn,† the
path of the birds that soar in the spaces of the air, the
ships upon the sea,‡ the twelve moons rich in children
and the moon born after. Even the path of the wind, the
gloriously mighty,§ and those who dwell beyond, — in
short, every wonder, complete or to be completed, past
and future, is revealed before him.260 And among men he
looks upon right and wrong; he watches over the thoughts
of mortals || as the shepherd over his herds; yea, away
from him and without him no one is master even of the
winking of his eye.261
It is admissible to insert here a fragment of the Atharva-
veda, which gives expression to the d i v i n e omniscience
more forcibly than any other hymn of the Vedic litera-
ture.252

* Ps. 89.11: The heavens are thine, the world also is thine, the world
and the fullness thereof, etc.
† Job 9.7: Which sealeth up the stars. —Ps. 147.4: He telleth the num-
ber of the stars; he calleth them all by their names.
‡ Ps. 50.11: I know all the fowls of the mountains, and the wild beasts
of the field are mine. — Prov. 30. 18: There be three things that are too
wonderful for me: the way of an eagle in the air; the way of a serpent
upon a rock; the way of a ship in the midst of the sea.
§ Of. p. 38* with John 3. 8. — Ps. 104.3: Who walketh upon the wings
of the wind. Ps. 135.7 = Jerem. 10. 13.
II I. Kings 8. 39: Thou only knowest the hearts of all the children of
men. Prov. 21.2. Jerem. 17.10.
 THE RIGVEDA. 65
" As guardian, the Lord of worlds
Sees all things as if near at hand.
In secret what 'tis thought to do
That to the gods is all displayed.*
Whoever moves or stands, who glides in secret,
Who seeks a hiding-place, or hastens from it,
What thing two men may plan in secret council,
A third, King Varuna, perceives it also.†
And all this earth King Varuna possesses,
His the remotest ends of yon broad heaven ;‡
And both the seas in Varuna lie hidden,§
But yet the smallest water-drop contains him.
Although I climbed the furthest heaven, fleeing,
I should not there escape the monarch's power; ||
From heaven his spies descending hasten hither,
With all their thousand eyes the world surveying.¶
Whate'er exists between the earth and heaven,
Or both beyond, to Varuna lies open.**
* Ps. 33.13: The Lord looketh from heaven; he beholdeth all the
children of men. — Ps. 113.5. Jerem. 23. 23: Am I a God at hand, saith
the Lord, and not a God a f a r off? Can any hide himself in secret
places that I shall not see him ? — Ps. 139.2: Thou understandest my
thoughts afar off. 138. 6, etc.
† Ps. 139. 3: Thou compassest my path and my lying down, and art ac-
quainted with all my ways. For there is not a word in my tongue but lo,
0 Lord, thou knowest it altogether. Jerem. 32.19. Job 34.21; 31.4:
Doth not he see all my ways and count all my steps ? — Matth. 18.20: For
where two or three are gathered together (in my name) there am I in the
midst of them.
‡ Deut. 10.14: Behold, the heaven and the heaven of heavens is the
Lord's thy God, the earth also with all that therein is. Job 28. 24: For he
looketh to the ends of the earth and seeth under the whole heaven. Ps.
24.1; 89.12.
§ The "two seas" are the sea in the air and that on earth; cf. Gen.
1.7: And God made the firmament and divided the waters which were
under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament.
II Cf. the highly poetic description of Ps. 139. 7-12.
¶ For the sentries of Mitra-Varuna, Note 230; for the messengers of
Varuna, p. 67.
** Cf, e.g., Amos 9.1-3. Hebrewe 4.13.
66 THE RIGVEDA.

The winkings of each mortal eye he numbers,*

He wields the universe, as dice as player."—AV. 4.16. 1-5.
Whoever here upon earth honors Varuria and submits
w i l l i n g l y to his commands and his eternal ordinances,
from him he takes away all anxiety and fear and spreads
over h i m a threefold protecting roof;† he is at hand w i t h
a hundred, a thousand remedies; he sharpens the courage
and the understanding of the t r u l y devoted, — the prayer
which he himself inspired in his heart; even deep hidden
secrets he imparts to the wise singer.258 W i t h confi-
dence the pious may look for his p i t y : the k i n d god gives
him a hundred harvests and his desire, joyful and pleasant
old age,‡ — and after death a new and blessed life united
w i t h the gods and his own people in the highest heaven. 2 ^
But whoever through any error, or any sin,§ even w i t h -
out intention, offends against these eternal ordinances of
the All-knowing, he arouses the anger of the Sinless, him
* Matth. 10. 30. Luke 12. 7 : But even the very hairs of your head are
all numbered.
† Ps. 91. 1 if. v. 14: Because he hath set his love upon me, therefore
will I deliver him, I will set him on high because he hath known my name.
Ps. 69. 16: For thou hast been my defence and refuge in the day of my
trouble. Gen. 15. 1. Is. 41.10.
‡ Ps. 91.16: With long life will I satisfy him and show him my sal-
vation.
§ " We must admit that in no other natural religion, with the single ex-
ception of the Iranian, which is only another branch of the same family,
were the nature and the guilt of sin fixed more firmly and weighed more
gravely. A religion which makes its highest divinity gaze into the deep-
est secretsof the human heart, — how could a recognition of the nature and
guilt of sin escape it? Sin is a consequence of human weak-
ness as well as of human wickedness, but as sin it is not
less punishable in one case t h a n in the o t h e r ; and forgive-
ness is sought of Varuna even for sins which have been done in ig-
norance. And more than once we find in these old hymns penitent con-
fessions of sin, united with prayer for forgiveness, expressed in the
speech of simple faith. The guilt of sin is felt as a burdensome fetter,
and freedom from its servitude is prayed for; here as elsewhere human
power can accomplish nothing w i t h o u t divine assistance,
for by himself man has not the power even to open or close his eyes."
— Roth.
 THE RIGVEDA. 67
messengers at the command of the Just punish, and bind
him w i t h the bonds of the god, — w i t h calamity, w i t h
sickness and death.* No deceivers' deceit, nor the w i l y
plans of man dare to approach the pure one: 2 5 5 through
reverence and prayer, through libation and sacrificial gifts
every mortal seeks to allay the wrath of the Mighty. 2 5 6
A n d the rigorous one is yet a god who pities the sinner
and who therefore is the chosen recipient of prayer.257 To
other gods men t u r n most for success and riches, for re-
spect among the people and a numerous family, for victory
and spoils; from V a r u n a is sought continually f o r -
g i v e n e s s o f s i n o f e v e r y k i n d , s i n c e H e has t h e
power.268
" If we to any dear and loved companion
Have evil done* to brother or to neighbor,
To our own countryman or to a stranger,
That sin do thou, O Varuna, forgive us." — 5. 85. 7.
" Forgive the wrongs committed by our fathers,!
What we ourselves have sinned in mercy pardon;
My own misdeeds do thou, 0 god, take from me,
And for another's sin let me not suffer." 259— 7.86.5 and 2.28.9.
" If ever we deceived like cheating players,
If consciously we've erred, or all unconscious,280
According to our sin do not thou punish ; ‡
Be thou the singer's guardian in thy wisdom." §
5. 85. 8 and 7. 88. 6.
* " It is nowhere clearly and distinctly expressed as the teaching of
this religion, that the wages of sin is death in the sense that men die only
in consequence of their guilt, and that without it they would live eter-
nally ; but the thought is often very nearly touched. Immortality is the
free gift of divine mercy to men." — Roth.
† Ps. 79.8: Remember not against us former iniquities. Exodus 20.5.
Pa. 109. 15. Jerem. 32. 18: cf. Ezek. 18. 20.
| Ps. 19.13: Who can tell how oft he oflfendeth ? Cleanse thou me
from my secret faults. Job 13.23. — Ps. 103. 10: He hath not dealt with
us after our sins, nor rewarded us according to our iniquities. Ezra 9. 18.
Ps.61.3.
§ Ps. 31.2: 71.2: Deliver me in thy righteousness and cause me to
escape. Ps. 1 4 3 . 1 . 1 1 .
68 THE RIGVEDA.

The singer Vasistha is filled with pious grief, because

daily, against his will and without knowledge, just as it
often happens to men in their actions, he offends the god
and in ignorance violates his decree.261 Full of woe, when
the hand of the god lies heavy upon him, he recalls the
time when, as his most intimate friend, he held close
intercourse with the Lord,* and had free approach to
his high stronghold, the house of a thousand doors.262
Anxiously he searches after the heavy sin for which the
just king now visits him, his constant, loving companion.
Freed from sin he yearns to be permitted, full of reverence,
to approach the merciful one, and he consults the wise
men by day and in the night season.† But from others
he hears only what he has already discovered; that
Varuna does not refuse his pity to him who in dire need
calls upon him. 268

This thing by day, the same by night they tell me,

And this my own heart's voice is ever saying:
He, to whom cried the fettered Qunahcepa,
Great Varuna the king shall give us freedom.

For Qunahcepa once, bound to three pillars,

Called in his chains on Aditya for succor.
Let Varuna the monarch free me also,
He can, — and may the true one loose the fetters.

We turn aside thy anger with our offerings,

O King, by our libations and devotion.
Do thou, who hast the power, wise king eternal,
Release us from the sins we have committed.
1. 24. 12-14.

A n d so the oppressed man calls and cries to him, the piti-

ful, in mercy to release him from all the guilt of sin; 264

* Cf. Ps. 77. 6-10, and Note 262.

† Ps. 22. 2: O my God, I cry in the daytime, but thou nearest not; and
in the night season, and am not silent. Ps. 88. 2, etc.
 THE RIGVEDA. 69

upon the heart of the god he presses his song, in which,

full of childlike trust, he vows:
Thee I will follow, jealous god, and serve thee,
Faithful and true, as slaves a kindly master.
The god gives light to minds devout though simple,
The wise a wiser one conducts to blessing. — 7. 86. 7.
W i t h Varuna is connected also the belief in p e r s o n a l
i m m o r t a l i t y , i n the l i f e o f t h e s o u l a f t e r d e a t h ,
"that real sine qua non of all true religion." 265 That life
is here understood throughout as the f r e e g i f t of t h e
gods, 2 6 6 which they grant to every upright adorer. The
dead body was either consigned to the flames or laid away
to gentle rest in the mother earth.267 The earth-born shell
is given back; it takes possession of its home in the broad
bosom of the earth; but the soul of the pious man, which
springs from above, cannot remain in the grave; 268 another
place has been found for it by the righteous forefathers of
olden times. Vivasvant's son, Y a m a , the first man, has
gone to the distant heights, and has searched out a way to
the ' world of the just' for the multitude after him. 269
He went before and found a dwelling for us,
A place from which no power can ever bar us.
Whither our fathers all long since have journeyed;
His path leads every earth-born mortal thither.270
10. 14. 2.
Therefore, whether the flames devour the body or the
earth cover it, the spirit, freed from all needs, moves
through the air toward new life; 2 7 1 led by Pusan,272 it
crosses the stream 273 and passes by Yama's watchful
dogs 274 to the world of spirits from which it came.276 " Go
forth, go forth,"—so one hymn cries to the soul of the
departed at the funeral ceremony :
Go forth, go forth upon the path so ancient,
By which our fathers reached their home in heaven.
There Varuna shalt thou behold, and Yama,
The princes both, in blessedness eternal.276
70 THE RIGVEDA.

The spotted dogs of Sarama, the four-eyed,

Pass calmly by and hold thy way straight onward;
Enter the band of the propitidfe fathers,*
Dwelling in blest abodes in bliss with Yama.277

Join thou thyself to Yama and the fathers;

Meet there with thy reward in highest heaven;
Return to home, free from all imperfection;
In radiant power gain union with thy body.278
10. 14. 7. 10. 8.

In the highest heaven, therefore, is the place, in Yama's

bright realm,
Where men devout in blessedness are dwelling,
Where life to life succeeds for righteous spirits,
And each is fuller than the last in beauty.279 — 1. 154. 5.

There in the inmost midst of the highest heaven beams

unfading light, and those eternal waters spring; there
wish and desire and yearning are stilled; there dwell
bliss, delight, joy and happiness. This life of bliss is not
pictured more clearly in the hymns of the R i g ; 2 8 0 it is
not asked how the new body w i l l be endowed in that
spirit-world, and whether new tasks await it there; 2 8 1 the
man strives only, l i v i n g according to the commands of
Varuna, to be guiltless before him and A d i t i , and h o p e s
in childlike confiding trust that he shall at some time live
above in eternal light, united w i t h his ancestors, w i t h his
father and mother, 282 as a divine spirit among the blessed
gods; 288 that, like them in appearance and might, he may
be their companion and helper in their works.
As to the eternal gods, so also reverence is shown to all
who have passed away, the earlier, middle and last. W h e n
a man dies, or when the anniversary of a relative's death
is celebrated, then w i t h Yama and A g n i all the fathers

* " Fathers " is here the standing epithet for the ' blessed'; the souls of
the departed pious ones; cf. Note 270 and the following.
 THE RIGVEDA. 71
who are known and who are not known are summoned to
the funeral feast, to the food on the sacrificial straw and
to the prized Soma.284 A n d these who have become immor-
t a l look down upon mortals; these spirits of the dead care
faithfully for their children here on earth. They move
through the circle of the earth's atmosphere, through a l l
the space of the air, among the races that dwell in beauti-
f u l villages, where men prepare the sacrifice and call them,
there the holy, true, wise fathers come, f u l l of gifts, w i t h
succor rich in blessing, w i t h prosperity and blessing to the
mortal adorer. They bring their sons might and wealth
and posterity; they hear, help, comfort; they fight boldly
like heroes in battle, they give a thousandfold reward for
the offerings and punishment for wrong, if ever in human
fashion mortals sin against them ; for, themselves just,
they rejoice in the right and preserve r i g h t 2 8 5 and the
divine ordinances of the Eternals. They lead the dawn
across the sky, and w i t h a thousand means and ways guard
the s u n ; they deck the heavens w i t h stars, as a dark steed
w i t h pearls, and lay darkness in the night, and in the day
the light's radiance. 280
B u t to the wicked, l y i n g evil-doers, to perverse, godless
men, who violate the firm decrees of Vartina and M i t r a ,
the ever watchful, to lustful, wicked women who hate their
husbands, to all these that highest gift of the gods is
denied ; they remain shut out from the companionship of
the immortals and the spirit-life in eternal light. As their
bodies are sunk in the tomb, so their souls are cast into the
pit, into deepest, hopeless darkness.287 Of the descriptions
of the place of torment, as the phantasy of the later Indians
and other peoples evolved them, the Rigveda knows as
l i t t l e as of the gloomy doctrine of metempsychosis, which
afterwards fettered the spirits of India in chains.

T w o gods yet remain to be mentioned, to each of whom

in time the qualities and deeds of the other gods collec-
tively were ascribed.
72 THE RIGVEDA.

Soma was originally the sap pressed out from the swel-
ling fibres of a plant.288 This herb, itself called Soma, was
once brought by a fair-winged falcon from afar, from the
highest heaven, or from the mountains, where Varuna had
placed it, the world's governor.289 Its sap, purified, mixed
with milk or a decoction of barley, and left for some time
for fermentation,290 showed intoxicating effects, and was
the favorite drink of the Aryans, the soul and adornment
of the sacrifice, the joy of men.291 It is drunk by the sick
man as medicine at sunrise; partaking of it strengthens
the limbs, preserves the legs from breaking, wards off all
disease and lengthens life. Then need and trouble vanish
away, pinching want is driven off and flees when the inspir-
ing one lays hold of the mortal; the poor man, in the
intoxication of the Soma, feels himself rich; the draught
impels the singer to lift his voice and inspires him for
song; it gives the poet supernatural power, so that he
feels himself immortal.292 On account of this inspiring
power of the drink, there arose even in the Indolranian
period298 a personification of the sap as the god Soma,
and ascription to him of almost all the deeds of other
gods,294 the strength of the gods even being increased by
this draught.296 Like A g n i , Soma causes his radiance to
shine cheeringly in the waters; like V â y u , he drives on
with his steeds; like the A g v i n s , he comes in haste with
aid when summoned; like Pusan, he excites reverence,
watches over the herds, and leads by the shortest roads to
success.298 Like I n d r a , as the sought-for ally, he over-
comes all enemies, near and far,297 frees from the evil
intentions of the envious, from danger and want,298 brings
goodly riches from heaven, from earth and the air.299
Soma, too, makes the sun rise in the heavens, restores
what has long been lost, has a thousand ways and means
of help, heals all, blind and lame,800 chases away the black
skin (the aborigines), and gives everything into the pos-
session of the pious Arya. 301 In his, the world-ruler's,
ordinance these lands stand; he, the bearer of heaven and
 THE RIGVEDA. 73
the prop of earth, holds a l l peoples in his hand. 802 Bright-
shining as M i t r a , awe-compelling as A r y a m a n , he
exults and gleams like S ù r y a ; 3 0 8 V a r u n a ' s commands
are his commands; he, too, measures the earth's spaces,
and b u i l t the vault of the heavens; like him, he, too, full
of wisdom, guards the community, watches over men even
in hidden places, knows the most secret things. 304 By
Soma's side also, as by Varuna's, stand ready, never-sleep-
i n g scouts, his binding fetters follow at every step; he, too,
is zealous to punish u n t r u t h and guilt. 8 0 6 Therefore, to
him, also, men pray to take away the wrath of the gods,
to approach w i t h good w i l l and without anger, and merci-
f u l l y to forgive every error of his adorer, as a father par-
dons his son.806
King Soma, be thou gracious, make us prosper;
We are thy people only; know this surely.
Now rage and cunning lift their heads, O Soma;
Give us not over to our foes' desires.

Thou, Soma, guardian of our bodies, madest

Thy dwelling in each member, lord of heroes.
Though we transgress thy firm decree so often,
Be merciful to us, and kind and gracious.307 — 8. 48. 8. 9.

He w i l l lengthen the life of the devout endlessly, and

after death make him immortal in the place of the blessed,
in the highest heaven.308
It has already been remarked above (p. 32), that
B r h a s p a t i or B r a h m a n a s p a t i , the ' l o r d of prayer,' was ' a
creation, and at the same time a personification of the
priestly activity, to which later priestly poets ascribed the
deeds of might for which formerly other gods, notably
Indra, were praised.' 309 Thus it is said of Brhaspati, that
his prayer upheld the ends of the earth, he embraces the
A l l ; he split the rocks, took the strongholds, opened the
cow-stalls and caused the floods to flow freely. 310 A l l
haters of devotion, despisers of the gods and enemies he
74 THE RIGVEDA.

exterminates, the stern avenger of crime; 8 1 1 b u t on the

man who believingly trusts in him he bestows v i c t o r y and
freedom, security and plentiful riches, y o u t h f u l strength
and a numerous family. 8 1 2 He brings joy to the gods as
well as to m e n ; for only through h i s wisdom have the first
obtained a share in the sacrifice 313 ; for the latter he
created a l l prayers and makes them a v a i l i n g ; he is their
r i g h t f u l , skilled priest 814 and the Pontifex, the preparer of
the way to the heights of heaven.815
We must finally call attention to the fact that a not
inconsiderable number of hymns is directed to " all gods "
(p. 34). These are either each one in succession called by
name and entreated, or the petitions are presented to them
in a body ; the adorer assures them that he neither secretly
is g u i l t y of many errors nor openly provokes their wrath,
and entreats of them imperishable prosperity. 316

W e w i l l here close our survey of the religious songs, and

it remains to cast a glance at the not too numerous exam-
ples of

SECULAR POETRY,

if we may embrace under this title the songs not specially

directed to divinities. We can naturally not look for a
sharp division of the two chief groups ; the transition from
the first to the second is, perhaps, best formed by two
hymns, which, belonging half to the religious, half to the
secular poetry, are of the greatest interest for the history
of civilization.
The Wedding-hymn, which, in the existing form is not
a u n i t b u t a collection of marriage verses,317 relates first
the wedding of the moon and sun, ' t h i s prototype and
ideal of a l l human weddings and marriages. , The two
Acvins present the suit of Soma to Savitar for the hand
of his daughter, Suryâ, and he causes the bride heartily
agreeing to be led to her husband's house. This wedding
 THE RIGVEDA. 75
318
of Soma and Surya (i.e., of m o o n and s u n ) is pointed to
as the pattern of married union in general to be followed. 319
" As sun and moon ever support each other and alternate
in their office, on the constant fulfillment of which depend
not only the prosperity of a l l inanimate nature, but also
the possibility of intercourse between men and the order-
i n g of c i v i l relations, even so man and wife must work
together in harmony and w i t h united powers u n t i r i n g l y
f u l f i l the duties laid upon them in their vocation for the
advancement of the family.'' 3 2 0 The following quotations
throw important light on the rites of marriage, which in
the most essential traits agree w i t h those of related peo-
ples.321 When the relatives and acquaintances of the
affianced pair are gathered in the house of the bride's
parents ( p . 15), the fire is kindled on the house-altar and
the bride is given over to the bridegroom by her father or
his representative (p. 15). W i t h the formula

By thy right hand for happiness I take thee,

That thou mayst reach old age with me, thy husband.
Aryaman, Bhaga, Savitar, Puraihdhi,
Gave thee to me to rule our home together. —10. 85. 36.

the bridegroom w i t h his r i g h t hand takes the right hand of

the bride. 322 He murmurs a number of traditional verses,
as, e.g., "I am he, thou art she; thou art she, I am he.828
Come, we two w i l l go forth, we w i l l beget us posterity,
many sons w i l l we get for us, they shall reach great age.
In love united, strong, cheerful, may we see a hundred
years, live a hundred years, hear a hundred years." Then
he leads the bride solemnly three times from left to r i g h t
around the altar. W i t h this, — by the taking of the r i g h t
hand and the leading about the altar, — the bride becomes
legally a wife, the bridegroom her husband. After the
wedding feast is finished, the wife, in her festal adornment, is
transported to the new home on a wagon decked w i t h flowers
and drawn by two white steers.324 Here the newly-married
couple are greeted w i t h admonitions and good-wishes:
76 THE RIGVEDA.

Here now remain, nor ever part;

Enjoy the whole expanse of life,
With son and grandson joyous sport,
Be glad in heart within your house.
Children and children's children grant, Prajapati,*
Till hoary age may Aryaman preserve the bond.
From evil free enter thy husband's house and thine,
Within the home may man and beast increase and thrive.
Be free from evil looks and lack not wedded love,
Gentle in mind and face, bring e'en the beasts good luck;
Fearing the gods, do thou a race of heroes bear;
Within the home may man and beast increase and thrive.
In sons, O Indra, make her rich,
Give her a life of happiness;
Ten children grant, and spare to her
As an eleventh her dear spouse.
So rule and govern in thy home
Over thy husband's parents both;
His brother and his sister, too,
Are subject likewise there to thee.325 —10. 85. 42-46.
Another solemn occasion in the life of the Vedic people
is presented in a Funeral-hymn. 3 2 6 The relatives and
friends of the dead man, about to be buried, are assembled
about the corpse which has been brought to the grave.
By it the widow sits; the liturgy adjures death to depart,
and summons those present to devotion.
Depart, O Death, and go thy way far from us,
Far from the path which by the gods is trodden.
Thou seest and hear'st the words to thee I utter;
Harm not our children, harm not thou our heroes.

Ye who have come here, blotting out Death's footprints,

And in your yet extended life rejoicing,
* Prajapati, ' lord of descendants * a genius presiding over birth, then in
general protector of the living, and afterward 'lord of creatures, creator,'
as highest god over the mentioned gods of the Vedic period.
 THE RIGVEDA. 77
In wealth and children's blessing still increasing,
O righteous men, your minds be pure and spotless.
10. 18, 1. 2.
It then gives expression to the feeling of j o y that the
death-lot has not fallen to any of the assembly and urges
a l l gladly to enjoy life in the future. A stone laid between
those present and the dead typifies the separation of the
realms of life and death; and in connection w i t h it the
wish is expressed that for a l l there a long life may bo
decreed.
The living from the dead are separated,
The sacred rite to-day has prospered for us,
A n d we are here, prepared for mirth and dancing,
Prolonging still the span of our existence.
This boundary I place here for the living,
That to this goal no one of them may hurry.
May they live on through full a thousand harvests,
A n d through this rock keep death away far from them.
10. 18. 3. 4.
N o w women w i t h ointments enter the circle and ap-
proach the dead l y i n g on the bier, to deck the widow, in
token of her re-entrance into intercourse w i t h the l i v -
i n g . The priest summons her to separate herself from
the corpse and himself takes the bow out of the hand
of the dead man as the symbol of his ability, which they
hope w i l l remain in the community. The interment 3 2 7
proceeds in f i t t i n g words and closes w i t h the wish that the
departed may find a place in the other w o r l d .
The women here, still happy wives, not widowed,
Shall come and bring rich oil and precious ointment;
A n d tearless, blooming, rich adorned, may they first
Approach the resting-place of the departed. 328
Raise to the living world thy mind, O woman;
His breath is fled and gone by whom thou sittest;
Who took thee by the hand once and espoused thee,
"With him thy plighted troth is now accomplished.
78 THE RIGVEDA.

From out his lifeless hand his bow I've taken,

A pledge to us of power, strength and honor.
Thou yonder, and we here below as brave men.
Shall overcome the force of every onslaught.
Return once more unto the earth, thy mother,
Her arms she opens kindly to receive thee.
To good men kind and tender as a maiden,
May she henceforth preserve thee from destruction.

Firm may his spacious earthly home continue,

Beneath supported by a thousand pillars,
Let it henceforward be his house and riches,
A sure protecting refuge for him ever.329

I settle firmly now the earth about thee;

I cast the clods on thee, — let this not harm me.880
The Fathers shall uphold these columns for thee,
But yonder Yama shall prepare a dwelling. —10. 18. 7-13.

If wo may not altogether look for h i s t o r i c a l poems

among the ancestors of the Indian race, yet a number of
songs of v i c t o r y and t r i u m p h , most of them indeed
only fragmentary, have been preserved to us.831 A l t h o u g h
the really historical gain is not very rich and the state-
ments are exceedingly deficient, these fragments s t i l l give
us a glance into the active, war-disturbed life of the Vedic
period. The individual clans, A r y a n and non-Aryan, or
even Aryans among themselves, oppress and drive each
other from the homes just conquered; individual pretenders
to a throne seek w i t h armed hand to make their claims
good or even dare to offer violence to a whole assembly
w i t h their band. Princes and clans form alliances to offer
resistance to a too powerful ruler or, in later times, to
throw off the yoke of the priest-class, ever becoming more
oppressive.332
The victorious princes love to hear their achievements
praised in the loud song, and the singers soon know how
to make their services indispensable; Indra, the ruler of
 THE RIGVEDA. 79
battles, takes no pleasure in the Soma offered without
prayer; he scorns the sacrificial food prepared without a
song, and no mean song of praise finds favor w i t h the
divine dispensers of riches. 333 Therefore the k i n g who
cannot himself prepare a proper song of praise is forced
to seek the s k i l l of others, and so we find, among the
more important princes, singers and families of singers
who first through their prayers make great deeds p o s s i -
b l e for the rulers and afterwards c e l e b r a t e them. In
the foreground of these families of singers stand those of
V i s v a m i t r a and V a s i s t h a . The former had caused
the rushing stream to stand s t i l l for the renowned T r t s u
K i n g Sudds, made the crossing possible for his patron and
sent his steed forward to victory and spoils; but in course
of time, pushed forward by the rising influence of his
r i v a l Vasistha, V i c r a m i t r a went over to the gens of the
Bharatas. W i t h them he sets forth and comes to the
junction of the rivers Vipae, and Cutudri ( and
), which stream lustily forth from the bosom of
the mountains, racing, like two mares let loose. At the
call and loud entreaty of the singer the waves yield, they
make the passage easy and do not even moisten the axles
w i t h their billows. The host proceeds confidently to battle ;
then the singer, sprung from Kuyika, proudly proclaims:
" My prayer, the prayer of Viyvamitra, protects the race of
the Bharatas. 1 ' But Indra prefers Vasistha; like ox-goads
the haughty Bharatas are broken and the territory of the
Trtsus is extended. 334 A n d many other exploits Sudâs
accomplished w i t h Vasistha's help; the wide-pouring river
becomes a passable ford for Sudâs, while the (pursuing?)
insolent C i m y u becomes the sport of the waves.

The evil minded fools in other pathways

Turned from its course the rushing great Parusni.*
The lord of earth with mighty power seized them,
And prone upon the earth lay herd and shepherd.
* Name of a river: v. p. 12 * and Note 39.
80 THE RIGVEDA.

At once the stream, their aim, was their destruction,

The swiftest even found rest beneath the waters.
There Indra into Sudas' hand gave over
His flying foes, the boasters to the strong man.335
7. 18. 8. 9.
The defiant Bheda is overcome, the Ajas and Cigrus
and Yaksus bring the heads of the horses as t r i b u t e ;
Sudâs conquers the challenging Purus in even fight, then
takes the possessions of the Anus and from them and the
people of the Druhyus sinks in sleep sixty hundred, six
times a thousand spoilers, and sixty-six heroes in r e q u i t a l ;
ten kings had allied themselves and surrounded Sudâs on
all sides, but the adoring h y m n of the guests (i.e., the
royal singers) was effectual; for the sake of the prayers
of the Vasisthids Indra rescued the prince. 336 A n d many
other fights are mentioned; Divodâsa quarrels w i t h Cam-
bara, and the Vetasu Dacadyu w i t h the Tugras; 3 3 7 the
Bharatas war w i t h the Purus, and on the Hariyupfya the
rearguard of the Vrctvants was scattered in fear when
the van had been overcome: t h i r t y hundred mailed V r c t -
vants, united at the Yavyâvati f u l l of ambition, fell by
the arrow and sank into destruction, 338 etc.
As sources of history may be mentioned also the so-
called D â n a s t u t i s , i.e., 'praise of gifts.' 3 3 9 These are
portions, not of the very highest poetical order, interpo-
lated among or added to the real hymns, in which singers
of an earlier period praise the generosity of the princes
who bestowed presents on them. From these we not only
see that these gifts were often considerable, b u t also dis-
cover the names of tribes and kings, together w i t h indica-
tions of their homes; and some light is thrown on the
families of singers and their genealogies.340 An example
may be quoted here:
In this the Rucamas did well, O Agni,
In that they gave me forty hundred cattle;
The freely offered gift of Rinamcaya,
Of heroes most heroic, we have taken.
 THE RIGVEDA. 81
The Rucamas let me depart, O Agni,
Rewarded richly with a thousand cattle.
The sharp and gladdening juice made Indra merry,
When darkness lightened at the dawn of morning.
When darkness lightened at the dawn of morning,
From Rinamcaya, king of the Rucamas,
Like speedy coursers, harnessed for the races,
Babhru received four times a thousand cattle.
Yea, forty hundred from the herds of cattle,
Did we, O Agni, get from the Rucamas,
And, ready heated for our use in cooking,
A brazen pot did we receive, the singers.341 — 5.30.12-15.

A m o n g the few humorous pieces we find the jest of a

poet, who banteringly likens the awakening of the frogs
at the beginning of the rainy season, their merry croaking,
and their j o l l i t y to the songs of priests intoxicated w i t h
soma, and to the noise of a school of priests. 342

The frogs were silent all the year,

Like Brahmans fettered by a vow.
But now Parjanya calls them forth,
And loud their voices they uplift.

Soon as the rain from heaven has fallen on them,

Like shrivelled skins within the dry pool lying,
From all at once comes up a noisy croaking,
As when the cow calls to her calf with lowings.

When the first shower of the rainy season

Has fallen on them, parched with thirst and longing,
Then each with merry croak and loudly calling
Salutes the other, as a son his father.

One seizes and congratulates the other,

Delighted at the falling of the water.
In glee each wet and dripping frog jumps upward,
The green one and the speckled join their voices.
82 THE RIGVEDA.

What one calls out, another quickly answers,

Like boys at school their teacher's words repeating.
Ye seem but many members of one body,
When in the pool ye lift your varied voices.

Some low like cattle, some like goats are bleating,

And one is yellow, and another speckled.
Alike in name, but various in appearance,
In many tones they modulate their voices.

Like priests attending at the Soma-offering,

Who sit around the full bowl, loudly singing,
Ye frogs around the pond hail the recurring
Of autumn when the rain-fall first commences.

They shout aloud like Brahmans drunk with Soma,

When they perform their annual devotions.
Like the Adhvaryu, sweating o'er the kettle,*
They issue forth, — not one remains in hiding.

The sacred order of the year observing,

These creatures never disregard the seasons ;
When autumn comes and brings the time of showers,
They find release from heat and summer's scorching.

The frogs that bleat like goats, and low like cattle,
The green one and the speckled, give us riches.
Whole herds of cows may they bestow upon us,
And grant us length of days through sacrificing, †—7. 103.

In other places we meet w i t h reflections upon the fact,

that different as are the minds of men and various as their
callings, yet all run after g a i n ; for example, continues the
author, he himself is a poet, papa a physician, and mama

[* The priest who offers the prayers and praises (reas) at the sacrifice
is the h o t a r, the s p e a k i n g priest; the a d h v a r y u , the a c t i n g priest
performs the sacrifice.
† This verse appears to have been added in order to give the hymn the
appearance of a prayer. — GKR.]
 THE RIGVEDA. 83
a m i l l e r ; so in the most varied ways men chase after
money. 343 Another song makes us acquainted w i t h a poet,
who as poet, physician and apothecary in one person
journeys about the country, carrying w i t h him in a wooden
box all sorts of healing herbs, and p l y i n g his vocation not
w i t h o u t humor; especially w i t h a frankness that merits
recognition he makes no secret of the fact that it is not
altogether philanthropy which urges him to practice, but
that gain is his leading motive. 344
Two short hymns of the tenth book display fine percep-
tion and an intelligent interpretation of nature; one, to
R â t r i , the Goddess of N i g h t , describes how she, looking
out from a thousand eyes, comes forth adorned w i t h all
the glory of the stars, fills heights and depths, and puts
all, even the greedy b i r d of prey, to rest.346 The other
sings of A r a n y â n i , the mocking genius of the forest,
and the solitude of the woods.346
As an example of the secular poetry of that ancient
time a few strophes of the well-known D i c e - s o n g fol-
lows, the contents of which are indeed more? tragic than
humorous. 347 A passionate player describes his propensity
for the brown n u t s ; * he cannot free himself from them,
though he sees well how much misery they produce for
him and his.
The nuts that once swayed on the lofty branches
Intoxicate me, rolling on the dice-board.
The fruit of the Vibhidaka can charm me,
As 'twere the Soma of the Mujantavas.†

My wife has never angered me nor striven,

Was ever kind to me and my companions;
Though she was faithful to me, I have spurned her,
For love of dice, the only tiling I value.
* For dice the brown nuts of the Terminalia bellerica were used, the
taste of which intoxicates, just as their use as dice enthrals the gambler's
senses.
† A tribe living on the mountain Mujavant in the western Himalayas.
84 THE RIGVEDA.

My wife rejects me and her mother hates me;

The gamester finds no pity for his, troubles.
No better use can I see for a gambler,
Than for a costly horse worn out and aged.

Upon his wife are laid the hands of others,

While his possessions by the dice are wasted.
His father, mother, brothers, — all deny him:
" We know him not, — away with him in fetters."

The gambler's wife deserted mourns ; his mother

Laments her son, she knows not where he wanders.
And he, in debt and trouble, seeking money,
Remains at night beneath the roof of strangers.

It grieves the gambler when he sees another

With wife and happy home untouched by trouble.
He yokes the brown steeds in the early morning,
And when the lire goes out he sinks degraded.

And when I say that I will play no longer,

My friends abandon me and all desert me;
Yet when again I hear the brown dice rattling,
I hasten, like a wanton to her lover.

The gambler hurries to the gaming table,

u
To-day I'll win," he thinks in his excitement.
The dice inflame his greed, his hopes mount higher;
He leaves his winnings all with his opponent.
10. 34. 1-6. 10. 11.
Of didactic-gnomic poetry we find not a few products
in the Rigveda. Experience repeatedly introduced is
brought together in verse and lives as a ' winged word' in
the mouths of all. 848 It seems only a variation of the
proverbs of our day when we read:
The plough brings plenty when the soil it furrows;
Who moves his feet accomplishes his journey;
Speech benefits a Brahman more than silence;
A friend who gives is better than a niggard.349—10.117.7.
 THE RIGVEDA. 85

The t r u t h of the proposition : Si duo faciunt idem, non est

idem, is confirmed in various directions, and it is com-
mended as the "blessing of instruction," that "the
s t r a i g h t path to the goal is found." 3 5 0
To I n d r a himself is ascribed the saying, "Woman's
m i n d is hard to direct aright and her judgment too is
s m a l l " ; while another has better words for women, and
finds that many a man is better than his reputation. 851
" H o w many a maiden,'' reasons a singer, " is wooed only
for her r i c h possessions,'' while another testifies " t h a t
even an u g l y man is found beautiful, if only he is rich." 3 5 2
" Prudent and stupid, every one tries to extort," seeks the
greatest possible gain, w i t h o u t being fastidious in his
methods, — this seems even at that time to have been the
result of experience, as well as that " many a one brings
gifts of sacrifice only through fear of blame." 353 B u t in
other passages the d u t y and the blessing of good deeds are
loudly proclaimed:
Let him who can give succor to the needy,
And well his future path of life consider.
For fortune like the wheels of chariots rolling,
Now, shifting, comes to one, now to another.354—10.117. 5.

By sharing w i t h others one's own store is never de-

creased, and through beneficence a man gains to himself
good friends for the changeful future. 355 The so-called
S o n g o f W i s d o m among other matters, reflects how
many see w i t h o u t perceiving, how many hear without
understanding, while for others a l l difficulties disappear
of their o w n accord.356 The saying of Vamadeva, " N o t
w i t h o u t pains are the gods made friends " could serve as
admonition and encouragement, and on the other hand as
recognition that " the rule of the gods is too high for man's
wisdom; we men, all, are companions in death; speedily
life runs away," and each one in death must abandon his
wealth and become a solemn memento to some one.357
The Formulas of Incantation and Exorcism may also
86 THE RIGVEDA.

he regarded as a k i n d of d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , although
their proper department is really the Atharvaveda (above,
p. 4 ) ; but a number of such formulas are to be found in
the Rig, e.g. for healing the most various diseases. Such
a ' mantra' is repeated, and the healing of the sick person
accomplished by 'the laying on of hands 358 or some other
ceremony; 359 one who is near to death is recalled to life, 8 6 0
an e v i l intention, a hostile demon, may be made harmless,
a bad omen averted, 861 a fortunate r i v a l in love driven
off,362 a herd gathered together again, etc.
As a second branch of didactic composition we must
mention the Poetical Riddles. The simplest form is
shown in a short h y m n of the eighth book; 3 6 3 from the
very short descriptions the gods meant can be guessed,
thus:
One in his mighty hand holds fast the thunderbolt,
W i t h it his enemies he smites.

And one bears in his mighty hand a weapon sharp,

Yet kind withal, he seeks to heal.

Through empty space another made three mighty strides

Where the gods dwell in blessedness.

And two, with but one bride, on winged steeds go forth,

They journey onward far away. — 8 . 29. 4. 5. 7. 8.

M u c h more intricate and difficult, however, were the r i d -

d l e s and e n i g m a s (brahmodya), which in later Vedic
time came into use at the great sacrifices of the kings, and
at contests of various kinds. The priests propounded all
sorts of questions from the whole circle of priestly k n o w l -
edge, not only to the princes offering the sacrifice, but
also to their companions in office, w i t h whom they strove
for pre-eminence. In these questions " t h e matters in
discussion are usually not called by their ordinary, com-
monly understood names, b u t are indicated by symbolical
expressions, or even only by mystical references, in which
 THE RIGVEDA. 87

numbers play an important part. They are taken now

from nature, now from the spiritual life. Heaven and
earth, sun and moon, the atmosphere, the clouds, rain and
its production by evaporation of the mists by means of the
sun's rays, the sun's course, the year, the seasons, months,
days and nights, are here favorite subjects of symbolic
c l o t h i n g ; their interpretation is regarded as the highest
wisdom." 3 6 4

W i t h this enigmatical poetry the last group of hymns

which have s t i l l to be mentioned, the Philosophical Poe-
t r y , stands in the closest connection. 365 W i t h few excep-
tions 3 6 6 the compositions of this class are occupied w i t h
questions concerning the beginning and origin of all things,
such queries occurring also here and there in the enig-
matical hymns. A system of cosmogony is naturally not
yet found here; they are throughout only first questions
and attempts, the most primitive beginnings of natural
philosophy and theories of creation. The poets like i n -
fants in their ignorance search w i t h their intellect for the
hidden traces of the invisible, unseen gods, for their origin
and deeds.367 They are no longer satisfied w i t h hearing
that this or that god has created heaven and earth and fire
and sun and d a w n ; in all seriousness " i n order to know
i t , not for pastime alone," one asks, how many fires and
how many suns, how many dawns and waters there are;
whether day was created before night, or night before day,
while another desires to know what tree it was, what k i n d
of wood,* of which heaven and earth once were b u i l t ,
eternally firm, while days, many mornings, vanish; upon
what the creator stood, when he upheld the worlds; what
then was his standing-ground, what was the order of
events, having made the earth out of w h a t he enclosed
the heavens w i t h might. 368 The question repeatedly
appears, how and when from not-being the way was found
to being, while others exert themselves to establish the
* i.e., the Sky, the material, the original matter.
88 THE RIGVEDA.

beginning of all existent things, the original matter. 369

The solution of these problems is naturally, where not
evidently from the first shown to lie outside of human
wisdom, very varied in result,870 and even the lines of de-
velopment, if we may use the term, differ greatly. 871 Some-
times fire, sometimes the all-nourishing water is named as
the original matter, as among the Greek philosophers;³72
in other passages an original germ is spoken of, which, on
the other side of heaven and this earth and the living
gods, the waters received into themselves, in which the
gods all met.

Far out beyond this earth, beyond the heavens,

Far, too, beyond the living gods and spirits,
What earliest germ was hidden in the waters,
In which the gods were all beheld together?

The waters held that earliest germ within them

In which the living gods were all united.
That One lay in the bosom of the unborn,
And all created beings rested in it.

Him ye can never know who formed these creatures,

Between yourselves and him lies yet another.
With stammering tongue and all in mist enveloped,
The singers go about in life rejoicing.373 —10. 82. 5-7.

Another prominent hymn praises H i r a n y a g a r b h a ,

the ' g o l d - g e r m , ' as the kindly origin of all being, who
existed even before the first breath of the gods, who alone
is god among all the gods.

In the beginning rose Hiranyagarbha,

Born as the only lord of all existence.
This earth he settled firm and heaven established:
What god shall we adore with our oblations ?

Who gives us breath, who gives us strength, whose bidding

All creatures must obey, the bright gods even;
 THE RIGVEDA. 89

Whose shade is death, whose shadow life immortal:

What god shall we adore with our oblations ?

Who by his might alone became the monarch

Of all that breathes, of all that wakes or slumbers,
Of all, both man and beast, the lord eternal:
What god shall we adore with our oblations?

Whose might and majesty these snowy mountains,

The ocean and the distant stream exhibit;
Whose arms extended are these spreading regions:
What god shall we adore with our oblations ?

Who made the heavens bright, the earth enduring,

Who fixed the firmament, the heaven of heavens;
Who measured out the air's extended spaces:
What god shall we adore with our oblations ?

To whom with trembling mind the two great armies

Look up, by his eternal will supported;
On whom the sun sheds brightness in its rising:
What god shall we adore with our oblations ?
10. 121. 1-6.

The monotheistic conception lying at the foundation of

this hymn (above, p. 34) appears more prominently, with
the exception of some single verses in two hymns directed
to V i c , v a k a r m a n , i.e., the ' A l l - c r e a t o r * of unrivalled
power of mind and body, to him

Who is our father, our creator, maker,

Who every place doth know and every creature,
By whom alone to gods their names were given,
To him all other creatures go, to ask him.374 —10. 82. 3.

By far the most important composition of this class in the

whole Veda is the ' S o n g of C r e a t i o n , ' recognized
even by Colebrooke.376 In the beginning, when the con-
trasts of being and not-being, of death and immortality, of
day and night, did not yet exist, only one thing hovered
90 THE RIGVEDA.

over the empty waste, and this one came into life through
the force of heat; there the first germ of m i n d showed
itself"; then the wise ones, the cosmogonic gods, were able
to call forth being out of not-being, and to separate and
divide the heretofore unordered masses. B u t in spite of
this solution the whole creation and many single things
in it remain a riddle to the poet.
Then there was neither being nor not-being.
The atmosphere was not, nor sky above it.
What covered all ? and where ? by what protected ?
Was there the fathomless abyss of waters ?

Then neither death nor deathlessness existed;

Of day and night there was yet no distinction.
Alone that One breathed calmly, self-supported,
Other than It was none, nor aught above I t .

Darkness there was at first in darkness hidden;

This universe was undistinguished water.
That which in void and emptiness lay hidden
Alone by power of fervor was developed.

Then for the first time there arose desire,

Which was the primal germ of mind, within it.
And sages, searching in their heart, discovered
In Nothing the connecting bond of Being.

And straight across their cord was then extended:

What then was there above ? or what beneath it ?
Life giving principles and powers existed;
Below the origin, — the striving upward.

Who is it knows? Who here can tell us surely

From what and how this universe has risen?
And whether not till a f t e r it the gods lived?
Who then can know from what it has arisen?

The source from which this universe has risen

And whether it was made, or uncreated,
 THE RIGVEDA. 91

He only knows, who from the highest heaven

Rules, the all-seeing lord, — or does not He know?
10. 129.

We stand at the end of our survey. From it we ought

to recognize that we have in the Rigveda a literature
w h i c h w e l l deserves ' at least in extracts to be known to
every student and lover of antiquity,' to every one who
w o u l d have the poet's words, Homo sum ; humanum nihil a
me alienum puto, applied to himself. The chief importance
of the Veda is not indeed for the history of literature, but
it lies elsewhere; it lies, as the following commentary
seeks to show, in the very extraordinary fullness of dis-
closures which this unique book gives to the student of
philology and the history of civilization. In this, no other
literature is to be compared w i t h i t , and though the aes-
t h e t i c value of this relic of long-vanished times has some-
times been exaggerated, yet its h i s t o r i c a l importance,
its value for the history of mankind, cannot easily be
overrated.
 ABBREVIATIONS.

A f K M . : Abhandlungen fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, published

by the German Oriental Society. Leipzig 1857 ff.
B I . : Bibliotheca Indica, a collection of oriental works, published
under the superintendence of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Calcutta 1849 if.
B R . : Sanskrit Worterbuch, by Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolph R o t h :
Note 30.
G K R . : Siebenzig Lieder des Rigveda, iibersetzt von K. Geldner und
A. Kaegi mit Beitriigen von R. R o t h : see p. 34 and Note 110.
For the sake of brevity quotations are given in large italics, so
that e.g. 4, 33, 4 (121) means 4, 33, 4, translated in GKR. page
121.
I S t . : lndische Studien, edited by A. Weber. V o l . 1-17. Berlin and
Leipzig 1849-1885.
J A O S . : Journal of the American Oriental Society.
J L Z . : Jenaer Literatur-Zeitung von A. Klette.
J R A S . : Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland ( N S . : New Series).
Jbb.: Fleckeisen's Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie. V o l . 121
(1880).
K Z . : Kuhn's Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachforschung. V o l .
1-28.
O O . : Orient and Occident, insbesondere in ihren gegenseitigim Be-
ziehuugen, Forschungeu und Mittheilungen. Quarterly, edited
by Theo. Benfey.
S B E . : The Sacred Books of the East, Translated by various Oriental
Scholars and edited by F. Max Muller. Oxford 1879 ff.
Benfey, GdSpr.: Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft und orientalischen
Philologie in Deutschland, Miinchen 1869.
Lassen, I A . : lndische Alterthumskunde. V o l . 1 and 2 quoted in
the s e c o n d ed. (Leipzig 1867, 1874), vol. 3 and 4 in the f i r s t
ed. (Bonn 1858,1861).
94 ABBREVIATIONS.

M. Muller, ASL.: A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Lon-

don 1859.
M. Muller, LSL.: Lectures on the Science of Language. First and
Second Series. New York (Scribners) 1872. (Quotations refer
to the American edition; the paging of the English edition is
given on p. 180.)
M. Müller, OGR.: Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion
as illustrated by the religions of India. London 1882.
J. Muir, M T r . : Metrical Translations from Sanskrit writers. Lon-
don 1879.
J. Muir, OST.: Original Sanskrit Texts: see Note 115.
Roth, Z L G W . : Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda: see p. 2
and Note 7.
A. Weber, H I L . : History of Indian Literature. Translated from
the second German edition. Boston 1878. (Reprint of the
English edition.)
A. Weber, IStr.: Indische Streifen. Berlin and Leipzig 1868-1879.
W. D. Whitney, OLSt.: Oriental and Linguistic Studies. 2 volumes.
New York 1873, 1874.
Z D M G . : Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft.
Leipzig, vols. 1-39, 1847-1885.
H. Zimmer, A I L . : Altindisches Leben. Berlin 1879: see p. 11 and
Note 35.
Beside the works already mentioned the following treat of the Veda:
Müller in the Chips from a German Workshop, especially vol. 1 . —
Whitney in the treatises, TheVedas; The Vedic Doctrine of a
Future Life; Muller's History of Vedic Literature; The Trans-
lation of the Veda in vol. 1 of his Oriental and Linguistic Stud-
ies, and in his notes to Colebrooke's Misc. Essays (see Note 5). —
Westergaard, Ueber den altesten Zeitraum der indischen Ge-
schichte mit Rücksicht auf die Literatur. Aus dem Danischen
ubersetzt. Breslau 1862.— P. Wurm, Geschichte der Indischen
Religion. Basel 1874, pp. 21-62. — A. Ludwig, Die Nachrichten
des Rig und Atharvaveda iiber Geographic, Geschichte, Verfass-
ung des alten Indien. Prag 1875. Die Philosophischen und
Religiosen Anschauungen des Veda in ihrer Entwickelung. Prag
1875. Der Rigveda oder die heiligen Hymnen der Brahmana.
Vol. 3: Die Mantraliteratur und das alte Indien als Einleitung
zur Uebersetzung des Rigveda (c/ Note 116). Prag 1878. — [ A .
Bergaigne, La Religion Vedique d'apres les Hymnes du Rig-Veda.
Paris 1878. — Barth, The Religions of India. Translated by
Rev. J. Wood. London 1882.]
 NOTES.

1. Essai, etc.: Introd. § 10 and l e r e partie, chap. 4 (vol. 1, 77 and

2, 57 ff. of the edition of an X I I I = 1805, or (Euvres, t. 14, p. 7D ff.
and 290 ff. of the ed. of 1785); cf. Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire, Des
Vedas, 1854, p. 15 ff.
2. The Ezour-(= Yajur)Vedam ( I t h . : see Gildemeister, B i b l .
Sanscr. 28, 103-106), presented by Voltaire to the Royal Library in
Paris in 1701, published in 1778 by Sainte-Croix, and also translated
into German, is a forgery made in the 17th century by a Jesuit mis-
sionary, p e r h a p s Robertus de Nobilibus (cf. Miiller, L S L . 1, 155
and 156 note); see.Fr. Ellis, Asiat. Res., vol. 14, Calcutta 1822, pp.
1-59; A. Schlegel, Indische Bibliothek, vol. 2 (1824), 50 ff.
3. Ed. of Julian Schmidt, Leipzig 1869, vol. 2, 148 ff.
4. In the same year (1784) the "Asiatic Society" was founded in
Calcutta, for the investigation of Asiatic antiquity in its widest extent.
In 1785, W i l k i n s ' translation of the Bhagavad-gita appeared in Lon-
don ; 1789, the celebrated translation of Cakuntala, by W. Jones, in
Calcutta (German by G. Forster, Mainz and Leipzig 1791; 2d ed.
Frankfurt 1803); 1792, the first printed Sanskrit text (Ritusanhâra:
The Seasons, a Descriptive Poem by Calidas, in the Original Sanscrit,
Calcutta), etc. See Gildemeister, B i b l . Sanser., p. 173 ff.
5. Asiat. Res. vol. 8, Calc. 1805, pp. 369-476; newly edited, w i t h
valuable notes by Whitney, in Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays,
edited by Cowell, 1873, vol. 1, pp. 8-132.
6. Rigvedae Specimen, ed. F. Rosen, London 1830; then Rigveda
Sanhita, liber primus, sanskrite et latine, ed. F. Rosen, London 1838.
(R. died Sept. 12, 1837.)
7. The enormous progress in knowledge of the Veda shown in this
work of Roth can to-day only be appreciated if we compare w i t h it
what Benfey was able to give a few years before in his article India
in Ersch and Gruber's Allgem. Encycl., 2 sect. vol. 17, p. 161 f.
Müller's History appeared 1860; Weber's Vorlesungen in a second,
much enlarged edition, Berlin 1875 (additions to it 1878).
8. The first complete edition of the text was that of Aufrecht,
2 vols., Berlin 1861, 1863 (= ISt. v o l 6. 7), in Latin transliteration;
96 THE RIGVEDA.

2d ed., Bonn 1877, w i t h valuable additions (among others, an index

of first lines and quotations, when the veragi are cited in other Vedic
literature; reprint of the Khila, i.e. the ' supplements' found in
the manuscripts, but not counted w i t h the hymns). The text in
Sanskrit characters is given by M. Müller, The Hymns of the Rigveda,
London 1873. 2 vols. (Sanhita- and Pada-Text: cf. note 77) ; 2d ed.,
London 1877. W i t h the commentary of Sayana, complete index of
words and first lines, in 6 vols., edited by M. Müller, London 1849-75.
The first alphabetical index of first lines was given by W. Pertsch,
ISt. 3, 1-118 (additions by Aufrecht, ISt. 4, 434 f . ) ; a tabulated
synopsis of the four Sanhitas: Whitney, ISt. 2, 321-368; a very valu-
able dictionary, H. Grassmann, Leipzig 1873-75.
9. Sâman, according to Burnell (Introd. to the Arseya-Brahmana,
Mangalore and Basle 1876) and Barth (Rev. Crit. 1877, I I , p. 21),
means only " melody," independent of the text (Rig-verse) connected
with it, which may be changed at w i l l . The edition Sâmavedarcikam,
Die Hymnen des Samaveda, herausgegeben, iibersetzt und mit Glossar
versehen von T h . Benfey, Leipzig 1848, gives the Raniyaniyacakha;
elsewhere, the Kauthumacakha, of which the Naigeya is a sub-division
(see S. Goldschmidt, Berl. Monatsber. 1868, p. 228 f . ) . A. Weber's
assertion, I I I L . 9. 64 if., that the variants of the Samasanhita are
older and more original than those of the Rigsanhita, {cf Ludw. Rv.
3, 83-95; 9 1 : " Thus it is evident that the Samaveda has an older
form than the Rigveda ") is opposed by Burnell, Arseyabrahmana, p.
x v i f., and Aufrecht, Rigveda, 2d ed., vol. 2, pref. p. x x x v i i to xlv.
The latter gives p. x l v - x l v i i an alphabetical index of the 75 verses
peculiar to the Samaveda, not contained in o u r Rigveda [Hillebrandt,
Spuren einer alteren Rigveda Recension, Beitrage zur Kunde der Indo-
Germ. Spr. vol. 8, 195 f f . ] , which are translated by Ludw. Rv. 3, 419-
426.
10. The two principal groups of these prayer-books, the Black
and the White Yajurveda, are essentially distinguished by the fact
that in the Black the sacrificial verses are followed immediately by
their dogmatic interpretation, description of the accompanying ritual,
etc., and the Brahmana belonging to it is to be considered as an addi-
tion differing only in time; while in the White the verses for the sac-
rifices are contained in the Sanhita, the interpretation and ritual in
the Brahmana, and thus are separated throughout.
1. Of the B l a c k Y a j u r v e d a two recensions have been known
for some time: the Taittiriya-sanhita (text of the school of Apastamba:
ed. by A. Weber, Leipzig 1871-72 = ISt. vol. 11,12), and the Kathaka
(text of the Katha school, v. Weber ISt. 3, 451-479, H I L . 88 ff.,L. v.
Schroeder, Berl. Monatsber. July 1879, p. 675-704). The first inform.
 NOTES. 97
ation of a new recension, the Maitrayani-sanhita, was given by Haug
(ISt. 9,174 f., Brahma und die Brahmanen, Miinchen 1871, pp. 31-34);
then Buhler, I S t 13, 117-128, and lately L. v. Schroeder, Z D M G . 33
(1879), 177-207 [Ueber die Maitrayani Sanhita, Dorpat 1879; ed.
by Schroeder, Leipzig 1881], and Berl. Monatsber. 1879, pp. 675-704.,
The latter makes it very probable that t h i s Cakha is to be put at the
head of the whole Yajus period, and is identical with the famous text
of the Kalapins.
2. Of the White Yajurveda both the known recensions of Mad-
hyandina and Kanva are contained in Weber's edition, The Vajasaneyi-
Sanhita, Berlin 1852. The last, fortieth, book of this Sanhita is the
lea-, or Icavasya-Upanisad, translated e.g. by Roer in B I . Ludw. Rv.
3, 34 f. M. Müller, see Note 16.
1 1 . Cf. R V . 10, 90, 9; A V . 7, 54, 2 ; 12, 1, 38; A i t . Br. 5, 32, 4.
— A V . 10, 7, 20, w i t h the Rig, Yajus and Silman mentions also the
Atharvangiras, i.e. a fourth collection in the style of our Atharvaveda.
According to Burnell (Vancabrahmana of the Samaveda, p. x x i ) the
most influential scholars of Southern India still obstinately deny the
genuineness of this Veda.
12. E.g. A d . Kuhn, K Z . 13, 48-74 and 113-157, places side by side
a number of Indian formulas (especially those contained in the
Atharva) for banishing sickness, and similar Germanic ones, " which
in both peoples correspond so remarkably, not only in purpose and
contents, but also partially in form, that we must fully recognize in
them the remains of a k i n d of poetry, which, even in the old Indo-
Germanic period, had developed the contents of incantations de-
signed for certain uses into a fixed form, preserved up to the latest
times in all the formulas growing out of i t . " For other traces of
Indo-Germanic poetry, cf. Note 82.
13. Atharvaveda-Sanhita, edited by R. Roth and W. D. Whitney,
Berlin 1856, contains the " V u l g a t e " (text of the Caunakas?) in 20
books, the last two of which did not belong to the original collection.
Since 1875 the Paipalddi-cakha has become better known through
Roth's Der Atharvaveda in Kashmir. Tubingen 1875. (P. 20: " But
if all this (sc. known in any other place) is taken away, there w i l l
remain a mass so large that it may be appraised as the eighth or ninth
part of the whole (Atharva).") Sayana's Commentary to this Sanhita
was discovered in 1880; cf. Academy of June 12, 1880, and Ind. A n t i q .
A u g . 1880.
Book 1 has been translated by A. Weber, ISt. 4, 393-430; Book 2
by A. Weber, Berl. Monatsber. 1870, June, pp. 462-524 = ISt. 13, 129-
216; Book 14 by A. Weber, ISt. 5, 195-217; Book 15 by Aufrecht,
ISt. 1, 130-140; besides Hundert Lieder des Atharvaveda von J. Grill,
98 THE RIGVEDA.

Tubingen 1879, and many single songs by A. Weber, ISt. 5, 218-266,

etc., by Zimmer, A I L . (Index, pp. 453-457) by Ludwig, Rv. vol. 3,
especially pp. 428-551, and elsewhere. Whitney, ISt. 4, 9-62, gives
an alphabetical index of first lines, and JAOS. 12 (1881) a complete
Index Verborum.
14. The name Brahmana (neut.) is to be derived, not from the
masc. brahman, 'chief priest' (Müller, A S L . 172, 342. Haug, A i t . Br.
1, p. 4 f. [Eggeling, SBE. 12. Introd. p. x x i i i f . ] ) , but from the
neut. brahman,' formula, ceremony' (Whitney, OLSt. 1, 6 8 , 1 . Weber,
I I I L . 11, ISt. 9, 351 f.). Concerning these books Müller, A S L . 389,
says: " The Brahman as represent no doubt a most interesting phase
in the history of the Indian mind, but judged by themselves as lite-
rary productions, they are most disappointing. No one would have
supposed that at so early a period, and in so primitive a state of
society, there could have risen up a literature which, for pedantry and
downright absurdity, can hardly be matched anywhere. There is no
lack of striking thoughts, of bold expressions, of sound reasoning,
and curious traditions in these collections. But they are only like
the fragments of a torso, like precious gems set in brass and lead.
The general character of these works is marked by shallow and
insipid grandiloquence, by priestly conceit and antiquarian pedantry.
It is most important to the historian that he should know how soon
the fresh and healthy growth of a nation can be blighted by priest-
craft and superstition. . . . These works deserve to be studied as
the physician studies the twaddle of idiots and the raving of mad-
men." Müller places the B r a h m a n a P e r i o d (Chips, 1, 14; cf
ASL. 435) between 800 and 600 B.C. (Haug between 1400 and 1200:
cf. Note 38).
14 a. Of the B r a h m a n as (Roth, Nirukta. Introd. p. x x i v f.
A. Weber, H I L . 11 f. M. Müller, ASL. 313 if. Ludw. Rv. 3, 30 f.;
shorter extracts in Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom, London 1875,
pp. 27-35) belong
1. To the R i g v e d a , two (both attaching themselves to recensions
of the text differing from that preserved), namely:
Aitareya-Brahmana, edited, translated, and explained by M.
Haug. Bombay 1863 (with which cf Weber, ISt. 9, 177-380);
edited w i t h additions by T h . Aufrecht. Bonn 1879; to this
belongs the
Aitareya-Aranyaka in five books, the first three translated by
M. Müller, SBE. 1, 155-268 {cf ibid. Introd. pp. xci-xcviii),
with the
Aitareya-Upanisad, ed. by Roer in BI, cf. Weber, ISt. 1, 387-
392;
 NOTES. 99
Kausitaki- or CankhayanarBrahmana (cf Weber, ISt. 2, 288-
315), with the
Kausitaki-Aranyaka, the t h i r d book of which forms the very
valuable
Kausitaki-Upanisad; see Weber, ISt. 1, 392-420; ed. and transl.
by Cowell in B I . ; translated by M. Muller, SBE. 1, 269-308;
cf. i b i d . Introd. pp. xcviii-c.
2. To the S a m a v e d a (see the review of the literature by Weber,
ISt. 1, 31-67; for the number of the Brahmanas, Weber, H I L .
74; ISt. 4, 375):
Tandya- or Praudha- or Pancavinca-Brahmana, edited in B I . ;
an addition to it is the
Sadvinca-Brahmana, the last part of which forms the
Adbhuta-Brahmana; edited, translated, and explained by A.
Weber, Zwei vedische Texte über Omina und Portenta. Berlin
1859 (Berl. Akad. A b h . Philol.-Histor. Classe 1858, pp.
313-343).
Chandogya-Brahmana in ten books, of which, up to the present
time, only eight are known in Europe, forming the important
Chandogya-Upanisad; cf. A. Weber, ISt. 1, 254-273; in B I .
edit, by liber, translated by Kajendra Lâla M i t r a ; translated
by M. Muller, SBE. 1, 1-144, Introd. p. l x x x v i f.
Talavakara- or Jaiminiya-Brahmana, only lately discovered
in Southern India by Burnell [see Whitney, on the Jaiminiya-
Brahmana. A m . Or. Soc. Proc, May 1883], a part of it hav-
ing already been long known as the
Talavakara- or Kena-Upanisad, see A. Weber, ISt. 2, 181-195;
ed. and transl. by liber in B I ; translated by M. Muller,
SBE. 1, 147-156, cf. Introd. p. l x x x i x f. As a part of the same
Brahmana appears now the
Arseya-Brahmana, edit, by Burnell, Mangalore 1876 (and 1878
in the Jaiminiya text).
The following writings, belonging rather to the Sutras, are also, but
only improperly, called Brahmana:
Samavidhana-Brahmana, ed. by Burnell, London 1873.
Vanca-Brahmana, ed. and comment, by A. Weber, ISt. 4, 371-
386; ed. by Burnell, Mangalore 1873;
Devatadhyaya-Brahmana, ed. by Burnell, Mangalore 1873; the
above-mentioned Arseya-Brahmana and the
Sanhitopanisad-Brahmana (ISt. 4, 375); ed. by Burnell, Man-
galore 1877.
3. To the B l a c k Y a j u r v e d a (Taittiriya-Sanhita):
Taittiriya-Brahmana (cf Note 10), edit, by Rajendra Lala
100 THE RIGVEDA.

Mitra, in B I . (the legend of Naciketas concerning existence

after death, translated by M u i r , OST. 5, 329 f., M T r . 54 ff.,
252 if., M. Muller, OGR. 340 ft.); w i t h the
Taittiriya-Aranyaka (by the same editor in B I . ) ; w i t h the
Taittiriya-Upanisad, see A. Weber, ISt. 2, 210-236.
4. To the W h i t e Y a j u r v e d a (Vajasaneyi-Sanhita), the most im-
portant of all Brahman as, the
(Jatapatha-Brahmana, edited by A. Weber, Berlin 1855 (The
White Yajurveda, vol. 2 ) ; cf. I I I L . 116-139. M. Muller, ASL.
349-360; several legends of general interest (story of the flood,
the fountain of youth, punishment after death) are translated
in Weber's IStr. 1, 9-30. [Transl. by J. Eggeling, SBE., vol.
12; cf Whitney, on Eggeling's Translation of the Qatapatha-
Brahmana, A m . Journ. of Philol. 3, 390-410], and for the
whole work Weber, H I L . 116 ff. This Brahmana contains in
the 14th Book the
Brhad-Aranyaka, edited by Poley (Upanisads, Bonn 1844) ;
edited and translated by Roer in B I . (Yajnavalkya's treatise on
immortality is also translated by Muller, A S L . 22 f., OGR. 335
ft; Muir, M T r . 51 f., 246 f.).
5. To the A t h a r v a v e d a :
Gopatha-Brahmana: Muller, A S L . 445 f., edit, in B I . , see Weber,
H I L . 150, 151.
15. Magasthenes in Strabo 15, 60, p. 713 : (leg.

ch, 70, p. 719, Weber, H I L . 27 f. — The are the vanaprasthas

(wood-dwellers). The later development of the ruling priesthood
recognizes four stages (acrama) in the life of the Brahman; first he
is a brahmacarin (disciple of a Brahman), then a grhastha (married,
father of a family), then a vânaprastha, and finally a bhiku or sam-
nydsin (a beggar living on alms, who has denied the world) ; more in
full e.g. in OGR. 350 ft
16. " N e x t follow the A r a n y a k a s (cf. Muller, A S L . 313-315,
329-339. Ludw. Rv. 3, 33 f.), which, not only by the position which
they occupy at the end of the Brahmanas, but also by their character,
seem to be of a later age again. Their object is to show how sacri-
fices may be performed by people living in the forest, without any of
the pomp described in the Brahmanas and the later Sutras — by a
mere mental effort. The worshipper had only to imagine the sacri-
fice, to go through it only in his memory, and he thus acquired the
same merit as the performer of tedious rites. Lastly come the
 NOTES. 101
U p a n i s a d s ; and what is their object? To show the utter useless-
ness, nay, the mischievousness, of all ritual performances; to condemn
every sacrificial act which has for its motive a desire or hope of re-
ward ; to deny, if not the existence, at least, the exceptional and ex-
alted character of the Devas, and to teach that there is no hope of
salvation and deliverance, except by the individual Self recognizing
the true and universal Self, and finding rest there, where alone rest
can be found." M. Muller, OGR. 347 f.
The number of the Upanisads is very large; M. Muller's alphabet-
ical index in Z D M G . 19, 137-158, enumerates (1865) 149 of them,
while A. Weber, 1875 ( H I L . 155, note, cf JLZ. 1878, p. 81 = IStr. 3,
564) counts 235. For this class of writings, consult the review with
extracts in English translation, in Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom,
pp. 35-47; P. Regnaud, Matdriaux pour servir a Thistoire de la philoso-
phic de l'Inde, 2 vols., Paris 1876 and 1878 (cf Weber, J L Z . 1878, pp.
81-84 = IStr. 3, 563-576, concerning vol. 1), Deussen, Vedanta (1883),
p. 82 f., and M. Muller, The Upanishads (= SBE. vols. 1 and 15).
[For the latter, cf Whitney, Am. Or. Soc. Proc, Oct. 1885.] The
first part (1879) contains, besides general and bibliographical intro-
ductions, the translation of the above-mentioned
Aitareya-Aranyaka and Kausitaki-Upanisad of the Rigveda,
Chandogya-Upanisad, Kena- or Talavakara-Upanisad of the Sa-
maveda,
and the Vajasaneyi-Sanhita-Upanisad or lea- (Icavasya-) Upa-
nisad (cf Note 10, 2), pp. 311-320, Introd. pp. c. ci.
17. Muller, ASL. 72, OGR. 150. — Muller places the S u t r a
p e r i o d b e t w e e n 600 a n d 200 B . C . (ASL. 244).

18. A well-known mnemonic verse gives the order (e.g. in Muller,

ASL. I l l ) :
ciksâ kalpo vyakaranam niruktam chando jyotisam.
Of these names for classes of writings some were applied specially
to individual treatises of relatively late origin; thus C i k s a (edited
and translated by Weber, ISt. 4, 375-371), J y o t i s a (ed., transl., and
comment, by A. Weber, Berl. Akad. Abh. Philol.-Hist. CI. 1862, pp.
1-130: Ueber den Vedakalender Jyotisam) and C h a n das (ed.,
transl., and comment, by Weber, ISt. 8, 209 f.).—More recently other
Ciksas have been discovered; Kielhorn, ISt. 14,160.
19. Yâska's Nirukta sammt den Nighantavas, herausgegeben und
erlautert von R. Roth. Gottingen 1852. [ E d . also in B L ] The Ni-
ghantavas (sing. Nighantu) are collections of words placed together
Yâska's book is founded on five of these collections (1-3
put synonyms together, 4 contains specially difficult words, and 5 gives
102 T H E RIGVEDA.

a classification of the Vedic divinitiea), to which Yaska's explanation

( n i r u k t i ) in 12 books is added (Books 13 and 14 are later). Yâska is
himself commentated by Durga (13th cent.).
20. The first account of the P r a t i c j a k h y a s was given by Roth,
Z L G W . 53 f. Nirukta, Introd. p. x l i i f. Their real purpose is
shown by Note 78. Of these specially important and interesting
works the following have been edited and translated:
The Rig-Praticakhya of Caunaka, German by M. Müller. Leip-
zig 1856-1869. French by A d . Regnier. Paris 1857-1858.
The Taittiriya-Praticakhya, English by Whitney, JAOS. 9,
1-469 (1871).
The Vajasaneyi-Praticakhya of Katyayana, German by A. We-
ber, ISt. 4, 65-171, and ibid. 177-331.
The Atharva-Praticakhya of Caunaka, English by Whitney,
JAOS. 7, 333-615 (1862), addenda ibid. 10, 156-171.
2 1 . The d a t e of P a n i n i is a matter of much dispute; cf. Las-
sen, I A . 1, 864 fT. M. Miiller, ASL. 304-310. Whitney, OLSt. 1,
75 f. Benfey, GdSpr. p. 48, 1. A. Weber, e.g. ISt. 1, 141 f., 4, 87 f.,
5, 172. H I L . 217 if. IStr. 3, 408.
According to G. Bùhler, OO. 2, 703, Panini's work is an "improved,
completed, and partially rewritten edition" of Cakatayana; cf. Bur-
nell, On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians. London 1875.
p. 97 ff. A. Weber, IStr. 3, 414 f. [Panini's Eight Books of Gram-
matical Sutras. Ed. with an Eng. transl. and commentary by W.
Goontilleke. Bombay 1882 i f . ]
22. Benfey, GdSpr. p. 35, 36 {cf Gott. Gel. Anz. 1860, 279 f . ) ,
where, pp. 35-100, an excellent survey of Indian grammar is given.
[Whitney, The Study of Sanskrit and the Hindu Grammarians. A m .
Journ. Philol. 5, 279-297.]
23. Certain of the Vedic teachers and schools d i d not occupy
themselves w i t h the ' revealed texts,' Sanhita and Brahmana, but only
w i t h the Sutras (Sutracarana) : they created a new systematic presen-
tation of a l l the requirements of the ritual, a compendium of the
w h o l e Kalpa. E.g. the Kalpa of Apastamba (belonging to the
Black Yajus), consisting of 30 pracnas, contains in pracna 1-24 the
crauta-regulations, pracna 25 the general regulations of the sacrifice
(applying both to public and family sacrifice), pracna 26 and 27 the
grhya-regulations, pracna 28 and 29 the dharma-regulations, and
pracna 30 the Culva-sutras (see Note 26). — " Paraskara's Grhya-sutra
is closely connected with Katyayana's Crauta-sutra, and is considered
a mere component part of the latter to such an extent that it is often
quoted directly under Katyayana's name." (Stenzler.)
 NOTES. 103
23 a. Of the C r a u t a - s u t r a s we may mention
1. Belonging to the R i g v e d a : those of
Acvalayana: edit, in BI.
Cankhayana.
2. Belonging to the S a m a v e d a : those of
Macjaka.
Latyayana, edit, in BI (Kauthuma school).
Drahyayana (belonging to the Ranayaniya-school).
3. Belonging to the B l a c k Y a j u r v e d a (Taitt.-Sanh.) : those of
Baudhayana, L i t . in Weber, I I I L . 100 ff.
A pastamba: Weber, H I L . 100 ff. Biihler, SBE. 2, Introd. p.
xi f., x v i i i ; portions translated by M. Mùller, Z D M G . 9, Sup
plement, p. x l i i i f. and R. Garbe, Z D M G . 34 (1880), 319-370 \
ed. by Garbe, Calcutta 1881 f.
HiranyakecJ,
the M a n a v a s , w h i c h have now all been brought to light.
the Bharadvajas,
4. Belonging to the W h i t e Y a j u r v e d a (Vaj.-Sanh.): those of
Katyayana, edit, by A. Weber. Berlin 1859. (The White Ya-
jurveda, vol. 3.)
5. Belonging to the A t h a r v a v e d a :
the Kaucika-sutra,
the Vaitâna-sutra, edit, by R. Garbe. London 1878, transl.
and comment, by the same, Strassburg 1878. [Bloomfield, On
the position of the Vaitâna Sutra. J A O S . 11, 375 ff.]

24. The G r h y a s u t r a s , of which only a few have been published,

w i l l have the greatest importance for the comparative study of cus-
toms : w i t h their aid it w i l l be possible to show that many customs,
whether in the life of the classic nations, in the ritual of the Catholic
church, or in the common life of the present day, come from primeval
times; cf Stenzler's excellent discussion, "Ueber die Sitte", A f K M .
1865, vol. 4,147 f. — Some individual points have already been treated,
such as
the Birth-ritual by Speijer, De ceremonia apud Indos quae vo-
catur jatakarma. Lugd. Bat. 1872;
the Marriage-ritual by Haas and Weber in TSt. 5; cf Note 317;
the Burial-ritual by M. Muller, Z D M G . 9, Sup.; cf Roth,
Z D M G . 8, 467 f. (above p. 76 f. and Note 326).
Of such Grhyasutras the following are in existence:
1. Belonging to the R i g v e d a : those of
Acvalayana, edit, by Stenzler, Leipzig 1864; transl. by the
same, 1865 ( A f K M . vol. 3, part 4, and vol. 4, part 1 ) ; cf. A.
104 T H E RIGVEDA.

Kuhn, K Z . 15, 224 f. and the, review of the contents by Mon.

Williams in Ind. Wisdom, p. 197-200.
Cankhayana; edit, and transl. by H. Oldenberg, ISt. 15,1-166.
2. Belonging to the S a m a v e d a : those of
Gobhila: edit, in B I . (a late addition edit, and transl. by
Bloomfield, Z D M G . 35, 533-537).
8. Belonging to the B l a c k Y a j u r v e d a : those of
Baudhayana,
Apastamba (cf. Note 23 and 23 a, 3).
Laugaksi (Bùhler, ISt. 14, 403),
the Manavas, etc.: Note 23 and 23 a, 3 (J. v. Bradke, Z D M G .
36, 417-477).
4. Belonging to the W h i t e Y a j u r v e d a : those of
Paraskara, edit, by Stenzler. Leipzig 1876, transl. by the same.
Leipzig 1878 ( A f K M . vol. 6, part 2 and 4).
5. Belonging to the A t h a r v a v e d a :
the Kaucika-sutra (two chapters on expiatory ceremonies have
been edited, translated, and commentated by A. Weber: Zwei
ved. Texte ùber Omina und Portenta, Berl. Akad. Abh. Philos.-
Hist. CI. 1858, pp. 344-413). [Bloomfield, on a proposed edi-
tion of the Kaucika-Sutra. Am. Or. Soc. Proc. Oct. 1883.]
25. The D h a r m a - or Samayaciirika-sutras were first distin-
guished as a special group by Mùller, ASL. 206 f.; more detailed in-
formation was given by Bùller in the Introd. to West and Bùller, A
Digest of Hindu Law, Bombay 1867. Of these Sutras, I mention
those of
Apastamba, ed. and transl. by Bùller, Bombay 1868 f., transla-
tion in SBE. 2, 1-170; Introd. pp. ix-xliv;
Gautama, ed. by Stenzler, London 1876, transl. by Bùller in
SBE. 2, 173-307; Introd. pp. xlv-lvii;
V a s i s t h a , t r a n s l a t e d by Bùller in SBE.;
J
Baudhayana,
Visnu, transl. by J. Jolly in SBE. 7, 1-302 (1880) [ B I . (NS.)
458 ff.]; Introd. pp. ix-xxxvii; Jolly, Das Dharmasutra des
Vishnu und das Kathakagrhya. Miinch. Sitzgsber. 1879. I I .
1, 22-82.
2 5 a . The metrical law-book of the 'father of mankind/ M a n u
(ed. and transl. e.g. by Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, Paris 1830, 1833;
new ed. of the text, with Indian commentary, Calcutta 1874). [Trans-
lated from the Sanskrit, with an Introduction, by the late A. C. Bur-
nell. Completed and edited by E. W. Hopkins. London (Trùbners)
1884. — Whitney, On the origin of the laws of Manu, Am. Or. Soc.
Proc. May 1885], is proved to be relatively young by the fact that it
 NOTES. 105
rests on the Sùttras of the Mânava school (cf. note 23 a, 3; 24, 3), but
its period cannot be more definitely decided. Y â j n a v a l k y a ' s
Dharmacastra (ed. in Sanskrit and German, by Stenzler, Berlin 1841))
must, at the earliest, have been composed in the t h i r d century A . D .
( H . Jacobi, Z D M G . 30, 306). Of N a r a d a ' s law-book (not edited)
an English translation has been given by J. Jolly, London 1876.
A whole collection of such texts is presented in the Dharmasha-
strasangraha, ed. by Pandit Jibânanda Vidyasagara, 2 parts, Calc.
1876; cf. besides Burnell, The Law of Partition and Succession,
Mangalore and Basle 1872; Aurel Mayr, Das indische Erbrecht, Wien
1873 (resting on the work of West and Bùller, Note 25); and Jolly's
works: Ueber die rechtliche Stellung der Frauen bei den alten Indent,
Mùnchen 1876 (Sitzungsber. der Akad.). Ueber das indische Schuld-
recht, Mùnchen 1877 (Sitzungsber. der Akad.). Ueber die Systematik
des indischen Rechts, 1878 (Extract from the Zeitschrift fùr vgl.
Rechtswissenschaft, vol. 1, 234-260; also Bernhoft, Ueber Zweck und
M i t t e l der vergleich. Rechtswissenschaft, i b i d . vol. 1, 1-38).

26. Puranas (like Itihasa; saying, legend; iti ha dsa; so it was)

are often mentioned in the Brahmanas, but in their present shape —
eighteen in number — are all young, and almost all serve sectarian
ends in Indian popular religion, since Brahma, Visnu, and Civa are
each extolled in six of them. I mention the
Markandeya-P., ed. and transl. by Banerjea, Calc. 1851 f.;
Books 7 and 8 translated by Wortham in J R A S . NS. 13 (1881),
355-379; [Books 81-93 in J R A S . 17 (1885), 221 ft 0 .] ;
Bhâgavata-P., traduit et public' par Eug. Burnouf, Paris 1840 f,;
Visnu-P., ed. Bombay 1867, transl. by I I . I I . Wilson, London
1840; newly edited by F. E. Hall, 1864-77 [also Madras and
Calcutta 1882];
Agni-P., appearing since 1870 in BT.
Portions translated in Muir's M T r . — Weber, I I I L . 190 f. Mon. W i l -
liams, Ind. Wisdom, pp. 489-501. — Of other Paricistas, two only need
be mentioned:
The A n u k r a m a n i s : tables of contents which give in order
the divinity, composer, and metre of the individual hymns in the
Sanhita; the contents of the Anukramani of Katyayana for the
Rig is edited in the editions of the text by Aufrecht (1st ed., vol. 2,
458 f . ; 2d ed., vol. 2, 463 f . ) , and in Muller's large edition, vol. V I .
pp. 621-671. An extensive Anukramani is the B r h a d d e v a t a of
caunaka, intended to assign the divinities to their hymns, w i t h strict
regard to the order of the Rig-Sanhitft, but at the same time giving an
extraordinarily rich store of legends; see A. Kuhn, in ISt. 1, 101-120.
The C a r a n a v y u h a : a (modem) statement of the schools be-
longing to each of the four Vedas, ed. by A. Weber, ISt. 3, 247-283.
106 T H E RIGVEDA.

Here should be mentioned (see Note 23) a class of works which

have only recently become known, the
c u l v a - s u t r a s , the last part of the Kalpa system, which contains
the geometrical specifications for the proper setting up of the altars
(cf. Hillebrandt, Das altindsche Neu- und Vollmondsopfer. Jena 1879,
p. 187 f.: Versuch einer Construction des Opferplatzes nach Baudha-
yana). In these oldest mathematical treatises may already be found,
according to Thibaut (Triibner's Amer. and Orient. L i t . Rec, special
number, London 1874, p. 27 f.), even attempts at squaring the circle.
Thibaut began to publish the texts in the monthly journal, The
Pandit, Benares, in May 1875; cf. his article in the Journ. Asiat. Soc.
of Bengal, 1875, pp. 227-275; also, separately, London 1877.
27. For the historical relations see Lassen, I A. 4, 156 f. — A l l the
commentaries bear the names of M a d h a v a and S a y a n a, according
to the custom still existing in India of naming books after those who
caused them to be composed and bore the expense. There have been
received from that region a number of inscriptions on metal plates,
documents relating to royal gifts of villages and lands to learned
Brahmans, who were settled there, most probably, to assist in these
and similar works.' Roth, Z D M G . 21, 4; cf A. Weber, IStr. 3, 190 f.
According to Burnell (Introd. to the edition of the Vancabrah-
mana), Madhava and Sayana are only different names of the same
person, a Telugu Brahman, who in A . D . 1331 became head of the mon-
astery at Crngeri, died while holding that position in 1380, and wrote
all the commentaries himself; cf. Weber, I.e.
28. So H. H. Wilson in his Translation of the Rigveda Sanhita.
London 1850. 4 vols. edit, by Cowell 1866 (5th and 6th vols, still
wanting). 2d ed. 1 vol. 1866.
29. See especially the clear exposition in the preface to vol. 1 of
the Lexicon (Note 30), pp. i v - v i (1855), and the masterly treatise:
Ueber gelehrte Tradition im Alterthum, besonders in Indien. Z D M G .
21, 1-9 (1865). Cf Benfey's deductions, GdSpr. p. 46 f. and Gbtt.
Gel. Anz. 1858, p. 1608 f., w i t h which latter A. Weber agrees, ISt. 5,
174 f. "Such passages, and others of similar character, — and there
is a number of them, — should be noticed by those who still consider
that Vedic interpretation according to the Indian method is preferable
to our own, freeing itself in essentials from the native method. Who-
ever has carefully studied the Indian interpretations knows that abso-
lutely no continuity of tradition can be assumed between the produc-
tion of the Vedas and their interpretation by Indian scholars; that on
the contrary between the genuine poetical remains of Vedic antiquity
and their interpretation a long break must have occurred in the tra-
dition, out of which, at the most, the understanding of a few details
 NOTES 107
may have been preserved up to later times, through liturgical uses
and words, passages, and perhaps also hymns connected w i t h i t . Be-
yond these remains of the tradition, which must be estimated at a very
small value, the interpreters of the Veda had almost no other aids
than those which are in great part at our own disposal, the usage of
the classical language and the grammatical, etymological, lexical inves-
tigations. At most they found assistance in matter preserved in dia-
lects ; but this advantage is almost entirely outweighed by that which
we have at command, the comparison w i t h Zend and with the other
languages related to the Sanskrit, which, while it must of course be
applied w i t h care and discrimination, has already afforded so much
help to a clearer understanding of the Vedas. But independently of
all aids in particular cases, through the confusion w i t h which it seeks
to comprehend from its own religious standpoint, so many centuries
later, the ancient conditions and conceptions completely foreign to i t ,
the Indian interpretation comes to be false throughout its whole spirit;
while we, through our knowledge, drawn from analogous conditions,
of the life, conceptions, and needs of ancient peoples and of popular
poetry, are better equipped for an understanding of the whole; and
this superiority, even if the Indians owed much more in details to tradi-
tion than they really do, would not be dimmed by their interpretation."
Foot-note on p. 10: Yaska N i r . 1, 15: cf Note 373.
30. L a i d down principally in the S a n s k r i t L e x i c o n published
by the Petersburg Academy of Sciences, produced by the labors of
O t t o B o h t l i n g k and R u d o l p h R o t h (with the assistance o f A .
Weber, I I . Kern, A. F. Stenzier, W. D. Whitney, A. Schiefner, and A.
K u h n ) . 7 vols, large quarto. 1852-1875. At the end of vols. 5 and
7 are additions, which are now included, w i t h later additions and
corrections in the " Sanskritworterbuch in Kùrzerer Fassung bearbei-
tet von Otto Bohtlingk," now publishing (1879 f.), of which Parts 1-5
and 6,1 (a-vedha), have already appeared.
3 1 . Especially John M u i r in his article: On the Interpretation of
the Veda, extr. from JRAS. NS. vol. 2 (1866), pp. 303-402; cf W h i t -
ney, On the Translation of the Veda. OLSt. 1, 100-132.
32. In opposition to Goldstucker's polemic it may suffice at pres-
ent to refer to Whitney's Essay mentioned above, and to A. Weber,
IStr. 2,106 f. (cf ISt. 14, 414 f . ) ; in opposition to Haug (Transactions
of the London Oriental Congress. 1877. pp. 213-226 and often;
cf N. 116, foot-note), to Dulbriick, J L Z . 1875. p. 152 f., and E. Kuhn,
Wissensch. Jahresber. 1877. 1, 92 f. (Leipzig 1880). ["The prin-
ciples of the ' German school' are the only ones which can ever guide
us to a true understanding of the Veda." Whitney, Am. Or. Soc.
Proc. Oct. 1867.]
108 T H E RIGVEDA.

33. Vedarthayatna, or an attempt to interpret the Vedas. Bombay

1876 f. The publisher, Shankar Pandurang Pandit, beside the com-
plete Sanhita- and Pada- text (Note 77), gives three translations, in
Sanskrit, in Mahrathi, and in English (imgraji). Similar undertak-
ings in H i n d i and Bengali, without an English translation, are to
appear in Benares and Calcutta ( E . Kuhn, Wissensch. Jahresber.
1877. 1,94).
34. L i t . Centralbl. 1873, Col. 84; cf. E. Kuhn, I.e. p. 92 f . : "that
we have learned to place ourselves on the standpoint of free criticism
in opposition to native tradition w i l l always be an undeniable service
of the Petersburg Lexicon. But just as certainly that native tradi-
tion w i l l continue to be an element which we must regard in our inter-
pretation, and which under some circumstances deserves the same
attention as the opinion of a European scholar."
35. I have given a detailed review of the contents of this excellent
work in Jbb. 121, 433-469, and in connection have referred occasion-
ally to related characteristics among the Greeks and Romans.
36. Whereas formerly Asia, especially the highland of Central
Asia, the region of the sources of the Oxus and Yaxartes was in gen-
eral held to be the original as well as the last home of the Indoger-
manic people while they were still living together (see the rich litera-
ture in Muir, OST. 2, 306 f., besides e.g. Justi in Raumer's Histor.
Taschenbuch 1862. p. 333 and 339 f.,Hofer in K Z . 20, 382-85, etc.),
other investigators in later times thought they had grounds for seek-
ing it in Europe,* while others again spoke out decidedly in favor of
Asia,f so that the question must still be considered an open one; so
now (opposed to his former championship of Asia) Spiegel, Eran.
Alterthumskunde 1, 428. Ausland 1871, p. 553 f.; 1872, p. 961 f.
J L Z . 1878, p. 286; Whitney, Language and the Study of Language
* Latham in L. Geiger, Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Menschheit, p. 119.
Benfey, Introd. to Fick's Indogerm. Worterb.1 p. ix, and GdSpr. 600; the fol-
lowing localities are specially mentioned:
Germany, particularly the middle and west: L. Geiger, I.e. p. 118. Th.
Poesche, die Arier. Jena 1878. pp. 68-74.
Northern Germany and the northwest of France; J. G. Cuno, Forschungen,
vol. i. (1871) p. 21: cf. A. v. Gutschmied in the Lit. Centralbl. 1871. p. 1025.
Southeastern Europe (to which the Indog. tribes came from Armenia): F.
Muller, Allg. Ethnographic.2 1879. p. 86 f.
† Pauli, Die Benennung des Lowen bei den Indogermanen. Mùnchen 1873;
Gerland, JLZ. 1875. pp.738, 740;
V. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere.8 Introd. viii, and: Das Salz. p.
16 (Bolur-Tagh);
O. Peschel, Volkerkunde.2 p. 544 f. (both slopes of the Caucasus);
The geologist De'sor, Les pierres a ecuelles. Geneve, Carey 1878. pp. 33-43,
etc.
 NOTES. 109
( N . Y . , Scribner 1874), p. 200 f.; Whitney, Life and Growth of Lan-
guage ( N . Y., Appleton 1883), p. 194: "Evidences of real weight
bearing on the question may possibly yet be found; but certainly
none such have been hitherto brought to light"; cf Hùbschmann,
J L Z . 1876, p. 250, etc.; now especially O. Schrader, Sprachver-
gleichung und Urgeschichte. Jena 1883. pp. 117-149. [Brunnhofer,
Ueber den Ursitz der Indogermanen. Basle 1884.]
37. Skt. arya, arya; old Bactrian (East Iranian, e language of
the Avesta), airya; old Persian (West Iranian, the language of the
inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes), ariya, properly, the truly devoted,
designates in the first place the people of (their) own race; then the
governing classes, the rulers; cf. Hdt. 7, 62:
The word is also found as
in Graecized Iranian proper names, e.g., = old
Pers. Ariyaramna. Moreover, that the Celts (the Irish) in olden
times also called themselves Arya, that this group of words still exists
in the Celtic (Airem = Aryaman, Erin [gen. Erenn] = Aryana, aire
[gen. airech] = aryaka: princeps, primus, airechas: principatus), and
that ' Aryan' is a thoroughly justifiable designation for 'Indoger-
manic,' is proved minutely by I I . Zimmer, in Bezzenberger's Beitrage,
3, 137-151. [See now especially A. F. Pott on the word in the
Internationale Zeitsch. fur Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, vol. 2, p.
105 ff., Leipzig 1885.]
38. The older Indian chronology presents great difficulties. The
determination of the Vedic period must be deduced from the histories
of the various literatures which lie between the hymns and the fixed
dates of Buddhism, from the difference in language and in the reli-
gious and social views between the former and latter, and can there-
fore a p p r o x i m a t e the t r u e p e r i o d o n l y by c e n t u r i e s .
The estimates in Bunsen, Aegypten's Stellung in der Weltge-
schichte, V, 4, 5, 211. 225 f., are too high ; N. L. Westergaard refrains
from any chronological determinations, Ueber den altesten Zeitraum
der indischen Geschichte mit Rùcksicht auf die Literatur, Breslau
1862, pp. 14, 93; cf. Ludw. Rv. 3, 183 f.
Miiller, ASL. 572, hesitatingly placed the beginning of Vedic litera-
ture at 1200 B.C. ("We can do so only under the supposition that
during the early periods of the history the growth of the human
mind was more luxuriant than in later times, and that the layers of
thought were formed less slowly in the primary than in the tertiary
ages of the world"), and Whitney, OLSt. 1, 78, says concerning this:
" To this date no one will deny, at least, the merit of extreme modesty
and caution "; similar judgments were expressed by Wilson and Bar-
thelemy St. Hilaire; cf. Lassen, I A . 1, 862-874. Mùller himself after-
110 T H E RIGVEDA.

ward called this estimate too low (cf. Rigveda Sanhita, vol. I V . ,
Preface, p. v i i i f . ; according to p. lxxviii, Sâyana lived [about 1350
A . D . : see Note 27] " t h i r t y c e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e r i s h i s " ) , and
then (Chips, 1, 11) named the period from
1 5 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 B . C . as the period of composition of the Vedic hymns;
similarly A. Weber, who has repeatedly {e.g. TStr. 1, 6; I n d . Skizzen,
pp. 14, 40, 43) placed the migration into the Indus-land in the 16th
century B.C., but cf. H I L . p. 2, note 2; Spiegel {e.g. Ausland 1874,
p. 31), Duncker, Geschichte des Altert. 3, 24. 5, etc. — The period
from
2 4 0 0 - 1 4 0 0 B.C. is considered by Haug as the period of the pro-
duction of the Vedic hymns (Introd. to the A i t . Brahm. 1, 47 f . ; cf.
Die funf Gatha's Zarathustra's, vol. 2, 244).
An estimate which, if we take everything into account, is cer-
t a i n l y n o t t o o h i g h , and which has the greatest claims to proba-
bility, is that of Whitney, OLSt. 1, 21, and elsewhere, of
2000-1500 B . C , the first h a l f of the second t h o u s a n d
y e a r s B.C.; cf. his note on Colebrooke's Misc. Essays, ed. Cowell, 1,
124 ("somewhere between 2000 and 1000 B . C . " ; and his Life and
Growth of Lang. p. 180: " T h e period of the oldest hymns . . .was
probably nearly, or quite, 2000 B.C."); and in his Sanskrit Gram.
1870, Introd. p. x i i i : " I t may have been as early as 2000 B.C." SO
Benfey (GdSpr. COO: " I t can hardly be doubted that the most
eastern branch had their abode on the Indus as early as 2000 years
before our e r a " ) ; F. Midler ( A l l g . Ethnogr. 2 1879, p. 512: "Between
2000 and 1500"; cf. p. 88 *** and p. 509), etc.
39. [ G e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n : Vivien de St. M a r t i n , Etudes
sur la gdographie du Veda; Ludw. Rv. 3, 197 ff. Zimmer believes the
eastern sea was not known ( A I L . 27), but we have a trace of it in R V .
10, 130, a late hymn.]
R i v e r s : after Zimmer, A I L . 32, w i t h p. 16. 6 ( R V . 7, 95, 1. 2),
and p. 27. Thomas, The Rivers of the Veda, and how the Aryans en-
tered India, JRAS. 14, 4.
S i n d h u : the ' stream' The Greek form * is de-
rived through the Iranian Hindu; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 6, 20, 71, knows
that Indus incolis Sindus appellatus. To the Indus also belongs, for the
most part, the designation sam-udra, 'gathering of waters' ( n o t to
the ocean) ; and in the same way it is the much-praised S a r a s v a t i
( ' r i c h in water'), not the small, in later times most sacred, stream in
Madhyadeca: see Zimmer, pp. 5-10.
K u b h a : 'bending,' among the Greeks.
S u v a s t u : ' having beautiful places,'
K r u m u and G o m a t i : ' r i c h in cattle,' not mentioned by the
ancients.
 NOTES. 111
V i t a s t a : 'stretched out,' (Ptolemy, , now
Bihat or Jihlam.
A s i k n i : 'black,' called by the natives at the time of Alexander's
arrival Candrabhaya ('moon portion'), which name in Greek dress
had to assume the ominous form It was, therefore,
natural that the Macedonian conqueror should re-christen the ' Alex-
ander-devourer,' and he named it, evidently w i t h an intelligent use of
the older name, Asikni, the ' H e a l i n g ' :
(llesychius. Roth,
Z L G W . 139). Alexander's innovation obtained a foothold so that
the name displaced by it is known, among all the ancient writers, by
Ptolemy alone, 7, 1, 23: (the Mss. wrongly
Pliny, Xat. Hist. G, 20, 71, Cantabast): the river is now called Cimib:
'gathered water' (if. A r r . A n . 0, 15, 4. Ind. 4, 20).
P a r u s n i : ' arundinosa,' the later
I r a v a t i : 'giving drink,' in Arriuu (with distinct reference to
in Strabo, f in Ptolemy, ' now
Ratri.
V i p a c , later, Vipaea: 'fetterless,' in Arrian, ' in Pliny,
Hypasis; in Ptolemy, now Beyah or Bias; the variant"
in Strabo, Diod. and others is wrong, and undoubtedly to be
changed.
C u t u d r i , changed later by popular etymology into Catadru,
' Hundred-course '; in Ptol., (var. , in Pliny, (5,17,
63, Sydrus; Megasthenes must also have mentioned it, for the most
complete description of the river-system of those regions, originating
with that author, in A r r . Ind. 4, 8 f., comes into proper order only if

is read in that passage, as Lassen, I A. I' 2 , 57 f, observes.

Yamuna: in Ptol. 7, 1, 20, domains in Pliny, corrupted
to ' in A r r . I n d . 8, 5, and elsewhere.
[The G a n g e s , which in later times became the backbone of
India, is not mentioned in the Rig, except 10, 75, 5.]
40. Climate, soil and products of the mineral, vegetable and ani-
mal kingdoms: Zimmer, A I L . 40-99; cf. Jbb. 121, 430-442.
4 1 . Dwelling: Zimmer, A I L . 148-156 ; quotation from p. 153 f.
42. Settlement: Zimmer, A I L . 145-148; certainly correct as op-
posed to the acceptation, resting upon an etymological anachronism,
of " c i t i e s " (pur is r a d i c a l l y identical with ,v ) among Aryans
and aborigines.
43. Cattle-raising: Zimmer, A I L . 221-225; ' a l l good,' etc., R V .
3, 30, 14.
44. Agriculture, chase : Zimmer, A I L . 235-245.
112 THE RIGVEDA.

45. Food: Zimmer, A I L . 275-282-, quotation from p. 272.

46. Occupations : Zimmer, A I L . 245-260. — The cow as monetary
unit (cf. • " " : Weber, IStr. 1, 101. — ' A c t i v e
tradesmen' : 5, 45, 6), in Ludw. Rv. 3, 213 f., ' wander-
ing tradesmen.'—Usurers: 8, 55, 10. — M i n a : wand, w i t h the Greeks
: 8, 67, 2. —Trade w i t h the west: see Weber, H I L . p. 2 f. f
Note 2. O p h i r also was in India, whence K i n g Solomon got "many
hundredweight of gold and silver, sandalwood, precious stones, as
well as apes and peacocks "; cf. Jbb. 121, 440 f.
47. F a m i l y : Zimmer, A I L . 305-318. Wedding, induction of the
wife into the new house, above p. 75 f. ' Home, darling abode,
bliss' (asla yoni surdna) : 3, 53, 4, 6. — Morning prayers (purvahuti) :
1, 122, 2; 10, 86, 10: " F r o m former times the wife comes to the
common sacrifice and to the assembly of the feast, she t h e c h e r -
isher of the rite."
48. M o n o g a m y , P o l y g a m y : Zimmer, A I L . 323-326. — Mar-
riage of blood relations is considered immoral and reprehensible : see
10, 10 (142 ff.). —Adopted children: 7, 4, 7 : " T h a t is not (real) pos-
terity which is begotten by another." — B i r t h of a g i r l : A V . 6,11, 3:
" The birth of a g i r l , grant it elsewhere; here grant a boy."
49. The right to expose new-born children was possessed by the
father among the Indians (exposure is evidenced in the Yajus texts,
though not indeed in the I I V . and A V . : Weber, ISt. 5, 54. 260.
Zimmer, A I L . 310 f.) as well as among the Greeks (Schomann, Griech.
Altert. 1³ 531. 113. Becker, Charikles 28, 22 ff.), Romans (Marquardt,
Privatleben der Romer, 1, p. 3, Note 1, p. 81), and Germans, among
which last people, after the b i r t h of a child, the father decided on its
life by raising it up from the place where the mother had given birth
to it (Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt. p. 455 f.; Weinhold, Deutsche
Frauen, p. 75 f.; Altnord. Leben, p. 260 i f . ) .
50. Treatment of the A g e d : " Among the G e r m a n s , when the
master of the house was over sixty years old, if the signs of the
weakness of age were of such a character that he 'no longer had
the power to walk or stand, and to ride unassisted and unsupported,
with collected mind, free w i l l and good sense,' he was obliged to give
over his authority to his son, and to perform menial service; then old
men might be made by hard sons and cruel grandsons to expiate
painfully the love and gentleness they had neglected in their more
powerful days; those who had grown useless and burdensome were
even either killed outright, or exposed and abandoned to death by
starvation (Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt. p. 487 f f . ; Haupt's Zeit-
schrift fur Deutsch. Altert. 5, 72; W. Wackernagel, Kleine Schriften,
 NOTES. 113
1,15-17; Weinhold, A l t n o r d . Leben, p. 473 f . ) . We have to imagine
exactly similar conditions among the I n d i a n s , when the texts speak
of ' the divided possessions of an old father/ and of * old men
exposed' (Ziminer, A I L . 326-328), and this the more, because exactly
similar things are told by the attendants of Alexander the Great of
I r a n i a n tribes,* and even among the R o m a n s there was a period
when old men over sixty were thrown down from the bridge into the
Tiber. , , † Jbb. 121, 459.
5 1 . B u r n i n g o f W i d o w s : Zimmer, A I L . 328-4331; Fleckeisen's
Jbb. 121, 460; R V . 10, 18, 7 (above p. 77) w i t h Note 328. — A V . 18,
3, 1 proves the death of the wife w i t h her departed husband as an
old custom (dharma purana — But that this custom was not general,
other passages beside R V . 10, 18, 7 show, which prove the re-marriage
of the widow ( A V . 9, 5, 27, —- with her brother-in-law: R V . 10, 40,
2: l e v i r a t e m a r r i a g e ) , and that the usage only received decided
sanction in late times, is evident from the fact that " the Indian law
literature, from the oldest times up to the late period, treats fully of
the w i d o w ' s r i g h t of i n h e r i t a n c e , and that the isolated refer-
ences to the burning of widows in some of the law-books endorse it
only as a matter of choice." J. Jolly, Augsb. A l l g . Ztg. 1879, Sup-
plement 199, p. 2914; cf. the same in the Mùchener Sitzungsber.
1876, p. 447 f. [See Colebrooke, On the Duties of a Faithful H i n d u
Widow, Misc. Essays, 1, p. 133 f f . ]
52. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere, 8 p. 473.
53. Zimmer, A I L . 331-336.— Fickleness, etc.: above, p. 85, w i t h
Note 351. — Sons of unmarried women : cf. 4, 19, 9 (67) and 4, 30, 16
(74). — Fallen women: 2, 29, 1: " P u t guilt away far from me, as a
woman secretly giving birth " (puts away the child). [Roth, The Mo-
rality of the Veda, JAOS. 3, 331-347.]
54. S t a t e : Zimmer, A I L . 158-162. Ludw. Rv. 3, 248 f. — The
Aryan tribes : Zimmer, A I L . 119-138. 430 f.; Ludw. Rv. 3, 167 f. 204

* Hehn, Kulturpflanzen, p. 472 ff. Strabo 11, 11, 3, p. 517, says of the Bac-
trians:

ibid. 11,11,8, p. 520, of the Caspians: • • ' - — • - -

ibid. 11,8, 6 p. 513 of the Massagetes.
†Festus {cf. Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt. p. 480, 8; W. Wackernagel, Kleine
Schriften, 1, 17; Hehn, Kulturpflanzen, above): depontani appellabantur qui
sexagenarii de ponte deiciebantur, and s e x a g e n a r i o s de ponte olim deiciebant,
etc.: Cic. pro 8. Roscio 35, 100: habeo etiam dicero quem contra morcm mal-
orum minorem LX annis de ponte in Tiberim deiecerit. The matter was
repellant to the patriotism of Varro and others, and they tried to argue it
away; see Ossenbriiggen, Introd. to the oration, pp. 45-58.
114 THE RIGVEDA.

f. — Order of battle: Tac. Germ. 7 : quodque praecipuum fortitudinis

incitamentum est, non casus nee fortuita d hglobatio turmam aut cu-
neum facit, sed f a m i l i a e et p r o p i n q u i t a t e s . N e s t o r i n I I o m . i l .
2, 3621 :

55. Government: Zimmer, A I L . 162-177. Ludw. Rv. 3, 249-256.

56. Origin of the Castes: Zimmer,*AIL. 185-102, cf. Ludw. Kv, 3,
216-247. Zimmer graphically describes, p. 103-204, the gradual
transition to the new hierarchical order, and pp. 204-220 this new
form of the state itself; — The f o u r castes are mentioned only in
the late verse 10, 00, 12 (Note 375d). [ M u i r and Zimmer deny the ex-
istence of the caste system in the Veda, while Ludwig asserts it (Rv.
3,216 I f . ) . The questions of n a m e and f a c t should be kept sepa-
rate. The system is distinctly enunciated only as stated above, but
many passages seem to point clearly to its existence, as e.G. 8, 35,16,
17, 18, where the classes are d e s i g n a t e d almost certainly: " M a y
the Brahma (potentiality of holiness) prosper . . . may the ksatra
(quality of warrior) prosper . . . may the cows (special possession of
the Vaicya) prosper," etc. Zimmer, treating the subject of caste in
connection w i t h the purohita ( A I L . 105 f.), evidences l a t e r condi-
tions as proof of its non-existence in the V e d i c period.]
57. Law and administration of justice : Zimmer, ATL. 177-185.—
Ordeal ( i n exactly the same form as among the Greeks) : Jbb. 121,
440; cf. E. Schlagintweit, Die Gottesurtheile der Juden. Mùnchen
1866. — Banishment: para-vr/\ radically identical with Old Sax. icrek-
kiof Old High Germ, reecho, New High Germ. Recke.
58. After 10, 117 (155 f.) and 10, 71, 6 (163).
59. Village assembly (sabhu: related to Germ. Sippe): Zimmer,
A T L . 172 f. * Sift their words': 10, 71, 2 (162). Dice: 2, 20, 5;
5, 85, 8 ( 5 ) ; 7, 86, 6 ( 7 ) ; 10, 34 (158), above p. 83 f.; Zimmer,
A I L . 283 f. (quotation from p. 283), where the little that is known
about the arrangement of the game is adduced; cf Jolly, Augsb.
A l l g . Ztg. 1879, Supplement 199, p. 2914.
60. Zimmer, A I L . 287 f.
6 1 . Zimmer, A I L . 289 f. The hymn 8, 69 is the prayer of a char-
ioteer for victory before the race.
62. The Dasyus: Zimmer, A I L . 101 f.; Ludw. Rv. 3,207 f.; their
tribes: Zimmer, A I L . 118 f. They seem to have been designated
Phallus-worshippers (cicnarfeva): Ludw. Rv. 3, 212; for the aaro/xot
and appives in Megasthenes: Jbb. 121, 443 f.
63. War, weapons: Zimmer, A I L . 293-301. — I n the so-called
"Weapon song," 6, 75, a number of verses in praise of weapons (coat
 NOTES. 115
of mail, bow, bowstring, arrow, etc.) are put together; freely imitated
by Muir, OST. 5, 469 f., M T r . p. 195 f.
64. W r i t i n g , its use: For the (not consistent) statements of
Strabo (after Nearchus and Megasthenes) concerning the use of writ-
ing, see A. Weber, Iudische Skizzen, p. 131 f.— It may now be con-
sidered as proved that the Vedic texts were for a long time transmit-
ted orally, and were only at a comparatively late date fixed in a
written form (cf. Note 70), that the Indian alphabets are of Semitic
origin, and that the application of writing to l i t e r a r y uses arose
chiefly w i t h Buddhism ; cf. Benfey, Indien. p. 240, Einleit. in die
Gram, der ved. Sprache. p. 31 (Gbtt. Abhandl. vol. 10. 1874); A.
Weber, ISt. 5, 18 f., IStr. 2, 330 f.; 3, 342. 341) f.; Haug, Wesen und
Wert des ved. Accents, p. 10 f.; Zimmer, A I L . 347 f.
65. Numbers, measures: The highest number fixed is a hundred
thousand (catd sahasra); as a common miracle of Indra's and Visnu's
the division of the number 1000 by three is praised (0, GO, 8). See
Zimmer, A I L . 318; for later Vedic time, A. Weber, ZDMO. 15, 135 f.
= IStr. 1, 05.
The term sdmi, half • Curtius, Grdz. n. 453), as
well as the numbers up to 100
Curtius, Grdz. n. 18), are known to have belonged to the original
tongue, while for 1000 Asiatics and Greeks on the one hand (Skt. sa-
hasria, East Iran, ha-zawr-a, Aeol. f r o m " '"..'"!
and the Northern Europeans on the other ( L i t h . ti'ihstajilis, old Prus-
sian tusirntons, old Slav. tysxSta, Goth, thusaitdi: J. Schmidt, Verwandt
schaftsverhiiltnisse der Idg. Sprachen. 1872, pp. 10, 52), had a common
term, while the Italians and Celts stand alone (rnille, mile).
66. Zimmer, A I L . 357 f.; cf above p. 27 f. with Note 01. — The
childish conceptions of the Brahmanas: A. Weber, TSt. 0, 358 f.
67. Zimmer, A I L . 349-357. — P l e i a d e s : 1, 24, 10 (above pp. 27.
64) and 10, 82, 2. See the explanation of the statement of l)io Chry-
sostomos 2, 303 Em p.
(sc. ~ * " ) by Weber, ISt. 2, 105. — S i r i u s : Skt. tisya — olcl
Bact. tistrya. — The f i v e p l a n e t s , Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, and the frequently mentioned N a k s a t r a s or lunar stations,
are known to the youngest portions of the Veda, their names only to
the Taitt. Sanh. and the Atharvaveda (Zimmer, ATL. 353-350, w i t h
M. Miiller and Ludwig, Nachrichten, p. 4- Rv. 3, 183 f. in opposition
to Weber). The knowledge of the planets as well as of the Naksa-
tras is ( w i t h Weber and Zimmer) not to be held as indigenous in
India but as imported from Babylonia. [Whitney, JAOS. 8, 72 ff.
382 ff.; OLSt. 2,341-421; note on Colebrooke, Misc. Essays, p. 126 ff.]
116 THE RIGVEDA.

— E c l i p s e of t h e S u n : 10, 27, 20; cf 5, 40, 5-9 [see Whitney,

A m . Or. Soc. Proc. Oct. 1 8 8 5 ] . — L u n a r Phases mentioned in 2, 42.
68. I n t e r c a l a r y d a y s , m o n t h : Zimmer, A I L . 366 f . The
year was regulated, even in the Indo-Germanic period, by the inser-
tion of the " twelve days," or according to the older expression " twelve
nights."* ( A . Weber, Omina und Portenta, Berlin A k a d . A b h d l .
1858, p. 388 = I S t . 10, 242); mentioned in the Rigveda: 4, 33, 7 (122)
and /, 161, 11. 13 (119), cf above p. 37.* The intercalary month
" born after " is mentioned in 1, 25, 8, above p. 64 and Note 250. —
D i v i s i o n o f t h e y e a r : Zimmer, A I L . 371 f . (Jbb. 121,464). I n
the Vedic period the threefold division predominates; in later times
(i.e. in dwelling-places situated more to the southeast) five, six, or
seven seasons were distinguished.
69. Medical art: Zimmer, A I L . 374-399. — 1 , 116, 15 (above p.
50 w i t h Note 180) seems to point to a knowledge of the first elements
of s u r g e r y .
70. Above p. 66 f.
7 1 . In the manuscripts a purely external, uniform division, origi-
nating in the practical necessities of the school, is presented, by which
the whole is divided into eighths (astaka), each of these into eight
subdivisions (adhydya, lessons), these into sections of about five verses
each (yarga). — This division, formerly used in quoting, has been gen-
erally abandoned since Roth, Z L G W . p. 5 f. brought to light the orig-
inal division into books (chapters) and hymns (mandala [anuvdka],
sukta).
72. After 8, 48 the Mss. present eleven hymns from another recen-
sion (the Vdlakhilya), which by Mùller and in Aufrecht's second
edition are numbered w i t h the others, in Aufrecht's first edition are
consigned to the end; there are, besides, a number of scattered "sup-
plements" (khila), which are now collected in Aufrecht's second
edition of the text, vol. 2, 672-688.
The V ask al a-c ak h amentioned beside the Qakala-cakhacontained
further hymns, and seems to stand in closer relations to the Qauk-
hayana texts (note 14 a, 1; 23 a, 1; 24,1) and to the Brhaddevata (Note
26) : see Weber, H I L . 314 f.
73. R e l a t i v e a g e o f the separate books: H. Brunnhofer, Ueber
Dialektspuren im vedischen Gebrauche der Infinitivformen, K Z . 25,
329-377, publishes the first very valuable attempt to collect the i n d i -
cations of the Vedic language (especially the uses of the various
infinitival formations) in a methodical manner for the determination
* The Indians, like the Germans and other related tribes (cf. e.g. Tac. Germ.
11 and Caes. B. G. 6, 18), in the oldest times reckoned not by days, but by
n i g h t s : Zimmer, AIL. 360 (Jbb. 121, 463).
 NOTES. 117
of the relative age of the various collections of hymns (family books,
etc.). He gets the following c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r of the families
of singers:
1. Gautamas: Mand. 4 (principal poet Vamadeva).
2. Bharadvajas : Mand. 6.
3. Vasisthas: Mand. 7.
4. Atreyas : Mand. 5.
5. Vaicvamitras: Mand. 3.
6. Bhargavas : Mand. 2 (principal poet Grtsamada).
7. Angirasas: portions of Mand. 1. 8. 9. 10.
8. Kanvas: portions of Mand. 1. 8. 9.
[Lanman, Noun-Inflection, p. 580 (the relative frequency of ancient
and modern equivalent grammatical forms as a criterion of the age
of different Vedic texts), reaches a different result for Book 8:
" . . . The result is, that the family books 2-7 are, in general, of
about the same age. . . . As between Books 8, 9, 7, and 10, a rude
chronological arrangement may be made. . . . Our result indicates
that the eighth i s o l d e r t h a n t h e o t h e r f a m i l y B o o k s . " ]
The p o e t ' s n a m e s handed down for books 2-8 may, in general,
be correct; yet even here, but especially in the later books, it is evi-
dent that many of them have simply been got out of the hymns by
ingenuity, of which we have examples enough in other literatures.
[E.g. 5, 1 the real author is Gavistira, as appears from v. 12; and the
Anukraman! gives this name, but also gives Buddha from abodhi v. 1.]
— As yet the only copious collections and investigations in Ludw.
Rv. 3, 100 f.
74. Arrangement of the hymns in the family books: Mùller, A S L .
461 f. — To the critique of the composition after Delbrlick, J L Z .
1875, p. 867, Grassman has given the most careful attention in his
Translation. In the case of many hymns, whose position indicates
their origin from a number of separate, originally independent pieces,
this supposition is proved by the variety of metre, or by the occur-
rence of the separate pieces in the Samaveda.
[ D i m i n i s h i n g o r d e r of v e r s e s : violations of the law. Ex-
amining the exceptions to the rule in e.g. Book 7, we find
I N ORDER. HYS. EXCEPTIONS.
Agni-group 1-14 . . . 15-17
Indra 18-30 . . . 31-33
Vicve devas 34-54 . . . 55
Maruts 56-58 . . . 59
Surya, Maruts, and Varuna . . . . 60-65 . . . 66
Acvins 67-73 . . . 74
Usas 75-80 . . . 81
118 THE RIGVEDA.

i.e. all violations of the law occurring at the end of the group. If
we assume that the hymns are in their proper places, having originally
had a different number of verses, why should these violations not be
found in other parts of the groups? The probable explanation is,
that the shortest hymns, which stand at the end of each group, were
at some time, through whim or misunderstanding, combined. So
Grassmann, Delbruck and Oldenberg (Rigveda Sanhita and Sainave-
darcikam. Z D M G . 38, 439-480)].
75. M. Mùller, Chips 1, 13 : " A n d thus we are brought to 1100 or
1200 n.c. as the earliest time when we may suppose the collection of
the Vedic hymns to have been finished"; ibid. p. 15: " I f , therefore,
the years from about 1000 to 800 B.C. are assigned to this collecting
age," so A S L . 497, cf Whitney, OLSt. 1, 78 f.; on the other hand,
Mùller, OGR. 210. [347: " If we put that collection at about 1000
B.C., we shall not, I believe, expose ourselves to any damaging criti-
cism."]
The sage V y u s a ('separating, dividing'), whom the Indian tradi-
tion names as the collector, is the personification of the whole period
and activity of collection.
76. T r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e t e x t : cf. Whitney, On the History
of the Vedic Texts, JAGS. 4, 245-201; Ludw. Rv. 3, 70-99. That
the w r i t t e n fixation could not have taken place until a much later
period {cf A . Weber, I I I L . 22, 10) from what has been said, p. 20
and Note 04, is self-evident, cf Roth, K Z . 20, 53 f.
Concerning the o r a l transmission, cf Mùller, ASL. 503 f.,Wester-
gaard, Ueber den altesten Zeitraum ind. Gesch. pp. 30-51. The method
of instruction in the schools is treated (according to the Praticakhyas
and Grhyasutras) by Weber, ISt. 10, 128-135; the statements of the
Rig Pratic. concerning the memorizing method are given by Weber,
I.e. p. 129, Zimmer, A I L . 210 (Jbb. 121, 451), and Mùller, OGR.
160 if. [see Whitney, OLSt. 1, 82-88]. OGR. 163-172, is given an in-
teresting account of the present method of Vedic study; cf. also
Haug's account of the enormous memory of the Brahmans to-day, in
his essay, Brahma und die Brahmanen, Munich 1871, p. 21, and 47,
17.
The o n l y possible alterations are interpolations; cf Note 79 6.
77. It is a peculiarity of the Sanskrit that adjoining words in a
sentence are united w i t h each other according to certain laws, by
which their initial and final portions are subjected to various changes
through assimilation, elision, etc., which naturally cause difficulties
in understanding; these it was sought to obviate by fixing the text,
not only in the ordinary connected form (Sanhitti-patha), but also in an
unconnected (Pada-patha, word-text), which gave the separate words as
 NOTES. 119
each originally appeared, i n d e p e n d e n t l y ; thus we have presented
to us in the Pada-patha one of the first exegetical works. [Roth, Von
Pada und Samhita, K Z . NS. 6 (26), pp. 45-62.] But soon the two
pathas named appeared no longer sufficient; new ones were made, in
part very complicated, in order to make every alteration of the sacred
text absolutely impossible. Three of these forms of the text may be
mentioned:
The Kramapatha ('step-text') puts each word of the Padapatha
twice: first, in connection w i t h the preceding words; next, w i t h the
succeeding, so that the order abed gives the Krama members
ab. be. cd; the Krama is treated by the Upalekha (ed. Pertsch, Berlin
1854); Roth, Z L G W . 83 f.; Thibaut, Das Jatapatala, Leipzig 1870, p.
36 f. .
The Jatdpatha (' the woven t e x t ' ) exhibits each Krama member
three times, the second time in reversed order: ah. ba. ab \ bc. cb. be \
cd. dc. cd | ; the Jata is treated in the Jatapatala, herausgegeben,
ubersetzt und m i t Aumerkungen versehen von G. Thibaut, Leipzig
1870.
The Ghanapatha shows the order: ab. ba. abc. cba. abc \ be. cb. bed.
deb. be \ be. cb. bed. deb. bed |, etc.; for the Ghana, see Haug, Wesen
und Werth des vedischen Accents, Munich 1874, p. 58; Bhandarkar
in Mùller, OGR. 169 f.
Senseless as such endless repetitions are in themselves, they still
have this value for us, that they fix absolutely the wording of the
text, and in that, indeed, their purpose is accomplished.
78. It is the Praticakayas mentioned above, p. 7 and Note 20, the
real purpose of which is to exhibit exactly all alterations, which make
a retroversion of the Padapatha to the Sanhitaputha necessary. Whit-
ney, JAOS. 4, 259.
79a. E r r a t i c p o r t i o n s are often placed in their connection
through conjecture, on account of external accordance of individual
similar words, etc.; sometimes a number of other verses of related
contents attach themselves to an old hymn as a centre; as examples,
w i t h many of which every one familiar w i t h the text is acquainted,
cf. 1, 161 (117); 4, / 5 ( 6 2 ) ; 4, 24 (69). — 4, 18, 13, from a totally
different connection is attached, on account of lino b (nd dove'su
vivide m a r d i t a r a m ) , to stanza 12, l i n e c : Kaa te devd adhi m a r -
il ik a dsxd. In the same manner to 4, 24, 9 ( w i t h avikrito) is joined
4, 24, 10 ( w i t h krlnati'), which, by the metre alone, is proved to be
foreign: " W h o offers me ten cows for this Indra of mine? When
he has overcome the enemy he w i l l return him to me." Since this
offer — recalling 8, 1, 5: " Not even for a high price would T exchange
thee, thou that art armed w i t h sling-stones; not for thousands, not for
120 THE RIGVEDA.

myriads (of cows), not for a hundredfold price, thou w i t h hundred-

fold riches," and Arist. Pax. 848:
— is hardly conceivable without an image or some symbol of the god,
the verse shows itself to be v e r y young; for i m a g e s of t h e g o d s
are foreign to the old Vedic period, as Mùller rightly declares (Chips,
1, 37; the inferences of Bollensen, Z D M G . 22, 587 f., are incorrect;
cf. M u i r , OST. 5, 453 f . ) ; they f i r s t appear here and there in the
S u t r a s (e.g. Parask. grhya 3, 14, 8, and in the Kaucikasiitra, § 105),
or in secondary additions to the Brâhmanas, as in the Adbhuta-13r.
(Note 14a, 2), while at the time of Panini (p. 4), Manu and Yajna-
valkya they are very frequent. Weber, Omina und Portenta, 337,
307 f., TSt. 5, 149.
b. I n t e r p o l a t i o n s : to support doctrine, e.g. vs. 7-9 of the
hymn 4, 50 (108). 10, 97, 22 (175). 10, 107 (Note 349), and the
l i k e ; the Purusasukta 10, 90 (Note 375 tf), which a l o n e in the Rig-
veda mentions the four castes.
The six verses, 7, 59, 12; 10, 20, 1; 10, 121, 10 (Note 373), and 10,
191, 1-3, appeared to have forced themselves into the Rig-text only
after the introduction of the Padapatha, and show the Sanhita form
even in the Pada manuscripts.
80. Benfey, GdSpr. 53, finds it " probable, on many grounds, that
among the Vedic tribes the tribe of the Bharatas (cf. 3, 33, 11, 12
(134); above p. 79 and Note 334) was, or became, the most impor-
tant ; that there even was a time when the predominant language of
the Vedic hymns was called after them Bharati."
8 1 . Up to a recent time, the most convenient treatment of V e d i c
f o r m s was afforded by T h . Benfey, in his Practical Grammar of the
Sanskrit Language, 2d ed., London 1868; now W. D. Whitney's
Sanskrit Grammar, London 1879 (German by I I . Zimmer, Leipzig
1879), treats the language of the Sanhitas and Bruhmanas, as well as
the Sanskrit, on the foundation of the t e x t s themselves.
W i t h a view to a V e d i c g r a m m a r on a large scale, Benfey pub-
lished a number of preliminary labors (especially in the Gbttinger
Abhandlungen, Anzeigen und Nachrichten); in addition, the follow-
ing monographs, relating to Vedic morphology, may be mentioned:
a. The A c c e n t u a t i o n first really became known through the
Veda, since the post-Vedic texts (above p. 5) are not accented, and
the meagre grammatical remains were for a long time the sources of
information. " Das Accentuationssystem des altindischen Nominal-
compositums" is treated by It. Garbe, K Z . 23, 470-518; the " Accents-
gesetze der Homerischen Nominalcomposita " are described and com-
pared w i t h those of the Veda by Leopold Schroder, K Z . 24, 101-128;
Haskell, On the Accentuation of the Vocative case in the Rig- and
 NOTES. 121
Atharva-Vedas, JAOS. 11, 57 ff.; for the verbal accent, cf. Note 84.
[Whitney, On the Nature and Designation of the Accent, A m . Phil.
Ass. Trans., vol. 1, p. 20; Bollensen, Die Betonungssysteme des Rig-
und Samaveda, Z D M G , 35, 456 f f . ]
b. W o r d - f o r m a t i o n : See the valuable survey of the vocabulary
of the Rigveda, arranged according to the e n d i n g , the suffixes, in
GrassmamYs Wbrterbuch zum Rigveda, Leipzig 1873, column 1687-
1740, and B. Lindner's Altindische Nominalbildung, Jena 1878.
"Whitney, The Roots, Verb-forms and Primary Derivatives of the
Sanskrit Language (supplement to his grammar), Leipzig 1885.
c. D e c l e n s i o n : On Noun-Inflection in the Veda. By Ch. Lan-
man, New Haven 1880 (JAOS. 10, 325-601).
d. C o n j u g a t i o n : Das altindische Verbum aus den Ilymnen des
Rigveda seinem Bau nach dargestellt von B. Delbruck, Halle 1874
(cf. Avery in JAOS. 10, 210-324). Avery, The Unaugmented Verb-
forms of the Rig and Atharva-vedas. JAOS. 11 (1885), 326-361.
[Whitney, Numerical Results from Indexes of Skt. Tense and Conj.-
stems. A m . Or. Soc. Proc. May 1885; The system of the Skt. verb.
A m . Phil. Ass. Proc. July 1876; Bloomfield, on Differences of use in
Present systems from the same Root in the Veda. A m . Or. Soc. Proc.
Oct. 1882; Whitney, Derivative Conjugations, A m . Or. Soc. Proc. May
1878; Lanman, on Multiform Presents, A m . Or. Soc. Proc. May 1885,
etc.].
To indicate the great wealth of F o r m s the following fact from
the verbal inflection w i l l suffice: While Greek, admittedly the richest
in forms of all the European languages, in the finite verb shows 68
forms from the Present stem (Curtius, Verbum, vol. 1, 4), here the
single root IT (make), which is indeed exceptionally far developed,
s h o w s w i t h i n t h e same l i m i t s no less than 336 forms; to these
further belong stems of the Perfect ( w i t h an augment-tense, the so-
called Pluperfect), of the Aorist w i t h s, of the Future with s, of the
Optative w i t h s; further, each a Passive, Causative, Desiderative and
Intensive stem; and finally as Infinitive, Verbal noun, t e n fully de-
clinable Participles and four Infinitives (Delbruck, I.e. p. 15); the
extraordinary wealth of Infinitive forms is now shown (cf Delbruck,
pp. 221-228) most clearly by Brunnhofer, K Z . 25, 332 f. (Note 376).

82. P o e t r y o f t h e o l d I n d o - G e r m a n i e p e r i o d . A s was
stated in Note 12, A. K u h n has proved that even the oldest period
" had elaborated the contents of charms designed for certain purposes
into a settled form and in them possessed a k i n d of poetry "; concern-
ing the metrical form, the verse of that poetry, Note 85 (after West-
phal and Allen) gives fuller information. Further, Heinzel (Ueber
den Stil der altgermanischen Poesie. Strassburg 1875) has pointed
122 T H E RIGVEDA.

out that the most essential forms of the poetical style, "which are com*
mon to the Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon and Old H i g h German poetry,
belong also to the Vedic hymns, and indeed his few examples (as Zim-
mer, Anzeiger fùr deutsches Altert. vol. 2 (1876), 296, observes) may
be greatly multiplied. Finally it may be mentioned that according
to Scherer (Anz. f. d. A l t . vol. 4 (1878), 100) in brahman is contained
the common name for poet and priest in the most ancient period: Skt.
brah-man = Lat. fia-men (Leo Meyer, Vergleich. Gramm. 2, 275 f.) = old
Norse brag-r, Brag-i (the god of poetry and eloquence: Grimm, M y t h ,
p. 215, 3d ed.); " w i t h the old Norse brag-na- in bragnar is compared
the Greek the earlier common priest-name
was preserved only in the guardians of the oracle at Didyma, the de-
scendants of Cf. also Note 95.

83a. Formulaic e x p r e s s i o n s and verses r e p e a t e d w i t h small

variations: collections in Aufrecht, Rigveda, 2d ed. vol. 2, p. x i i -
x x x v i i , L u d w . Rv. 3, 95-99; cf. c of this note.
b. P l a y on w o r d s : e.g. 10, 47, 1: " W e grasped thy right hand
desiring riches, O Tndra, riches-Xord of riches" (vasuyavo, vasunam),
vasunani) ; 4, 25, 4: " the manly (strong) man, manliest of men " {nare
narydya nrtamaya nrnam), and the like very often. Many of these can-
not be reproduced in translation; in 6, 24, 4 the poet plays w i t h am-
biguous derivatives of the two roots da give and da bind (damanvanto,
adamnnah, sudaman [each word may come from each root] ; 7, 41 w i t h
the various meanings of the word bhaga, which is sometimes an appel-
lative (dispenser; share, lot, fortune), sometimes the proper name of
a god granting fortune and riches (Note 227); similarly 3, 44 and 10,
96 ; 2, 18 is a play with numbers; play on the verbal forms and deriv-
atives of the root su (asavlt, asucat, prasava) and Savitar: Note 217.
Cf L. Geiger, Ursprung und Entvv. der menschl. Sprache und Ver-
nunft, vol. 1, p. 120 with p. 401, 4, and p. 129 with p. 407, 18, etc.).
[ A . Bergaigne, Les Figures de Rhdtorique dans le Rig-Veda. Paris
1880.]
c. R e f r a i n : cf. e.g. 2, 12 (58 f . ) , 1-14 always sa janasa indrah,
" h e is, ye peoples, I n d r a " ; besides 2, 15; 3, 55; 5, 6; 5, 79; 8, 4 1 ;
8, 02; 10, 133 and others; in 8, 12; 8, 35 ( 1 , 187, 8-10) aud others,
each set of three verses, i.e. each strophe has the same refrain; cf. 2,
13. Not seldom such refrains are put by the scholiasts in the wrong
place {e.g. all the verses of 9, 112 (167) and 9, 113 (110 f.) have the
absolutely foreign refrain, " O Soma, flow forth for Indra " ) , here and
there evidently in order to embrace whole groups of hymns together
(especially in Books 2, 7, 8 and 10), by which the original last lines
of the hymns may sometimes have been crowded out. The same
thing might have happened through the frequent repetition of formu-
 NOTES. 123
laic endings (galita, in the Padapatha wanting in the second and fol-
lowing positions, not repeated further) and through the solemn end-
verses of the families of singers (e.g. Bk. 7: yuyam pata svastibhih nah
nah, " Ye gods, protect us in lasting well-being"). — For the literary
significance of these repetitions, see M. Muller, L i t . Centralblatt 1876,
p. 1700.

84. Directly upon the knowledge of the Vedas rest the investi-
gations i n C o m p a r a t i v e S y n t a x , which S c h w e i z e r - S i d l e r
opened in Hofer's Zeitschrift fiir die Wissenschaft der Sprache, vol. 2,
444-456 (1848) w i t h a treatise on the Ablative, and which B. D e l -
b r i i c k especially promoted. The following books maybe mentioned
here:
a. Case: Delbriick, Ablativ, Localis, I n s t r u m e n t a l im A l t i n -
dischen, Griechischen und Deiitschen. Berlin 1867. Delbriick, De
usu dativi in carminibus ltigvedae. Halle 1867 (rewritten in K Z . 18,
81-106). Siecke, De genetivi in lingua Sanscrita, imprimis Vedica
usu. (Dissert.) Berlin 1869. The use of the Ablative in Sanskrit,
especially in the Veda, in Kuhn and Schleicher's Beitriige 8, 377-421
(1876). I I . Wenzel, Uebcr den Instrumentalis im Rigveda. Tu-
bingen 1879. C. Gaedicke, Der Accusativ im Veda. Breslau 1880.
— H. Hiibschmann, Zur Casuslehre. Munich 1875.
b. T e n s e and M o d e : Delbriick, Altindischo Tempuslehre (Syn-
taktische Forschungen of Delbriick and Windisch. vol. 2). Halle
1877. Delbriick, Der Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und Optativs im
Sanskrit und Griechischen (Synt. Forsch. vol. 1). Halle 1871. — L.
Meyer, Griech. Aoriste. Berlin 1879. Neisser, Zur vedischen Verbal-
lehre. Bezzenb. Beitr. 7, 211-241.
[Whitney, Classification of Aor. Forms, A m . Or. Soc. Proc. Oct.
1884. May 1876; The sis and sa Aorists. A m . Journ. Phil. 6, 275
i l . ; J. Avery, Modes in Relative Clauses in the Rigveda. A m . Or.
Soc. Proc. May 1881. May 1883. Bloomfield, On Certain Irregular
Vedic Subjunctives or Imperatives. A m . Journ. Phil. 5, 16-30,
etc.]
c. I n f i n i t i v e : A. Ludwig, Der Infinitiv im Veda. Prag 1871
(in connection Delbriick, K Z . 20, 212-240). Wilhelmi, De infinitivi
linguarum sanscritae, bactricae, persicae, graecae, oscae, umbricae,
latinae, goticae forma et usu. Isenaci 1873. J. Jolly, Geschichte des
Infinitivs im Indogermanischen. Mùnchen 1873.
V e r b a l A c c e n t : In the Veda the verb of the principal clause is
usually enclitic, while that of the dependent is orthotone (cf. Del-
briick, Die Altindische Wortfolge, Synt. Forsch. vol. 3, p. 77); the
same treatment, according to J. Wackernagel, KZ. 23, 457-470, was
originally usual in Greek, therefore even in the Graeco-Aryan or a
124 THE RIGVEDA.

still earlier period. For Greek, Delbriick's Grundlagen der griechis-

chen Syntax (Synt. Forsch. vol. 4). Halls1879.
[ W h i t n e y , Contributions from the Atharvaveda to the theory of
Skt. verbal accent. JAOS. 5, 385-419.]
85. Westphal has shown (Zur Vergleichenden Metrik der indo-
germanischen V biker, K Z . 9, 436-458) that the Indo-Germanic period
possessed a k i n d of poetry the metrical principle of which was the
c o u n t i n g of s y l l a b l e s . This syllabic system is found in pure
and unmodified form only in the Iranian people, in the metrical por-
tions of the A v e s t a (see K. Geldner, Ueber die Metrik des jung-
ern Avesta. Tiibingen 1877. Pref. p. vi f.). The prosody of the
Vedas shows the first advance, the transition from metre depending
only on the number of syllables to one based on q u a n t i t y , in which
the beginning still shows the stage of mere syllable-counting, while
the ending has attained prosodical fixedness. The latter in the case
of the Greeks meets us from the commencement of the literature fully
developed and as the first principle of metrical composition (as also
the metres of later Indian poetry are altogether quantitative). * But
in one point, even w i t h the Greeks, is shown a remnant of that stage,
preceding the perfected prosodical metre, upon which they anciently
stood together w i t h the Indians. Among the Indians the first half
of the Dimeter is prosodically undefined, among the Greeks the first
half of the Dipody, where the trochee may interchange w i t h spondee.
The "free base" of the Aeolians may also be referred to this stage '
(Westphal). In correction of Westphal, Allen has shown ( K Z . 24,
556-592: Ueber den Ursprung des Homerischen Versmasses) that "the
common ancestors of Germans, Indians and Iranians sang their bal-
lads in a verse which consisted of two sharply separated members, of
which each had four ictus and four light syllables; and each member
began w i t h a light syllable and closed w i t h an ictus" (p. 567). To
this verse Allen further refers the Homeric hexameter and the Italic
Saturnian verse.
The Vedic metres are described in the Anukramani (Note 26);
further details in Westphal, I.e., and Ludw. Rv. 3, 47-69 [Weber,
Metrik der Inder. ISt. vol. 8. Kuhn, Auftriige, vols. 3 and 4. Benfey,
In trod, to the Samaveda and Quantitatsverschiedenheiten in Sanh.
und Pada Text, der Veden. Abhandl. Gott. Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, 1875 ff. Bollensen, Z D M G . 22, 569 i f . ; 35, 448 ff. Olden-
berg, A l t i n d . Akhyana, Z D M G . 37, 54 ff.; Rigveda Sanhita und
Samavedarcikam, Z D M G . 38, 439 ff.; Akhyana-Hymnen im Rigveda,
Z D M G . 39, 52 ff. Haskell, On the Metres of the Rigveda, A m . Or.
Soc. Proc. May 1881 and May 1882; Lanman, Catalectic verses of
seven syllables, A m . Or. Soc. Proc. May 1880. — Brunnhofer, Ueber
den Geist der I n d . L y r i k . Leipzig 1882].
 NOTES. 125
86. F o r m a t i o n of t h e S t r o p h e : Shown in G K R . (see I n t r o d .
p. v i i i ) , and in great numbers by Grassmann in his Translation (Note
116); cf ibid. vol. 1, p. 3.
L y r i c a l D i a l o g u e : See the hymns translated in GKR. /, 165
(84); 3, 33 (132); 4, 42 (26); 10, 10 (142); 10, 51 (104); 10, 108
(78), [Oldenberg, Akhyana-Hymnen im Rigveda, Z D M G . 39, 52-90,
discusses a number of hymns of this class.]
87. Though the l a t e r time regarded the hymns as 'revealed*
(above p. 5), the poets themselves say nothing different on the point
than as is said elsewhere: " To h i m Apollo granted the gift of sing-
ing, the sweet mouth of songs, etc. (Horn. Od. 8, 44 f., 63 f.,
480 f . ; 22, 347 f.). A g n i is called 'god-given devotion,' 'inventor'
( 1 , 3 7 , 4 . - 2 , 9, 4; 6, 1, 1; 9, 91, 1 ) ; from him, who enchains the
singer's mind, come gifts of prophecy, prayers and spells: 4, 11,2. 3.
I n d r a gives the singer songs of devotion: 3, 34, 5; cf 6, 34, 1.
From V a r u n a : 1, 105, 15 in Note 253; 8, 42, 3 in Note 244.
B r h a s p a t i gives the poet the song heard by the gods: 10, 98, 7.
The intoxicated S o m a lifts his voice and awakens yearning devotion :
6, 47, 3 (ef. Eur. Baceh. 300 f . ) ; see in general the theory of revela-
tion in Muir, OST. 3, 252 f.
" G i v i n g expression to the emotions of the heart," 10, 71, 8 (163).
Chariots, clothing; 5, 29, 15; 10, 39, 14; 4, 16, 20; 1, 61, 4, and
often, — 6, 21 6 (ydd evd vidma); 1, 31, 18 (cdkti vd vidd vd); cf 6,
47, 10 : "Whatever I speak here, in reverence toward thee, receive it
graciously." — P. 25, foot-note: Mùller, OGR. p. 157.
88. After Grassman, Transl. vol. 1, p. v f. and M. Mùller, Chips, 1,
3. [Otherwise Barth, Religions of India, Pref. p. x i i i f . : " I n it (the
Veda) I recognize a literature that is pre-eminently sacerdotal, and in
no sense a popular one. Neither in the language nor in the thought
of the Rigveda have I been able to discover that quality of primitive,
natural simplicity which so many are fain to see in i t , " etc.]
89. L. Geiger, Ursprung und Entwickelung der menschlichen
Sprache und Vernunft. Stuttgart 1868, vol. 1, 119 f.; cf. vol. 2, 339:
" The Indians developed their religion to a kind of old-world classicity,
which makes it for all time the key of the religious beliefs of all man-
k i n d "; and M tiller's Origin and Growth of Religion.
90. Aufrecht, Rigveda, 2d ed., vol. 2, Pref. p. x v i i f . : 1, 62, 9;
1,180, 3; 2, 40, 2; 4, 3, 9; 6, 17, 6; 6, 44, 24; 6, 72, 4; 8, 78 (89), 7;
32,25; 3,30,14 is added by A. Bergaigne, Observations sur les Figures
de Rhetorique dans le Rigveda. Paris 1880, p. 21, 5.
9 1 . 4, 13, 5: cf. James Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman . . .
Paris 1877, p. 5 1 : " Les deux peuples sont frappc's avant tout de la
126 THE RIGVEDA.

fixite de ce ciel et de cette terre dont nn si mervejlleux e'quilibre arrete

la chute toujours imminente: • Qui a fixed ecrie le poete iranien, qui
a fixe la terre et les astres immobiles pour empecher qu'ils ne crou-
lent?' (Jacna 43, 4.) Et de l'autre versant de THimalaja rdpond le
cri du Rishi vddique: * Oh I puisse, a bas du ciel, ne jamais crouler
ce soleil' ( H V . 1, 100, 3) "; then 1, 24, 10 und 5, 85, 6 ( 5 ) . "
92. M. Miiller, OGR. 108 ff. — Rta, the ' world-ordinance,' means
first the * course,' and designates " the course of the stars eternally the
same," etc. (cf. Skt. rtu, season, and the Latin rdtus in passages like
Cic. Tusc. 5, 24, GO: quorum (siderum sc.) vagi motus rata tamen et
certa sui cursus spatia defoliant, and Nat. Deor. 2, 20, 5 1 : inaxume
vero sunt admirabiles motus earum quinque stellarum quae falso
vocantur errantes; n i h i l enim errat quod in omni aetcrnilate conservat
progressus et regressus reliquosque motus comtantis et ratos, so ibid. 2,
37, 95: in omni aeternitate ratos immutabilisque cursus); then " the
eternally unchanging order, the law in nature as in human life " {cf,
Cic. De Sen. 21, 77: sed credo deos immortalis sparsisse animos in
copora humana, ut essent qui terras tuerentur quique caelestium ordi-
nem conternplantes imitarentur eum vitae modo atque constantia, simi-
larly Nat. Deor. 2, 14, 37). —For rta, Miiller, OGR. 243 ff.; Ludw.
Rv. 3, 284 f.
93. Mensch, O.II.G. mannisco, root man, think. —10, 68, 10 (cf. 2, 24,
5 ) ; 1, 24, 8. 10; —10, 55, 5 cf. 10, 85, 18 f. in Note 319. — 1 , 62, 8;
1,113,2.3 (p. 52 ff.).
94. 8, 75, 5; " The horn of rta is stretched out far and near; rta
conquers even the mighty lighters." — 8, 28, 4 : " A s t h e g o d s w i l l ,
s o i t w i l l h a p p e n ; t h i s n o one c a n t a k e f r o m t h e m . " I n
10, 33, 7 ff. the singer speaks consolingly to Upamacravas, the son of
Kurncravana: " Mark this, my son Upamacravas, I am the singer of
thy father; if I were lord of the immortals, or even of mortals, he
who rewards me (i.e. thy father Kurucravana) should l i v e ; but no
one lives beyond the w i l l of the gods | not even i f he had
a hundred lives; s t i l l he would be separated from his companions."
95. Even the Graeco-Aryan period praised the "givers of good
things," ddtaras vasuam = see Benfey, Enstehung des
Vocativ. Gotting. Abhandh. 1872, vol. 17, 57, n. 58. Fick, Sprachein-
heit der Indogermanen Europas, p. 276. As other liturgical formulas,
which even at so early a period were peculiar to the poetry (cf. Note
82), we f i n d : show love ( ' b r i n g the wishes');
vdsu manas, good courage; cravas aksitam,
imperishable renown, etc.
96. 1 , 109, 1 : " I l o o k e d f o r t h i n s p i r i t , seeking good, o
Indra and A g n i , t o r e l a t i o n s a n d k i n s m e n ; b u t I h a v e n o
 NOTES. 127
o t h e r h e l p e r t h a n y o u ; therefore I have made you a powerful
song." 1 , 71, 7 : " N o s u s t a i n i n g a i d was v i s i b l e f o r u s
a m o n g k i n s m e n ; do t h o u , 0 A g n i , f i n d assistance for us
a m o n g t h e gods." —10, 64, 1. 2 (should adlcah "projects," be read
instead of a dicah, " into the worlds " ?).
97. 6, 9, 3 (102) and 10, 55, 5: " Look on the wisdom and great-
ness of the god (mahitvadya ~ mahitvam adya w i t h Zimrner, A I L .
349); to-day he dies who breathed yesterday " (p. 28), etc. 1, 103, 5:
" Behold this his miracle, and believe in Indra's power." 1, 102, 2
(p. 32, Note 110): " Sun and moon move on, that we may look and
believe."
98. 4, 33, 11 (122); 1, 53, 1; 8, 2, 18; 2, 20, 3. —10, 42, 4 f.;
4, 24, 2-5 (69; above p. 43 f . ) ; 10, 49, 1; 10, 160, 4 and often; cf
p. 47 f. and 79 w i t h Note 333.
99. 2, 35, 2 (kuvid asya ve'dat), 7, 15, 4 (cf. 8, 43, 24; 8, 44, 6:
agnim He sd u cravat). — '*, 53, 2 . - 8 , 6, 34; 6, 47, 14. — 5, 42, 2 . —
7, 72, 1'; 6, 49, 12.— 4, 32, 16; 3, 62, 8.
100. 10, 71, 7 (163)-7, 32, 18. 19; 8, 19, 25. 26; 8, 44, 23 cf. 8,
14, 1.2 and 1,38,4-6.
101. 1, 30, 9; 8, 69, 2. 3 ; 6, 21, 8; 3, 49, 3; 7, 29, 4. —10, 74, 6
(vavana; required, 1st sing, in spite of Delbriick, A l t i n d . Verb. p.
116).
102. 6, 46, 17; 8, 19, 5 (instead of ve'dena w i t h Roth, B R . 6, 1357,
and Grassman, Diet, and Transl.; w i t h M. Mùller, A S L . p. 205, 1
and p. 28, note, and L u d w . Rv. 1, 424 and 3, 18 f.: vedena); 8, 24,
20.
103. 1, 27, 13; 5, 69, 3; 8, 1, 29, etc.— 1, 71, 10; 1,89,9: " W h e n
our sons become fathers, — break not off our life in the midst of its
course." — 3 , 36, 10; 2, 27, 10 (22) and o f t e n . - 1, 179, 1 cf 1, 116,
25: " May I, seeing, attaining to long life, enter old age as into my
home." (Cf. p. 66 with Note 254.)
104. 10, 63, 16; 6, 51, 15; 6, 24, 10; 7, 1, 19, etc. — 6 , 22, 10; 6,
33,3; 10, 69, 6, etc.
105. W i t h this passage 2, 21, 6 used in the house ritual (Parask.
Grhyas. 1, 18, 6) cf the wish of the Greeks in the scholium (Bergk;
Poet. Gr. L y r . 8 3, 1289, 8) :
128 T H E RIGVEDA.

106. 8, 56, 18; 8, 18, 12; 8, 56, 17 (pratiyantam enasah: " t u r n i n g

about, returning from sin," repenting and expiating i t ; cf. Geldner,
K Z . 1877, NS. 4 (24), 141 f. for the analogy of this conception in the
Avesta.
107. 10, 63, 8; 8, 47, 8. — 1, 2 4 , 1 ; 10,14, 2; more in detail, p. 68
f. and Note 265-286.
108. Cf. Horn. I I . 1, 37-42 -
Od. 4, 762-765
V i r g . Aen. 9, 403 ff., and in
general, Peschel, Volkerkunde, p. 281 f., 2d ed.
109. Cf. Weber, H I L . 17 f. and Zimraer, A I L . 191 f.
110. Brhaspati: p. 73 f. w i t h Notes 309-315; tfote 79 has already
referred to the characteristic composition 4, 50, 7-9 (108) and 10,
97, 22 (175); Weber gives the passages of the Brahmanas in I St. 10,
35f. ("Whatever Brahmana knows, he has the gods in his power,"
Vuj.-San. 3 1 , 22) ; more from the Sanhitas : Zimmer, A I L . 205 f.
111. 1, 102, 2 (Note 97); 8, 21, 14; 1, 55, 5; Hor. Ode 1, 34, 1 f.;
cf. p. 46 f. w i t h Note 163 f.
112a. D y a u s (from diw, div, " t o shine," p. 28, genet. Divas:
Zeus: Dyaiis-pitar (voc. 6, 51, 5 ) : Diespiter etc.),
named in many single verses, but without appearing in life or playing
an important part in hymn or cult. According to Bre'al and Ben fey
t h i s highest god of the ancient period in India especially was dis-
placed by I n d r a ; cf. Muir, OST. 5, 118 f. and Ludw. Rv. 3, 310 f.
Cf. now J. v. Bradke, Dyaus Asura, Ahura Mazda und die Asuras,
Halle 1885. [Mehliss, Ueber die Bedeutung des homerischen Epithe-
ton's Eisleben 1883.]
ft. W i t h Dyaus as F a t h e r of Heaven, the M o t h e r Earth Prthivi
is mentioned in many single verses, and a few later hymns are
addressed to the divine pair D y a v a p r t h i v i , in which some of the
questions mentioned on p. 87 f. concerning their origin, etc., appear.
On D y a v a p r t h i v i , cf. Muir, OST. 5, 20-34 = 00. 3, 450 f.
c. 5, 84 only is addressed to P r t h i v i ( G K R . 124; cf. A V . 12, 1,
translated by Bruce, J R A S . 1862, vol. 19, 321-337).
d. Of T r i t a w i t h the appellative A p t y a (from ap, water:
" dwelling in the water ") it is said in one passage that he carried on
the fight w i t h the demons Vrtra, Vala, and others, independently, or
as comrade of the Maruts and of Vata; in other passages he is incited
to it or assisted by Indra (e.g. 1, 187, 1; 1, 52, 5; 5, 86, 1; 10, 99, 6;
5, 54, 2; 8, 7, 24; 10, 64, 3. —10, 8, 8; 10, 48, 2; 2,11, 19) ; see Roth
in BR. and Grassmann in the Translation s.v. — For the relation of
T r i t a ( R V . 1, 158, 5: Traitana) Aptya to the Iranian Thraetana
 NOTES. 129
Athwya, Fertdun, and further to , see A. Kuhn in
Hbfer'8 Zeitschrift fur Wiss. der Sprache 1, 276-291; Benfey, Sama-
veda-Gloss. s.v. aptya and trita; Roth, Z D M G . 2, 216-230 (Die Sage
von Feridun in Indien und I r a n ) ; Spiegel, Avesta-Uebersetzung, vol.
1, 7; vol. 2, 7 1 ; Pott, K Z . 4 f 429; and especially Benfey, Gotting.
Nachricht. 1868, pp. 36-60; also Myriantheus, Die Acvin 1876, Introd.
p. x v i i f.
113. M. Mùller, A S L . 532, 546; Chips, 1, 28 (where 'Katheno-
theism' is proposed); G. Bùhler, 0 0 , 1, 227; Muir, OST. 5, 6 f. and
12 f. and 0 0 . 3, 449; Zimmer, in Z f D A . NS. 7 (19), 175; cf. Hille-
brandt, Varuna und Mitra, Breslau 1877, p. 105, and Miiller, OGR.
266, 285, 298 f. — Midler's term, Henotheism, has been adopted for the
sake of its brevity, though C. P. Tiele ( i n the notice of the first edi-
tion of the present work in the Theol. Tijdschrift 1880. Letterkundig
overzicht. Geschiedenis der Indische godsdiensten, p. 9), " deze
geleerde daarme toch m i t geheel hetzelfde bedoelt;" cf. Ludw. Rv. 3,
Introd. p. x x v i i f., and Muir, OST. 5, 412-420. [Barth, Religions of
India, p. 26. See Whitney, On the so-called Henotheism of the Veda,
Ind. A n t i q . May 1881 = A m . Or. Soc. Proc. Oct. 1881; his note on
Colebrooke's Misc. Essays, p. 110.]
114. D u a l D i v i n i t i e s : A. Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers, Ber-
l i n 1859, p. 161 f.; Hillebrandt, Varuna und Mitra, p. 98; Muller,
OGR. 297 f. — The most important are:
Agni-Soma. Indra-Pusan (Note 211).
Indra-Vayu. Indra-Visnu (Note 214).
Indra-Agni. Dyaus and Prthivi (Note 112).
Indra-Brhaspati. Soma-Rudra: 6, 74 (116 f . ) .
Indra-Soma. Indra-Varuna: 7, 82; 7, 83 (29 f . ) .
Mitra-Varuna: 1, 152; 7, 61 (13 f.) ; Note 226 f., 241.
V i c v e d e v a s : p. 74, with Note 316.
Older and newer gods: 10, 72, 3, in Note 371. Muir, OST. 5, 16 f.
Systematizing: e.g. according to the three regions; see 1, 139, 11;
3, 9, 9 in Note 117.
Classes of g o d s : The Angiras, above p. 42*; the Rudriyas, be-
longing to Rudra; the Vasus, the light, good ones; the Adityas, p.
58 ff.; the Tritas, cf. Note 112 c?; the Aptyas, the dwellers in the water,
etc.
Several gods identical: 1,164, 46, and 10,114, 5 in Note 374.
Monotheistic conception: p. 89 f. (pantheistic: A d i t i 1, 89, 10 in
Note 225).
115. Such a presentation of the V e d i c m y t h o l o g y , after de
Gubernatis' Letture sopra la Mitologia vedica. Firenze 1874, is greatly
130 THE RIGVEDA.
to be desired, but presupposes a number of special investigations,
which have as yet hardly been begun. B e r g a i g n e ' s work,
La Religion Ve'dique d'apres les Hymnes du Rigveda, Paris 1878-1883,
contains a number of correct remarks and observations on particulars,
but, according to our view, is too much dominated by preconceived
opinions, and does not even claim to offer such a presentation. The
best, most copious and reliable sources are the excellent O r i g i n a l
S a n s k r i t T e x t s on the Origin and History of the People of India,
their Religion and Institutions. Collected, translated, and illustrated
by J o h n M u i r , especially vols. 4 and 5, from which sketches of
various divinities and single hymns are repeated on pages 159-195 of
the same editor's Metrical Translations from Sanskrit Writers, Lon-
don 1879. Monographs w i l l be mentioned in connection with the
individual divinities.

116. Concerning the T r a n s l a t i o n of the Rigveda, it is to be ob-

served : that the * translation' of Langlois, Rigveda, ou livre des
hymnes, traduit du Sanscrit par M r . L a n g l o i s . Paris 1848-1859,
does not in any manner whatever deserve that title, ' that it must be
denied all authority,' has long been accepted among scholars; that in
the t i t l e : Deuxieme edition, revue, corrigce et augmentee d'un Index ana-
lytique par Ph. Ed. Foucaux. Paris 1872, the honored name of Fou-
caux has been m i s u s e d in a very strange fashion is shown by the
declaration of that scholar to Weber, L i t . Centralb. 1873, 93 f. = IStr.
3, 140 f. (" Je n'ai en aucune maniere revu le texte francais," etc.).
Concerning W i l s o n ' s Translation, which in the five volumes
published (1850-1866) reaches to R V . 8, 20, cf. p. 9 w i t h Note 28.
B e n f e y in his periodical Orient und Occident, vols. 1-3 (1860-1868)
translated R V . 1, 1-118. R V . 1, 119-130 from Benfey's remains in
Bezzenb. Btr. 7, 287-309.
Of the Rigveda-Sanhita, translated and explained by F. M a x
M u l l e r , the first (up to the present the only) volume, London 1869,
contains t w e l v e hymns of the first book to the Maruts; then fol-
lowed
Siebenzig Lieder des Rigveda, iibersetzt von K a r l G e l d n e r und
A d o l p h K a e g i , mit Beitragen von R. R o t h . Tubingen 1875.*
* Detailed reviews are known to me by Delbriick, JLZ. 1875, No. 49, Art.
764, by A. Bergaigne, Rev. crit. 1875, No. 60, 51 (II, p. 369 f., 385 f.) and by A.
Weber, JLZ. 1876, Art. 750 = IStr. 3, 440 f. —Haug's polemic (Miinchener Sitz-
ungsber, 1875, i i , 457 f.) may be disregarded (cf Note 32): concerning the one
single passage really treated, RV. 2, 28, 5 (p. 510 n.) a judge who is certainly
competent, A. Weber, expresses himself as follows, JLZ. 1876, p. 653 = IStr.
3, 458: " Bei seiner Polemik gegen die in den Siebenzig Liedern vorliegende
Uebersetzung von kham ritasja durch ' Quelle des frommen Sinnes,' wâhrend
er es selbst durch ' Wasserquelle' iibersetzt, hat Haug leider die schon von
 NOTES. 131
Der Rigveda, zum ersten Male vollstandig ins Deutsche ubersetzt
von A l f r e d L u d w i g , 2 vols. Prag. 1876; in prose, often incompre-
hensible for the layman, but valuable to the scholar; vol. 3; Die
Mantralitteratur und das alte Indien als Einleitung zur Uebersetzuiig
des Rigveda. 1878. [Vols. 4 (1881) and 5 (1880), Commentary to
the Translation.]
Rigveda. Ubersetzt und m i t kritischen und erlauternden Anmerk-
ungen versehen von H e r m a n n G r a s s m a n n . 2 vols. Leipzig
1876-77; for the most part metrical, somewhat free and occasionally
very much modernized, but as a whole successful. In regard to the
last two works, see A. Weber, J L Z . 1876, p. 650 ff. = IStr. 3, 447 ff.,
and E. Kuhn, Wissensch. Jahresber. 1877, 1, p. 93 f. (Leipzig 1880).
Single hymns, as mentioned in the following notes, have been
translated in various places, a great number of course by M u i r in the
OST.

117. On this threefold division (see Note 118) rest the statements
concerning the number of the gods, which say that there are thirty-
three of them, eleven in the heavens, eleven on the earth, and eleven
in the waters (i.e. the air, in the clouds) : 1, 139, 1 1 ; further details
in OST. 5, 9 f. and Haug, A i t . Brahm. 2, 212, n. 21. At the same
time, * three hundred, three thousand and t h i r t y and nine' gods are
also mentioned (3, 9, 9 = 10, 52, 6). "These combinations of
t h r e e must, even in the most ancient times, have been used of the
gods and things relating to them, since we find them also among the
Romans, who clung closely to such forms; Livy, 22, 10, where it is
reported concerning the expiatory sacrifices instituted after the battle
of Trasimenus: Eius causa ludi magni voti aeris trecentis triginta
tribus millibus trecentis triginta tribus triente; praeterea bubus Jovis
trecentis, multis aliis divis bubus albis atque ceteris hostiis." A.
Kuhn, K Z . 13,135; cf. ibid. 15, 223. Wolfflin on this passage of Livy
compares the prophecy in V i r g . Aen. 1, 265 ff., by which Aeneas is to
rule 3 years, lulus 33 years, and the dominion is to remain in Alba
Longa for 300 years, together 333 years to the founding of Home ; cf
Wblfflin on Livy 22, 1, 15. The sacredness of the trinity and its
frequent occurrence in popular superstitions up to the present day are
well known.

Benfey aufgewiesene Parallele mit dem zendischen ashahe khao nicht im

Gedachtnis gehabt, denn er hatte doch wohl Anstand genommen, die scholas-
tische Erklarung von rita durch ' Wasser' uns auch fur zend. asha aufzu-
drangen! " — In opposition to the orally expressed opinion of Haug, preserved
by W. Christ in JLZ. 1877, p. 472, it may suffice to refer to the preface of the
Siebenzig Lieder, p. vi and vii, Delbriick, JLZ. 1875, p. 152 f. (cf. E. Kuhn,
Wissensch. Jahresber. 1877,1, p. 92, Leipzig 1880).
132 THE RIGVEDA.

118. Roth, Z D M G . 6, 68. This-distinction between air and light

in Greece, where the poets have however quite remodeled the three-
fold division of the world Horn. I I . 15, 189 f . :
shows itself plainly in the separation
of the denser lower stratum of air w i t h clouds and mist from * that
eternally gleaming brightness, which was held to be the source of all
light and the substance of all heavenly phenomena.' (Preller.) Horn.
I I . 14, 287 f.:
Lehrs, de Arist. Stud. Horn. pp. 167-
175. — Benfey, K Z . 8, 187 f.
119. 10, 66, 9; 2, 4, 3. — Next to Indra, most of the hymns, even
if not many of very high poetical value, are addressed to A g n i , the
'Moving* (probably from aj: Lat. agr-ilis: Slav, og-nu: L i t h . wy-nis;
Lat. i g n i s ) ; M u i r , OST. 5, 190-223; M T r . 183-186; cf. Ludw. Rv.
3, 324 f.; GKR. 100 f.; /, 143; 6, 9; 10, 51. A. Kuhn, in his well-
known w o r k : Herabkunft des Feuers und des Gottertranks^ Berlin 1859,
treats of the myths named in the title.
120. 3, 1, 3; 2, 1, 3; 2, 9, 3; 3, 9, 4 ; 2, 12, 3; 1, 60, 1; 1, 93, 6;
1, 143, 2; 1, 128, 2 ; 3, 9, 5; 3, 5, 10; 1, 58, 6; 2, 4, 2, etc. — T o the
Bhrgus Kuhn, l.c. p. 21 f . ) themselves are assigned in
10, 40, 9, the preparation, in 10, 46, 2 the discovery of the fire; cf.
1, 143, 4 (100).
1 2 1 . 6, 3, 4; 2, 4, 4, and many others. The technical verb for the
act of getting fire (as an act of producing: Kuhn, l.c. p. 69 f.; on 5,
2, 1-6: A. Hillebrandt, Z D M G . 33, 248-251) is math, manth, whence
the word pra-manth-ana, which designates the stick by the turning of
which fire is rubbed out of the wood; w i t h this pramanth-ana, with-
out regard to the suffix, the Greek I I j among
the Thurians; Lykophr. 537) is identical: Kuhn, l.c. p. 17; J.
Schmidt, Vocalismus, 1871, vol. 1, 118.
122. 2, 10, 5; 1, 94, 7; 1, 24, 2; 1, 22, 10; 1, 36, 6. 15, etc.—7, 2,
1, w i t h 6, 2, 6 ; 7, 3, 3; 6, 9, 4, etc. — 7, 4, 1; 1, 128, 6; 5, 9, 1; 7, 1,
18, etc. — 1 , 74, 6; 2, 36, 4; 5, 4, 4, etc. — 1 , 36, 3, 4; 3, 11, 4 w i t h 1,
144,6; 1,44, 1 1 ; 10, 4, 2, etc.
123. 10. 51 (104 f . ) ; cf the note GKR. 106 and 10, 52; 3,9,4, etc.;
6, 9, 4; 7 , 1 1 , 1 ; /, 145, 1-5; 10, 2, 1. 3 . - 6 , 15, 3 (yajistha); 4, 3, 4
(rtacit, svadhi) ; 5, 3, 9; 1, 1, 1 ( r t v i j ) , etc.
124. 10, 2, 3-5; cf. 4, 1, 4; 4, 12, 4, and others below in Notes 259
and 261. — 7 , 9, 2; 10, 87; cf. 7, 104.
125. 6, 1, 5; 1, 189, 2 ; 10, 87, 22 f.; 3, 18, 1 ; 7, 5, 6; 1, 59, 1 ;
1, 69, 4; 4, 4, 4; 3 , 1 , 1 8 ; 7, 5, 3. 6; 1, 59, 2; 7, 6, 5; 10, 69, 6, etc.
(vicam gopati).
 NOTES. 133
126. 1,59,3; 6 , 1 3 , 1 ; 5 , 1 , 4 ; 1 0 , 7 , 3 ; 1,75,4; 6 , 1 , 5 ; 1,1,9;
3, 18, 5, etc. (vaicvctnara, grhapati, damanas, etc.).
Among the Agni-hymns, the ten so-called A p r i - s u k t a s are inter-
polated in our Rigveda, i.e. the s o n g s of i n v i t a t i o n ( 1 , 13;
1,142; 1,188; 2 , 3 ; 3 , 4 ; 5,5; 7 , 2 ; 9 , 5 ; 10,70; 10, 110), which in-
troduce the sacrifices of animals. In these l i t u r g i c a l pieces the fire
is invoked under various forms and names; the sacrificial straw, the
gates of enclosure of the place of sacrifice, and other personifications
of the acts and utensils of the sacrifice, usually to the number of ten,
and at the close one or more gods in transmitted order, are called
upon; see Roth, Nirukta, In trod. p. x x x v i f . ; explanations p. 117 f.
121-124; Muller, A S L . 463-466; Weber, ISt. 10, 89-95; Grassmann,
Transl. vol. 1, p. 6.
The hymn 3, 8 is addressed to the s a c r i f i c i a l p o s t s (yupa); to
the stones used in the pressing of the Soma (gravan)y the hymns
10, 76; 10, 94 and 10, 175 (154), and others.
127. The R b h u s : Neve, Essai sur le my the des Ribhavas, Paris
1847; cf. A. Kuhn, K Z . 4, 103 ff, and Mannhardt, Germanische
Mythen. Forschungen, Berlin 1858. — GKR. 117 f.: /, 161 and 4, 33.
T h r e e names are mentioned: Rbhu, the "adroit, skillful" (from
the root rbh, German Arb-eit) ; Vaj'a, the "stirring"; and Vibhvan, the
"capable," the artist; t h r e e seasons; above Note 68. This construc-
tion by Ludwig, Nachrichten, p. 5 = Rv. 3, 187 f.; Zimmer, A I L .
366.
128. 3, 60, 2; 1, 20, 8; /, 161, 6; 3, 60, 1 ; 4, 36, 4; 1, 110, 4.—
4, 36, I f . ; 1, 20, 3; 1, 111, 1.—-4, 33, 8; 1, 161, 6. —I, 20, 4;
/, 161, 9; 4, 33, 10; 1, 20, 2 ; 3, 60, 2; 4, 35, 5.
129. 4, 36, 3; 4, 33, 2f.; 1, 111, 1.— 1, 20, 4; 1, 110, 8; /, 161, 7;
4, 35, 5.
130. 1, 110, 2; 4, 33, 7 with /, 161, 10. 13.
131. /, 161, 1-5; 4, 33, 5. 6 (cf. 1, 20, 6; 1, 110, 3; 3, 60, 2; 1,
110, 5 ) ; 4, 33, 9; 1, 161, 14. 6; 4, 33, 2. —The custom of offering
to the Rbhus at e v e n i n g (4, 33, 11; 4, 35, 6. 7. 9) the composer of
/, 161, 8 tries to explain by telling that the Rbhus had neglected the
Soma libations at morning and noon, on which account it was pre-
served for them for the " t h i r d libation."
T v a s t a r , the l A r t i s t ' not only made the cup of the gods and I n -
dra's thunderbolt (p. 41 and Note 144), but especially he forms the
offspring in the womb of men and beasts (e.g. 10, 10, 5 (143); 10,
184, 1. — 1 , 142, 10; 2, 3, 9 . - 7 , 34, 20, etc.); so he (as the gods have
their hosts, Indra the Vasus, Rudra the Rudriyas, Varuna and A d i t i
the Adityas) has the w i v e s of t h e gods (gnas, Janayas, devanam
134 THE RIGVEDA.

patnis) for his surroundings (7, 35, .6; 10, 66t 3; /, 161, 4 (118); 2,
31, 4; 6, 50, 13 (128) ; 10, 64, 10; cf N ge 148). — Tvastar also, like
Dyaus, T r i t a and others (Note 112. 142), appears to belong to an
earlier race of gods and to have been pushed aside by the later gods.
132. V a t a (identical w i t h the Germanic W u o t a n : Zimmer,
ZfDA. NS. 7 (19), 172, 179 f. Mannhardt, ibid. 10 (22), 4) or V f c y u :
few hymns; Muir, OST. 5, 143-146, in G K R . 95: 10, 168.
" First . . . to drink the Soma ": purvapa. W i t h the foot-note St.
John 3, 8, cf. Xen. Mem. 4, 3, 14:

133. Rudra. The name is obscure even to the commentaries, and

also to modern scholars (cf B R . and Grassmann, s.v.). Miiller,
OGR. 216, interprets the 'Howler,' the Thunderer; Muir, OST. 4,
299-320 (420); cf Ludw. Rv. 3, 320 f.; GKR. 90 f . : 2, 33 and 7, 46
(6, 74 to Rudra-Soma). For the identification of Rudra w i t h A g n i
the hymns give no foundation, but A. Kuhn first recognized, and has
frequently insisted on the fact, that Rudra is essentially identical with
the Greek Apollo; see J. V. Grohmann, Apollo Smintheus und die
Bedeutung der Mouse in der Mythologie der Jndogermanen, Prag
1862, p. 4, 45 f . — R u d r a still lives, in part, in the present Hindu
Triad of gods as Civa, cf. M u i r , OST. vol. 4.
134. 2, 33, 3; 1, 43, 5; 7, 46, 2; 2, 33, 14, 11 ( A V . 11, 2, 19;
V S . 16, 9. 52); 7, 46, 1, etc. (Apollo Grohmann, K Z . 12,
70).
135. 2, 33, 5. 12. 3. Protector of herds: 2, 33, 1; 1, 43, 6.—
2, 33, 13; 1, 114, 2; 7, 46, 3; 1, 114, 5 ; 1, 43, 4, and 8, 29, 5 (129) ;
2, 33, 4.
136. The Maruta are at all events no Death-gods; perhaps the
' Shining' ; see Grassman, K Z . 16,
161 f.; Muir, OST. 5, 147-154; twelve hymns from the first book in
Muller's Translation, vol. 1 (Note 116); in GKR. 84 f.: /, 165, and
7, 57. _ Divo arkas; 5, 57, 5; cf. 5, 30, 6; 1,19,4; 1, 85, 2; 1,166, 7.
137. 1, 166, 11 ; 2, 34, 2 ; 5, 60, 4 . — 1 , 166, 9. 10; 5, 54, 3. 1 1 ; 5,
57, 6, and others.
138. See the beautiful hymn /, 1.65 in Roth's translation, G K R .
84 f. — 5 , 57, 1 ; 8, 7, 27; 5, 55, 6; 5, 57, 3; 2, 34, 3; 1, 87, 4, e t c -
5,54, 10; 8, 7, 7. 8; 1, 39, 1 ; 1, 168, 8 . - 5 , 60, 3; 8, 20, 5; 1, 64, 7;
8, 7, 5; 1, 38, 9; 3, 32, 4; 1, 64, 5, and others.
139. Parjanya: G. Bùhler, OO. 1, 214 i f . ; Zimmer, Z f D A . NS.
7 (19), 164 f. (cf A I L . 42 f . ) , who has proved the identity of the
name w i t h Goth, fairguni, Norse Fiorgyn, and L i t h . Perkuna ( s t i l l
 NOTES. 135
the name of the thunder) ; Muir, OST. 5, 140; G K R . 96 f.: 5, 83
and 7, 102.— Parjanya (a great choice of etymologies in Nir. 10,10)
probably stands for Parcanya, from the root pr-c, fill, and is the desig-
nation for the filled rain-cloud " (Grassman, Zimmer).
140. 5, 83, 3. 4. 2. — On 7, 103, which, according to the tradition,
is addressed to Parjanya, see p. 81, w i t h Note 342.
141. To I n d r a are addressed by far most hymns; Muir, OST. 5,
77-139 and M T r . 104-177, cf. 318 ff.; Ludw. K v . 3, 317 f.; Perry,
Indra in the Rigveda, JAOS. 11, 117-208. G K R . 58 f.; 2, 12; 4, 18.
19.24.30; 7,28; 10, 108. 119 and 10, 27, 1-4 (p. 71). —The ety-
mology of the name is still obscure; N i r . 10, 8 and Sayana on 1, 3, 1
(vol. 1, p. 68), guess like modern scholars; Benfey, Sfima Veda-
gloss. 25, the ' R a i n i n g one, P l u v i u s ' (from the root ind, shut,
syand: "a name dialectically originated somewhere, and afterward
extended w i t h the cult," Benfey, OO. 1, 49); so M. Muller, L S L .
2, 449; OGR. 218. — Grassman, ».v. the ' S h i n i n g O n e ' (from
indh), as formerly Roth (Theol. Jahrbiicher 1840. 5, 352*), who, how-
ever, in B R . s. v. translates ' B e z w i n g e r , B e w i l l t i g e r , der Ver-
m o g e n d e ' (from the root in, inv w i t h suffix -ra and epenthetic d).
142. Whether the Iranic demon India, Aildra,coincides with Indra,
must appear v e r y questionable; it is certain that Indra represents a
new race of gods (cf. p. 33), and that in most of the tribes he sur-
passes even Varuna in popularity, as ho does Dyaus, Trita, and
Tvastar; cf above p. 02, Note 242, and Muir, OST. 5, 118-120.
143. OST. 5, 98: " T h e growth of much of the imagery thus
described is perfectly natural, and easily intelligible, particularly to
persons who have lived in India, and witnessed the phenomena of
the seasons in that country. At the close of the long hot weather,
when every one is longing for rain to moisten the earth and cool the
atmosphere, it is often extremely tantalizing to see the clouds col-
lecting and floating across the sky day after day, without discharging
their contents. A n d in the early ages, when the Vedic hymns were
composed, it was an idea quite in consonance w i t h the other general
conceptions which their authors entertained, to imagine that some
malignant influence was at work in the atmosphere to prevent the
fall of the showers, of which their parched fields stood so much in
need. It was but a step further to personify both this hostile power
and the beneficent agency by which it was at length overcome. Indra
is thus at once a terrible warrior and a gracious friend, a god whose
shafts deal destruction to his enemies, while they bring deliverance
and prosperity to his worshippers. The phenomena of thunder and
lightning almost inevitably suggest the idea of a conflict between
opposing forces; even we ourselves, in our more prosaic age, often
136 T H E RIGVEDA.

speak of the war or strife of the elements. The other appearances

of the sky, too, would afford abundant materials for poetical imagery.
The worshipper would at one time transform the fantastic shapes of
the clouds into the chariots (cf Psalm 104, 3; Isaiah 19, 1; Daniel 7,
13 ; M a t t h . 24, 30; 26, 64. Habakuk 3, 8; Brdal, Hercule et Cacus,
171 f . ) and horses of his god, and at another time would seem to per-
ceive in their piled-up masses the cities and castles which he was
advancing to overthrow." Cf. Zimmer, A I L . 42, also Merk, Aeht
Vortr'age iiber das Pandschab. Bern 1869, pp. 72-89, etc.
144. 1, 52, 10; 8, 85, 7; 4, 8, 11. — 6 , 38, 4 ; 1, 32, 2 ; 1, 52, 7; 1,
61, 6, etc. (ace. to 10, 105, 7, Mataricvan prepares the thunderbolt);
to the Maruts: see above p. 39 and 1, 165 (84 f . ) The y o u n g hero,
as soon as he is born, demands the Soma from his mother, and
greedily drinks the sap, after outwitting Tvastar (8, 48, 2-4; 3, 32, 9:
4, 18, 3 (64)); or he asks immediately after birth where the renowned
champions are, and at once strikes down those that are named to
h i m : 8,66,1-3; 8,45,4. 5.
145. 3, 34, 3. 6; 6, 22, 6; 1, 32, 7 ; 3, 30, 8; 1, 52, 15; 1, 80, 5;
3, 32, 4; 5, 32, 5; 5, 30, 6; 1, 32, 5, cf. 8, 40, 6; 1, 32, 10. 8 (mStnas
adv., or w i t h B R . '* attaining their w i l l " ? Cf Grassm. Diet.s. v.
manas and Ludw. Rv. 2, 296); 2, 19, 5.
The Encompasser i s called i ( r o o t a word
which, w i t h the Greeks, signifies " the primeval boundary-stream sur-
rounding earth and sea, which, w i t h a deep and mighty flood, like a
snake, flows back into itself" (Preller), Qcdyctna being identical, ele-
ment for element, with (except the accent; cf Lehrs, De
Arist. Stud. Horn. p. 283 f., etc.); Benfey, Gdtt. Gel. Anz. 1860, p.
222 f . ; A. Kuhn, K Z . 9, 247; Leo Meyor, cf Gramin. 1, 334 (in spite
of J. Schmidt, Die Wurzel AK in lndogerm. Weimar 1865, p. 40).
The word is therefore neither of Semitic origin, nor has it
anything at all to do w i t h ' or with ( i n spite of W. I I .
Roscher, Gorgonen. Leipzig 1879, p. 24, Note 37), or w i t h Skt.
augha.
146. 4, 19, 1. 2; 6, 17, 8; 1,80, 15, cf 3, 51, 8; 6, 20, 2; 7,21,7;
1, 165, 6; 4, 16, 14: Indra clothes himself in the strength of the
elephant, and carries the weapons of the terrible lion.
147. 4, 18, 9; 4, 17, 10; 5, 32, 3 ; 7, 18, 20; 2, 11, 2 ; 2, 12, 10;
6, 18,12; 10, 54, 2; 8, 24, 15; 1, 57, 2; 1, 130, 4; 2, 11, 10; 1, 14, 2;
3, 492 (prthujraya: Grassm.). —A frequent designation of Indra's
weapon, vadha or vadhar (from root vadh), explains the "etymologi-
cally obscure" German word Wetter, O. H. Germ, wetar, AS. veder.
" W h e n the Indo-Germanic languages separated, the root contained
only the idea of the l i g h t n i n g - s t r o k e . In the German tongues
 NOTES. 187
this was generalized in such a way that the terra for the most won-
derful and striking atmospheric change was extended to all atmos-
pheric changes." Delbriick, K Z . 16, 266-271. The word is therefore
in no way related to
148. 8, 14, 13; 4, 19, 5; 1, 52, 8, w i t h 1, 7,3. — 1,32,14 (" Whom
sawest thou, Indra, as the avenger of A h i , after thou hadst killed
him, when thou hastenedst through the 99 rivers, like a terrified fal-
con through the a i r ? " ) ; 6, 18, 14; 1, 61, 8; 8, 21, 5; 8, 12, 22 f.;
4, 22, 5.
W i v e s of Gods ( 1 , 61, 8; 5, 46, 8) play no part in the R i g ;
they are only m e n t i o n e d as the surrounding of Tvastar (Note
131), and the names appear isolated; Agndyi, Itutrani (10, 86, 11 in
Note 159), Varunanl in 1, 22, 12; 2, 32, 8; 5, 46, 8; Rodasi (the wife
of Rudra): B, 50, 5; 6, 66, 6; 7, 34, 22. A c v i n i : 5, 46, 8 (wife of
Acvin, as otherwise Suryfl is named; p. 50 and Note 176); for the
g o d d e s s A d i t i , Note 225.
149. After 10, 108 ( 7 8 ) ; then 2, 12, 1; 2, 15, 8; 3, 30, 10;
2, 12, 3; 10, 68, 10; cf. 10, 67, 6: " l i e brought the Paius to lamen-
tation." Vala, "the cave," also personified. — In 7, 19, 5, it is told
of Indra that in one day he won ninety-nine strongholds, and in the
evening the hundredth.
Sarama (root sr, -90) is, according to A. Kuhn, ZfDA. 0, 117 f., the
storm-cloud (differently Muller, L S L . 2, 481 f.). The regular matro-
nymic of Sarama is Stirameya, in which Kuhn has found the expla-
nation ( i n no way refuted) of the Greek messenger of the gods
on this cf. Benfey, Gottinger Abhandlungen, 1877, vol. 22,
If.
In the epithets vila and drdha (from *dardha), " f i r m , " of these
beleaguered strongholds the stems of ' and
have been seen: Oscar Meyer, Quaestiones Homericae. Dissert. Bonn,
1807, p. 10 f.
150. G K R . 76; 3, 30, 4 ; 2, 12, 4; 1, 53, 1. — 4 , 19, 4; 8, 14, 14
(demons stealthily climbing) ; 2, 12, 12.—2, 12,2; 3 , 3 0 , 4 ; 1,131,
1; 1, 57, 5.
151. 6, 25, 8; cf. 2, 20, 8 . - 7 , 32, 14; cf 10, 147, 1 ; 8, 1, 3 1 . —
10, 138,3; 4, 16,13.
152. 4, 25, 6. 7; 1, 83, 6; 10, 160, 3; 6, 23, 3; 10, 42, 4 ; cf. 3, 32,
14 (corrupt) : " I will praise thee before the day of decision, that,
when both the armies call upon thee, thou mayest rescue us from
need, as upon a ship."
153. G K R . 69; cf p. 46 f. and Note 164.—6, 18, 3; 4, 26, 2; 2,
11, 18; 1, 103, 3; 5, 54, 6; cf 1, 130, 8; 3, 34, 9; 1, 51, 8, e t c . -
4, 19, 6; 2, 13, 12; cf 1, 61, 1 1 ; 2,15, 5.
138 THE RIGVEDA.

154. G K R . 66 f . ; 2,13, 12; cf 1 , 4 1 , 1 1 ; 2,15, 5. — 1, 174, 9 = 6,

20, 12; 2, 15, 5; 4, 30, 17; 5, 31, 8; 6, 4 $ 1. — 4 , 50, 5 ; 10, 138, 3.
155. 6, 30, 5; 3, 32, 8; 8, 36, 4; 2, 13, 5; 2, 12, 2; 6, 17, 7 (cf 6,
47, 4: " I t is he who%measured out the breadths of earth, and formed
the heights of heaven; he fixed the sap on the three heights, — S o m a
fixed the wide air-space"); 10, 89, 4; 10, 138, 6; 3, 32, 8; 10, 89, 2
(read s&ryam w i t h Grassin.); 4, 17, 14. — 2 , 13, 7; 8, 67, 10.
156. 6, 34, 1 ; 3, 30, 1; 8, 87, 2; 8, 37, 3; 8, 67, 5; 3, 34, 2 ; 4, 30,
1 ; cf. 8,21, 13.
157. 10, 54, 3; cf. 5, 42, 6; 6, 27, 3. 4 . - 6 , 30, 1 ; 1, 61, 8. 9; 10,
89, 1 1 ; cf further 1, 52, 14. 1 1 ; 2, 16, 3; 3, 32, 1 1 ; 3, 36, 4; 7, 23, 3;
8, 6, 15; 8, 59, 5; 8, 83, 12; 1, 81, 5; 8, 77, 5; 1, 55, 1 ; 1, 81, 5 etc.;
8, 59, 5: " If, Indra, a hundred skies and a hundred earths were
thine, a thousand suns could not equal thee, thunderer, nor could any-
thing created [ n o r ] , the two worlds [even then], when thou wert born."
158. 3, 32, 7 [ w i t h Aufrecht in Muir, OST. 4, 102, n. 82, and Ben-
fey, Gott. Abhandl. vol. 19, p. 238]; 6, 30, 1; 3, 30, 5 (cf 1, 33, 9;
Isaiah 40, 12) ; 8, 6, 5; (cf 10, 119, 6-8, 81 f . ) ; 1, 5 3 , 1 ; 8, 6, 38; cf
4, 30, 2: u The races of men, all things, r o l l after thee like wheels."
159. 1, 5 1 , 1 ; 6, 24,7; 8, 82, 5; cf. 10, 48, 5 (Indra speaks): " Never
shall I fall into the hands of Death." 10, 86, 1 1 : " I have heard that
among all these females Indrani is the most fortunate; for her hus-
band shall never at any future time die of old age."
160. 3, 32, 9; 7, 20, 1; 4, 30, 23; cf 1,165, 9; 6, 24, 5 [otherwise
BR. vol. 7, column 1707]; 7, 18,17 ("He slays the lioness by a ram,
and tears the spears? [ L u d w . ] w i t h a needle;" similar paradoxes 10,
28, 4, 9 ) ; cf 8, 52, 6: " I n Indra abide all heroic deeds, the accom-
plished and that are to be done." 10, 49, 3, Indra says : "They praise
me for that which is and that which is to be done."
161. 6, 31, 1; 1, 170, 3, cf 6, 45, 8; 3, 46, 2 (8, 1, 2: "Indra, who
does both, who puts at enmity and reconciles " ) ; 10, 22,10.
162. 10, 28, 9; 7, 98, 4; 3, 34, 10; 2, 30, 10; then 5, 34, 3 [quite
differently Haug, Die Gatha's 2, 239]; 7, 98, 4 . - 4 , 17, 13; 6, 47, 15.
" N o w t o t h e f r o n t b r i n g s o n e , a n d n o w a n o t h e r : " Hes.

Cf besides the beautiful Fragm. 56 of Archilochos

(Bgk.) and Hor. Od. 1, 34, 12: Valet ima summis mutare et insignem
attenuat deus obscura promens.
 NOTES. 139
" T h e l o r d o f b o t h the w o r l d s hates a l l the h a u g h t y "
(restrainer of the proud: 3, 34, 10): c/. Aesch. Pers. 827:

the fate of Kapaneus: Aesch.* Sept. 427 f.; Soph. A n t . 127 f.; — the
and the in Soph. Ant., the
t ' of Hdt. 1, 32; 3, 40; 7,10, the dis (e minarem, etc., of Hor. Od. 3,
6, 5, etc.
163. 2, 12, 10; 10, 27, 1 (71) (10, 27, 6: the wheels shall roll
over the mockers who have fallen by his arrow), cf. 10, 80, 8; 1, 131,
4, —10, 160,4; 8, 14, 15; 5, 34, 7; 10, 48, 7, Indra says: "I alone
vanquish this one enemy; I vanquish t w o ; what can even three do ?
I destroy many [of them] like sheaves of corn on the threshing-floor.
W h y do the enemies who regard not Indra revile me?" 4, 25, 6:
" The unfriendly he hurls down into the deep" (p. 71 with Note
287).
164. GKR. 7 1 ; 1, 84, 8: " H e thrusts aside the men who offer no
gifts w i t h his foot, like bushes "; 8, 53, 2.
" Turn to the god in day of need ": cf. above p. 32, with Note 111,
and p. 44 (with 4, 24, 5); llor. Od. 1, 34, 1 f.
" When they see how fierce the battle rages ": Aesch. Pers. 498 f.:

165. 7, 31, 5; 2, 30, 7: " Let me never grow weary, nor lame, nor
give over; we w i l l never say, « Press no Soma.'" 5, 37, 1 ; 7, 22, 5; 5,
32, 11. 12.
166. 5, 36, 4 ; 7, 37, 3; 10, 27, 1 (71); 8, 87, 1 1 ; 8, 50, 17; 8, 45,
17: " We call thee from afar to help, for thou art not deaf, but of
listening ear "; — 7 , 20, 1. — Cf. 3, 53, 5; 10, 23, 7 ; 6, 21, 8; 10, 47,
1; 10, 42, 3; 1, 104, 7; 0, 45, 1. 7, and many others. 10, 48, 1, Indra
says : " Men call me as a father." 8, 87, 1 1 : " Thou, o good one, art
our father; thou, o mighty one, our mother." 4, 17, 17:
"Appearing as our friend, do thou defend us,—
The Soma-presser's comforter and safeguard;
Friend, father thou, most fatherly of fathers,
Who gives the suppliant life, and grants him freedom."
167. 7, 28, 5; 4, 17, 19; 3, 32, 16; 8, 70„3; 8, 77 3; 8, 14, 4; cf
5, 34, 5; 8, 82, 11. — 7 , 37, 6 (vasayasi).
168. (Cf 4, 23, 1. 2, 5. 6 ) ; 2, 12, 5 (" Of whom the doubter asks,
1
where then is Indra?' and denies that he exists, although so a w f u l " ) ;
6, 18, 3 ("Hast t h o u now conquered the enemies? Hast t h o u
alone won the land for the Aryan? Is this really t h y deed? or is
it not? Tell me t r u l y " ) .
140 T H E RIGVEDA.

169. 10, 2 2 , 1 ; cf. 8, 50, 9: " Whalher a poet or one who is not a
poet sing t h y praise."
170. 8, 6, 44; 10, 89, 10: " In labor and pleasure Indra is to be
called on."
171. The Agvina, as is at once evident, are g o d s of t h e b r e a k -
i n g day, perhaps of t w i l i g h t , and, at all events, originally identi-
cal w i t h the Greek Dioskuroi; but a satisfactory solution of their
original signification in a l l points has not yet been given. See Muir,
OST. 5, 234—257, and the monograph, Die Acvin oder arischen Dios-
kuren, by Dr. L. Myriantheus, Munich 1876, well worthy of notice
for the significance of the myths. — G K R . 40 f.; 7, 69; 10, 39.
172. In the Rigveda the Acvins are always adored together {cf
2, 39, 1-7) ; their later names, Dasra and Nâsatya, are here (as adj.)
always in the dual; I can recall only one passage where the heroes
are thought of as separated, 1, 181, 4: " The one a prince, victorious
over heroes; the other, the blessed son of heaven." Cf N i r . 12, 1 f.;
Miiller, L S L . 2, 507 if. — 3, 58, 4; 7, 69, 5; 5, 7 7 , 1 . 2.
173. 6,63,3 palmas tendens]; 6, 63,
1; 3, 39, 3; 7, 67, 1; cf. 10, 39, 1: " Like a father's name men love
to call their names."
174. 7, 69, 2. 1. 3; cf. 1, 30,19.—4, 36, 1 ( w i t h golden bridles:
8, 5, 28; 8, 22, 5 ) ; 4, 36, 2 ; 1, 183, 1 ; cf. 1, 46, 3.
175. 1, 118, 4; 4, 45, 4 ; 1, 118, 1 ; 5, 77, 3; 4, 45, 7; cf. 1, 180, 1 ;
7, 70, 2 ; 5, 77, 3; 6, 63, 7; 7, 68, 3; 1, 117, 2 ; 10, 39, 12; 1, 118, 1 ;
8, 62, 2.
176. 7, 69, 4 [paritakmyayam with Grassmann; cf. especially aktor
vytiftan pdritakmycLycLm]; 1, 119,5; 1, 116, 17; 1, 117, 13; 4, 43, 6;
5, 73, 5; 8, 22, 1; 10, 39, 12 (instead of Surya A c v i n i ; 5, 46, 8. Note
148); 7, 67, 2; 7, 73, 1; 8, 8, 12; cf 1, 112, 2: " F o r your favor
weighty, unexhausted acts of help have mounted your chariot, so that
it almost seems to give way."
177. 8, 18, 8; Medicines 1, 157, 6. — 1 , 112, 8; 8, 5, 23: " T o
Kanva, blinded in his house, ye gave sight in delight at his song";
1, 118, 7; 10, 39, 3; cf. 10, 40, 8. — 1 , 180, 5; 10, 39, 4; cf 1, 118, 3
= 3, 58, 3: " W h y else do the old sages call you the speediest helpers
i n need?"
178. GKR. 43. — V i m a d a : 1, 116, 1 ( " o n chariot swift as the
arrow"); 1,117, 20; 10, 65, 12. P u r a r h d h i : 1, 116, 13: "Puramdhi
called you helpers at the great sacrifice; ye listened to the eunuch's
wife as though it were a command, and gave her H i r a n y a h a s t a "
 NOTES. 141
("Goldhand"); 10t 65,12, he is called g y a v a ( " B r o w n " ) ; cf. 1, 117,
24: " Y e , favoring, gave Hiranyahasta as son to the eunuch's w i f e ;
Cyava, though twice cut apart, ye raised up to life."
179. K a l i is also ( 1 , 112, 15) mentioned as the protege' of the
A c v i n s . — V a n d a n a, according to this passage, is drawn out of an
antelope-pit, into which he had fallen; so 1, 113, 6; according to 1,
116, 11 [where w i t h BR. 3, 539 ricyadad is to be read], and 1, 117, 5,
the Acvins bring forth to light for Vandana that which was buried,
like him who slumbered in the bosom of Death, and like the sun, which
rests in darkness, like beautiful ornaments of gold, cf. 1, 117, 12; ac-
cording to 1, 119, 7, like artists they fashioned a car for the old and
feeble Vandana, and miraculously brought forth the singer from the
earth.
180. In the contest of Khela the foot of Viepaht had been cut off
like a wing from a b i r d ; at once the Acvins furnished her an iron leg,
so that she could run for the offered prize; 1, 116, 15; 117,11; 112,
10. Myriantheus, pp. 100-112.
181. 1, 110, 6 ("Pedu with evil steed"); 117, 9; 118, 9; 119, 10;
7,71,5.-9,88,42.
182. 1, 117, 3; 5, 78, 4; 1, 116, 8; 1, 180, 4 ; 8, 62, 8; 7, 71, 5:
" F r o m the calamity of darkness ye seized A t r i " ; 6, 50, 10: " A s ye
released A t r i out of great darkness"; 10, 143, 1. 2: " Y e raised the
hoary A t r i up to walk . . ., ye released A t r i . . . in full youthful
strength"; for 10, 39, 9, cf Gkr. p. 45, n. 13. — A sunset, under the
keeping of the Acvins, the Dioskuroi, who, as mediators between
darkness and light, protected Helios. They guarded the evening sky,
the glowing fire which surrounds the sun, with refreshing coolness
(of evening), with a draught, which seems to point to the evening
dew. Sonne, K Z . 10, 331. At morning they overpower the demon
of darkness, and lead back the sun to heaven in full beauty.
183. 1,116, 10; 7, 68, 6; 10, 39, 4: "Cyavana, who lay like an old
cart, ye made young again to walk "; 5, 74, 5: " And made young
again, he raised the maiden's love." The S u n , gone down and
thought to be dead, is brought up by the Acvins in the f u l l vigor
of youth and beauty; and becomes the companion, wins the love, of
the D a w n . Benfey, OO. 3, 160; Myriantheus, p. 93 f.
184. 1,112, 5; 1, 116, 24; 1, 117, 4; 10, 39, 9. — For the significa-
tion, Benfey, OO. 3, 162. 164; differently Myriantheus, p. 174.
185. 1, 116, 7; 1, 117, 6. The horse's hoof, as spring or opener
of springs, recalls the ' opened by Pegasus, on Helicon
(Strabo, 8, 21, p. 379:
142 T H E RIGVEDA.

cf Ov.
Met. 5, 256: fama novi fontis .. . dura Madusaei quern praepetis un-
gula r u p i t ) ; and in Troezene (Paus. 2, 31, 9), Paus. 2, 3, 5, tells of a
spring specially worth seeing in Corinth: Kat
Myriantheus,
p. 149 f.
186. 1, 117, 7; cf. 10, 39, 3: " F o r ye bring happiness in love to
the old unmarried maid." — Myriantheus, p. 95.
187. 1, 110, 14; 1, 117, 1G; 1, 112, 8; 1, 118, 8; 10, 39, 13 [ i n 7,
68, 8, T consider vrka corrupt]. Vrka = woU= is the D e m o n
of D a r k n e s s ; here the Acvins destroy him, elsewhere the Sun-god,
Apollo Cf. Myriantheus, pp. 78-81, and for the quail
(uartikct, Ortygia), Mùller, L S L . 2, 525 f.
188. 1,112,21. — The Acvins put a horse's head upon D ad h y a n c,
with whose bones Indra slew the enemies; thereupon he showed them
where they could find the sweetness, i.e., the Soma-draught with
Tvastar: 1, 84, 13; 10, 48, 2; 1, 117, 22; 1, 116, 12; 1, 119, 9; 9,
108,4. Benfey, 0 0 . 2, 245; Myriantheus, p. 142 f.
189. 1, 110, 3; 1, 182, 6; 1, 117, 14. 15; 1, 119, 4 ; 1, 116, 5. 4 ;
10, 143, 5: " B h u j y u tossed in the sea on the other side of the air ";
1, 116, 5: " h o m e " ; 1, 119, 4: 'Ho the Fathers"; 1, 182, 5: " g o d -
ward."— 7, 68, 7, instead of Tugra's, " evil-minded companions" are
named (4, 27, 4, appears to me corrupt). — The "vehicle swift as
thought," the "animated ships floating in the atmosphere " ( 1 , 182,
5: " Y e made in the floods that flying ship, endowed with life, for
Tugra's son"), the "neverfailing, never tiring, never faltering, winged
steeds," 7, 69, 7 recall the verses in Horn. Od. 8, 559 f., concerning
the (cloud) ships of the Phaeacians:

' ' ' ' "" ' ' Sonne, K Z . 10, 337. W i t h
1, 182, 7: " W h a t was the tree, standing in the midst of the flood,
which the son of Tugra seized in his need?" Sonne, K Z . 15, 109 f.,
compares Od. 12, 103, 431 f . :

— For the meaning of this sun-myth, see Sonne, K Z . 10,

335 f. Benfey, OO. 3, 159; Myriantheus, p. 158 ff.
190. 4 , 4 3 , 7 ; 10,40, 12. — 1 , 116, 1; 1, 181, 7; 1, 180, 5. The
Acvins, too, are praised for the miracle of the " soft m i l k in rough
cows," above p. 27, with note 90;, 1, 180, 3 . - 5 , 73, 1; 8, 10, 5. 1:
 NOTES. 143
" from front and rear, from above and below; from heaven and earth,
from the sea; from plants, houses, from the mountains' peaks, and
from foreign tribes," 7, 72, 5; 4, 44, 5; 7, 70, 3; 8, 10, 5; 1, 47, 7;
cf 1, 182, 3: " What do ye there, why sit ye where the people boasts
unsacrificing ? "
191. 7, 69, 6 (differently 4, 45, 4) ; 5, 76, 3. 2.
192. 1, 117, 4; cf 1, 158, 3; 1, 181, 1 ; 7, 72, 2 (cf 5, 76, 4 and 4,
44, 5: " Let not other devout men hold you fast when your old friends
gather around y o u " ) ; 1, 157, 4 cd -r- 1, 34, 11 c<1. 1, 116, 25 w i t h 1,
182, 3. 4; 10, 40, 13: "Give him a watering-place, w i t h a good
draught, and a resting-place on the journey "; 8, 8, 13; 8, 26, 7; 8,
35, 10 f., etc.
193. Usas: the " I r r a d i a t i n g . " Muir, OST. 5, 181-108; GKR.
35 f . : /, 124; 7, 70. — 1 , 92, 1 ; 1, 124, 5; 7, 76, 2; 3, 61, 4 ; 4, 51,
1. 2; 7, 77, 2; 1, 123, 1; Homer: ' - and

Max Mùller, who traced a v e r y l a r g e number of myths to the

Dawn (cf. L S L . 2, 481 f f ) , says, I.e. p. 517: *' The dawn, which to us
is merely a beautiful sight, was, to the early gazer and thinker, the
problem of all problems. It was the unknown land from whence rose
every day those bright emblems of a divine power which left in the
mind of man the first impression and intimation of another world,
of power above, of order and wisdom. What we simply call the sun-
rise, brought before their eyes every day the riddle of all riddles,
the riddle of existence. The days of their life sprang from that dark
abyss, which every morning seemed instinct with light and life. Their
youth, their manhood, their old age, all were to the Vedic bards the
gift of that heavenly mother who appeared bright, young, unchanged,
immortal, every morning, while everything else seemed to grow old, to
change, and droop, and at last to set, never to return. It was there,
in that bright chamber, that, as their poets said, mornings and days
were spun, or, under a different image, where mornings and days were
nourished (10, 37, 2; 7, 65, 2), where life or time was drawn out
( 1 , 113, 16). It was there that the mortal wished to go, to meet
M i t r a and Varuna. The whole theogony and philosophy of the
ancient world centred in the Dawn, the mother of the bright gods,
of the sun in his various aspects, of the morn, the day, the spring;
herself the brilliant image and visage of immortality."
194. 1, 113, 3; 1, 123, 7; 6, 49, 3: "One decks herself with stars,
w i t h sunlight the other, relieving each other in their mutual courses"
[instead of suro, probably sura, should be read w i t h Grassm. Diet.
1630]; 1, 113, 3 ( i n Note 200); /, 124, 9. 8 (36); 1, 1 1 3 , 1 ; 10, 172,
4 ; 4, 5 2 , 1 .
144 THE RIGVEDA.
195. 1, 113, 1; 6, 65, 2; 6, 64, 3: " She drives away the darkness
as a heroic defender chases the enemies, like a swift charioteer "; 1,
48, 8; 7, 81, 6; 10, 35, 3.— 10, 35, 2, Usas drives away the guilt of
sin; 8, 47, 18, the evil dreams. — For the dispute of Usas w i t h Indra,
4, 30, 8-11 (73); 2, 15, 6; 10, 138, 5, cf. Sonne, K Z . 10, 416 f.; M i i l -
ler, Chips, 2, 91 f.
196. 7, 81, 1 ; 7, 75, 1 ; 1, 92, 4. 11; 1, 48, 15; 1, 113, 4. 14; 4,
52, 5; 1, 92, 12: "Spreading out (her rays) like herds, as the river
its waves, she is visible afar."
197. 1, 49, 1. 2 ; 1, 113, 14; 7, 78, 4 ; 7, 75, 6; 3, 61, 2 ; 4, 51, 5.
— 1, 124, 1 1 ; 5, 80, 3. The steeds or cattle of Usas are the light
morning-clouds, " bright, shining, as the clear billows of the waters,"
6,64, 1. Theocr. 13, 1 1 : 2, 147 f.
etc. V i r g . : roseis Aurora quadrigis
(bigis).— 6, 64, 4. 1; 6, 65, 5; 5, 80, 1; 7, 79, 1.
198. 4, 51, 3; /, 124, 10. — 1, 92, 9; 7, 80, 2; 7, 77, 1 ; 1, 49, 3; 6,
64, 6 = 1, 124, 12; 7, 79, 1; 7, 75, 4. W i t h the following verses cf. 1,
48, 5. 6 [where padam nd vtty ddad is obscure to m e ] :
" She comes, and all the footed creatures rouses up,
And stirs the birds to fly aloft.
She sends men forth to battle, sends them to their t o i l . . •
And never in their busy flight the birds seek rest
When shines thy radiance, Bounteous One."
" A l l the five peoples" (panca janftsas, krstayas, etc.), originally
the five tribes of the Yadus, Turvaeas, Druhyus, Anus, and Purus
[ 1 , 108, 8 ] , afterward formulaic for men in general, "the whole
w o r l d " ; see Zimmer, A I L . 119-123.
199. 1, 92, 4; 1, 123, 10; 6, 64, 2 ; 5, 80, 5. 6; 1, 113, 15; 7, 81, 5;
7 , 7 6 , 7 ; 7,75,2.
200. 1, 123, 8. 9; 7, 76, 5; 1, 92, 12; 5, 80, 4 = /, 124, 3 (35); c/.
1, 113, 3, of night and morning:
" The sisters' paths are each alike, and endless,
On them they journey, by the gods instructed;
Unlike in color, but alike in spirit,
They never halt nor strive, steadfast forever."
201. 1, 92, 10; 1, 118, 1 1 : " i n the ever renewed light of the
D a w n " ; 1, 123, 8; 4, 51, 6; 1, 113, 8. 15; /, 124, 2. 4.
202. On svadhabhis ( 1 , 113, 13) cf. 3, 61, 1, dnu vratdm, and 1, 113,
10; for the rest on pada d, 4, 51, 6; 3, 61, 1; 1, 123, 2. 8. On 1, 92,
10. 11 (4, 51, 9, amltavarnti) ; Bollensen, OO. 2, 463 f., 465. For the
 NOTES. 145
thought, cf Plut. Consol. ad. A p o l l . 15, p. 110, B:
TO

203. Sttrya: the "Gleaming, Shining." — M u i r , OST. 5, 155-161;

G K R . 55 f.: /, 115; 10, 189 (sunrise) — /, 115, 2 (55) ; 10, 37, 1. 9.
Mimnermus fgm. 12:

204. 7, 63, 3. 2; 4, 13, 4; 7, 63, 1: " Surya, the fortune-giving, who,

like a skin, rolls the darkness together." — 1, 50, 2 ; 10, 189, 2: " H e
moves among the hosts of stars, — at his breath they fade."
205. Surya's M a r e s : /, 115, 4. 5; 10,31,8; 1,121, 13; 5, 29,
5; 5, 45, 10; 10, 92, 8 (seven: 1, 50, 8; 4, 13, 3; 7, 66, 5; 7, 60, 3).
H o r s e s : /, 115, 3; 10, 37, 3; 10, 49, 7 (saptacva; 5, 45, 9), cf. Eur.

A r . Nub- 5 7 1 : ' Aesch. fgm. 192 D (186 N . ) , etc.

206. 1, 50, 2
etc.); 10, 35, 8; 4, 1, 17; 5, 45, 9: " Sttrya goes to the field, which
spreads out far and wide before h i m . " 5, 45, 10, and 7, 60 4: " The
bright flood of l i g h t . " 7, 60, 2 : " The herdsman of all things stand-
ing and moving, i.e. the immovable and the movable, of the inanimate
and animate, looking upon right and wrong among men." 6, 51, 2 ;
10, 37, 5.— /, 115, 4 with 4, 13, 4 (vihdran tdntum); 1, 115, 5.
" Dome " = " vault, arch of heaven," often.
207. 1, 115, 1 ("the moving and standing," see 7, 60, 2, in the
preceding note); 5,27, 6; 7, 63, 1. Matth. 5, 45:

— 1, 50, 4. 2; 10, 170, 3; 4, 13, 2 (spoken of Mitra-Varuna, as usually;

see above p. 59); 7, 83, 2; 7, 66, 2: " The bright eye, placed by the
gods." Cf. p. 59 w i t h Note 224.
208. Hillebrant rightly observes, Varuna und Mitra, p. 45: " To
infer from the name that they were all personifications of various
attributes of the sun, seems suspicious to me, in so far as we look
upon it as a production of the Vedic poets themselves; for some, we
may rather ask whether they were not originally sun-gods of different
tribes, who gave them names as they appealed to their fancy; whether,
then, in the consolidation of single tribes, the cults were not also
brought over," etc.
146 THE RIGVEDA.

209 Pftsan: Muir, OST. 5,171-180; G K R . 5 1 1 : 1, 4 2 . - 4 , 3 ,

7; 8, 4, 15; 1, 89, 6; 6, 58, 4; 10, 26', 7: | ; T h e strong lord of refresh-
ing, the strong friend of nourishing"; 1, 42, 8; cf. 10, 139, 2; /, 42,
6. 9 (51): " Give richly, and with open hand "; 1, 89, 5: •" We call
him, that he may be a true defender and guardian for the increase of
w e a l t h " ; 8, 4, 17. 18; 8, 29, 6; 0, 48, 15; 6, 54, 8; 6, 53, 3-6; 6,
56,6:
" We pray to thee for happiness
From trouble free, in treasures r i c h ;
For full prosperity to-day,
A n d for to-morrow highest good."
210. 10, 139, 2. 1 with 1, 23, 14 (aghrni, often), and 10, 17, 3; 2,
40, 5; 3, 62, 9. —Goads; 6, 58, 2; 6, 53,'9. — 1, 89, 5; 10, 26, 6 (cf
Zimmer, A I L . 229); 6, 54, 5-7. —10, 17, 3: " T h e world-herdsman,
who loses no cattle "; 6, 54, 10 : " Ptisan shall stretch his right hand
far; he shall drive back the l o s t " ; 1, 23, 13. — Pusan is drawn (like
the Scandinavian Thdrr), not by horses, but by goats : 6, 57, 3; 6, 55,
6. 4. 3; 6, 58, 2; 10, 26, 8; only in 6, 58, 3 are "golden ships, which
move upon the sea and in the air, with which Pusan does messenger's
service for Surya," spoken of [instead of dutyam, dutyam ought proba-
bly to be read; so also Ludw. Rv. 1,157].— Pusan does not care for
the Soma, but for the preparation of barley: 6, 57, 2.
Do the passages 6, 56, 1; 1, 138, 4; 1, 42, 10,
Who mockingly of Pusan says :
4
Behold the gruel-eater there !'
His jeers the god w i l l not endure.—
For I do not disdain thee, Pusan, glowing god;
T h y friendship I do not reject. —
The god from us no chiding hears;
We bring him praise in pleasing songs,
The Helper we implore for wealth,
indicate mockery on the part of certain tribes towards those w i t h other
cults?
211. 6, 49, 8 (6, 53, 1: "Companion on the journey," Vaj.-Sanh.);
/, 42, 7. 1. 2-4; 10, 17, 5; 6, 54, 1. 2 :
Bring us, o Pusan, to a man
Who, wise, at once shall point the way.
A n d say to us, " Lo, here it is."
W i t h Pusan joined let us go forth,
W h o points the houses out to us,
A n d says to us: " L o , here they are."
9, 67, 10. — Pusan also aids in battle, 10, 139, 3, and so becomes
Indra's comrade, 6, 57, 4; brings the seasons, 1, 23, 14. 15.
 NOTES. 147
212. 10,17, 3-6; 10, 59, 71 (Ath.-Sanh. 16, 9, 2; 18, 2, 53) ; so
Pusan cf Notes 221 and 272.
213. V i s n u is the only Vedic god whose name has been preserved
in the Hindu triad of divinities, while in the Veda he does not play
an important part; Muir, OST. 4, 63-298; G K K . 53 f.: /, / 5 4 . ~
/, 154, 3; 1, 22, 16 f.; 1, 155, 4 ; 6, 49, 13; 7, 100, 1. 3; 8, 29, 7;
/, 154, 1; 7 , 9 9 , 2 . 3 . The steps: rising, highest point, and setting
of the sun.
214. 7,99,3; 7, 100, 4, w i t h /, f54,2; 6, 69, 5 : " I n d r a and Visnu,
ye made the atmosphere wide, and stretched out the worlds for our
existence."—Visnu, more often than Pusan, is named as the a l l y of
I n d r a : 1, 22, 19; 1, 156, 4. 5; 4, 18, 11 (63); 8, 89, 12; 6, 20, 2; 7,
97, 4 f.; cf. 6, 69, 8 in Note 65. — The epithet cipivista is quite obscure
in 7, 99, 7 ; 7, 100, 5: verse 6:
" What was to be descried in thee; [ M u i r , what hadst thou to
blame], o Visnu, when thou declaredst, 'I am Cipivista'? Do not
conceal from us this thy beauty (disguise?), when in battle thou
assumest another form." •
[Cipivista: Ludwig ad. loc. renders "bald-headed" (Uv. 1, 162);
see his note, Rv. 4, 153, and Muir, OST. 4, 87 f . ]
215. 7, 99,1 with 1,155, 5. 4 . — 1 , 22, 20; 1, 154, 5; cf. 10, 177,1:
" Sages behold with heart and mind the bird adorned by the power of
the Asura," i.e. the sun pictured as a b i r d ; see 10, 72, 8 in Note 226,
and 10, 149, 3 in Note 370.
216. S a v i t a r (from root su, sit; Pres. suvati; Aor. asavlt) : Muir,
OST. 5, 162-170; G K K . 46 f.: 2, 38; 5, 81. — Savitar and Surya:
cf e.g. 4, 14, 2: " G o d Savitar raised his banner high, providing light
for all the world ; Surya has tilled the earth and heaven, and the wide
realm of air w i t h beams." 10, 158, 1: " Surya protect us from
heaven . . . " ; v. 2: "Rejoice (?), o Savitar . . . " ; v. 3: "Savitar,
give us . . . " ; v. 4 : " We would see thee, o Surya . . . " ; 1, 35, 1-11;
7, 63, 1 f.
217. E.g. 1, 157, 1: "Savitar enlightened (pramvlt) the w o r l d " ;
1, 110, 3: "Savitar has awakened (fhtvvat) i m m o r t a l i t y " ; 3, 33, 6:
" G o d Savitar has led us w i t h beauteous hands, at whose impulse
(prasave) we flow "; 5, 82, 4: " Send (savlh) us to-day, god Savitar,
the blessing w i t h children; drive away (parasuva) evil dreams"
[10, 27, 4, apa-suva, of Surya]; 2, 38, 1 (46) : " The divine inciter
comes to arouse" (devah savitti savctya) ; numerous other examples in
Muir, OST. 5, 165-168.'
218. 5, 81, 4 (49), to S a v i t a r : " T h o u gladdenest thyself in
Sùrya's beams "; 7, 63, 3: " This god (sc. Surya) seems to me to be
148 T H E RIGVEDA.

a S a v i t a r , never changing the same order." In 10,139,1, Savitar

is called " S u r y a -beaming,* 7, 66, 4 ; 1, 123, 3; 7, 45, 2; etc.
219. 5, 82, 8; 5, 81, 4 . - 5 , 81, 2. 3 6, 71, 5. 1 ; 7, 45, 2 . - 6 , 7 1 ,
2; 8, 27, 12: " Savitar has raised himself up before you, desirable he
stands high uplifted; the two-footed and the four-footed, the striving
and the flying, have gone to rest"; 1, 35, 2; 7, 4 5 , 1 ; 1, 124, 1 (35);
3, 38, 8.
220. 1, 35, 3. 2; 5, 81, 4 (in Note 218); 7, 38, 1 w i t h 1, 73, 21
("true like Savitar"; also 9, 97, 48); 7, 38, 2 ; 7, 45, 3; 1, 35, 3; cf.
verse 10, and 671, 5; 5, 81, 2.
221. 6, 71, 3; 7, 38, 3; 1, 35, 1 1 ; 7, 45, 4. 3; 6, 71, 6; 1, 24, 3-5
( 1 , 110, 3, in Note 217) ; 4, 54, 1 f., verse 3 : " Whatever (offence) we
have committed, by want of thought, against the divine race,—by
feebleness of understanding, by violence, after the manner of men,
either against gods or men, — do thou, 0 Savitar, free us from guilt."
—10, 17, 4, Savitar is like Ptisan; Note 212.
222. 4, 53, 2; 1, 35, 1 1 ; 4, 53, 4. —The following verses from the
Evening Hymn, 2, 38 (46). — To Savitar is also addressed the cele-
brated G a y a t r i or S a v i t r i , the daily prayer of the Brahmans (Rv.
3, 62, 10) : [" Of Savitar, the heavenly, that longed-for glory may we
w i n I and may himself inspire our prayers 1" " N o good and suffic-
ient explanation of the peculiar sanctity attaching to this verse has
ever been given ; it is not made remarkable, either by thought or dic-
t i o n , among many other Vedic verses of similar tenor. Its meaning
is a matter of some question, depending on the meaning given to the
verb in the second psida, dhimahi, whether 'we may receive, gain,
w i n / or ' let us meditate.' If the latter be correct, the correspond-
ence of root and meaning between this verb and the following noun,
dhiyah, in the third pada, cannot be accidental, and should be regarded
in translating : we must read, '* and may he inspire (or quicken) our
meditations (adoring or prayerful thoughts)." — "Sayana gives no
less than four different explanations of the gâyatri, and leaves his
readers free choice as to which they will accept." Whitney, Cole-
brooke's Misc. Essays, p . I l l f . ] .
223. U s a s : above p. 54, w i t h Note 200, where in 1,113, 3 it is also
said of Night and Morning that they " are taught by the gods to go
their way." S a v i t a r : 4, 13, 2.
224. 4, 13, 3 (above p. 55: " w h o m they have made," etc.); cf. 7,
62, 2 ; 7, 60, 1 ; 10, 12, 8; 7, 60, 3; 10, 37, 5 . - 6 , 51, 1 ; 7, 61, 1 ; 7,
6 3 , 1 ; 1, 115, 1; 1, 136, 2; cf 5, 66, 2 and the hymn /, 152, espe-
cially vs. 3-5 (13 f . ) . — 7, 63, 5; 7, 60, 5*; cf. 8, 90, 2. Indra even says
of himself, 10, 48, 1 1 : " As god, I do not disturb the decrees of the
 NOTES. 149
gods, the Adityas (Vasu, Rudriya): they m a d e me f o r g r e a t
m i g h t as unconquerable, un vanquished v i c t o r " ; 10, 113, 5: " I n d r a
darts his lightning for M i t r a and V a r u n a " ; 10, 89, 8. 9.— 7, 63, 5;
7, 65, 1; 7, 66,12 (Mitra-Varuna-Aryaman); cf. 5, 69, 3 (Aditi-Mitra-
Varuna).
225. A d i t i (' Eternity, I n f i n i t y ' ) ; M. Muller, Translation 1, 230-
251, OGR. 233 f.; Muir* OST. 5, 35-53 = 0 0 . 3, 462 f.; the mono-
graph, Ueber die Gottin A d i t i . A. Hillebrandt, Breslau 1876. —7,
10, 4; 1, 136, 3; 1, 185, 3; 1, 166, 12.—8, 25, 3 . - 4 , 25, 5; 8, 18, 6;
8 , 4 7 , 9 ; 1 0 , 3 6 , 3 ; 8,56, 10-12:
" A n d thee I summon to my side,
O mighty goddess, A d i t i ,
Thee, Merciful, to my defence.
In deep or shallow places save,
Thou mother of the gods, from foes,
Do thou our children keep from harm.

Far-searching thou, grant sure defence

To all our children, far and wide,
That, living, they may spread abroad."

1,162, 22: " M a y A d i t i grant us sinlessness"; 5, 82, 6: "guiltless

before A d i t i " ; 4, 12, 4; 7, 93, 7; 2, 27, 14 (23); 7,57, 7 ( 9 ) ; 10,12,
8; 1, 24, 15: *' Varuna, loose us from the uppermost, the middle, and
the lowest bond. Then may we, O Aditya, in thy service, freed from
sin, belong to A d i t i . "
(On Varuna's bonds, see p. 67 and Note 255.)
A d i t i , viewed as a divinity, as the personification of * the visible
Infinite, the endless expanse beyond the earth, beyond the clouds,
beyond the s k y ' (Mùller, Translation 1, 230) may be younger than
Varuna, Bhaga, Mitra, and Aryaman; but the g r o u p of the Adityas,
as the name itself proves, pre-supposes the p r o p e r n a m e A d i t i
(Weber, J L Z . 1876, p. 652 = IStr. 3, 453). " It was, no doubt, the
frequent mention of these her sons that gave to A d i t i , almost from the
beginning, a decidedly feminine character. She is the mother with
powerful, w i t h terrible, w i t h royal sons. But there are passages where
A d i t i seems to be conceived as a male deity or, anyhow, as a sexless
being." Muller, OGR. 236 f.
A d i t i is praised in pantheistic fashion in 1, 89, 10: " A d i t i is the
heaven, A d i t i the atmosphere, A d i t i the mother; she (sd) is father,
she son, all gods are A d i t i , the whole world, A d i t i is what is born,
A d i t i is what shall be born," recalling the familiar Orphic verses
(Lobeck, Aglaophamus, p. 521 f . ) :
150 THE RIGVEDA.

226. The Adityas: Roth, Die hochsten Gotter der Arischen Volker.
Z D M G . 6, 67-77; Muir, OST. 5, 54-57; GKR. 19 f.: /, 41; 2,
27; 10, 185. The long recognized identity of the Indian A d i t y a
with the Iranian A m e s h a Q p e n t a , is followed out in details by
J. Darmestetter, Ormazd et Ahriman, leurs origines et leur histoire.
Paris 1877, pp. 7-84. For the most frequently mentioned, cf Note
227.
M i t r a and V a r u n a : Muir, OST. 5, 58-76; GKR. 13 f.: /, 152;
7, 61; the excellent monograph, Varuna und Mitra. Ein Beitrag zur
Exegese des Veda, von Dr. Alfred Hillebrandt. Breslau 1877. On
Mitra, Note 228; on Varuna, Note 241.
Seven Adityas are mentioned, 9,114, 3 (cf. Muller, Translation 1,
240 f . ) ; for their names, cf. Note 228. — I n A V . 8, 9, 21 Aditi is called
the "mother of eight sons," with which cf. R V . 10, 72, 8. 9:
" Eight sons there are of Aditi,
Who from her body were produced.
With seven she approached the gods,
But the egg-born she cast away.
With seven only Aditi
Approached the former race of gods.
To birth at first, but then to death,
The goddess brought Martanda back,"
and the legend of the (JB. attaching to these verses: Roth, ISt. 14,
392 f. The " egg-born " is the sun, pictured as a bird; cf. Note 215.
[Ludw. Rv. 5, 443 and Muir, OST. 4, 13 f.]
The later period mentions twelve Adityas, with distinct reference
to the months.
227. The important hymn 2, 27 (21-24), in v. 1, names Mitra,
Aryaman, Bhaga, Daksa, Arica, Varuna. The name of the seventh
Aditya can not be discovered; it cannot be Indra, nor Savitar (7,
85, 4; Val. 4, 7; 8,18, 3 ) , though in isolated — always late—verses
of the Rig (1,150, 13; 1, 163, 13; 1, 191, 9; 8, 90, 11) the word
Aditya, as afterwards, stands as an appellative for sun.
Very rarely appear
A n c a (portion): the'Apportioner,'and
 NOTES. 151
D a k s a (ability, strength, intellectual power): the ' Capable,
Clever'; somewhat more frequently
B h a g a (portion): the ' Dispenser, Protector, L o r d ' ; see espec.
7, 41, 2-4. His name as an appellative in the Iranian and Slavonic
tongues means God.
The following are almost never mentioned separately:
A r y a m a n : the Bosom-friend; 5,29,1 ? 6,50, 1 (126): " Aryaman,
who gives without being asked " (cf. M a t t h . 6, 8), and
M i t r a : the ' F r i e n d ' ; the only hymn addressed to h i m is 3, 59
(17) ; but both, especially the latter, are very often connected w i t h
V a r u n a (p. 61 f., Note 241).
The last three, or even the dual divinity M i t r a - V a r u n a (cf.
Note 226) serve as the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e A d i t y a s in
g e n e r a l . On this account, and to avoid too frequent repetitions in
the following notes, the hymns to the Adityas and to Mitra-Varuna
are treated together, the latter distinguished by the sign *.
228. 8, 25, 17 (okya samrajyasya); 8, 90, 6: " Ye regard the im-
mortal ordinances of mortals, inviolable." — 7, 65, 2 (devanam asura),
" The laws of the moral are as eternal and unchangeable as those of
the natural world. The same divine power lias established the one
and the other. This power is represented by a circle of divinities who
may be most pertinently entitled t h e Gods of H e a v e n l y L i g h t .
Human immagination was able to find no visible thing w i t h which
they could be compared, saving the light. They are and are named
the S p i r i t u a l . " Roth, JAOS, 3, 340 f.; cf. Roth, Z D M G . 6, 69
and Muller, OGR. 294 f.
229. *7, 66, 2 with 8, 25, 1 (cf. 8, 25, 3) and *6, 67, 5. The fol-
lowing verses, all from the above-named hymn 2, 27, are in part taken
out of their original sequence (11 ab w i t h 9 cd, 14 ab w i t h 11 cd etc.).
This order w i l l here excuse itself.
230. 8, 47, 1 1 : " Y e look down, Adityas, like watchmen from the
battlements.!' — Mitra-Varuna at the shining of the dawn, at the ris-
ing of the sun mount their firm highest seat, the golden throne, which
rests on a thousand brazen columns; from thence they look upon the
infinite and the f i n i t e , t h e y e v e n l o o k i n t o t h e h e a r t o f m a n
(*5, 62, 8. 7 with *2, 41, 5; * 7, 61, 1); cf *7, 65, 1: "The divine
power of you twain is imperishable, ye hasten c l o s e l y r e g a r d i n g
each o n e in h i s c o u r s e " ; 10,65,5: " N o t far away are the two
all-rulers w i t h their spirit.*'—In *6, 67, 5 cunning, never deceived
spies are assigned to t h e m ; so * 7, 61,3.5 ( 1 5 ) :
" From the broad earth and from the heights of heaven
Ye send abroad your spies that never tire,
152 THE RIGVEDA.

In every place, through field and house, their presence

Unceasingly keeps watch on each transgressor.
;
A l l your avenging spirits, O ye Mighty,
In whom can be perceived no form or token,
Unerringly the sin of men they punish;
A n d nothing is so hid as to escape you."
Cf. also 2, 27, 16 (23).
231. 7, 66, 1 1 : "They ordered the years, months, days" (Gen. 1,
14; Psalm 74, 16. 17; 104, 19; Jerem. 31, 35; Yacna 44, 3: Who
ordered the path of the sun and the stars ? Who (ordained) that the
moon now waxes, now wanes ? [on thwat cf. B R . sub 3 tva]; * 6, 67,
6: " T h e y extended earth and heaven as a dwelling of m a n " ;
* 5 , 69, 4 : " You who are the supporters of the ether, the atmosphere
and the earth-regions "; cf. v. 1, w i t h 2, 27, 8. 9 (22); * 5, 76, 2 :
" The supporters of the peoples "; 7, 64, 2: " Strong lords of the rivers
send refreshing rain from heaven"; * 7 , 51,2: "Guardians of the
world "; according to * 8, 90, 2 they guide the sun w i t h their arms.
— 3,38, 5 f.?
232. * 7 , 60, 5: " A v e n g e r s of m u c h w r o n g they grew up in
the house of the r i g h t " ; *7, 66, 13: "Just, born and strengthened in
right, hating wrong, terrible "; * 6, 67, 4: " Their mother made them
terrible to the deceitful m a n " ; *7, 65, 3 : " B i n d i n g wrong with many
bonds not to be overstepped by the deceitful man "; * 1,139, 2: "For
the sake of right they lay hold on wrong w i t h the wrath of their
s p i r i t " ; 8, 25, 4: " The just loudly proclaim the right."
233. "So their spies are called invisible ( " i n whom can be per-
ceived no form or token "; * 7 , 61, 5 in Note 230); 1, 105, 16 : " The
path which is prepared for the Adityas praiseworthy in the heavens
is not, O gods, to be overstepped, ye cannot perceive i t , O mortals."—
8, 25, 9: " Seeing further than the eye w i t h unclouded vision, even
slumbering they observe attentively"; *10, 65, 5 (in Note 230); 5,
62, 6: " F o r the righteous, far-reaching protectors w i t h h a n d s
c l e a n f r o m b l o o d . " W i t h this cf. Indra's words 10, 48, 2 and
10, 113, 5 in Note 224 (i.e. Indra fights for them), also 6, 68, 3 and
7, 85, 3 in Note 242.
234. * 6 , 67, 6; * 2 , 41, 5; * 7, 61, 4; 8, 56, 13; 1, 90, 2 ; *5, 69,
4 (see Indra's words, 10, 48, 2 in Note 224); * 7, 61, 4: " The moons
of the god-haters dwindle powerless "; 1, 152, 1; " Ye strike to earth
every impiety and protect the r i g h t " ; 5, 67, 3 : " They follow the de-
cree step by step "; 1, 136, 1: " Their dominion, their divinity no one
can assail"; *7, 60, 10; *6, 67, 9.
 NOTES. 153
235. 8, 18, 15 (cf. * 7, 61, 1 ; 6, 51, 7 = 7, 52, 2 : " We do not do
what ye, O good ones, punish "; 8, 56, 7; 8, 18, 5 (5, 67,4; 1, 107, 1);
8, 47, 8.
236. 2, 29, 2. 6; 8, 56, 6; 2, 28, 3; 8, 47, 13; 8, 56, 17 ('peni-
t e n t ' s " w h o returns from his sin," above p. 31 w i t h Note 106); 8,
18, 18. 22; 8, 56, 20; 1, 89, 9: " W h e n our sons are fathers, —do not
(before) harm our life in the midst of its course"; 2, 28, 5:
" Let not the thread of my devotion sever,
Let not the laborer's staff too soon be broken."
237. Differently in 8, 47, 5: " M a y dangers avoid us as drivers
(avoid) bad roads."
238. 1, 41, 4: " Well paved and thornless is the path for him who
lives aright." — 8, 47, 2. 3 : " As the birds their wings, spread over us
your defence." Vs. 91, 4: He shall cover thee with his leathers, and
under his wing shalt thou trust: his truth shall be thy shield and
buckler. Ps. 17, 8: Hide me under the shadow of thy wings, etc. —
Rv. 8, 47, 8: " We are united to you as a fighter to his armor"; see
further Note 239.
239. 10, 63, 13: "Every mortal prospers unharmed, he propagates
his line in child and grandchild, whom ye Adityas guide with good
guidance through all misfortunes to happiness." *7, 65, 4; *7, 62,
5: " Stretch forth your arms that we may live, and refresh our fields
with rich nourishment; O youths, make us renowned in the peoples
hear my call, Varuna and M i t r a . " Their most excellent protection
and defence guard from poverty and sickness, from snares and ene-
mies, from dangers of all kinds: 7, 66, 13; *5, 70, 3. 4; 8, 18, 10. 11 ;
8, 56, 15. 2 1 ; 10, 126; *8, 90, 4 etc.; /, 41, / - 3 ( 1 9 ) ; 8, 47, 7; 10,
126, 1; 10, 185, 2. 3 (25).— 7, 82, 7 (30); 2, 27, 7. 12. 15 (22 f.).
240. The'passages 8, 18, 12; 8, 5(5, 17 f.; 10, 63, 8 and 8, 47, 8
above p. 30-31; 2, 29, 5; 7, 52, 2: " L e t us not expiate another's
transgression," etc.
241. V a r u n a ; Roth, Z D M G . 6, 71 ff.; 7, 607 f.; .TAOS. 3, 340 ff.;
Muir, OST. 5, 61 ff., M T r . 159-163 and 313-317; Ludw. Rv. 3, 314 ff.;
GKR. 1 ff.: 2, 28; 5, 85; 7, 86. 87. 88. 89; cf 4, 42 (26 f.).
The name Varuna (from root vr, cover, envelop) signifies the ' En-
veloper,' the 'Investor of All,* and is, in spite of Ludwig's objection
(Rv. 3, 314), etymologically identical with the Gk. Ovpavos, which in
Homer signifies not (as in Hesiod) a divinity, but also the sky as a
region, as the container of everything. Though in the Veda the ethi-
cal relations of Varuna — displayed in Greece and Rome by the Father
of Heaven Zeus-Jupiter—always stand in the foreground, yet the
154 THE RIGVEDA.
original signification of the god often appears; 8, 41, 7: "Like a
cloak he spread himself over all the world, surrounding its regions ";
v. 3: " He enclosed the nights and skillcally established the mornings;
he is seen about all t h i n g s " (cf. 1, 25, 18); 7, 87, 5: " T h e three
heavens are enclosed by h i m ; three earths beneath, a series of six."
44
The eye w i t h which he beholds the zealous among men" ( 1 , 50,
6) is of course the sun in the sky. Cf. Hesiod O.D. 267:
with Horn. I I . 3,277:
Soph. Ant. 879, Aristoph. Nub.
285: etc.
Macrob. Sat. 1, 21, 12: quia Solem Jovis oculum appellat antiquitas.
" The two bright eyes that rule the earth and fill the three highest
spaces, the sure abode of Varuna" (8, 41, 9; cf. 1, 72, 10: "They en-
dowed him w i t h beauty when they created the two immortal eyes of
heaven " ) , sun and moon of the moon, Aesch.
Sept. 390, Pers. 428 etc.) ; the adjective four-faced (caturanlka: 5, 48,
5) refers to the four quarters of heaven.
The above-mentioned (p. 59, Note 226 f.) frequent combination
M i t r a - V a r u n a brings out the two sides of the 'All-container,' the
* shining day-sky,' and the 'glimmering night-sky,' both of which more-
over Varuna alone displays, e.g. 8, 41, 10: " Who made and enclosed
the gleaming white and the black" (i.e. days and nights); 7, 88, 2:
" W h e n I obtain a vision of his features,
His form appears to me like gleaming fire;
So may the ruler let me view in heaven
The wondrous glory of the light and darkness."
In l a t e r times Varuna is lowered to a mere god of the vmters, which
stream down from the sky to earth ; cf. w i t h Note 245 also 7, 34,10 f . ;
8, 41,2 : " Who stands at the source of the streams in the midst of the
seven sisters," i.e. rivers; 8, 58, 11. 12; 7, 49, 3 (125), and in general
M u i r , OST. 5, 72 f. and Hillebrandt, Varuna und Mitra,*p. 83 ff.
242. 10, 103, 9: " T h e host of Indra the hero and Varuna the
k i n g " ; especially 7, 82, 2. 4-6 and 7, 83, 9 (29, 30. 33), and the
passages 10, 89, 8. 9 ; 10, 113, 5 in Note 224; beside 6, 68, 3 (31) and
7, 85, 3:
" The one destroys the fiend with might and lightning,
The other is a counsellor of wisdom." —
•• The one protects the tribes, far separated,
The other slays his enemies, the mighty."
7, 28, 4: " I n these days help us, O Indra, for hostile champions come
on in gleam (of weapons) [so with Grassm. and Hillebrandt, against
GKR. 76] ; the wrong, which He sinless beheld in us, may wise V a -
 NOTES. 155
r u n a henceforward pass over"; 7 , 8 4 , 2 : " M a y V a r u n a ' 8 wrath
pass by us; may Indra open to us an ample space "; v. 4: " A d i t y a
takes away wrong, the h e r o dispenses immeasurable wealth." — For
the mutual relations of both gods the hymns 4, 42 (26) and 10,124
are specially characteristic; cf. M u i r , OST. 5, 116 f.; Hi]lebrandt,
Varuna und Mitra, p. 104 f.
243. 4, 42, 3-4 w i t h 8, 42,1 (vicvavedas); 5, 85, 1; 7, 87, 5; 8,
25, 18.
244. 8, 41, 5. 6: " The wise one brings many a wise work to com-
pletion . . . . in whom all wisdom is placed as the nave in the wheel,"
(differently by Hillebrandt, p. 81); cf. 5, 85, 5. 6. —8, 42, 1; 8, 41,
10: " W i t h a prop he held the two worlds apart." — " Wisdom in the
heart"; 8, 42, 3: "0 God, increase this prayer of the learner, and his
power, O Varuna, and knowledge." — 1, 03, 6: " T h e eagle brought
the Soma from the rock "; cf. Note 289.
245. 7, 88, 1: " Who brings to us the great exalted sun-steed, that
grants a thousand gifts.",— 1, 24, 8: " For K i n g Varuna made that
broad path for the sun to travel; he made feet for the footless to
tread and scattered that which wounded the heart."
T h e W a t e r s : 1 0 , 7 5 , 2 : "Varuna opened for thee, O Sindhu,
paths to flow "; 10, 124, 7: " Without trouble Varuna set the waters
free "; cf. Note 241; 4, 42, 4; 5, 85, 3.4 (Amos 5, 8; 9, 6); 5, 85, 8
(Eccles. 1, 7: above p. 27); 2, 28, 4: " The orderer of the worlds
made the rivers r u n , " etc.
246. 1,25, 13. Avesta, Y t . 13, 3 (Note 285 a, 286 a ) : " T h i s
heaven above, gleaming and beautiful, like polished brass in appear-
ance, shining over the three divisions of earth, which Mazda wears
like a garment, spangled w i t h stars, god-woven" (Roth). — 5,85, 1
(samraj). — 8, 25, 18 ; 5, 85, 5; 8, 42, 1; 8, 41, 4.
247. 4,42,3 (. . . .mm airayam dharayamca); 8, 41, 5 (dharta
bhuvanandm) ; 7,87,2; 1, 115, 1, (Note 207); 5,85,3.
248. 7, 88, 5; 7, 87, 5; 1, 25, 20 (three heavens [Note 283 a] and
three earths; 7,87,5 in Note 241; 8, 41, 9 etc., and three air-
regions; so "nine homes," as in the old Norse belief. Zimmer, A I L .
358). — 2, 27, 10; 7, 87, 6. Even the flying birds do not reach the
bounds of Varuna's dominion, not the ceaseless moving waters, nor
those that surpass the wind's swiftness: 1, 24, 6.
249. 1,25, 10 etc.; 1, 24, 10 = 3, 54, 18 etc. (*8, 25, 17: " T h e
old statutes of the all-rulers," above p. 59; Ps. 148, 6). — 2, 28, 8; 8,
42, 1. —10, 11, 1: " H e knows everything, like Varuna." "Ruler of
a l l " : 5, 85, 1; 6, 68, 9; 8, 4 2 , 1 ; 1, 25, 10; cf. 1, 25, 5. —Varuna
156 THE RIGVEDA.

brings the sun as the light of day; by his ordinance the stars know
their path and the moon moves light*giving throughout the night: 1,
24, 10; cf Ps. 136, 8 f . ; Job 38, 31 f.; Jtrem. 31, 35: Thus saith the
Lord, which giveth the sun for a light by day, and the ordinances of
the moon and of the stars for a light by night; Ps. 148, 3 f. 6: He
hath also stablished them (sun, moon and stars) forever and ever: he
hath made a decree which shall not pass.
250. 1, 24, 10; 8, 41, 5 (of Soma, 9, 87, 3; Note 304). — 1,25, 7. 8.
— 1, 25, 0. — 1, 25, 1 1 ; 8, 25, 16 : " He only, the lord of the house,
sees much and f a r " ; 1, 25, 5. 16; *8, 90, 2; 7, 34, 10.
251. 7, 49, 3 (125); 8, 41, 1. — 2, 28, 6.
252. Roth, Der Atharvaveda. Tubingen 1856, p. 29; Muller,
Chips, 1, 41, Introd. 243 f.; M u i r , O S T . 5, 64. 120; M T r . 163; Ludw.
Rv. 3, 388. — In the last verse instead of ni minoti, 'he holds,' should
perhaps be read w i t h BR. 5, 764; 7, 409 vicinoti, 'he surveys.'
253. 2, 28, 8. 7. 10; 8, 42, 2. — 1 , 24, 9 (" Varuna the lord of
remedies," Vftj.-Sanh. 21, 40); 8, 42, 3 ( i n Note 244); 1, 105,15:
" Varuna creates prayers ; we call to him as the inventor of songs; lie
calls forth devotion in the heart"; cf. * 1 , 151, 2. 6.— On 7, 87, 4
(mysteries of creation? GKR. 8 w i t h n. 4) ; cf Amos 3, 7: Surely the
Lord God w i l l do nothing, but he revealeth his secret unto his ser-
vants the prophets. Ps. 25, 14.
254. 7, 86, 2 ( 1 , 25, 5. 19); 2, 27, 10 (22); cf. 7, 89, 1 and 2, 28,
5. 7. 9; on the blessed life among the gods, p. 69 f. — The two foot-
notes after Roth, Z D M G . 7, 007 and JAOS. 3, 341 and 342.
255. 1, 2 4 , 1 1 ; * 1,139, 2 ( i n Note 232) ; 7, 86, 2. — 7, 87, 3; 1, 25,
13; 2, 28, 7. — 1, 24, 13.15 (on p. 68: " In chains," and in Note 225) ;
1, 25, 21 (" Take away the undermost of the bonds ") ; 7, 88, 7. [Cf
7, 89, 2 . 4 : "I go shaking like a puffed-up skin. . . . I stand in the
midst of water, yet thirst consumes me; be merciful, o Lord, forgive,"
i.e. dropsy sent as punishment.]—cy. 2,27, 16 (23); 2, 29, 5; 8,
56, 8 . - 6 , 74, 4; 10, 85, 24; *7, 65, 3 (in Note 232) and 7, 84, 2 (to
Indra-Varuna) : " Y o u who bind w i t h bonds without cords." — 1, 25,
14; 7, 28, 4 (76; cf Note 242). — Varuna himself is sinless and pure
and just, he punishes every error; Levit. 11, 44: Ye shall be holy, for
I am holy.
256. 7, 84, 2 ( i n Note 242; cf 4, 1, 4; 1, 94, 12; 7, 93,7. — *7,60,
8; * 7 , 6 2 , 4 ) ; 1,24,11: " Without wrath attend to us "; 1,25,3; 1,
24,14. —Ps. 6, 2; 38, 1: O Lord, rebuke me not in thy w r a t h : nei-
ther chasten me in thy hot displeasure.
 NOTES. 157
257. 7, 86, 7; 7, 87, 7 and 2, 28, 1 ( p e n i t e n t : p. 31 with Note
106 and p. 61 w i t h Note 236) ; cf Ps. 32, 5. 6; Prov. 28, 13: He that
covereth his sins shall not prosper: but whoso confesseth and forsak-
eth them shall have mercy. Isaiah 12.
258. 1, 24, 14 (p. 68):
" Do thou who hast the power, wise king eternal,
Release us from the sins we have committed."
1, 24, 9: "Take away from us the sin accomplished"; 2, 28, 5:
"Loose sin as a cord from me."—Cf. 10, 37, 12: " I f we have sinned
grievously against you, o gods, w i t h t h e t o n g u e , by t h o u g h t -
lessness ( l i t . 'absence of m i n d ' ) , raising your anger"; 10, 164, 3:
" If we have erred through w i s h , through t u r n i n g a s i d e , through
b l a m e , waking or sleeping." — Following verses G K R . 5. 6. 2. 5. 11.
259. See 6, 51, 7 = 7 , 52, 2 in Note 240 and 4, 3, 13: " D o not
visit the sin of an erring brother (on us)." — The verse is addressed
to Agni, the best sacrificer; w i t h this cf. above p. 36 with Note 124;
4, 12, 4 ( i n Note 201) ; 4, 1, 4: "O do thou, Agni, turn away from us
the wrath of god Varuna, since thou canst"; similarly I, 94, 12;
6, 48, 10; 7, 93, 7 (Agni, Aryaman, A d i t i ) ; 5, 2, 7 in Note 263.
260. Beside the above verses 5, 85, 7 (" If we to any loved com-
panion . . . " ) , cf. 7, 88, 6: " I f , Varuna, thy friend who is dear to
thee, if thy companion has offended thee, yet punish not . . ."; also
10, 37, 12 and 10, 1G4, 3 in Note 258 ( " w i t h the tongue," etc.).
261. 5, 85, 8: (Whatever sin we have committed), " a l l that, o
god, remove like flakes, and then may we be dear to thee again ";
7, 87, 7: " W h o shows mercy even to the sinner, — O that we were
guiltless before Varuna"; 1, 25, 1-3: "However, O god Varuna, we
have violated thy laws day by day, give us not over to the deadly
weapon of the wrathful, nor to the fury of the raging; as the driver
looses the horse from the harness, so we (loose) appease thy mind
through songs, that thou mayst have mercy "; 7, 89, 5 (12) and 7, 86,
6: " I t is not our own will, Varuna, that leads us astray, but some se-
duction, — wine, anger, dice and our folly. The older remains in the
errors of the younger; even sleep occasions sin."
Cf. further 4, 12, 4 : " Whatever offence we have committed against
thee, through folly, after human fashion, O Agni, make us free from sin
against A d i t i " (Note 259). " Sin after the manner of man," 7, 57, 4 ;
10, 15, 6. " I n folly, in weakness of judgment, in human fashion," 4,
54, 3, Note 221.
262. See the fine lines 7, 88, 3-5 (10) and with the words,
" W h a t now has become of our friendship, who formerly enjoyed
158 THE RIGVEDA.

intercourse ?" cf. Ps. 89, 50: Lord, where are thy former loving kind*
ne8sess which thou swarest unto David in thy t r u t h ? Ps. 77, 6-10.
263. After 7, 86. 3. 4 w i t h 2, 28, 6 7, 88, 6 (6. 2. 11); with
the following verses cf. 5, 2, 7 (to A g n i : Note 259):
" A n d from a thousand pillars Cunahcepa
The fettered thou didst loose; f o r he e n t r e a t e d .
From us too take away, O God, the fetters/'
264. 6, 51, 8: " By acts of devotion I seek to blot out sin already
committed," G K R . 7.
265. Mùller, Chips, 1, 44; cf. Roth, Z D M G . 4, 427. Mùller in the
2d edition adds the words of L e s s i n g (vol. 11, 63, Lachm.):
" Without the belief in a future life, a future reward and punish-
ment, no religion could exist," and those of S c h o p e n h a u e r (Parall.
vol. 1, 37) on the " r e a l Jewish religion of Genesis and the historical
books." Detailed proof that t h e b e l i e f i n a p e r s o n a l i m m o r -
t a l i t y n o t o n l y e x i s t e d i n t h e o l d e s t I n d o - G e r m a n i c pe-
r i o d i n g e n e r a l t r a i t s , b u t was also d e v e l o p e d i n m a n y
p a r t i c u l a r s must be reserved for another occasion; I confine my-
self in the following to a few indications (Notes 270-286 w i t h the
accompanying foot-notes) and refer, in addition to the general work
of E. Spiess, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Vorstellungen vom Zu-
stand nach dem Tode. Jena 1877, to the works of W. Geiger, Die My-
then vom T o d und Jenseits bei den Indogermanen, in Lindau's Nord
und Sud, V o l . 11, Oct. 1879, p. 84-103;
On the V e d i c belief, to Whitney, OLSt. 1, 46-64; Muir, OST. 5,
284-329 ; M T r . 186;
On the I r a n i a n belief, to Hùbschmann in the Jahrbùcher fur
Protest. Theologie, 1879, p. 203-245;
On the belief of the G r e e k s , to Weisse in Fichte's Zeitschrift fur
Philos. und Spec. Theol. V o l . 2. 1838; E. Curtius in Altertum und
Gegenwart. 1875, p. 219-236; K. Lehrs in the Populare Aufsatze.
2d ed. 1875, p. 303-362; J. Girard, Le sentiment religeux en Grece
d'Homere a Eschyle.2 1879, p. 207 f., 247 ff.
266. For the f i r s t time in 10,154, 2: " W h o through penance are
invincible, who through penance attained heaven, who accomplished
mighty acts of penance—"; vs. 4. 5: " the righteous Fathers, singers."
267. After 10, 18, 10. 12. 13 (above p. 77 f . ) and v. 11(152).
268. The grave as h o u s e of the dead body: see p. 77 f. w i t h
Note 329. — Evidence that the soul is considered as coming from
heaven and returning thither as its home: see Note 275.
269. 10, 14, 1 (146) with 10, 16, 4 d — V i v a s v a n t , the god of
the b r e a k i n g light of day, the morning sun, is the personification
 NOTES. 159
of all phenomena of light, is called the father of Yama, and the gods
are his race (10, 14, 5; 10, 58, I; 10, 60, 10; 9, 113, 8; 10, 14, 1.
—10, 63,1). That Yama is really looked upon as the first man is
expressly stated iu A V . 18, 3, 13, variants to A V . 18, 1, 49 = H V . 10,
14, 1; Note 276, cf Weber's 1st. 14, 393 and Zimmer, A I L . 415 * ( i n
opposition to which Mùller, L S L . 2, 529 f . ) .
270. G K R . 146 (jajndnds belongs not to jnd, but to^'em, as Grass-
mann takes it in all passages except this, Ludwig in most passages).
On pada b cf. in the Avesta Yacna 43, 13: "the desire for e t e r n a l
l i f e , w h i c h n o one o f y o u c a n a s s a i l , for the better existence
which shall be in Thy kingdom." To the *Fathers' (pitr, pitaras)
i.e. the * s p i r i t s of t h e d e p a r t e d r i g h t e o u s ' (p. 70*) corre-
spond
the F r a v a s h i s among the Iranians (Note 283a to 286a);
the " h e r o e s of t h e p a s t " and the among the
Greeks (Note 285a);
the D i v i M a n e s a n d L a r e s among the Romans (Note 283a,
285 a).
271. After 10, 16, 2; 10, 18, 13 (152; above p. 78: "I settle
firmly now the earth," etc.) ; 10, 14, 8: " free from all imperfection ";
(see Note 275); 10,15,14; 10, 16, 5 (in Note 278); 10, 56, 1 (in Note
275).
272. 10, 17, 3-6 (above p. 56 w i t h Note 212; w i t h Pusan Savitar
is mentioned in 10, 17, 4: Note 221).
273. That before the final entrance into the land of the blessed a
stream was to be crossed is indicated by 10, 63, 10: " M a y we embark
free from sin (anagasas, var. of A V , 7, 6, 3) on the divine ship w i t l i
good oars." 9, 41, 2 (cf the variant SV. 2, 3, 1, 3, 2 = 2, 243) seems to
point to the bridge often mentioned in the Avesta: " May we succeed
in passing over the bridge hard to reach, after conquering the god-
less enemy." More material on this subject is presented in the Iran-
ian, Grecian and German sources.
274. Two broad-nosed, four-eyed, spotted (cabala) dogs, the off-
spring of Sarama (p. 42, Note 149) occupy the path and guard the
entrance of Paradise, in order that no godless person may steal into
the region of the blessed, 10, 14, 10: p. 70; 10, 14. 11 (pathiraksi.:

273a. On the C i n v a t - b r i d g e ("Bridge of the Gatherer") of the

Iranians, cf. the foot-notes 274 a and 283a.
274a. The I r a n i a n s believe according to Vendidad 13, 9 (26 Spie-
gel) that two dogs guard the Cinvat-bridge leading to Paradise, and pass-
able only for the righteous. The name of the guardian among
the Greeks has long been recognized as identical with Skt. farvdra, ' varie
160 T H E RIGVEDA.

variant of A V . 18, 2, 12: pathisadi); cf. 10, 15, 1: " The Fathers,
who entered unharmed into the spirit world," and the fragment 7, 55,
2-4, which describes a scene at the entrqfcce of the world of the dead.
" A dead man, who has reached the confines of the shadow-kingdom,
is stopped by Sarameya, who shows his teeth and is about to attack
him. Then he conjures the monster to sleep; let him attack thieves
and robbers, but the speaker is an adorer of Indra, and as such is en-
titled to admission." Aufrecht, ISt. 4, 342.
According to the other fragment 10, 14, 11. 12 the two never satis-
fied dogs (" in turn," if w i t h Sayana 1, 29, 3 should be referred here)
go about among men, search out those who are to die and accompany
them surely. — Cf Muir, OST. 5, 294, 439.
275. 10, 15, 14; 10, 16, 2; 10, 14, 8 (147; above p. 70). The
heaven is, therefore, the home of the soul, to which, after death, it
r e t u r n s purified ("free from all imperfections"); 10, 10, 5: "Dis-
miss him again, o A g n i , to the Fathers"; 10, 56, 1: " W h e n thou
enterest thy (new) body, be welcome, be dear to the gods in the high-
est homes"; here belongs also 10, 135 (hymn to Yama at the funeral
of a boy), v. 5: " W h o gave life to the boy? Who made his car r o l l
forth? Who today could tell us how he was given back?"
According to 10, 16, 3: " L e t thy eye go to the sun, thy breath to
the w i n d ; go to the sky, to the earth, according to (thy) nature; go
to the waters, if that is destined for thee ; enter into the plants with
thy members," man came from the edifice of the w o r l d ; Zirnmer, A I L .
403 points out analogous Germanic conceptions in Grimm, Mythol. 1,
464 IT., 4th ed.

gated, spotted,' an older dialectic by-form of the adjective cabala used of

Yama's dogs above: Mùller, e.g. Chips, 2, 180; LSL. 2, 407; A. Weber,
ISt. 2, 298; cf. IStr. 2, 220 f.; Rutin, KZ. 2, 314; Breal, Hercule et Cacus
p. 121. 130; finally Benfey, Giitt. Gel. Anz. 1877, 8 f . = Vedica 140-103.
" If anything is certain, the agreement of cabala, carvara with is
assured. And yet, according to the decision of a competent judge, lately
pronounced, 'no advantage for Grecian mythology is to be looked for
from India.' We may therefore expect to see sillinesses like the compar-
ison of and paraded once more," Aufrecht, ISt. 4, 342
(1858).
275 a. Concerning the belief of the I r a n i a n s , we learn from the
Bundehesh (a work quite young in its composition, but in contents of con-
siderable antiquity): "The soul is created before the body." " I t comes
from heaven and rules the body, as long as it lives; when the body dies, it
is mingled with the earth, and the soul goes back to heaven." (Bunde-
hesh, c. 16, 17, ed. Justi, pp. 17, 23; cf Spiegel, Eranishche Altertums-
kunde, 2,149).
 NOTES. 161
276. G K R . 147. Although both are ' princes of the blessed,' yet
Varuna, the god, is expressly distinguished from Yama, who is ' as
the first man (Note 269), so also the first to arrive in the realm of the
Immortals, the natural head of those who are destined, each in his
turn, to follow h i m thither' (Roth, Z D M G . 4, 426). Therefore he is
called, 10, 135, 1, the * lord of races, the father,' and 10, 14, 1 the
' Gatherer of the peoples'; cf, Athen. 3, 55, p. 99 B:
Hesych.: r (more in
O. Schneider, on Callim. Lav. PalL 130, vol. 1, 362 f.).
277. Sarama's dogs: Note 274. — The Fathers are p r o p i t i o u s
also in 10, 15, 3. 9; 10, 17, 3; see p. 71 with Note 285, and cf
Ilesiod's , OD. 126 in Note 285a. — " I n bliss w i t h Yama";
Note 280.
278. A syllable is wanting in the pada, perhaps te, " thy body " ?
10, 15, 14: "Shape thee a body at pleasure"; 10, 16, 5: "Restore him,
Agni, to the fathers; him who, offered to thee, now goes in peace,
clothing himself in youthful strength (seeking posterity?), and let
him meet with a (new) body "; 10, 56, 1 in Note 275.
279. G K R . 53; /, 115, 1 (55), the following after the beautiful
hymn 9, 113, 7-11, GKR. 111: "In the inmost midst of the highest
heaven," literally: "Where is the innermost space of the heavens —
in threefold third heights of heaven — where is the sun's highest pin-
nacle."— Here refer 10, 56, 1: "Unite thyself w i t h the t h i r d bright-
ness "; 1, 35, 6: " There are three heavens, two spaces of Savitar, the
t h i r d i n t h e r e a l m o f Y a m a , containing men," the latter recall-
ing the "' ' ~" in Horn. Hymn, in Cer. 17. 430.

Similarly the belief of the G r e e k s : Eur. Suppl. 1140 f.:

in epigrams; cf. Kaibel, Epigrammata Graeca. Berlin 1878. p. 680, s.v.

anima, and Roscher, Hermes der Windgott. Leipsig 1878. p. 68 f.
Among the R o m a n s , Lucretius teaches, I)e Rerum Nat. 2, 099 f.
(like Eur., however, in the last quoted passage, not only of the genus
humanum): cedit item retro, de terra quod fuit ante, || in terras, et quod
missumst ex aetheris oris, || id rursum caeli rellatum templa receptant;
Macrob. Sat. 1, 10, 15 (of Egypt): "quod aestimaverunt antiqui, animas
ab Jove dari et rursus post mortem eidem redrli."
162 THE RIGVEDA.

9 and Aesch. Suppl. 157:

fgm. 229D, 224N, etc.
280. Beside the text, only passages which speak in general of a
joyful life of bliss; see 10, 14, 3. 6. 9 (146 f . ) : " where waters flow,
clays and nights interchange"; i.e. the delights of earth are also
found; 10, 50, 4; 10, 15, 8. 9 and the l i k e ; scattered passages 10, 56,
3: " G o to the lovely" (sc. women or maidens, ace. plur. f e r n . ) ; 10,
135, 1: " Beneath what tree, with beautiful foliage, Yama drinks w i t h
the gods, there the Father, founder of our race, cares lovingly for
our ancestors." — More of the same nature is found in the more pop-
ular Atharvaveda, and later: "There warm, grateful breezes blow,
cooling rain falls gently; there there are basins of cream, broods in
which honey flows, streams filled w i t h milk, carrying sura instead of
water; glistening cows giving milk at w i l l , which do not kick out the
foot, come up to the righteous, and the weaker has not to pay tribute
to the stronger." Zimmer, A I L . 412 f.; Muir, OST. 5, 303-311.
314 f.
281. " What shall be the employment of the blest, in what sphere
their activity shall expend itself — to this question ancient Hindu wis-
dom sought no answer. The certainty of happiness was enough for
i t . " Roth, JAOS. 3, 344.
282. 1, 24, 1. 2: " W h o shall give us back to the great A d i t i ? I
would behold my father and mother"; Av. 6, 120, 3: "Where v i r t u -
ous friends rejoice, — there we would see our parents and our chil-
dren."
283. The data for the belief in a personal immortality, a happy

283 a. According to the testimony of Diog. Laert., Theopompus had

already told that the I r a n i a n s believed in the immortality of the soul:

(C. Mùller, Fgm. Hist. Gr. 1,289, n. 71; Win-

dischtnann, Zoroastr. Stud. p. 233, 279). We now know much more, and
more definitely from the Avesta, the sacred scripture of the Eastern Iran-
ians, which, however, still presents great difficulties of interpretation; to
defend here my translations of even the few passages from it would lead
too far: v i d e a n t p e r i t i ! Vend. 9, 44 W . : "Announce to man as the
reward of the other world the gain of (the best place) Paradise"; cf. 13,
8(22). Yt. 1, 25 (37): "There are (imperishableness) c o m p l e t e n e s s
and i m m o r t a l i t y , w h i c h are the r e w a r d o f t h e r i g h t e o u s
who h a v e a t t a i n e d to P a r a d i s e . " Yc. 45, 5: "They will attain to
completeness and immortality through acts of righteousness." Yc. 43,
2 f.: "The righteous shall gain the best thing; he who seeks Ahura
 NOTES. 163
continuance of life in the other world, have been given in the preced-
ing ; see the foot-note 283 a.

Mazda, the most holy spirit, shall attain to the h e a v e n l y l i g h t (ef. Ye.
60, 5), and to the refreshment, which he gives really to the righteous, in
fullness, all the days of an eternity. May that man prosper more who
shows us the straight paths of this (embodied) earthly world und the
spirit-world, to the true abodes where Ahura dwells." Ye. 51, 13: "The
soul of the wicked perishes, but the soul of the upright is confirmed and,
through its deeds, through its words, attains to the regions by the bridge
of the Gatherer (Note 273a), the paths of the righteous." — "When the
spirit of the righteous over that bridge has come from the perishable to
the i m p e r i s h a b l e w o r l d , it goes joyfully to the golden thrones of
Ahura Mazda, of Amesha-Cpenta (rf. Note 230), to Garonmfina, the
bright, gleaming Paradise, the dwelling of Ahura Mazda, of Amesha-
Qpenta, of the other righteous" (after Vend. 10, .'30 f. (101 ff.) with Visp.
7, 1 (8, 8)). —On the 'threefold third height of heaven' of the Veda
(Note 248. 279); cf. the arrangement Yt. 22, 14 f., Mainjo-i-Khard, 2, 145;
7, 8 f t , ed. West.
On the F r a v a s h i s , corresponding exactly to the ' Fathers' (Note 270),
it is enough to refer to Roth in Baur und Zeller's Theol. Jahrb. 8, 291 f.
and Spiegel, Uebersetz. des Avesta 3, xxix. Eran. Alterth. 2, 91 ft., and to
the following Notes, 284 a to 280 a.
If among the Greeks Homer's epic does not show this belief in im-
mortality, yet the belief in a continued existence of the soul, in a b e t t e r ,
h a p p y l i f e a f t e r d e a t h , lived among the people from the oldest
times, not first as the teaching of philosophers, as no less a one than
Aristotle distinctly informs us (Plut. Consol. ad Apoll. c. 27, p. 115 C) :

' Fathers,' the ' Fravashis ' of the Greeks, see Note 285 a.
The belief of the Romans in a 'happy future' (see Kuhn's words
in Note 315) finds its most eloquent expression in the renowned cult of the
d i v i Manes and the L a r e s (to be connected, in spite of Premier,
Hestia-Vesta, 1864, p. 341), the Italic 'Fathers.' The summa rerum of
ancient laws reads in Cic. De Leg. 2, 9, 22: Deorum maniurn iura sancta
sunto; sos [i.e. suos. Vahlen with the MSS., nos] l e t o dato d i v o s
164 T H E RIGVEDA.

284. 10, 15, 1. 2; 10, 13, 3 f.; 10, 16, 11 f.; 10, 56, 2 ; 10, 154, 2 ;
1, 164, 30. 38: " T h e immortal is of one origin w i t h the mortal."
For the ancestral cult of the Iranians, (weeks, and Romans, see the
foot-note 284 a.
285. 1, 164, 30; 10, 15, 2; 10, 56, 5 ( " W i t h might they move
through the whole atmosphere, measuring the old unmeasured re-

h a b e n t o . Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, writes to her son: ubi

mortua ero, parentabis mihi et invocabis Deum parentem (Corn. Nep. ed.
C. L. Roth, p. 177); and according to Varro's testimony (Plut. Quaest.
Rom. 14 p. 207 IJ) the words were spoken im-
mediately after the burning of the corpse. Serv. ad Virg. Aen. 6, 47.
For the G e r m a n s , refer to Grimm, Mythol. 31, 132. 172 ft. Mann-
hardt, Germ. Mythen. p. 740, Index s.v. Seele.
Mannhardt observes that the C e l t s (rf. Caes. B. G. 6, 14) held the
same belief as the Germans, and I.e., p. 320, 1, collects the testimony of
the ancients.
284a. The I r a n i a n s 'praiso and honor all the true spirits of the
righteous, that are, that have been, and that shall be, with hand furnished
with flesh and covering, with devotion which attains uprightness/ with rich
sacrifices, especially on fixed days (Yt. 13, 21. 31 f. 49 f . ) .
The libations and offerings for the dead among the Greeks are well
known; there were, besides, ' public forefathers' days, on which all fami-
lies celebrated the memory of their departed.'
Varro tells of the Romans (Plut. I.e.):
and Tertullian makes
them the reproach (Apolog. 13): Quid omnino ad honorandos eos (se.
deos) facitis quod non etiam mortuis vestris conferatis? aedes proinde,
aras proinde; idem habitus et insignia in statuis . . . quo differt ab epulo
Jovia silicernium? — Characteristically enough, the language of the Ro-
mans calls the act of burial an 'reverence,' the Latin sepelio being element
for element identical with Skt. saparyami, honor, revere: Sonne, Kuhn,
Schweizer-Sidler, KZ. 10, 327; 11, 202; 14, 147.
285a. The Fravardin Yasht of the Avesta (Yt. 13) "describes the
speed and strength, the majesty and kindness and friendliness of the
spirits (fravashi) of the just; the strong, victorious, how they come to
help, how they give support, the powerful spirits of the just" (vs. 1: Roth,
ZDMG. 25, 217). Spread through all the atmosphere, through the fami-
lies, through villages, districts, lands, they hasten to the offerings
Diog. L. Prooim. 6; Yt. 13, 21. 49. 68. 84); when
with a believing spirit men call upon them and satisfy them with offer-
ings, the good, strong, holy Fravashis come, mightier, more victorious,
more healing, more favoring than one can tell in words (Yt. 13, 34. 47. 63.
64; cf. 75. 27: "They are prosperity, refreshing where they come"); vie-
 NOTES. 165
g i o n s " ) ; 10,15, 3 ff.; 10, 56, 5. 6; 10, 154, 3; 10, 15, 6; 10, 154, 4;
10, 16, 11.
286. 7, 76, 4: " They were the companions of the gods, the right-
eous singers of olden times; the F a t h e r s found the hidden light,
w i t h true hymns they produced Usas." 10, 154, 5; 10, 68, 11. — More

torious to aid the pious, they light bravely in battle at their abodes and
homes against the enemies of the land, and bring for their children, for
their village, their districts, their land, the fructifying water, for the
Aryan regions, and growth to the trees (Visp. 11, 15 (12, 33); Yt. 13, 23 f.
27. 30 f. 67. 69 f. 66. 68. 43. 63. 55); in the sacriflcer's house there will be
an abundance of cattle and men, the swift horse and the firm wagon; but
the Just ward off all evil for all time (Yt. 13, 52; 33. 70 f.).
In the popular belief of the G r e e k s , likewise, the heroes of old times,
and according to the verses of Hesiod, OD. 121 ff. (el. 252 f.), brought into
this their proper connection by Roth, in his treatise on the myth of the
live races of man in Hesiod, Tubingen 1800, " the men of the Golden Age
after their peaceful death have become friendly demons or immortal
guardians of mortals, who, wrapped in mist [i.e. " i n the atmosphere"],
everywhere pervade the earth" (Roscher). These verses are (according
to the account in Plato Hep. p. 400 A. cl. Cratyl. 308 A. r i u t . Do Def.
Orac. 39 p. 431 E and elsewhere, evidently better in spite of Lacth. Inst.

— Further, the correspond to the "Fathers," the "Fra-

vashis."
That the Romans believed that their dead possessed divine power
eternally, is distinctly told in a grave-epigram (Ritschl, Opusc. Philolog.
4, 244. 250. 252): Manes colamus, namque o p e r t i s M a n i b u s || I ) i v i n a
v i s est a e v i t e r n i t e m p o r i s (opertis: i.e. rite sepultis). Men hope
for their help and that of the Lares in the most various circumstances.
The old Arval song begins: E nos Lases iuvate! (Lares placare: Hor.)
In the letter quoted above (Note 283a), Cornelia writes further to her son:
In eo tempore non pudet te, e o r u m d e u m preces expetere, quos v i v o s
a t q u e p r a e s e n t e s relictos atque desertos habueris. Compare in gen-
eral the L a r e s f a m i l i a r e s , d o m e s t i c i , p r a e s t i t e s (Ovid. Fast.
5, 134 fg.: quod praestant oculis omnia tuta suis. || Stant quoque pro
nobis, et praesunt moenibus Urbis, et sunt praesentes, auxiliumque ferunt),
v i a l e s , c o m p i t a l e s , p e r m a r i n i . — Schoemann has already rightly
shown (De Diis Manibus Laribus et Geniis, p. 10 f. Opusc. Acad. 1, 359 f.)
that this belief was, among the Romans, a p r i m i t i v e p o p u l a r super-
s t i t i o n ("longe omni philosophia prior, . . . ipsis iam urbis Romanae
primordiis aequalis").
166 T H E RIGVEDA.

plainly still the CB. 6, 5, 4, 8: "Whatever men go virtuous to heaven,

these s t a r s are their brightness"; i b i d , 9, 3, 10: " T h e righteous
are the rays of the glowing sun." Similar declarations in the Maha-
bharata: Muir, OST. 5, 319 and n. 487. Cf. foot-note 286a.
287. After 4, 5, 5; 7, 104, 3 ( " i n t o the abyss, in endless dark-
ness"); 10, 152, 4 ( " t o the undermost darkness"; M a t t h . 8, 12,

286a. According to the I r a n i a n belief, Ahura-Mazda, by the aid

and might of the Fravashis, ordered the heaven above, which, gleaming
and beautiful, encloses in itself and round about that earth, which like a
building stands raised, firmly founded, far-reaching, like polished metal in
appearance, shining over the three parts (of the earth) [Roth], Through
t h e i r action and might, the divinely created waters flow onward in their
beautiful paths; the trees grow forth from the earth, and the wind blows;
through t h e i r action and might, sun, moon, and stars move on their
paths, the heavens, the waters, the earth with its blessing, the whole world,
remain established (Yt. 13, 2. 3. 63 with 14. 16. 67. 22. 9. 10 cf. 12). " A l l
the unnumbered and innumerable stars which show themselves are called
the spirits of men " (Mainjo-i-Khard. 40, 22, ed. West).
The analogy to the latter among the G r e e k s is proved by Arist. Pac.
832:

For the R o m a n s , we may compare e.g. Virg. Georg. 1, 32 f.: Anne

novum tardis sidus te mensibus addas, || qua locus Erigonen inter Che-
lasque sequentis || panditur ? ibid. 4, 226 f.: Scilicet hue reddi deinde ac
resoluta referri || omnia; nee morti esse locum, sed viva volare || sideris in
numerum, atque alto succedere caelo.
The greatest similarity to the Indian belief is seen in the N o r s e -
G e r m a n , in which "the stars are effects of the Elbs (i.e. souls of the
departed)"; "stars are souls: when a child dies, God makes a new star;
the soul of the righteous attains to Gimill, where, united with the Light-
elves, i.e. the spirits of the just, it imparts light to the heavenly bodies ";
" from the souls proceed the brightness of the sunbeams and the bright-
ness of all heavenly bodies." Mannhardt, Germ. Mythen. p. 378. 310, 3;
439. 474. — Some related matter in I I . Osthoff, Quaest. Mythol. Dissert,
rhilol., Bonn 1809, p. 22 f.
287a. Among the I r a n i a n s we read, Yc. 43, 6: "I think Thee holy,
because I saw Thee, how from the beginning, for the creatures of the
earth, Thou madest their acts and words to be accompanied by rewards:
e v i l f o r the e v i l , a good allotment for the good, through thy excel-
lent might at the last catastrophe of the creation." Yc. 45, 7 : "Through
his help all strive for reward, those who have been living and shall be;
the passing over of the just is into immortality; but e t e r n a l woe is
t h e f a t e of the w i c k e d man." Ye. 49, 11: " I n the house of the
Druj are the lasting abodes of the soul of the wicked, who walk in an
 NOTES. 167
' ; 9, 73, 8; 4, 5, 4 ; 1, 121, 13; 2, 20, 6; 4, 25,
6 in Note 163; cf Zinimer, A I L . 420 f.
288. Soma: Muir, OST. 5,258-271; G K R . 110 f.: 9, 113; 10, 25
and 6, 74 to Rudra-Soma. " It is now represented by a species of
Sarcostemma, which, however, grows in more southerly regions than
where the seats of the Vedic [or even, Note 293, Indo-Iranian] people
lay; probably w i t h the home the plant changed also." Roth, BR. s.v.
In later Vedic writings (CB.), in case Soma should be wanting, sub-
stitutes are given. [ R o t h , Ueber den Soma, Z D M G . 35, 680 If.; Wo
wachst der Soma? Z D M G . 38, 134-139.]
289. 8, 89, 8; 4, 26, 0; 1, 93, 6; 5, 85, 2 (p. 63 and Note 244;
the Soma of Mount Mujavant was specially strong: 10, 34, 1 above
p. 83), etc.; 9, 68, 5: " T h e wise saw the beauty of the Gladdening,
when the falcon brought the herb from afar"; 9, 86, 24: " T h e well-
winged brought thee from heaven, that art adorned w i t h all songs."
Differently 9, 113, 3 (110) and 9, 83, 4; 9, 85, 12; 8, 66, 4 f. [Roth,
Der Adler mit dem Soma..ZDMG. 36, 353 ff.]
290. Soma gavacir or yavacir. Cf e.g. (Plut. De Isid. et Osir.
c. 46) Muir, OST. 2, 469 ff. Ilaug, I.e. and Essays on the Sacred
Language of the Parsis, 2d ed. 1878, p. 282 f.; Grassmann, Transl. 1,
157; 2, 183 f.
291. Cf. the description in Zimmer, A I L . 272 f . — 9 , 2, 7; 1, 4, 7;
9 , 2 4 , 4 ; 9,67,2.
292. 8, 61, 17; 8, 48, 5. 4, cf 1 1 ; 9, 96, 14; 9, 98, 4 (Note 299) ; 8,
48,11. 6: "Make me bright like gleaming fire; enlighten us and make
us richer. In t h y i n t o x i c a t i o n , S o m a , I t h i n k : / shall now
attain fortune, a rick man." Cf. 9, 4, 1—10; 6, 47, 3; in 9, 76, 4 Soma
is called father; in 9, 96, 4 producer of the hymns; 8, 48, 3: " W e

evil way . . ." Yc. 30, 10: "Then the fall into the place of rejection
comes to liars." Vend. 5, 61 f. (174 f . ) : " In life he is not just, in death
he has no part in Paradise; he comes to the place of the wicked, the
dark, the darkest, to darkness." Yc. 51, 13: "The spirit of the wicked
perishes."
That the I n d o - G e r m a n i c (and Graeco-Aryan) period was ac-
quainted with a place of torment for the wicked, Weber, ZDMG. 9, 242,
has made probable from a legend of the CB. (Bhrgu expiates his arro-
gance; the [etymologically identical] are condemned to hard
pains of hell for their arrogance); Benfey even attempts (Hermes, Minos,
Tartaros. Gott. Akad. Abhandl. 1877, p. 17 ff., 33 ff.) to prove the identity
of with Skt. talatala (name of a hell in the Upanisads and
Puranas).
168 THE RIGVEDA.

have drunk the Soma, we are now immortal, we have entered into
light, we have known the gods. What can an enemy now do to us ?
What can the malice of a mortal, O Imrfrortal, now effect?"
The intoxicating effect of the drink upon Indra is described by
himself in 10, 119 (81 f . ) . — W i t h the passages mentioned, 6, 47, 3;
8,48, 3, Muir, OST. 3 2 , 264 f., compares the verses Eur. Bacch. 294 f.:

cf. Muir, OST. 5, 259 f.

293. To the Indian Soma cult the quite analogous Haoma cult of
the Eastern Iranians corresponds; cf. e.g. the translation of Yacnas
9 and 10 by Geldner, Metrik des jungern Avesta, Tubingen 1877, p.
122 f . ; Plutarch tries to reproduce "haoma" the regular Bactrian
form of the Skt. soma, De Isid. et Osir. 46, p. 369 E:

294. " The simple-minded Aryan people, whose whole religion was
a worship of the wonderful powers and phenomena of nature, had no
sooner perceived that this liquid had power to elevate the spirits and
produce a temporary frenzy, under the influence of which the indi-
vidual was prompted to, and capable of, deeds beyond his natural
powers, than they found in it something divine; it was to their appre-
hension a god, endowing those into whom it entered with godlike
powers; the plant which afforded it became to them the king of
plants. . . . Soma is addressed in the highest strains of adulation and
veneration; ail powers belong to h i m ; all blessings are besought of
him, as his to bestow, etc." Whitney, JAOS. 3, 299 f. = OLSt. 1, 10 f.
— It has already been remarked (p. 21) that a large number of hymns
are addressed to Soma, among others all those of the ninth book. —
In many passages it can, of course, not be determined whether the
word soma is to be taken as an appellative or as a proper name.
295. Of Indra, e.g. above p. 41, with Note 144; cf also p. 31. He
is pleasing to all gods, he intoxicates and gladdens a l l ; see e.g. 9, 90,
5; 9, 97, 42, etc.
296. 9, 88, 3; 9, 96, 7; 9, 100, 3; 1, 91, 1 ; 9, 70, 9; 10, 25, 6-8
(114) : " Thou best knowest paths and places "; on Fusau, p. 56.
297. 9, 66, 16-18; 9, 29, 4; 9, 70, 10; 9, 91, 4; 9, 94, 5; 9, 47, 2:
" What he had to do he has done; the destruction of the enemies is
plain "; 9, 97, 54: " Soma has sunk them in sleep and death "; 9, 88, 4:
 NOTES. 169
" L i k e Indra, who performs great deeds, thou, Soma, overcomest the
enemies and destroyest the strongholds."
298. 9, 70, 5 ; 9, 29, 5; 9, 79, 3; 9, 56, 4; 8, 48, 3 ( i n Note 292);
8, 48, 15: " Protect us in rear and f r o n t " ; 1, 91, 8; 9, 104, 6; 9, 105,
6; 9, 110, 12; 9, 97, 16; 9, 85, 1 ; etc.
299. 9, 36, 5; 9, 14, 8; 9, 19, 1. —9, 66, 17: "more generous than
rich givers"; 9, 32, 6: "grant splendor to me and the lord of the
sacrifice"; 9 , 9 8 , 4 : "thousandfold gift w i t h hundredfold l i f e " ; 1,91,
7. — "Food and drink for man and beast, for animals and plants":
9, 86, 35; 9, 94, 5; 9, 11, 3; 3, 62, 14.
300. 9, 107, 7; cf 9, 97,31 and 1, 93, 5: " F u l l of wisdom, Agni-
Soma, ye placed those stars yonder in heaven"; 8, 68, 6; 9, 71, 7; 8,
68, 2: " He clothes what is naked, heals all that is sick, the blind see,
the lame walk."
301. 9, 41, 1; 9, 73, 5; 9, 63, 5 with 6, 52, 3.
302. 9, 96, 10; 9, 97, 40. 56; 9, 101, 7; 9, 86, 29; 9, 87, 2 (cf 9,
65,11); 9,89, 6.
303. 1, 91, 3; 9, 64, 9 ; 9, 86, 20: " T h y brightness, O Radiant, is
(like) the sun."
304. 1, 91, 3; 6, 47, 4 (|| Varuna: above p. 63, w i t h 8, 41, 10 in
Note 244); 9, 87, 3; 9, 97, 10: " k i n g of the race" (|| Varuna: 6, 68,
3: above p. 62, Note 242); 9, 71, 9; 9, 96, 7 (|| : p. 64 w i t h Note
251); 9, 87, 3: " He knows what is hidden in them, the secret, con-
cealed names of the cows (dawns)" (|| : 8, 41, 5: p. 64 and Note
250).
305. 9, 73, 4; 9, 47, 2; of 7, 104, 12. 13; 9, 85, 1 ; 9, 113, 4; 9,
110, 1: " T o conquer the haters thou hastenest as the punisher of
sin."
306. 8, 48, 2 ; 1, 91, 4 ; 8, 68, 8; 1, 179, 5.
307. Delbriick, A l t i n d . Tempuslehre, Halle 1877, p. 29.
308. 8, 68, 6; 8, 48, 7; 9, 4, 0; 1, 91, 7. 6: " Mayest thou w i l l
that we live; then shall we not die." — 9, 113, 7-11; 9, 108, 3: " F o r
thou hast called the races of the gods to immortality."
309. B r h a s p a t i : Roth, Z D M G . 1, 66 f.; Muir, OST. 5, 272-283;
GKR. 107 f . ; 4, 50. Brhaspati is n o t to be taken only as a name
of Agni, and to be identified w i t h h i m ; cf Muir, I.e. 281-283.
310. 4, 50, 1; 2, 2 4 , 1 1 ; 6, 73, 1. 2 . - 2 , 24, 3; 4, 50, 5; 10, 68,
3-10; 2, 23, 18; 2, 24, 3 f . ; 6, 73, 3.
311. 2, 23, 4. 8 . 1 1 ; 2, 26,13; 6, 73, 3 . - 2 , 23, 11. 17; 2, 24, 13.
170 T H E RIGVEDA.

312. 2, 26, 3 f.; 6, 73, 2. — 1, 18,3 f.; 2, 23, 5; 2, 25, 5 etc. 2, 23,
9. 15; 2, 24, 10; 1, 18, 2; 3, 62, 4; 1, 190, 8 . - 2 , 23,10. 19; 2, 25, 2;
4, 50, 6; Brhaspati's blessings, 2, 25.
313. 1, 90, 1 ; 2, 24, 10; 1, 40, 5 . - 2 , 23, 2.
314. 2, 23, 2; 2, 24, 1. 15; 2, 23,10. — 4, 50, 1 (107); 1, 18, 7:
" May he, without whom even a sage's sacrifice is fruitless, further the
course of prayers." 2 , 2 4 , 9 : "A high priest, who unites and scat-
ters."
315. 2, 23, 6 Brhaspati is called pathikrt, " Path-preparer "; and so
10, 14, 15 (148) "the Rsis of former times, who prepared the way."
What way is meant in this cannot be doubtful after the above, espe-
cially from 9, 113, 7 f. (111). — " W i t h this meaning of pathikrt,
pontifex (identical in its first part) coincides exactly, and so much
more, because we know what high reverence was paid to the Manes
by the Romans (cf above Note 283 f.) ; so they agree, at least for the
older period, with Indians and Germans, in their conception of a
happy future life, to which their Pontifex alone holds the key."
A. Kuhn, K Z . 4, 76 f.
316. V i c v e devas (p. 34) : in GKR. 126 f.: 6, 50 and 8, 30. —
10, 100, 7.
317. The W e d d i n g H y m n 10, 85 is treated by Haas, Die Heirats-
gebrauche der alten Inder, nach den Grihjasiitra (cf Note 24), in ISt.
5, 267-412, which is prefaced by Weber, ibid., pp. 177-266, Vedische
Hochzeitsspriiche, w i t h a translation of 10, 85, and a number of related
texts of the Atharvaveda.
318. For the analogy among the Greeks and Romans, the
of the highest god of the h e a v e n , Zeus, and the m o o n -
goddess, Hera, see Roscher, Studien zur vergleich. Mythologie 2,
Juno und Hera, Leipzig 1875, p. 70 ff.
319. 10, 85, 18 f.: " Following each other, these two glad children
encircle the air-region (instead of adhvaram, the variant arnauam, A Y .
7, 81, 1; 13, 2, 1 1 ; 14, 1, 23) ; the one surveys all creatures, the other,
dividing the seasons, is born again. Ever new he is born again; as
the standard of day he goes before the Dawns; he gives the gods
their portions (regulates the times of sacrifice) by his course; the
moon lengthens l i f e . "
320. Haas, I.e. p. 273. — In the text the subject could only be
treated briefly after qankh. Grhya-sutra 1, 13 (Oldenberg, ISt. 15,
27 f . ) , Pfiraskara 1, C, 3; cf. l e v . 1, 7, 3 f.; see Zimmer, A I L . 311 f.
321. We cannot enter here upon the many and far-reaching coin-
cidences; it is sufficient to refer to the treatises just mentioned (Note
 NOTES. 171
317), especially the index I.c. 410-412, and the few observations in
Jbb. 121, 457.
322. P a d a c : Puramdhi: "the r i c h " ? or w i t h Sayana, Pusan? or
a special genius? cf. B R . s.v.— " W i t h his right hand the right hand
of the b r i d e " ; cf. 10, 18, 8 (above p. 77, bottom): " W h o took
thy hand once and espoused thee": the dexterarum junctio of the
Romans.
323. I have already shown in Jbb. 121, 457, 28 that the corre-
sponding Roman quando (ubi " ) tu Gaius, ego Gaia was o r i g i -
n a l l y used at the marriage, and n o t (as it is given in most of the
manuals) on entering the new home.
324. " From left to r i g h t " (pradaksinam): Jbb. ibid.
27. Team of heifers: i b i d . 29.
325. Zimmer, A I L . 313.
326. The following hymn, 10, 18 (see the beautiful rendering of
Roth, Z D M G . 8, 467 ff. and G K R . 150 i f . ) , presupposes the burial, on
the other hand e.g. 10, 16; 10, 17, 3 ff., the burning of the corpse. —
The ritual is treated by M. Muller in the supplement to Z D M G .
9, I f f .
327. Trees are frequently mentioned as coffins ( A V . 18, 2, 25. 3,
70), which recalls the Allemanian 'Todtenbaum.'
328. This stanza has a very special interest, because w i t h a very
slight forgery it would give the highest sanction, the Vedic authority,
for the custom of burning the widow on the grave of the husband;
cf Colebrooke, On the duties of a faithful Hindu widow, in his Misc.
Essays, 1, 132 f. ed. Cowell, and Fitzedward Hall, JRAS. NS. 3, 183 f.
(from a rohantu yonim dgre, " l e t them f i r s t approach the place,"
the forgery a rohantu yonirn agneh, '' let them enter the place of
fire").
329. The g r a v e is thus the d w e l l i n g of t h e b o d y (above
p. 69); so also among the G r e e k s and R o m a n s : "The grave, ac-
cording to the universal view of antiquity, is a dwelling into which
the dead enter, there to begin another and better existence; it has,
therefore, the character of a house, which requires a certain arrange-
ment," etc. Becker-Marquardt, Romische Altertumer, 5, 1, 367 f.
For German antiquity, it suffices to refer to Weinhokl, Altnordisches
Leben. p. 490 f. ("here a regular house was built for the dead . . . " ) .
330. Here is already seen the present usage; •« by the Roman pon-
tifical law the most essential ceremony at every burial is the glebam in
os inicere; whoever omitted throwing a handful of earth on an un-
172 THE RIGVEDA.

buried corpse was guilty of a piaculum." Marquardt, I.e. 5, 1, 375;

cf. Soph. Antig. 256, w i t h the scholium and the Interpr. on Hor. Ode
1,28, 30 f.
331. For the h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s , Roth, Z L G W . p. 87 ft.;
Lassen, I A . I 2 , 421 ff'.; Ludwig, in the *Nachrichten' (above p. 94),
now enlarged in the " Mantralitteratur " = Rigveda, vol. 3, 167-177 and
203-256, and Zimmer, A I L . 100-138; 185-217; 430 f . ; among the
hymns are those already quoted by Roth, I.e. 3, 33 (132); 7, 18; 7,
33; 7, 83 (32) by Belang; details in 6, 26; 6, 47; 10, 48; 10, 49; 10,
102; etc.
332. Cf. above pp. 17, 19; Zimmer, A I L . 104 f. Pretenders, i b i d ,
p. 105, 175-177 (Jbb. 121, 446). — V i o l e n c e : 10, 166, 4: "I have
come here overpowering w i t h an all-subduing host; I make myself
master of your intention, your resolve, your assembly." — C o a l i -
t i o n s : e.g. against Sudas in the battle of the ten kings, p. 80: 7, 83,
4-8 (32 f.). — C o n t e s t s of the warlike nobility against the Brah-
mans : Zimmer, A I L . 197 f.
333. 7, 26, 1. 2: "Soma not rightly pressed (i.e. without song)
does not please Indra, nor draughts poured without prayer the M i g h t y ;
I make him a song that he may rejoice in it, a mighty, new one, that
he may hear us "; 8, 58, 14 : " The young hero disdains the food pre-
pared without a song " ; 10, 105, 8: "A sacrifice without prayer does
not greatly please thee." — 1, 53, 1; 7, 32, 2 1 : " W i t h a poor song a
mortal gains no good, no riches fall to the imperfect." 2, 33, 4:
" May wo not wake thy anger, () Lord, by a bad song."
334. After 3, 53, 9. 11 (according to Roth's rendering, Z L G W .
121); the fine hymn 3, 33 (132 f.) ; 3, 53, 12.—7, 33, 2. 6. " T h e
final outcome is, however, different: while in later time the Trtsus
have disappeared, the Bharatas shine forth in bright light." Zimmer,
A I L . 128.
335. 7, 18, 5.
336. 7, 33, 3; 7, 83, 4; 7, 18, 18. 19. 13. 14; 7, 83, 4-8; in verse
4 Vasistha boasts: " O u r mediation for the Trtsus has prevailed."
337. 6, 47, 22; 6, 26, 4. From a comparison of this passage with
1, 33, 14; 6, 20, 8; 10, 49, 4 I conclude that Vetasu is the name of
the gens to which Dacadyu belonged; so too now Zimmer, A I L . 128.
338. 7, 8, 4; 6, 27, 5. 6. Hariyupiya and Yavyctvati, otherwise un-
known, are probably rivers. (Probably not one hundred and thirty;
cf. e.g. catuhcatam V a l . 7, 4, etc.)
339. The D a n a s t u t i s are quite numerous, especially in the
eighth book; cf. Ludw. Rv. 3, 274 f . ; Zimmer, A I L . 170 f.; for the
 NOTES. 173
later time, Weber, ISt. 10, 47 ff.— Note 341. [Oldenberg, Z D M G .
37, 83 ff.]
340. So for those of the families of princes; in the gens of Trasa-
dasyu we get the line Mitratithi, Kurueravana, Upamacravas (Note
94); in the Trtsus, Vadhryacva, Divodasa, Atithigva, Pijavana, Sudas;
further details can be gained from Ludwig's collections, Rv. 3,100-
1G7.
341. 5, 30, 12-15 (pravrje: see R. Garbe, Z D M G . 34, 321).
Some further examples, interesting in matter, follow: 0, 47, 22 (each
ten caskets, steeds, the spoils of Cambara, chests, garments as pres-
ents; lumps of gold, chariots w i t h horses, a hundred cows). — 8, 1,
32 ff.; 8, 4, 20 ff. a singer drives away, as the reward of his songs,
sixty thousand, whole herds of cows, so that the very trees rejoice
where he rests. — 8, 5, 37 f.: "Kacu, the Cedi, gave a hundred buffa-
loes and ten thousand cattle, ten coverings adorned with gold (ivaco
instead of rajno w i t h Delbruck in Grassniann 1, 558); for the tribes
subject to the Cedi princes are tanners; none walk in the path in
which the Cedis go, no other lord of the sacrifice, no other people is
reputed more generous"; 8, 6, 46' (hundreds from Tirindira, thou-
sands from Pareu, among the Yadus; three hundred steeds, ten thou-
sand cattle, double teams of buffaloes). 8,21, 18: " C i t r a is a true
king, obscure kings are those there (isti) on the Sarasvati; as Par-
janya gives rain with thunder, he gave a thousand myriads." — 8, (13,
13 ff. — Val. 7, 2 ff.: "A hundred white heifers gleam like the stars
in heaven; by their greatness they support the heaven. A hundred
bamboo reeds, a hundred dogs, a hundred soft tanned skins, a hun-
dred fabrics of Balbuja grass are mine, four hundred ruddy mares.
Then the sevenfold team was praised: great is the renown of the not
yet fully completed; the brown mares rush along the way so fast that
the eye cannot follow them." — Val. 8, 1 ff.: " T h y rich gift, O Dasy-
avevrka, is displayed; thy renown is high as the heavens. Dasyavev-
rka, the son of Putakrata, gave me ten thousand from his own
possessions. A hundred asses, a hundred sheep, rich in wool, a hun-
dred slaves, and wreaths of flowers; moreover, an adorned mare was
brought forward for the Putakratas (i.e. as their present), which did
not belong to the steeds of the herd." —10, 62, 8: " . . . and two
slaves, well trained for service, together with many cattle, Yadu and
Turva gave me." — 8, 46, 22 ff., 3: " A n d this excellent wife, adorned
w i t h ornaments, is brought to me (the singer), Vaca Acvia." — 1, 120,
1 ff. Kaksivant piously brings joyful songs of praise, because a king
dwelling on the Sindhu, striving for renown, has given him rich
presents, and thereby raised his own imperishable renown to heaven :
A hundred golden ornaments, a hundred steeds at one time, a hundred
174 T H E RIGVEDA.

cattle, ten chariots w i t h maidens, a thousand and sixty cattle fell to

my share at the departure of day. Forty ruddy steeds lead the train
of a thousand w i t h their ten spans; the Kaksivants, the race of the
Pajras, bore away spirited racers adorned w i t h pearls.—6,27, 8 (a
double chariot team, twenty cows w i t h maidens, a gift of the Partha-
vas hard to attain). — 7 , 18, 2 2 . - 8 , 19, 3 6 . - 8 , 57, 15, and others.
(Against Roth, BR. 6, 663, Grassmann Diet. 1203 and Transl., and
Delbriick, Chrestom. 21, after Durga in the last five passages, I take
vadhH in the usual signification; that women were given as slaves is
shown in 8, 46, 33. So Ludw. Rv. 2, 622, 653. 655; 1, 427; 2, 218 and
Zimmer, A I L . 107 ff., on linguistic evidence.)
342. 7, 103, GKR. 169 f.; cf. Muller, ASL. p. 494; Muir, OST.
5, 435. M T r . 194. Haug, Brahma und die Brahmanen, p. 12. 40 f.
does not consider the hymn a satire; frogs and priests are mentioned
together only because both have reference to r a i n ; so G. Buhler. I
cannot agree w i t h Gubernatis or Bergaigne, Revue Critique, 1875,
2, 393, "que les grenouilles dont il s'agit ici sont des grenouilles
mythiques." [ T h i s is one of the three rain-bringing hymns, the
others being 7, 101 and 7, 102.]
343. 9, 112, GKR. 167; Muir, OST. 5, 424. M T r . 190.
344. 10, 97, translated by Roth, Z D M G . 25, 645 f. and G K R .
172 ff.
345. 10, 127, GKR. 138 f . ; Muir, OST. 4, 498. Cf. the beauti-
f u l prayer to Night for protection, A V . 19, 47, translated by A.
Kuhn, K Z . 13, 131 f.; Muir, OST. 4, 498-500; and Zimmer, A I L .
179 f.
346. 10, 146, GKR. 140 f. Muir, OST. 5, 423. M T r . 189.—
Broad humor is shown in the soliloquy of the intoxicated Indra,
10, 119, GKR. 81 f. Muir, OST. 5, 90.
347. GKR. 158 ff. Muir, OST. 5, 425. M T r . 190. R. Heinzel,
Stil der altgermanischen Poesie, Strasburg 1875, p. 53.
348. The hymn 10, 117 (155 f.) is a collection of sayings; to
verses 1-6, which describe the blessing of well-doing, other passages
have been added; cf. also the so-called Song of Wisdom, 10, 71
(162 f.).
349. How much speaking, but not silence, brought in gold to the
Brahmans is shown e.g. in Note 341; the blessing of the * reward of
sacrifice' is, therefore, praised in the highest strains in a special hymn,
10, 107 (Muir, OST. 5, 433; verses 8-11 M T r . 192); in the late verses,
1, 18, 5; 10,103, 8, it is addressed directly as a god (daksina), together
w i t h Indra, Soma, Brhaspati, and the Maruts. 10, 107, 5 ff.: " Who-
 NOTES. 175
ever gives daksina goes before as the chief of the clan (cf. 4, 50, 7-9
(108); 1, 40, 7. 8; 1, 190, 5 etc.). I consider h i m the k i n g of the
peoples who first introduced daksina. The generous die not, they fall
not into ruin, they suifer no harm, and are not moved; all that this
whole world and the heavens contain daksina brings to the givers.
They gain splendid homes, beautiful as a lotus-pond, adorned like the
dwellings of the gods; the maiden, clad in beautiful garments, waits
upon t h e m " ; w i t h this 5, 37,3: "Here comes a woman, seeking a hus-
band for herself; who shall lead home the blooming wife? His (sc
the righteous) chariot hastens by, rumbling, and many thousands di-
rect their gaze to h i m " (i.e. the righteous wins the most desirable
wife).
350. 10, 117, 9 (156) and 10, 32, 7 (srutirn ; Muller's texts stutim.
Sayana, margam).
351. 8, 33, 17: For Indra himself even said: "Woman's . . ."
like Simon. Amorg. fgm. 1, 16 f. 44 f.:
and fgm.
7, 1 (after Meineke):
10, 95, 15: " There can be no friendship w i t h women, their hearts are
those of hyenas " ; on the other hand, the more favorable verdict, 5,
61, 6. 7: " A n d many a woman is often better than the man, the god-
less, impious; she, who knows well how to distinguish the weary, the
thirsty, and lovers {i.e. helps and assists each in the right way), and
has turned her mind to the gods." I b i d . v. 8: " A n d many a man,
because he is unloved, is called a Pani (child of the devil, miser);
but he remains the same even in his revenge " (i.e. can control him-
self; is better than his reputation. Differently Grassmann 1, 543, and
Ludwig 2, 621).
352. 10, 27, 12: " To how many a maiden does the wooer, who de-
sires to become her husband, show affection for the sake of her admir-
able treasures; but if a woman is pure and beautiful, she can of
herself (even without treasure) find her mate in the people." 6, 28,
5: " Y e cows make even the lean fat, t h e u g l y e v e n ye m a k e
b e a u t i f u l in countenance."
353. 4, 24, 9 (70) and 10, 107, 3; cf. v. 7: "Whoever is wise,
makes the rewards of sacrifice his armor."
354. Here, already, is the w h e e l o f . f o r t u n e spoken of by
Croesus to Cyrus, in H d t . 1, 207:

T i b u l l . 1, 5, 70: versatur c e l e r i
Fors levis o r b e r o t a e , etc.
176 THE RIGVEDA.

355. After 10, 117, 1-6 (155 f . ) .

356. 10, 71, 7. The whole hymn i n G K R . 162 f.
357. 4, 33, 11 (122); 5, 48, 5: " W e know not in our human
wisdom where the Dispenser Savitar w i l l give the desired good " ; 10,
12, 8: " We do not understand the mysterious council in which the
gods agree." Cf. also 1, 105,16 in Note 233, and 10, 149, 2 in Note
370. —8, 18, 22 with 1, 164, 30 and 1, 116, 3.
358. 10, 60, 12; 10, 137, 12.—10, 137 is translated by Aufrecht,
Z D M G . 24, 203 i f . ; v. 1: " Ihr Gutter hebt Gesunkene ans Land, ihr
Gutter, wieder auf; Und Gutter, schuldbeladenen, weckt I h r zu neuem
Lebenslauf "; v. 7: " O b ztihngezacktem Handepaar flustert die Zunge
heil'gen Spruch; das leg' ich auf, das lose dich von deiner Uebel
Wucht und Fluch."
359. 8, 80 e.g. tells how Indra heals a woman, Apala, who is
afflicted by a skin disease, by drawing her "through three apertures
of his car," a remedy which Aufrecht, ISt. 4, 1-8, in agreement with
Kuhn, connects with German superstition. —10, 163 (translated by
Kuhn, K Z . 13, 66 f.) ; 10, 162, 1 f. ( K Z . 13, 149); cf. 10, 97, 12
(173); 10, 103, 12; 10, 164, 1.—7, 50, etc.
360. 10, 161,2. 5; 10, 18, 14 (152); 10, 60, 7 f . ; cf. in general
the G a u p a y a n a hymns, 10, 57-60, treated by M. Müller, J R A S .
NS. 2, 426 if. (translated p. 457 f f . ) .
361. 10, 164, 5; 10, 162, 3 f.; charm against vermin, 1, 191 cf. 7,
50, 2 f.; 10, 165 is for the purpose of warding off the injury, proba-
bly death, announced by a dove (? kapota); v. 1: " Y e gods, for that
which the dove, seeking, came hastening as the messenger of N i r r i t i ,
we w i l l sing, we w i l l propitiate, may it be well with us, with man and
beast. The dove shall be propitious to us." In v. 4, beside the kapota,
the owl is mentioned as the messenger of death {cf. A V . 6, 29, 2), in
which function it is known also to German popular superstitions.—
In 2, 42, 3 and 43, the wish is made that " a prophetic (ominous) bird
may lift his voice on the r i g h t of our houses" ('taschenhalb,' as
Hartlieb said) ; Homer, I I . 24, 319 f . :

So I I . 10, 274 f.; 13, 821 f.; 24, 292 f . ; Od. 24, 311 f.
Grimm, Deutsche Mythol. p. 1083 if. Gesch. d. Dtsch. Spr. 1 p. 983 ff.
— The Romans in part differently.
362. In 10, 145 (German by A. Weber, ISt. 5, 222. Zimmer, A I L .
307), a g i r l seeks to drive off a successful rival, and to bind a man to
herself ; cf. the in-
verse of this in the passage from the Cat. Br. in Kuhn, Herabkunft,
 NOTES. 177
p. 75 f.—10, 159 (German by Delbruck, A l t i n d . Tempulsehre, p. 14)
is the song of triumph of a woman after a successfully accomplished
charm, which was to make her the only wife of her husband (much
related matter from the A Y . in Weber, ISt. 5, 218-266); in 7, 55, 5-8
(see Aufrecht, ISt. 4, 337-342; Zimmer, A I L . 308 f.) a maiden await-
ing her lover seeks to put the whole household to sleep, from the
grandfather to the faithful watch-dog. — Through 10, 19 it is sought
to bring back cows which have wandered off, etc.
363. GKR. 129 f.; Indra, p. 4 1 ; Rudra, p. 38; Visnu, p. 56. The
two Acvins with Surya, p. 50.
364. Haug, Vedische Ratselfragen und Ratselspruche, Sitzungsber.
der Philos.-Philol.-Histor. Classe der Konigl. Bair. Akad. der Wissen-
schaften zu München. 1875, I I . p. 459 f. (above Note 116*). Haug
translates there, R V . 1, 164, a mixtum compositum of such questions.
Ludw. R V . 3, 390 f. [Roth, Losung eines Riithsels im Veda, Z D M G .
37, 109 ff.]
365. B e g i n n i n g s o f P h i l o s o p h y : cf Weber, I I I L . 232 f . ;
Haug, Die Kosmogonie der Inder. Ausburger Allgem. Zeitung, 1873,
p. 2373 f., 2390 f.; more in detail, Muir, OST. 4, 3 f. and 5, 350 f.
366. I mean e.g. the personification of abstract conceptions to
genii, as of
A n u m a t i (' agreement') to the genius of divine p u r i t y a n d
m e r c y (10, 59, 6: " L o n g may we see the sunrise; O Anumati, be
gracious to us "; 10,107,3: " In Soma's decree and King Varuna's,
in Brhaspati's and Anumati's protection " ) ;
C r a d d h u ('confidence, faithfulness,' credo — crad-dha) to the genium
of f a i t h (10, 151, 1-5; Muir, M T r . 330 f., v. 1: "Through faith
the fire is kindled, through faith the oblation is offered, with our
words we proclaim faith (to be) upon the head of good fortune";
v. 5: " W e invoke faith in the morning, at noon, and at the setting
of the sun; O Faith, inspire us w i t h f a i t h " ; cf 9, 113, 2-4, GKR.
110).
367. 1, 164, 5 w i t h 10, 82, 7 (above p. 88: " H i m ye can never
know, who formed," etc.).
368. E.g. of Indra; above p. 45, w i t h Note 155. —10, 88, 17
(upaspij?); 1, 185, 1. —10, 81, 4 = 10, 31, 7 (cf the Norse * World-
ash' Yggdrasil) ; 10, 81, 4. 2.
369. 10, 5, 7: " Existence and non-existence are in the highest
heaven, in Daksa's home, in the bosom of A d i t i " ; 10, 72, 2: " I n the
former races of the gods, being was born from not-being "; 10, 129,
1. 4; above p. 90.
178 T H E RIGVEDA.

370. 10, 140, 2 f . : " Where once the firmly founded sea sprang
forth, that Savitar alone knows (so we need inquire no further con-
cerning i t ; see 5, 48, 5 and 10, 12, 8, in Note 357); then from it the
world and the realm of air arose, from thence heaven and earth
spread f o r t h ; on it came into being Savitar's revered bird, w i t h beau-
t i f u l wings in the heaven " (the sun; Notes 215, 226).
371. According to 10, 72, 2. 6. 7, in the time of the f i r s t race of
gods, existence was born from non-existence; then Brahmanaspati
welded the world together, like a blacksmith; the gods stood in the
flood; dust rose from them as from dancers. They lifted forth the
sun, lying hidden in the sea, and caused the earth to swell. —10, 81,
3: " Everywhere present, Vicvakarman creating welds earth and
heaven together." —10, 149, 2 f. in Note 370; 10, 190, 1 f. in Note
372.
372. 10, 190, 1 f.: " L a w and T r u t h arose from kindled fire (tapas:
perhaps 'penance'?); thence night was born, thence the surging sea
(of air?); dividing day and night, he rules all that close the eyes.
Sun and moon the creator formed in t u r n ; heaven and earth, the air-
space and the realm of light." — T o this I refer /, 161, 9 (118): of
the Rbhus who, f u l l of wisdom, entertain each other at work w i t h
sayings (4, 33, 10: 122), one holds w a t e r for the most important
thing (bhuyistha), another considers f i r e the most essential.
It was stated (p. 13) that the waters are praised very loudly on
account of their healing and refreshing powers; cf. (together with
Notes 241 and 245) 1, 23, 16-23; 7, 47; 10, 9 and 7, 49 (125). They
are often called " motherly," or, " most motherly, very motherly " ; cf.
6, 50, 7 (127): " O ye waters, friendly to man, grant us unending
favor, prosperity for child and grandchild. For ye, most motherly,
are our physicians, ye bear all things, animate and inanimate."
Water appears in the Brahmanas, more often than in the Rig, as the
starting-point of all animal creation (see Weber, ISt. 9, 2, n. 2 and 9,
74). In the Taitt.-Sanh. 7, 1, 5, 1 (ISt. 12, 245) it is stated that •• in
the beginning was the expanse of water, and upon it Prajapati moved
(p. 76 *) in the form of a wind, of a breath," which recalls the ruach
elohim of Genesis 1, 2.
373. Translated by Muller, OGR. 300 f.; the following verses
translated by Muller, OGR. 301 f.; Muir, OST. 4, 16; Monier W i l -
liams, Indian Wisdom, p. 23. (Muller, v. 6, reads rodasi, "heaven
and earth," instead of krandasi, " t h e t w o armies.") V. 7 seems not
to have belonged originally to the hymn. That v. 10: " Prajapati,
no other than thou is lord over all these created things: may we ob-
tain that, through desire of which we have sacrificed; may we become
masters of riches," appears to have been incorporated into the Rig
 NOTES. 179
text later, only after the formation of the Pada text, was remarked
in Note 79.
From the beginning of the refrain Kasmai devâya (cui deo, to what
god) the native tradition evolved at an early period a special highest
unknown god, Ka (Quo, Quis), a new illustration of the degree to
which the understanding of the texts had been lost: above p. 10*.
374. Single verses; 1, 164,46: "Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, they
call h i m , and then he is that celestial, well-winged b i r d ; that which
is one they call by different names: they call it A g n i , Yama, MaLar-
icvan " (a verse with which the Brahmans seek to invalidate the ac-
cusation of polytheism); 10, 114, 5: "Inspired singers represent
under many forms the well-winged, who is o n e " (although he is
but one).
To V i c v a k a r m a n : 10, 81 and 10, 82; often made use of above :
Notes 367, 368, and 371; pp. 88 and 89. — Indra is called vicvakarman,
8, 87, 2.
375. GKR. 165 f.; Muller, ASL. 559; Muir, OST. 4, 3 f.; 5, 356 f.;
M T r . 188; Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom, p. 22 (I abandon the
theory of a hiatus between verses 4 and 5 (with Bergaigne, Rev. Crit.
1875, I I . 393), and refer esam to kavayas). [On this hymn see Whit-
ney, A m . Or. Soc. Proc, May 1882. " T h e general character and
value of the hymn are very clear. It is of the highest historical in-
terest as the earliest known beginning of such speculation in India,
or probably anywhere among Indo-European races. The attitude of
its author and the audacity of his attempt are exceedingly noteworthy.
But nothing can be said in absolute commendation of the success of
the attempt. On the contrary, it exhibits the characteristic weak-
nesses of all Hindu theosophy; a disposition to deal with words as if
they were things, to put forth paradox and insoluble contradiction as
profundity. . . . The unlimited praises which have been bestowed
upon i t , as philosophy and poetry, are well-nigh nauseating."— Verse
2: "Whether 'fervor' (tapas) means physical heat or devotional
ardor, penance, according to the later prevalent meaning of the word,
admits of a question; but it is doubtless to be understood in the
latter sense. For no such element as heat plays any part in the
Hindu cosmogonies, while penance, the practice of religious austeri-
ties, is a constant factor in their theories." — Verse 5: " B u t the next
verse is still more unintelligible; no one has ever succeeded in put-
ting any sense into i t , and it seems so unconnected w i t h the rest of
the hymn that its absence is heartily to be wished. ' Crosswise [was]
stretched out the ray [line] of them: was i t , forsooth, below? was i t ,
forsooth, above ? impregnators were, greatnesses were; svadha below,
offering beyond.' The word rendered 'offering' is literally 'forth*
180 THE RIGVEDA.

reaching,' and, as sometimes also, as perhaps here, the signification

' straining, intentness.' . . . Who the ' t h e y ' are, unless the sages of
the preceding verse, it is hard to guess (Whitney, I.e.). Brunnhofer,
Geist der Indischen L y r i k , p. 16, translates v. 5 a : " A n d to these
sages a ray of light appeared "; L u d w i g : " From one to another was
drawn the bond of these "; M u i r : " The ray [or cord] which stretched
across these [worlds]."]
Finally, we may mention:
a. The song to the twins Y a m a a n d Y a m ! , the first human
beings, 10, 10, GKR. 142. [ M u i r , OST. 5, 288.]
b. The so-called S o n g of W i s d o m , 10, 71, G K R . 162 (cf. above
p. 85 and Note 348).
c. The hymn to the G o d d e s s of S p e e c h , Vac (voc-s) 10, 125,
GKR. 136 f.; on vac and ( i n St. John), cf. Weber, ISt. 9, 473-
480; Schlottinan and Weber, TSt, 10,444 f., point out Biblical parallels.
d. The hymn to the G e n i u s of t h e H o u s e , V a s t o s p a t i , 7,
54 GKR. 135, to be recited, according to Paraskara, Grhyas. 3, 4 (with
7, 55, 1), after the entrance into the house.
e. The modern, pantheistic P u r u s a - s u k t a , 10, 90, 'the Magna
Charta of Brahmanism' (Haug), which tries to explain and justify
the already existing division of the state into the four castes (v. 11 f . :
" When they divided the original creature, Purusa (i.e. ' m a n ' ) , the
Brahman was his mouth, the Râjanya became his arms, the Vaicya
was his thighs, from his feet sprang the Cudra"); see Weber, ISt. 9,
1-10; Muir, OST. 1, 7-15; 2, 454 ff.; 5, 367 ff'.; Zimmer, A I L . 217 f.
f . A n d finally, the D i a l o g u e o f P u r u r a v a s a n d U r v a c ì ,
10, 95; see Roth, E r l . zum Nirukta, p. 153 if., 230; Mùller, Chips, 2
98 ff.; Hehn, Herabkunft, p. 78 f., 85 f.

Muller's L S L .
Note3 141, English Edition, 2, 430.
" 149, " "" 2, 462.
" 172, " 2, 495.
"
" 187, " 2, 506.
" 193, " " 2, 462, 498.
" 269, " " 2, 510.
" 274 a," " 2, 478.

*
 I
INDEX OF MATTERS, NAMES, AND WORDS.

[Figures refer to pages. N . = Note. Skt. c is placed before j, c and

s after s, r before r. Names of divinities are in heavy type.]

Abode (see Home, Home) of the Agni-Puntna, N. 26.

blessed, righteous, 31, 50, 57, Agohya, 37 with *.
61, 66, 69 f., 73, 78, N . 273 f., Agriculture, 13.
279 f., 283a, etc. A h i , 40, N . 118.
Abodes of the Vedic people, 11 f.; Ahiira-Mazda, N. 283 a.
Judo-Germ., 11, N. 30. A i r , region, 31, 35, 87, 89 f . ; dis-
Aborigines (see Barbarians), 19, tinguished from light, 34, N.
30, 30, 43, 72, 78. 118; gods, 37-19.
Accent, 7; Vedic and Greek, N. Aitareya- A rauyaka, - Brahmana, -
18 a; verbal, N. 84 d Upanisad, N. 14 a, 1.
Adbhuta-Hr., N. 14a, 2; 79a. Aja, 80.
Adhvaryu, 82 *. Alexander the Great, 3, N. 39, 50.
Adhyaya, N . 71. A l l gods, 34, 74, N. 310.
A d i t i , 59, 01,70, N. 225, 259, 282, Altar, 75, N. 75.
309. Amesha Cpenta, N. 220, 283 a.
A d i t y a = Varuna, 61, 68, N. 225. Ancestors, 71 (see Fathers); Yama,
Adityas, the, 58-09, N. 220-204; N . 270, 280.
names, N. 227; number, N. Ancestral worship, cult, 70 f.;
220. Iranian, Greek, and Roman, N.
Adoption, 16, N. 48. 283 a, 284 a.
Age, 30 ( N . 103), 41, 43, cf 38, Andra (Iran.), N. 142.
N. 159; cf Life, loiuj; Death, Anger, N. 201; of the gods, 66,
before the time; relative A. of 67, 73, 74, N . 242, 259, 261.
the Mandalas, N. 73. Angiras, 42, N. 114.
Aged, 43; their treatment, 16 Angirasa, N. 73.
with N. 50. Animals, 53, 50, etc. (see Man);
Agnayt N. 148. A. and plants, N. 299.
Agni, 35-37 ( N . 119-126), 70, Animate and Inanimate, N. 206.
80 f.; often in the Notes, N. Anniversary, 71, N. 287 a.
133 (Rudra?); N. 309 (Brhas- Anca, N. 227.
pati ?), 374, etc.; production of Anu, 80, N . 198.
A., 35. Anukramani, N. 26, 85.
182 T H E RIGVEDA.

Anumati, genius, N. 366. Athwya (Iran.), N. 112d

Anuvaka, N . 71. Atithigva, N. 340.
Apala, N. 359. Atrosphere, 90 (see Air).
Apastamba, N. 10, 1; 23; 23 a, Atreya, A t r i (poet), 21, N. 73.
3; 2 4 , 3 ; 25. A t r i (protege* of the Acvins), 51,
ApolloRudra, N. 133. N . 182.
Aprisukta, N. 126. Aurora, see Usas.
Aptya, N. 112 d, 114; cf. Trita. Autumn, 13, 66.
Aranyaka, 5, N. 16. — Ait.-A., N. Avaricious, 42, 47, 53, 56, N.
14 a, 1; 16. Brhad-A., N. 14 a, 198.
4. Kaus.-A., N. 14 a, 1. T a i t t - Avesta, N. 91, 106, 142, 226, 246,
A., N . 1 4 a , 3 . 270, 273, 274 a, 283 a, 284 a,
Aranyanl, hymn to, 83. 285 a, 286 a, 287 a, 293.
Arrangement of hymns in the
books, 21 f.; chronological A. Babhru, 81.
of books, 21, N. 73. Balbuja, N. 341.
Army, 17, N. 54; both armies, 89, Ballads, 22; Indo-Germ., N. 85.
N . 152. Banishment, 18, N. 57.
Arrow, 19,47, 80. Barbarians, 36, 43 f., 72; see Ab-
Arseya-Br., N. 14 a, 2. origines.
Arts, 14, 20. Barley, Pusan's food, N. 210.
Arya, arya, N. 37. Barter, 14.
Aryaman, 61, 73, 75, 76, N. 225, Battle, 17, 39, 42 f., 44, 46, 71,
227, 259. 78 f., N . 211, etc. B . of the
Aryan (etym. N. 37), 44, 72, 78, elements, 42, etc.
N. 54. A. = Indian and Iranian, Baudhayana, N. 23 a, 3; 24, 3;
1 1 ; = Indo-Germanic, N. 37. 25; 26.
Asikni, 12, N. 39. Beginning of things, 88, 90.
Ass, N . 341. Being and not-being, 87 f., N. 369,
Assembly, 17, 18, 78. 371.
Astronomy, 6, 20, N. 68. Belief, Vedic, 32 f.
Acayana, N. 145. Beverages, 14, 72.
Acrama, N. 15. Bhaga, 75, N. 83 ft, 225,227.
Acvalayana, N. 23 a, 1; 2 4 , 1 ; 320. Bhagavadgita, N. 4.
AcvinS, N. 148. Bhagavata-Purana, N. 26.
Acvins, 37, 49-52 ( N . 171-192), Bharadvaja, 21, N. 73. — N . 23 a,
58, 72, 74, cf. 86. 3.
Astaka, N . 71. Bharata, 79, 80, N. 80, 334, 340.
Atharvangiras, N. 11. Bharatl, N. 80.
Atharvaveda, 4, 6, 86, N. 11-13 Bhargava, N. 73.
( A V . 4, 16: 65 f., I f . 252). Bheda, 80.
Brahm., N. 14 a, 5; Crautasu- Bhiksu, N. 15.
tra, N. 23 a, 5; Grhyastitra, N. Bhrgu, 35, N. 120, 287 a.
24, 5; Praticakhya, N. 20. Bhujyu, 51, N. 189.
 INDEX. 183
Bird, 53, 58, 64, N. 198, 220, 238, Bukka, 9.
248; see Eagle. B. = Sun, N. Buffalo, 52, N. 341.
215, 226, 270. Burial (see Funeral), 76 ff., N. 326.
Birth, of a g i r l , N. 48; ritual, N. Burning of corpse, N. 326.
24, cf. N . 49.
Blessed, 31, 56, 66, 69; see Abode. Case, 22, N. 84 a.
Blessing, 59, etc.; of reward of Caste, 17, N. 56, 375e.
sacrifice, N. 349; of instruction, Cattle, 13, 58, 80 f., 82; C. of
well-doing, 85; of the dead to Usas, 53, N. 197.
the living, 70 f., N. 285 a, 286 a; Chaos, 90.
formulas of B., 86, N. 115. Chariot, of Agni, 36; of the A9-
Blind, 50 {cf. 52), 72, N. 177, 300. vins, 50, 51, N. 176, 178, 189;
Body (see Corpse), in the other of the Maruts, 39; of Pusan,
world, 69 f., N. 278. N. 210; of Savitar, 57; of Su-
Bond of being and not-being, 90. rya, 55, N. 205; of Soma, 72;
Bonds of Varuna and the A d i - of Usas, 53, N. 197; of Vayu,
tyas, 20, 67, N. 225, 255; of 38. Chariots given to singers,
Soma, 72. N. 341. C.-race, 19, N. 61.
Books of the Rig, arrangement, Charms, spells, 4, 20, 86, N. 12,
relative age, 21 f., N. 73. 358-362.
Bow, 78, N . 63, etc. Childish conceptions, 27 f., N. 66.
Brhad-Ar., N. 14 a, 4; B.-devata, Children, blessing of, 30, 52, cf.
N. 26, 72. 67, 74, 76, N . 217, 239, etc.
Brahma, 3, N. 26. Chronology, Indian, N. 38. Chro-
Brahmacarin, N. 15. nological order of the books,
Brahman (masc), 84, N. 14, 82. N . 73.
Brahman (ueut.), 4, 5, N. 14. Cities, 13, N. 42.
Brahmana (masc), 31 f., 81 f., N. Civilization, Vedic, 1 1 ; history of
110,332, 349, 374, 375 e; stages C , 74, N . 2 4 , 47 f., 317, 321 f.,
of B., N. 15; their literary work, 324, 327-330.
N . 27, 76. Climate, 12, 37, N. 40, cf. 136.
Brahmana (neut.), 5, 32, N. 372; Clothing, 14, 56, N. 341.
etymology, N. 14; importance Clouds, 39, 40, 42, 52, 63, cf. N.
and period, 5, N. 14; list of B., 143.
N . 14a. Collection of Vedic texts, 2-8, N.
Brahmanaspati, Brhaspati, 32, 8-26; of hymns, 22, N. 75.
37, 73 f., N. 87, 309-315, 349, Command, see Ordinance.
366, 371. Commentary, native, 8, 9. C. of
Brahmaveda, 4. Sayana and Madhava, 8, N. 8,
Brahmodya, 86. 27; cf. Tradition.
Bride, 74 f., N. 324; purchased, Composition, of the Vedic hymns,
15. 11, N. 38; of the Brahmanas,
Bridge to the other world, N. 273, N. 14; of the Sutras, N. 17;
274 a. of the commentaries, 8.
184 THE RIGVEDA.

Conjugation, 22, N. 81 d. Decree, see Ordinance.

Contests, 10, 81, 80, N. 01. Demons, 40-43, cf. 3(5, N. 150.
Corpse, 69, 76 f.; buried and Departed, see Ancestors, Death.
burned, 70, N. 320. Deva, 32, 31.
Vosmogony, 20, 87 f. Cosmogonic Devatadhyaya-Br., N. 14 a, 2.
gods, 80; C. hymn, 00. Devotion, devout, e.g. 20, 47, 60,
Cow, 13, 27, 81, N . 00, 100, 280, 70, 73 (see Righteous); haters
341. C. as monetary unit, 14, of I)., 47, 48, 81 (see Unsacri-
N. 40. Cows = clouds, 42. Jicing); Lord of D . , see Brah-
Creation, song of C, 90; theories manaspati.
of C., 88 f. Dharmasutra, -castra, 8, N. 25,25a.
Creator, 45, 88-01, X. 372, 374, Dialect, 22; traces of D., N. 73.
etc. (see Vicvakarman); Indra, Diaskeuasts, 22, cf. N. 70, etc.
45; Varuna, 62 f. Dice (see Play), 18, 54, 07, 83,
Cult, ancestral, 70; Iran., Greek, N. 201; D.-song, 83 f.
Roman, N. 284a, 285a. Dionysos, the Grecian Soma, N.
Cults, transferred, combined, N. 202.
208; opposed, N. 210. Dioskuroi, 40, N. 171.
Disease, see Sickness.
Dadhyanc, N. 188. Division of the gods and universe,
Daksa, N. 227, 309. 34, N. 117, 118; D. of the year,
Daksina, N. 340. N . 08.
Danastuti, 80, N. 339-341. Divodasa, 80, N. 340.
Dance, 10, 77, cf. 53, N. 371. Dogs, N. 341, 302; Yama's, 69 f.,
Danger, 01, N. 237, 230, etc. N . 274, 274 a.
Darkness, in the beginning, 00; Doubt, doubters, 32, 48, N. 108.
of night, 33, 50, 52, 71, N. 105; Dove, as messenger of death, N.
unending D., 71, N. 287, 287 a. 301.
Dasra, N. 172. Drdha, N. 149.
Dasyavevrka, N. 341. Dragon, 40 f., etc.
Dasyu, 10 ; see Aborigines, Barba- Drahyayana, N. 23 a, 2.
rians. Dream, N. 105, 217, 261.
Davadyu, 80, N. 337. Druhyu, 80, N. 108.
Dawn, 28, 52 f., 71, 87; see Usas. Dual divinities, 33, N. 114.
Day prolonged into Night, 45. D. Durga, N. 10.
and Night, see Night; propi- Dwelling, see Abode, Home, House.
tious days, 3 1 ; D. guided by Dyaus, 28, 33, N. 112 a.
Varuna, 63. Dyavaprthivi, N. 112 6.
Dead, see Ancestors, etc.
Death, 61, 66, 67, 60 f., 76 f., N. Eagle, 59,83; falcon, 72, N. 148,
159, 274; D. before the time, 289.
61, N. 103, 236; D. and Immor- Earth, mother E., 69, 78; E. as
tality, 89; messenger of D., N. region, 35 f., etc.; as goddess,
361. N. 1126c; home in E., 78.
 INDEX. 185
Egg, son of the E., 58, 226. Forms, Vedic, N. 81, 81 d.
Elephant, 39, N. 146. Fortune, 30, 75, 85, N. 209, 366;
Eos, see Usas. wheel of F., 85, N. 354.
Erratic verses, pieces, N. 79 a. Fravashi (Iran.), see Ancestors,
Etymology, 6, 7 (cf. the Greek, Fathers.
Latin, and German words on Friend, friendship, 18, 52, 84, N.
p. 195 f ) . 282; Agni, 37; Indra, 47, N.
Evolution, 87 f., 90, N. 370-372. 166; Varuna, 66, 68, etc.
Exegesis, Vedic, 9 f., N. 29, 34; Frog Song, 81, N. 342, cf. N. 140.
methods, 9-11, N. 29-34. Funeral ceremonies, 71, 76 f., N.
Exposure, of new-born children, 24,284 a; see Burial.
16, N. 49; of the aged, 16, Future, 69, 70, 77, 85; see Abode,
N . 50. Blessed, Life.
Eye, of the Lord, 65, 89; of M i -
tra-Varuna, 59; of Varuna, N. Galita, N. 83 c.
241; of Night, 83. Gandhari, 12.
Ezour-Veidam, 1, N. 2. Ganga, Ganges, 12, N. 39.
Garonmana (Iran.), N. 283 a.
Faith, Genius of F., N. 366. Gaupayana, N. 360.
Family, family life, 14 if., 74 ff., Gautama, N. 25, 73.
N. 47; numerous F., see Chil- Gayatri, N. 222.
dren. Genealogy, 80, N. 340.
Father, representative of a dead Genius, individual, 25. — G. of
F . , 15. Faith, N. 366; G. of the house,
Fathers = Ancestors, 70*, 71, 78, N. 375d; G. of Night, of the
N . 270, 275, 286; cf. 283 a, woods, 83; G. of the seasons,
286 a; see Ancestors. 37 (see Rbhus).
Feast, 19, 43, etc. Germ, original G., Gold-G., 9,
Feet, 46, 53, 57, N. 198, 219, etc. 88 f.
F . of the sun, N . 245. Ghanapajha, N. 77.
Ferldun (Iran.), N. 112d Ghosa, 51, N. 186.
Fetters, 20; see Bonds. Gifts, 30, 31, 43, etc., N. 108; G.
Figures, rhetorical, 23, N. 83 a. of princes to singers, 80 f., N.
Fire, 35, 75, 87; production, 35, 341.
N. 121; F. as original matter, Gobhila, N. 24, 2.
88, N. 372; see Agni Gods, 28 f., 32 f., 34-74, 88 f.,
Fish, 13, 58. etc. G. among men, 32, 35; All
Flood, legend, N. 14 a, 4. G., 34, 74, N. 316; older and
Food, 13, etc. newer, 33 f., N. 114, 369, 371 •,
Footprints of Visnu, 56. classified, 34, N. 114, 117; va-
Formulaic in language, 23, N. rious G. identical, 34, N. 114,
83 a. 133, 374; invisible, 87, 88, N.
Formulas, liturgical, N. 95; F. of 233; anger of G., 36, N. 259,
incantation, see Charm. 261, etc.; cup of G., 37 f.;
186 T H E RIGVEDA.

images, N . 79a; 'wives, 41, N . Hiranyagarbha, 88 f.

131, 148; mother of the G., N. Hiranyahasta, N. 178.
225, 227; triad, 3, N. 26, 217. ' UkanyakecA N. 23 a, 3.
Gold, golden ornament, 14, 55, Historical hymns, 78-81, N. 331-
57, N. 230, 283 a, 341. Gold- 341; H. relations, ibid., cf. 1 1 -
germ, 88. 2 0 , N . 36-09.
Gonial, Gomati, 12, N. 39. Home, 15, 75, 70. I I . of the soul,
Gopatha-Br., N. 14 a, 5. 69 f., N. 275 (see Heaven) ; long-
Grhastha, N. 15. ing for H . , 58.
Grhyasutra, 8; list, N. 24, cf. N. 23. Honor, 30, 66, etc., see Renown.
Grtsamada, 21, N. 73. Horse, steed (see Mare), 63, 71,
Grammar, Indian, 0 f., N. 22; 79, N". 341, etc. Horses of the
Vedic, N. 81, 84. Ac, vins, 50, 5 1 ; of Indra, 37; of
Grave, 69,76 f., N. 329 (see Burial, Savitar, 57; of Surya, 55, N.
Funeral). 205; of Usas, 53. Horses'heads
Guardians of the path, world, 50 f., as tribute, 80, N. 188; hoof as
65, see Spies. spring, 51, N. 185.
House, 12. Varuna's H . , 03 f.,
Hand, uplifted in prayer, 49, N. 68; H. of the dead, 78, N. 329.
173; laid on, to heal, 86, N. Genius of the H . , N. 375a7.
358; grasped in marriage, 75, Human fashion, 71, N. 221, 201;
N . 323. H. wisdom, 85, N. 357.
Haoma-cult of the Iranians, N. Humorous pieces, 81.
293. Hunting, 13.
Hariytipiya, 80, N. 338. Hymns, 3, 22 f., 26, N. 79 a, 87,
Harvest, 13, see Autumn. 333; form and language, 22 f . ;
Healing, ceremonies, 80, N. 358, contents, 24 f . ; see Poetry.
359, see Medicine, etc.; herbs, 83.
Heaven, region, 34 f., 58 f., 87, Immortal, 70 f.; poets think them-
often. H. as garment of God, selves I . , 72, N. 292.
N. 240; home of the soul, 09, Immortality, of the gods, 57, cf.
N. 275; dwelling of the blessed, 41, N. 308; I. of the human
31, 57, 66, 69, 73; personified, soul, 31, 57, 66, 69-71, N. 265-
28,33, 61, N. 112; I I . and earth, 287, 14 a, 4; Iranian, Greek,
33 ( N . 112), 87 f., often; three Roman, German, Celtic belief,
heavens and three earths, N. N . 265, 273 a, 275 a, 283 a, 287 a,
241,248; cf 279, 283 a. 315.
Hell, N. 287 a; cf. p. 71, N. 287. Incantation, see Atharvaveda,
Henotheism, 33, N. 113. Charm.
Herbs, see Plants. India, migration into I . , 11, cf.
Herds, 13, 43, 48, 56, 72, 81, etc., N . 38.
N . 362. Indo-Germanic abodes, 11, N. 36;
Hexameter, Homeric, N. 85. numbers, N. 65; poetry, N. 12,
Himalaya, 12, 83. 82, 85.
 INDEX. 187
India, 13, 21, 33, 39, 40-49 ( N . Kalpa, 6, N. 18, 23, 26.
141-170), 72, 79, 80, 85, 86, N. Kanva, Kanva, 2 1 , N. 73.
87,131, 211, 214, 224, 227, 374. Kanva-cakha, N. 10, 2.
Indrani, N . 148,159. Kanva (protege of the Acvins),
Indus, 12, N. 39. N . 177.
Infinitive, N. 81,84 c. Kapota, N. 361.
Inheritance, 15, 85, N. 352. L a w Kacu, N . 341.
o f I . , N . 25; widow's right, N . Katha, Kathaka, N . 1 0 , 1 .
51. Kathenotheism, 33, N. 113.
Inspiration of the texts, 5, 24, 25, Katyfiyana, N. 20, 23, 23 a, 4 ]
N . 23, 87. 26.
Intercalary days, 37*, N. 68; Kaucika, N. 2 4 , 5 ; 79 a.
month, 20, 64, N. 68; period, Kausitaki-Br., - A r . , -Upan., N .
20. 14 a, 1.
Intercourse of India w i t h the Kauthumacakha, N. 9, 23 a, 2.
West, 14, N. 46. Kautsa, 10*.
Interpolations, 22, N. 79 b, Kena-Upan., N. 14 a, 2.
Iravati, 12, N. 39. Khela, N. 180.
ìea-, ìeavasya-Upan., N. 10, 2 ;, 16. Khila, N. 8, 72.
Itihasa, N. 26. King, kingdom, 17, 78-81.
Kramapâtha, N. 77.
Candrabhaga, N. 39. Krumu, Kurum, Kubha, 12, N. 39.
Carana, 3, N. 23. Kurucravana, N. 94, 340.
Caranavyuha, N. 26.
Caturanika, N . 241. Lame, 50 f., 72, N. 300.
Cedi, N . 341. Language of the hymns, 22 f . ;
Chandas, 6, N. 18. wealth of forms, N. 81 d.
Chandogya-Br., -Upan., N. 14 a, 2. Latyayana, N. 23 a, 2.
Cinab, N. 39. Laugaksi, N. 24, 3.
Cinvat, N. 273 a, 274 a, 283 a. Law (see Ordinance), ideas of L . ,
Citra, N. 341. 18; literature, N. 25 a. Law-
Cyavana, 51, N. 183. books, 8, N. 25. L. in Nature,
N . 92 f.
Jaiminfya-Br., N. 14 a, 2. Levi rate marriage, N. 51.
Jajnana, N. 270. Life, long L . , 30, 52, 61, 66, 72,
Jatapatha, N . 77. 73, 75, 77, N. 103, 230. L, after
Jumna, 12. death, 31, 69-71, N. 275-287.
Jyotisa, 6, N. 18. Eternal L . , 69 f. Stages of L.
of the Brahmana, N. 15.
K a - (kasmai devaya), N. 373. Light, 29, 34, 35, 57, 62, 70. L.
Kabul, Kabulistan, 12. and air distinguished, 34, N.
Kaksivant, 51, N. 185, 341. 118; L . - r e g i o n , the bright
Kalapin, N. 10, 1. heaven, 34 f., 57, 58, 70, 80;
Kali, 50, N. 179. gods of L. 49-58.
188 THE RIGVEDA.

Lightning, 32, 41, 45, N. 147, 224, Melody, 3, N. 9.

etc. .Memorizing method, N. 76.
L i o n , 40, N. 146,160. Merry, 38 (Rudra), 47 (Indra),
Liturgical sanhitas, 3; L. hymns 56 (Visnu), 66, 67, 68 (Varuna).
i n the Rig, 22, N . 126. Messengers of gods and men, 36;
Love, charms, 86, N. 362. Varuna's, 65, 67 j see Spies.
Lunar phases, N. 67 (see Naksa- Metempsychosis, 71.
tra); L. year, 20. Metre, 6, 7. M. of Indo-Germ.
poetry, N. 85; of the Vedic
Madhava, 9, N. 27. hymns, 24, N. 85.
Madhyadeca, N. 39. Milk, 13, 27, 63, 52, N. 90, 190.
Madhyandina, N. 10, 2. Mina ( ,14.
Maiden, Girl, 15, 19, 53, 85, N. Miser, see Avaricious.
352, cf. 349. G. not desired, 16, Mitra, 59, 73, N. 226, 227.
N. 48; maidens given as slaves, Mitra-Vanuaa, 59, N. 226, 227,
N . 341; M . = Dawn, 51, N . 183, 230, 241; hymns to M . , see N.
186. 227.
Maitrayani-Sanhita, N. 10, 1. Mitratithi, N. 340.
Man, 28, 60, 85, N . 230, 275, 351, Mocker, N. 163.
etc. {cf. Human), M. and beast, Modes, 23, N. 84 b.
53, 57, 76, 89, N . 299, 316, etc. Monarchy, 17.
Men of olden time {cf. Fathers, Money, 14.
etc.), N. 285 a. Monogamy, 15.
Manava, N. 23 a, 3; 24, 3; 25. Monotheism, 83, 34, 89, 90, N.
Mandala, 21, N . 71. 374.
Mantra, 2-4, 86. Moon, 28, 45, 46, 64, 74 f., 87,
Manu, 8, N. 25 a, 79 a. N . 281, 234, 249, 286 a; cf.
Manusa, 28. Sun.
Mares', 79, N. 341. M. of the Ma- Mountains, 12, 37, 39, 42, 50, 63,
ruts, 39; of Surya, 55, N. 205 89, etc.
(see Horse). Mujavant, 83, N. 289.
Markandeya-Pur., N. 26. Music, 19, 39.
Marriage, 15, N. 24. M. of Soma Mythology, Vedic, 34, N. 115.
and Surya (Zeus and Hera),
75 f., N. 318. M. of brothers Naigeya, N. 9.
and sisters, N. 48. Naksatra, N. 67.
Maruta, 39 f. ( N . 136 f.), 41. Narada, N. 25.
M a c a k a , N . 23 a, 2. Nasatya, N. 172.
Mataricvan, 35, N. 144, 374. Nature, laws, course of N . , 28 f.,
Mathematical treatises, N. 26. N. 91, 92, 97; phenomena, 28,
Measure, 20. Measuring staff, cord, 29, 33, 40, N. 143; philosophy,
36, 63. 87 ft.
Medicine, 20, 38, 39, 50, 66, 72 Navigation, 14.
(see Physician, Sickness). Nighantu, N. 19.
 INDEX. 189
Night, 28, 55, N. 68*. N. and Pajra, N. 841.
morning, 28, 52, N . 241; N . Pajrid, 51.
and day, 28, 57, 64, 68, 87, 90 Pani, 42, N. 149, 351.
(see Day); N. personified, 28, Panini, 7, N. 21, 79 a.
52, 55, 83; hymns to N . , 83, N. Pancanada, 12, 14.
345. Pancavinca-Br., N. 14 a, 2.
N i r r i t i , N . 361. Panjab, 12, 14.
Nirukta, 7, N. 19. Pantheism, cf. N. 225, 375 e.
N i r u k t i , N . 19. Paradise, N. 274, 274 a, 283 a,
Number, 20, N. 65, 116; play on 287 a.
N . , N . 836; N . o f the Adityas, Paradox, N. 160.
59, N.226; gods, N. 117; hymns, Paraskara, N. 23; 24, 4; 78 a,
21, N. 72; Brahmanas, 5, N. 105, 320, 375 d.
14 a; Upanisads, N. 16. Paravrj, N. 57.
Nuts as dice, 83. Paricista, 8, N. 26.
Paritakmya, N. 176.
Occupations, 14, 53, 55. Parjanya, 40, N. 139 f., 341.
Offering, see Sacrifice. Parcu, N. 341.
Old age, 61, 75, N . 50; see Age. Parthava, N. 341.
Omen, 86, cf. N. 14 a, 2. Parusnl, 12*, 79, N. 39.
Omniscience of the godhead, 89; Path of the Adityas, N. 233;
of Varuna, 66 f. righteous, 01, N. 238; wind, 64;
One, the, 88, 90. stars, N. 286 a; P. to the next
Ophir, N. 46. world, 69.
Oral transmission of the texts, 22, Patha, Padar, Sanhita, etc., N. 77.
N . 64, 76. Pathikrt, N. 315.
Order (see Nature) of the books, Pedu, 51, N. 181.
21 f.; chronological O., N. 73; Pegasus, N. 185.
O. of the hymnH, 21 f. Penance, 67, N. 259,266,372, 375.
Ordinances of Savitar, 57 f.; M i - People, 17; ' Five Peoples,' 53, N.
tra-Varuna, 59, 7 1 ; Adityas in 198.
general, 59, 60, N. 224, 228, Period, Indo-Iran., 72, N. 293;
234; Soma, 72,73; Varuna, 20, Graeco-Aryan, N. 84 d, 65, 95.
62, 64, 66, 70, N . 249. Phallus-worshippers, N. 62.
Origin of things, gods, 88 f. Philosophical poetry, 87-91.
Original matter, 87 f., N. 370,372. Phonetics, 7, 22.
Ornament, 14, 53, 75, 77, N. 341, Physician, 38, 50, 83; cf. N. 344,
etc. 372 (cf. Medicine, Sickness).
Orphic pantheism, N. 225. Pijavana, N. 340.
Outcast, 18, 50, N. 57. Pitaras, N. 270 (see Fathers).
Owl as messenger of death, N.361. Place of torment, see Hell.
Planets, 20, N. 67.
Padapatha, N. 77, 78. Plants, 37, 45, 63, 72; healing
Paippalkdicakha, N. 13. plants, 20, 83.
190 THE RIGVEDA.

Play, gambler, 18, 67, 83 f. Punishment, after death, 70, N.

Pleiades, 20, 27, 64, N. 67. ' 287.
Plough, 13, 84. Puranas, 8, N. 26.
Poets, 31, 45, 54, 68, 87 (cf. Sing- Puramdhi, 50, 75, N. 178, 322.
ers), N. 169. P. of the separate Puru, 80, N. 198.
books, 21. Purumitra, 50.
Poetry, 20, 23, 25, 26. Didactic- Pururavas, N. 375 1
gnomic P., 84 f . ; historical, Purusasukta, N. 79 5, 375 e.
78 f.; humorous, 81 f.; l i t u r g i - Pusan, 28, 55f ( N . 209-212), 69,
cal, 22, N. 126; philosophical, 72, N . 272 f.
87 f.; religious, 26-74; secular, Putakrata, N. 341.
74-01.
Polygamy, 15. Quail, 51, N. 187.
Polytheism, 33, N. 374.
Pontifex, 74, N. 315. Rbhus, 37 f. ( N . 127-131), 50.
Prthivi, N. 112 c. Rta, order, 28, N. 92, 94, 98.
Praise, 78, etc.; see Singers, Song. Rtu, N . 92.
Prajapati, 76, N. 372 f. Rain, 40, 63, 8 1 1 , 87, N. 139,143,
Prakrit, 22*. etc.
Pramatithana, N. 121. Rajanya, N. 375 c.
Pntticukhyas, 7 (cf. 22), N. 78; Ranayaniya, N. 9, 23 a, 2.
list, N. 20. Rebha, 51, N. 184.
Praudha-Br., N. 14a, 2. Recensions, see Atharva-, Rig-,
Pravrje,, N. 341. Sdma~, Yajurveda.
Prayer, sacrifice, Soma, without Refrain, 23, N. 83a.
P., 79, N . 333, cf 314; P.- Regularity in nature, 28, N. 92.
books, 4; Lord of P., see Brah- Religion, significance of the In*
manaspatu dian R., N. 89.
Prayers, contents of the P., 30, 67, Religious thought, 27; poetry, 3,
73; cf. N . 96, 166, 192, 209, 24 1, 26-74.
211, 217,221, 225, 236, 239, 258, Renown, 53, 7 8 1 , N. 239, 341,
261, 263, 282, 292, 298 f „ 306, 349, 351.
372, 373, etc. Rhetorical figures, 23.
Priest, 31, 32, 35, 73 f., 77, 81 f., Rich, the, 85, N. 352.
86 (see Brahmana). P.-class, 78, Riches, 30, 31, 67, 7 1 , 85, etc.
cf. 3 1 1 ; schools, 81. Riddles, 86, N. 364.
Princes, 17, 78 f., 80 f., 86, N. 341. Right, 71, N. 47, 92,232. R. and
Prometheus, 35 (etym., N. 121). wrong, 60, 64. R. hand, 75 f.,
Pronunciation, 6, 7. 77, N. 322, 324; leading from
Prosperity, 30, 75, 85, N. 209, 366. left to R., 75, N. 322.
Proverbs, 84 f. Righteous (cf Blessed), 47, 52,
Psalms, 62 ft.; cf I I . 55; 56, 62, 66, 69, 73, 74, N .
, N . 212, 221, 272, cf 238, 239, 274 a, 283 a, 284 a
274, 315. 287 a.
 INDEX. 191
Rigveda, 3, 21 f. (cf Hymns, Po- [ Sanhitopanisad-Br., N. 14 a, 2.
etry). The collection, 21 f., 25, Sanskrit, 22,'23,
N. 71 f . ; time of collection, 22, Saparyami, N. 284 a.
N. 75; time of composition, 11, Sarama, 42, N. 149; dogs of S.,
N. 38; recensions, 21, N. 72, cf. 70, N . 274.
N. 14 a, 1. —Brahm., N. 14 a, Sarameya, N. 149, 274,
1; Sutra, N. 23 a, 1; 24, 1; Sarasvati, 11, N. 39, 341.
Pratic., N. 20. — Editions of the Sarcostemma, N. 288.
text, N. 8; translations, N. 116. Satlaj, 12.
— Importance of the R., 26, 91, Savitar, 28, 56-58 ( N . 216-222),
cf N . 89. 59, 74, N . 227, 272, 279, 357,
Rinamcaya, 80 f. 370. S. and Surya, 56 f., N.
Ritual, 5, 8. R. works, 8, N. 23- 216-218.
25 a. Savitrl, N. 222.
Rivers of the Pan jab, N. 39. Sayana, 8 f., N. 8, 27, 38.
Rodasi, N. 148. School (see Carana) instruction,
Ruach Elohim, N. 372. N . 76.
Rudra, 33, 38 ( N . 133-135), cf Sciences, 20.
80. R. ident. with Agni? re- Sea, ocean, 12 ( N . 39), 27, 64, 65
lated to Apollo, N. 133. 89, N. 370-372; both seas, 65.
Rudriya, N. 114, 131. Seasons, 37, 82, 86, N. 68, 127,
Ruler of the Universe, Indra, 211. Genii of the S., N. 127 f.
45 f.; the Adityas, 59 f.; Va- Secret, 01, 64, 65, m, 73, N.
ruiia, 65 f. 253.
Serpent, 41, N". 145, etc.; S.-
Sabha, N. 59. smiter, 58.
Sacrifice, 3, 29, 35, 36, 43 f., 88. Sheep, 56, N. 341.
Rewards of S., 80, cf N. 341, Shepherd, 56.
349, 353; place of S., X. 26. Ship, 49, 52, 64, N. 152, 273. S. of
Sacrificial carrier, 36; gifts, 30 f., Pusan, N. 210; of the Phueu-
44, 79, N. 16, 333; posts, N. cians, N. 189.
126. Sickness, 20, 50, 67, 72, N. 358,
Sahasra, N. 67. 359 (see Medicine, Physician).
Sam an, 3, N . 9, Sin, 61, 67, 68 f., 73, N . 100, 195,
Saniayacarika-sutra, N. 25. 221, 225, 258, 200, 201, etc.
Samaveda, 3; Sanhitas, N. 9; Sindh, Sindhu, 11, N. 39.
Brah., N. 14 a, 2; Sutra, N. 23 a, Singers (cf Poets), 31, 48, 88.
2; 24, 2. Families of S., 21, 79, 80, N.
Samavidhana-Br., N. 14 a, 2. 73; speech, 23.
Sami, N. 67. Sirius, 20, N. 67.
Samnyasin, N. 15. Sleep, 80, N. 297.
Samudra, N. 39. Smartasutra, 8.
Sanhita, 2 f., 22, N. 8; S.-patha, Smrti, 8.
N . 77, 78. Soil, 12, N. 40.
192 T H E RIGVEDA.

Solar year, 20. N. 280 a; by the gods from the

Soma, plant, 03, 72, N. 244, 288, sea, N. 371. S. guided by the
289; drink, 3, 14, 26, 38, 41, 43, •Mityas, N. 231. S. =f eye of M i -
47, 71, 79 (S. without* prayer), tra-Varuna, 59, cf. N. 207; of
N . 144, 188, 210, 290 f., 294, Varuna, N. 241. S. represented
333. God, 21, 72 f., 74 f., N . as a bird, see Bird. How many
155, 288-308, 349, 366. S.-cult, suns ? 87. S. and Moon, 75, N.
72, N. 293; sacrifice, 3, N. 333; 249, 286 a, 318, 319. Eclipse,
intoxication, 72. N. 07. Course of S., 87; char-
Song-books, 3. iot, 45, 55, 57. S.-god, 37, 50,
Songs, .see Hymns. 54 (see Ptisan, Savitar, Sttrya,
Sons, desired, 0, 15, 76; see Chil- Vimu). Sunrise, 54, 55, 57,
dren. etc. Sunset, 55, 58, N. 182.
SOMI, 56, 09 f., N. 274, 274 a, 275, Sura, 14, N. 280.
275 a; see Home. Surya, 28, 54 f. ( N . 203-207), 57,
Speech, goddess of S., N. 375 c. 59, 73, N. 216-218 (see Saoi-
Spell, see Charm. far).
Spirit life, world, 09 if. Spirits of Surya, 50, 74 f., cf. 86; N. 148,
the dead, 09. 170.
Spoils, 19, 30, 79, etc. Sucravas, 44.
Spy, Surya called a S., 55; the Sutra, 0, N. 23. Dharma-S., N.
Adityas, N. 230. Spies of JVli- 25; Grhya-S., N. 24; Qrauta-
tra-Varuna, N. 230; of Savitar, S., N. 23 a. S.-period, N. 17.
57; of Soma, 73; of Varuna, Sutracarana, N. 23.
65. Suvastu, Swat, 12, N. 39.
Stars, heavenly bodies, 20, 45, 54, Synopsis of Vedic Sauhitfis, N. 8.
57, 71,83, N. 194, 204, 249, 286, Syntax, 23; comparative, Greek
280 a, 300, 341. S., N . 84.
State, 16.
Steps of Visnu, 56, N. 213. Cabala, N. 274, 274 a.
Stream, 11, 37, 48. S. held back Cakala-, 21, N. 72.
and passed over, 44, 79; into Cakatayana, N . 2 1 .
the other world, 69, N. 273. Cakha, 3, 21, N. 9, 10, 13, etc.
Stronghold, 30, 00, N. 149, 297. Cambara, 80, N. 341.
Strophe, 24, N. 80. Cankhayana, N. 14 a, 1; 23 a, 1;
Smite, 44, 79 f., N. 340. 24, 1 ; 72; 320.
Suitor, 15, 35, N. 352. Carvara, see Cabala.
Sfikta, N. 71. Catam, N. 07.
Sun, 14, 27 ( N . 91), 28, 37, 39, Catapatha-Br., N. 14 a, 4; 286;
51-58, 02, 87, N. 179, 189, 280, 287 a.
280 a, etc. S. stands still, 45; Caunaka, N. 13, 20, 26.
S. brought by Indra, 41, 45; Cigru, 80.
by Varuna, 03, N. 245, 249 ; by Ciksa, 0, N. 18.
Soma, 72; by the Fathers, 71, Cimyu, 79.
 INDEX. 198
Cipivista, N . 214. Thunderbolt, 46,41,86, N. 144, etc.
Civa, 3, N. 26,13a Time (see Composition, Period) of
C y a v a , N . 178. the Collection, 22, 26, N. 75;
Craddha, N. 366. of Pacini, 7, N. 2 1 .
Crautasutra, 8, N. 23, 23 a. Tirindira, N . 341.
Cruti, 5. Trteu, 44, 79, N. 334, 340.
Cudra, N . 375e. Tradition, in exegesis, 0 f., N.
Culvasutra, N. 23, 26. 29 f., 34, 373; in ritual, 5, 15,
Cunahepa, 68, N. 263. 75, N. 24, 317, 321-324, etc.
Cusna, 4.0. Traitana, N. 112 d.
cutudri, 12*, 79, N. 39. Translations of the R i g , N. 116.
Trasadasyu, N. 340.
Sadvinca-Br., N. 14 a, 2. Trayi vidya, 4, N. 11.
Tree, 42, 87, N. 189, 280, 285 a,
TacituH, 17, N. 54. 327, 341.
Taittiriya-Sanh., N. 10,1, etc. T.- Tribe, political unit, division, 17.
Br., -Ar., -Upan., N. 14a, 3; Tribes of the Aryans, N. 54;
T.-Pratis., N. 20. of the Dasyufl, N. 62.
Talatala, N. 287 a. T r i t a , 33. T. Aptya, N. 112 a*.
Talavakftra-Br., -Upan., N. 14a, Triumph, songs of T . , 78.
2. Tugra, 51, N. 189.
Tandya-Br., N. 14 a, 2. Turva, N . 341.
Tapas, N. 266, 372, 375. Turvaca, 45, N. 198.
Tense, N. 846. Turviti, 44.
Texts, Vedic, 2 ff., 6. Editions Tvastar, 38, 41, N. 131,144,188.
(see the various classes of Twilight, N. 171.
works), N. 8-27. T. become
unintelligible, 10*, 22, N. 373 ; Union in the next world, 31, 70,
enlarged, N. 79 a, 348. Trans- N . 282 f.
mission of T., 22, N. 76 f . ; Unsacrificing, 43, 47, N. 164, 190,
oral, 22, N. 64, 76; written, N. etc.
76. Forms of T. (pathas), 22, Upalekha, N. 77.
N . 77. Upamacjavas, N. 94, 340.
Thieves, 18, 42, 54. Upanisad, 5, 8; list, number, pur-
Thraetana (Iran.), N. 112 a*. pose of the U . , N. 16.
Three heavens, three earths, N. Urvaci, N. 375 f.
241, 248, cf. 279, 283 a. Num- Usas (cf Dawn), 28, 52-54 ( N .
ber Three in superstitions, N. 193-202), 57, 59 ( N . 223), 64,
117. N. 286. Dispute of U. with
Threefold division of the uni- Indra, N. 195.
verse, 34 f„ N. 117 f., 286a.
Throne, 78, N. 332. T. of Mitra- Vadlia, vadhar, N. 147.
Varuna, N. 230; of Amesha Vadhryacva, N. 340.
Cpenta, N. 283 a. Vadhu, N. 341.
194 T H E RIGVEDA.

Vaicya,N. 375 e. N . 8; A V . , N . 13; SV., N.

Vaic, vamitra, N. 73. 9. V. repeated, 23, N. 83ac;
VaitanaKutra, N. 23 a, 5. crwded out, N. 83 c.
Vac, N . 375 c. Vetasu, 80, N. 337.
Vaja, N. 127. Vibhvan, N. 127.
Vajasaneyi-Sanh., N. 10, 2; 14 a, Victory, 19, 78.
4; 16; 23a, 4; 24,4. Vijayanagara, 9.
Vala, 42, N. 149. Village, 13, 17,19, 71, N. 59.
Valakhilya, N. 72. Vilu, N. 149.
Vftmadeva, 21, 85, N. 73. Vimada, 50, N. 178.
Vanaprastha, N. 15. Vipas, 12*, 79, N.39.
Vandana, 51, N. 179. Vispala, 51, N. 180.
Vanca-Br., N. 14 a, 2. Vicvakarman, 89, N. 371, 374.
Vara bhar, N. 95. Vic,vamitra, 21, 79, N. 73.
Variety in hymns and concep- Viove devas, 34, 74, N. 316.
tions, 24 f., 26. Vianu, 3, 56, 86, N. 26, 213-215.
Vartika, N. 187. Visnu-Dharmasutra, N. 25; V . -
Varuna, 20, 28, 36, 59, 61-69 ( N . Purana, N. 26.
226 f., 241-264), 70, 73, N. 142, Vitasta, 12, N. 39.
366, 374. Eyes of V . , N. 241. Vivasvant, 69, N. 269.
V. and Indra, 33, 62, N. 114, Vrka, N. 187.
242. V. and Mitra, 59-61, 71, Vrcivant, 80.
N. 225-240,241. V. and Yama, Vrtra, 40, 43.
69 f., N . 276. Vyakarana, 6, N. 18.
Varunani, N. 148. Vyasa, N. 75.
Vasistha, 21, 79, N. 336.
Vasistha, N. 73. — N. 25. Wanderer, 49, 58 (the sun, 28).
Vastospati, N. 375 d War, 19, 43 f., 78 f.
Vasu,N. 114,131. Warmth, cosmogonic force, 90.
Vaca Agvya, N. 341. Water, waters, 13 f., 31, 40, 41,
Vaskala, N. 72. 63,65, 80,90, N. 248. W. loosed
Va'ta, Vayu, 33, 38, 72, N. 72. by Indra, 4 1 ; guided by Va-
Vayya, 63. runa, 63. W. as original mat-
Veda, 2 ff.; see Atharva- Rig-, ter, 87 f.
Sama-, Yajurveda. Way, of the gods, 74, N. 233.—
Veda, N. 102. N. 211 (see Path).
Vedanga, 6-9. Weapons, 19; W.-song, N. 63.
Vedftnta, 6, cf. N. 16. Weaving, 14, 56, 58.
Vedarthayatna, N. 33. Wicked, place of the W. in the
Vedic civilization, 11-20; V. be- other world, 71, N. 287, 287 a.
lief, 32-84; V. homes, 12 f.; V. Widow, 16, 77, N. 51; right of
period, 11, N. 38. inheritance, re-marriage, burn-
Verses interpolated, 22, N. 79 a, ing, N . 51, 328.
83 c. Index of first lines, RV., Wife, 15,16, 75, 77, N. 47.
 INDEX. 195

Wind, 37, 88, 40, 52, 63, 64, N. Yajnavalkya, 8, N. 14 a, 4; 25, 79,
248, 372. etc.
Wine, 14, N. 261. Yajurveda, 4, N. 10. Black Y . ,
Winged steeds of the Ac,vins, 50, N . 10; 14a, 3; 20; 23a, 3; 24,
51, N . 189. 3. White Y., N. 10,2; 14 a, 4;
W i n k i n g of an eye, 50, 64, 66. 20; 23a, 4 ; 24,4.
Wisdom, Wise, 63, 69, 90, etc. Yajus, 3.
Song of W., 85, N. 348, 3756. Yaksn, 80.
Wish, 29, 70, N. 96. Tama, 69,70,78, N. 269,275,276,
Wolf, 52, N. 187. 279,280,374. Yama's dogs, 69,
Woman, 16, 71, 85, N. 351. N. 274,274 a; his bright realm,
Word, formation, 23, N. 816. 70. Y. and Yami, N. 875 a.
Play on words, 23, N. 836. Yam!, see above.
World, worlds, 28, 42, 45 f., 49, 60, Yamuna, 12.
62 f., 65, N . 92, 157, 163, 214, Yaska, 7, 10 * N. 19, 28.
244, etc.; W. of the righteous, Yavyavati, 80, N. 338.
66, 69 (see Abode, Righteous). Year (cf. Autumn, Seasons), 87,
W r i t i n g , 20, N. 64. Texts com- 46, 82, 86, N . 231, 372.
mitted to W., N. 77. Yupa, N. 126.

Yadu, 45, N. 198, 341. Zeus and Hera, N. 318.

196 THE RIGVEDA.

Cantabas, N. 39, Lares, Manes, N. 270, 283 a,

Centum, N. 65. 285 a.
Credo, N. 366. Mars, N. 133.
Depontani, N. 50 † Mille, N. 65.
Dexterarum junctio (p. 75), N. Pontifex, N. 315.
322. Ratus, N. 92.
Diespiter, 33. Semi, N. 65.
Fiamen, N. 82. Sepelio, N. 284 a.
Gaius, ego G., tu Gaia, N. 323. Sexagenarii de ponte, N. 50 †
Glebam inicere, N. 330. Sindus, N. 39.

Arbeit, N. 127. Tausend, N. 65.

Hundert, N. 65. Wetter, N. 147.
Mensch, 28, N. 93, Wuotan, N. 132.
Recke, N. 57. O. Norse, bragr, Bragi, N. 82.
Sippe, N. 59. Goth, fairguni, Fiorgyn, N. 139.
 II.
BIBLE PASSAGES.

GEN. 1,2: N . 372. PSALMS 1, 3: P. 6k

1,7: P. 65. 6,2: N.256.
1,14: N.23L 17, 8 : N . 238.
15,1: P. 66. 19,13: P. 67.
22, 2 : P. 68.
EXOD. 14,21: P. 45. 24, 1: P. 65.
20,5: P. 67. 25,14: N.268.
L E V I T . 11,14: N . 255. 31, 2 : P. 67.
82, 5 f.: N . 257.
DEUT. 10, 14: P. 65. 83,13: P. 65.
38, 2: N . 256.
JOSHUA 10, 13: P. 45.
50, 11: P. 64.
ISAM. 16,7: P. 60. 51,3: P. 67.
59, 16: P. 66.
1 KINGS 8, 39: P. 64. 71, 2: P. 67.
EZRA 9,13: P. 67.
72,6: P. 63.
74,15: P. 63.
JOB 5,10: P. 63. 74, 16 f.: P. 63, N . 231.
9,7: P. 64. 77, 6 if.: P. 68, N . 262.
9, 8: P. 62. 78, 13: P. 45.
9, 11: P. 60. 79, 8: P. 67.
10,5: P. 46. 88,2: P. 68.
13,23: P. 67. 89,11: P. 64.
26,10: P. 63. 89, 12: P. 62.
28,24: P. 65. 91, 1 if.: P. 66.
31,4: P. 65. 91,4: N . 238.
34, 21: P. 65. 91,14: P. 66.
38,4: P. 62. 91, 16: P. 66.
38,5: P. 63. 102,24: P. 61.
38, 12 f.: P. 53. 102, 26: P. 62.
38,18: P. 63. 103, 10: P. 67.
38,25: P. 63. 104,2: P. 62, 63.
38,31: N.249. 104, 3: P. 64, N . 148.
38,33: P. 62. 104,5: P. 62.
38,36: P. 63. 104, 7 : P. 58.
39, 19: P. 63. 104,10: P. 63.
198 THE RIGVEDA.

PSALMS 104,13 f.: p. 63. 17,8: P. 61.

104,19: P. 63. 17,10: Pp. 60, 64.
104,22: P. 55. I 23,23: P. 65.
107,29: P. 58. 23, 24: P. 62.
109,15: P. 67. 31, 35: P. 62, N . 231, 249.
113,5: P. 65. 82,18: P. 67.
121,4: P. 60. 32,19: P. 65.
135,7: P. 64. 61,15: P. 62.
136,8: P. 62, N. 249. 51,16: P. 63.
138,6: P. 65.
139,2: P. 65. EZEK. 18,20: P. 67.
139,3: P. 65. DAN. 7,13: N . 143.
139, 7 ff.: P. 65.
143,1,11: P. 67. Hos. 6,3: P. 54, 63.
147, 4: P. 64.
147,8: P. 63. AMOS 8,7: N. 253.
148, 3 f.: N. 249. 5,8: N.245.
9 , 1 f t : P. 65.
PBOV. 21,2: P. 64. 9,6: N.245.
28,13: N.257.
80,18: P. 64. HABAK.3,8: N. 143.

ECCLES. 1,7: P. 27, N. 246. M A T T H . 5, 45: N. 207.

11,5: P. 62, 64. 6,8: N.227.
12,7: N.2750. 8,12: N . 287.
8,27: P. 58.
ISAIAH 12: N. 257. 10,30: P. 66.
19,1: N . 143. 18,20: P. 65.
40,22: P. 62. 24,30: N.143.
41, 10: P. 66. 26,64: N.143.
44,24: P. 62.
LUKE 12,7: P. 66.
60,2: P. 58.
63,12: P. 46. JOHN 1,1: N. 875 c.
3,8; P. 38, 64, K. 182.
JEREM. 10,12: P. 62.
10,13: P. 63,64. HEB. 4,18: P. 65.