DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL – BOPAL, AHMEDABAD

STUDY MATERIAL : BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 6 :HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

WHAT IS SEXUAL REPRODUCTION?

 It is the production of offspring by the fusion of two gametes which are obtained from
two different individuals [ one male and other female] of the same species.

 Gametes are the special cells produced for reproduction by special reproductive organ .

 Sexual reproduction always includes the process of FERTILIZATION.

FERTILIZATION -The process of fusion of two gametes to produce the first single cell is
called fertilization.

 The first cell formed after fertilization is called ZYGOTE.

 Fertilization is of two types :

1. External Fertilization: Fertilization takes place outside the body. Eg Frogs, Fish etc.

2. Internal Fertilization: The fusion of the gametes occurs inside the female reproductive
tract.

Characteristics of sexual reproduction:-

 It usually occurs in complex multicellular organisms.

 It involves fusion of gametes from different individuals and hence brings about diverse
character.

 It also leads to incorporate new combinations of genes.

 It’s important Feature is the formation of GAMETES. ( By meiosis type of cell division)

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering plants:-

 The flowering plants reproduce by sexual methods, for which they develop special
organs.

 The flower is the reproductive organ system which is further divided into sub parts which
play specific functions in the process of reproduction.
  It is divided into 2 major parts called the Accessory Whorl and Essential whorl.

 The following is the bifurcation of the structure of the flower:

 Accessory Whorl:

1. Sepal [ CALYX]

2. Petals [COROLLA]

 Essential Whorl:

1. Stamen [ ANDROCEIUM]

2. Pistil [GYNOCEIUM]

 A flower with both the Accessory and the essential whorl is called a complete
flower.

 A flower which contains both Stamen and Carpel is called a BISEXUAL FLOWER.

 A flower which contains either stamen or carpel is called a UNISEXUAL FLOWER.

Structures of a typical/ complete flower:-

The Essential Whorl :-

 Androceium [ Stamen]

1. It is the male reproductive organ of the flowers.

2. It produces the male gamete the POLLEN
3. It consists of the Anther and the Filament.
 4. The filament is the long stalk that bears the anther.
5. The anther contains the pollen sac where the pollen grains are made.
6. Initially each pollen is uninucleate but on maturation it forms 2 nuclei.

 Gynoceium [ Pistil, Carpel]

1. It is the female reproductive organ of the flowers.

2. It produces the female gamete the OVULES
3. It consists of the Stigma, Style and the Ovary.
4. The stigma receives the pollen.
5. The style provides the passage to the nuclei of the pollen to reach the ovary.
6. The ovary is the swollen basal part which contains the ovules. The ovules in the
ovary are attached to the placenta.

STRUCTURE OF OVARY:-
POLLINATION:-

 In plants the male and the female gametes are borne on the different organs and hence
they have to be brought together for the process of fertilization to occur. THUS IN
PLANTS THE PROCESS OF POLLINATION OCCURS BEFORE
FERTILIZATION.

 DEFINITION: The transfer of pollen from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the
carpel is termed as pollination.

TYPES OF POLLINATION

 There are two types of pollination :

1. Self pollination : The transfer of pollen from the anther of the flower to the stigma of either
the same flower or to the flower on the same plant. This can happen in a bisexual flower only.

2. Cross pollination : The transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma
of the flower on another plant.

Agents of pollination:-

 Pollination is majorly brought about by 3 agents:

 Wind – also called anemophilous

 Water – also called hydrophilous

 Insects – also called entomophilous

 Each flower has certain characteristics according to the type of agent which pollinate it.
Characteristics of flowers and pollen pollinated by the different agents of pollination:-

 Wind / water pollinated

The flowers are not necessarily brightly coloured, usually they are unisexual.

They have long stamens and carpels to catch release and catch the pollens.

There is no nectar or fragrance in the flower.

The pollen are smooth and sometimes have structures like feathers

 Insect pollinated

The flowers are always brightly coloured to attract the insects, they are usually bisexual.

The stamens and carpel show various kinds of arrangements.

There is presence of nectar and fragrance to attract insects.

The pollen are rough so that they can get easily stuck to the insect.

Fertilization:-
 PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION :-

 After pollination the pollen grains land on the stigma and start producing the pollen tube
due to stimulations of stigma in the form of sugar solutions.

 The pollen tube gradually moves towards the ovary by making a passage in the style by
releasing hydrolyzing enzymes at it’s tip.

 As the tube bores into the style the two male nuclei move through it into the ovary.

 Once the pollen tube reaches the ovary it hydrolyses it and reaches the ovule.

 The tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and bursts open releasing the two nuclei.

 Out of the two male nuclei one fuses with the female haploid nuclei and the second male
nucleus fuses with the polar nuclei

 The first fusion results into the formation of zygote and the second results into the
formation of endosperm .

 As there are two acts of fertilization occurring in an embryo sac this kind of fertilization
is termed DOUBLE FERTILIZATION.

Development of Fruits and Seeds / Fate of floral parts after fertilization :

Floral Part Fate after fertilization

(a) sepals, petals & All wither and drop off

stamens

(b) Ovary Becomes the fruit

(i) Ovarian wall Becomes the fruit coat
(ii) Ovule Becomes the seed
(iii) Integuments Becomes the seed coat
Structure of Dicot seed:-

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS:-

MATURATION – ADOLSCENCE

�In humans the boys and girls show a difference in the external as well as internal
growth pattern, though the age at which it starts is more or less the same[ which
roughly begins at 12-13 yrs and lasts up to 19 yrs in both boys and girls ]

�The age during which the body starts to mature for reproduction till compete
physical maturation is attained is called “ADOLSCENCE”. During this time they
show maturation of primary and secondary sex organs.

�Primary sex organs are the internal organs present in the individual right from the
birth and produce the gametes and respective hormones while secondary sex organs
are the external features the individuals develop at this age to differentiate their
sexes.

GROWTH PATTERN IN HUMAN MALE:-

�They start to show the development of secondary sex organs and the secondary sex
characters.

�The secondary characters are shown as in the broadening of shoulders, cracking of

voice and development of facial, chest and body hair.

�The primary sex organs start to produce the gametes which is called as “Sperm” in
the males.

GROWTH PATTERN IN HUMAN FEMALE:-

 �The females start showing the growth of breasts, broadening of pelvic region and
over all body shape changes.

�The important event is the occurrence of “Menstrual Cycle”.

 Menstrual cycle is a series of cyclic changes that occur in the reproductive

system of human females with periodicity of about 28 days.”

 The first menstruation is called menarche. It stops between age of 45-50

years, called menopause.

 Cycle stops temporarily during pregnancy.

PRIMARY SEX ORGANS OF HUMAN MALE:-

STRUCTURE OF SPERM:
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:-

ORGAN FUNCTION
1. Produces the male gamete /sperms
1. Testes and the male hormone
TESTOSTERONE.
2. Scrotum 2. Bag like structure which contains the
testicles outside the body.
3. Epididymis 3. Epididymis transports and stores
sperm cells that are produced in the
4. Vas efferens, vas deferens testes. It brings the sperm to maturity,
since the sperm that emerge from the
5. Prostrate gland testes are immature and incapable of
fertilization.
6. Seminal vesicles 4. The vas deferens transports mature
sperm to the urethra.
7. Urinogenital duct 5. The prostate gland contributes
additional fluid to the ejaculate.
Prostate fluids also help to nourish the
sperm.
6. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-
rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm
with a source of energy to help them
move. The fluid of the seminal vesicles
is called seminal fluid.
7. Transfer the sperms into the female
reproductive tract.
PRIMARY SEX ORGANS OF HUMAN FEMALE:-

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:-