REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

AUTOMOTIVE TECHNICIAN

LEVEL 5

TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2020
©Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of this learning guide may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the TVET CDACC, except in the
case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses
permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at
the address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.tvetcdacc.go.ke
 FOREWORD
The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to
achievement of Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms
in education are necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya
2010. This triggered the formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and
Training in Kenya” (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical
change in the design, development and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and
Training (TVET), which is the key to unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization.
This policy requires that training in TVET be Competency Based, Curriculum development be
industry led, certification be based on demonstration of competence and that mode of delivery
allows for multiple entry and exit in TVET programs.

The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of
facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting
the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired
through training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness
of Kenyan labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of
2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya,
emphasizes the need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to
respond to the unique needs of the industry.

This Learning Guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum
in Automotive Technology Level 5 and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning
process. It is my conviction that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting
the development of competent human resource for Engineering sector’s growth and sustainable
development.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
 PREFACE
Kenya Vision 2030 is anticipated to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-
income country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) number four that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education
and promotion of lifelong learning for all, further affirm that education and training is an important
driver to economic development for any country. Kenya intends to create a globally competitive and
adaptive human resource base to meet the requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy.

TVET CDACC has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm
shift to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch
between skills acquired through training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global
competitiveness of Kenyan labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act
No. 29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya,
emphasizes the need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to
the unique needs of the industry.

To effectively implement CBET curriculum in Automotive Technology Level 5, this learning guide
has been designed and organized with clear interactive learning activities for each learning outcome
of every unit of learning. The guide further provides information sheet, self-assessment items, tools,
equipment, supplies, and materials necessary for the particular learning outcome. This is aimed at
imparting the relevant knowledge, requisite skills and the right attitude for work.

I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

CHAIRPERSON, TVET CDACC
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is
intended to support learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities,
simplified content and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.

I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and
ensuring its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am
convinced that this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and
right attitude needed for work in the Engineering sector.

DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET CDACC
 TABLE OF CONTENT
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................. 3
PREFACE .................................................................................................................................. 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... 5
TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................................. 6
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. 32
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... 33
ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................................... 34
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ........................................................................................ 35
CHAPTER 1: APPLIED MATHEMATICS ........................................................................... 37
1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ................................................................................ 37
1.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................... 37
1.3 Summary of Learning Outcomes ................................................................................... 37
1.4 Learning Outcome 1: Use Concepts of Arithmetic in Solving Work Problems ....... 37
1.4.1 Introduction to the Learning Outcome .................................................................. 37
1.4.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................... 38
1.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 44
1.5 Learning Outcome 2: Use formulae and algebraic expressions for work ................. 46
1.5.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 46
1.5.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 46
1.5.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 54
1.5.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 55
1.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 55
1.5.7 References ............................................................................................................. 56
1.5.8 Answers to the Self-Assessment............................................................................ 56
1.6 Learning Outcome 3: Use trigonometry to solve practical work problems .............. 58
1.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 58
1.6.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 58
1.6.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 58
1.6.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 63
1.6.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 63
1.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 64
1.6.7 References ............................................................................................................. 64
1.6.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ................................................................................. 64
1.7 Learning Outcome 4: Perform estimations, measurements and calculations of
quantities .............................................................................................................................. 66
1.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 66
1.7.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 66
1.7.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 66
1.7.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 72
1.7.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 72
1.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 72
1.7.7 References ............................................................................................................. 73
1.7.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ................................................................................. 73
1.8 Learning Outcome 5: Apply Matrices in work ......................................................... 75
1.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 75
1.8.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 75
1.8.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 75
1.8.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 80
1.8.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 81
1.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 81
1.8.7 References ............................................................................................................. 81
1.8.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ................................................................................. 81
1.9 Learning Outcome 6: Apply Vectors in work ........................................................... 83
1.9.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 83
1.9.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 83
1.9.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 83
1.9.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 91
1.9.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 92
1.9.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 93
1.9.7 References ............................................................................................................. 93
1.9.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ................................................................................. 93
1.10 Learning Outcome 7: Collect, Organize and Interpret Statistical Data..................... 96
1.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 96
1.10.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 96
1.10.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 97
1.10.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 102
1.10.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 103
1.10.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 103
 1.10.7 References ........................................................................................................... 103
1.10.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 104
1.11 Learning Outcome 8: Apply Concepts of probability for Work ............................. 107
1.11.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 107
1.11.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 107
1.11.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 107
1.11.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 111
1.11.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 111
1.11.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 111
1.11.7 References ........................................................................................................... 111
1.11.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 112
1.12 Learning Outcome 9: Perform Commercial Calculation ........................................ 114
1.12.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 114
1.12.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 114
1.12.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 114
1.12.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 118
1.12.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 119
1.12.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 120
1.12.7 References ........................................................................................................... 120
1.12.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 120
CHAPTER 2: PREPARE AND INTERPRET TECHNICAL DRAWINGS ........................ 123
2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 123
2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 123
2.3 Learning Outcome 1: Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials ........... 123
2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 123
2.3.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 123
2.3.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 124
2.3.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 128
2.3.7 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 128
2.3.8 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 129
2.3.9 References ........................................................................................................... 129
2.3.10 Model Answers to Self-Assessment .................................................................... 130
2.4 Learning Outcome 2: Produce plane geometry drawings ....................................... 132
2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 132
2.4.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 132
 2.4.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 132
2.4.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 149
2.4.7 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 150
2.4.8 Tool, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ........................................................... 150
2.4.9 References ........................................................................................................... 150
2.4.10 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 150
2.5 Learning Outcome 3: Produce solid geometry drawings ........................................ 152
2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 152
2.5.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 152
2.5.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 152
2.5.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 157
2.5.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 158
2.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 158
2.5.7 References ........................................................................................................... 159
2.5.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 159
2.6 Learning Outcome 4: Produce orthographic drawings ........................................... 162
2.6.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome .................................................................. 162
2.6.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 162
2.6.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 162
2.6.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 165
2.6.7 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 166
2.6.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 166
2.6.9 References ........................................................................................................... 167
2.6.10 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 167
2.7 Learning Outcome 5: Produce pictorial drawings................................................... 169
2.7.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome .................................................................. 169
2.7.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 169
2.7.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 169
2.7.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 172
2.7.7 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 172
2.7.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 172
2.7.9 References ........................................................................................................... 173
2.7.10 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 173
2.8 Learning Outcome 6: Produce electrical drawings ................................................. 175
2.8.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome .................................................................. 175
 2.8.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 175
2.8.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 175
2.8.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 183
2.8.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 183
2.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 184
2.8.7 References ........................................................................................................... 184
2.8.8 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 184
2.1 2.9 Learning Outcome 6: producing Assembly drawings ....................................... 186
2.9.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome .................................................................... 186
2.9.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 186
2.9.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 186
2.9.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 192
2.9.5 Self-assessment ...................................................................................................... 192
2.9.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 194
2.9.7 References ............................................................................................................. 194
2.9.8 Model answers......................................................................................................... 194
2.9 Learning Outcome 7: Apply CAD Packages .......................................................... 197
2.9.3 Introduction to the learning Outcome .................................................................. 197
2.9.4 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 197
2.9.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 197
2.9.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 202
2.9.7 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 202
2.9.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 203
2.9.9 References ........................................................................................................... 203
2.9.10 Answers to Self-Assessment ............................................................................... 203
CHAPTER 3: AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING SCIENCE PRINCIPLES ........................ 206
3.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 206
3.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 206
3.3 Learning Outcome 1: Resolve forces ..................................................................... 206
3.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 206
3.3.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 206
3.3.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 207
Definitions of terms ........................................................................................................ 207
3.3.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 214
3.3.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 214
 3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 214
3.3.5 References ........................................................................................................... 215
3.3.6 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 215
3.4 Learning Outcome 2: Determine effects of loads in automotive systems............. 217
3.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 217
3.4.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 217
3.4.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 217
3.4.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 224
3.4.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 226
3.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 227
3.4.7 Reference ............................................................................................................. 228
3.4.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 228
3.5 Learning Outcome 3: Analyze properties of materials .......................................... 230
3.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 230
3.5.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 230
3.5.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 230
3.5.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 237
3.5.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 238
3.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 239
3.5.7 References ........................................................................................................... 239
3.5.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 240
3.6 Learning Outcome 4: Determine the nature of friction in automotive systems ..... 242
3.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 242
3.6.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 242
3.6.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 242
3.6.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 250
3.6.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 250
3.6.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 251
3.6.7 References ........................................................................................................... 251
3.6.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 251
3.7 Learning Outcome 5: Solve problems related to motion ........................................ 253
3.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 253
3.7.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 253
3.7.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 253
3.7.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 259
 3.7.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 259
3.7.6 Reference ............................................................................................................. 260
3.7.7 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 260
3.8 Learning Outcome 6: Apply simple machines concepts ......................................... 263
3.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 263
3.8.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 263
3.8.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 263
3.8.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 272
3.8.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 272
3.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 273
3.8.7 References ........................................................................................................... 273
3.8.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 274
3.9 Learning Outcome 7: Determine the effect of heat and gas laws .......................... 277
3.9.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 277
3.9.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 277
3.9.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 277
3.9.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 282
3.9.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 283
3.9.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 283
3.9.7 References ........................................................................................................... 284
3.9.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 284
3.10 Learning Outcome 8: Use the concept of density and pressure. ........................... 286
3.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 286
3.10.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 286
3.10.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 286
3.10.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 293
3.10.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 294
3.10.6 Self-assessment. ................................................................................................... 294
3.10.7 References ........................................................................................................... 295
3.10.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 295
CHAPTER 4: APPLYING WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRINCIPLES ......................... 299
4.1 Introduction to the unit of learning .............................................................................. 299
4.2 Summary of learning outcomes............................................................................... 299
4.3 Learning Outcome 1: Use technical drawing to plan work operations ................... 300
4.3.2 Performance Standards ........................................................................................ 300
 4.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 300
4.3.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 300
4.3.4 Learning activity .................................................................................................. 302
4.3.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 303
4.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 303
4.3.7 References ........................................................................................................... 303
4.3.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 303
4.4 Learning Outcome 2: Choose appropriate tools and materials ............................... 305
4.4.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 305
4.4.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 305
Working tools, equipment and materials are selected for the task. ................................ 305
4.4.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 305
4.4.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 315
4.4.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 315
4.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 315
4.4.7 References ........................................................................................................... 316
4.4.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 316
4.5 Learning Outcome 3: Measure and mark out dimensions on work pieces ............. 318
4.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 318
4.5.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 318
4.5.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 318
4.5.4 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 330
4.5.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 331
4.5.6 References ........................................................................................................... 331
4.5.7 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 331
4.6 Learning Outcome 4: Use hand tools to cut and file parts ...................................... 332
4.6.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 333
4.6.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 333
4.6.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 333
4.6.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 341
4.6.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 342
4.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 342
4.6.7 References ........................................................................................................... 342
4.6.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 343
4.7 Learning Outcome 5: Use drills to make holes ....................................................... 345
 4.7.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 345
4.7.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 345
4.7.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 345
4.7.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 352
4.7.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 353
4.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 354
4.7.7 References ........................................................................................................... 354
4.7.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 354
4.8 Learning Outcome 6: Thread using taps and dies ................................................... 357
4.8.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 357
4.8.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 357
4.8.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 357
4.8.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 361
4.8.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 361
4.8.6 References ........................................................................................................... 361
4.8.7 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 362
4.8.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 362
4.9 Learning Outcome 7: Assemble metal parts and sub-assemblies........................ 363
4.9.1 Introduction to learning outcome .............................................................................. 363
4.10 Performance standards ............................................................................................ 363
4.11 Information Sheet .................................................................................................... 363
4.11.1 Definition of terms............................................................................................... 363
4.11.2 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 371
4.11.3 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 371
4.11.4 References ........................................................................................................... 372
4.11.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 372
4.11.6 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 373
4.12 Learning Outcome 8: Polish finished work............................................................. 374
4.12.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 374
4.12.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 375
4.12.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 375
4.12.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 380
4.12.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 380
4.12.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 381
4.12.7 References ........................................................................................................... 381
 4.12.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 381
4.13 Learning Outcome 9: Perform housekeeping.......................................................... 383
4.13.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 383
4.13.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 383
4.13.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 383
4.13.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 387
4.13.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 387
4.13.6 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 387
4.13.7 References ........................................................................................................... 387
4.13.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 388
CHAPTER 5: VEHICLE BASIC MAINTENANCE ............................................................ 389
5.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 389
5.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 389
5.3 Learning Outcome 1 - Assess vehicle mechanical and operational condition. ....... 389
5.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 389
5.3.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 389
5.3.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 389
5.3.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 410
5.3.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 411
5.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 411
5.3.7 References ........................................................................................................... 412
5.3.8 Model Answers. ................................................................................................... 412
5.4 Learning Outcome 2: Carry out diagnostic tests. .................................................... 414
5.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 414
5.4.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 414
5.4.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 414
5.4.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 418
5.4.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 418
5.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 419
5.4.7 References ........................................................................................................... 419
5.4.8 Model Answers. ................................................................................................... 420
5.5 Learning Outcome 3: Service vehicle lubrication system ....................................... 421
5.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.................................................................... 421
5.5.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 421
5.5.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 421
 5.5.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 430
5.5.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 430
5.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 432
5.5.7 References ........................................................................................................... 432
5.5.8 Model Answers. ................................................................................................... 433
5.6 Learning Outcome 4: Replenish fluids and lubricants ............................................ 435
5.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 435
5.6.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 435
5.6.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 435
5.6.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 447
5.6.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 448
5.6.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 449
5.6.7 References ........................................................................................................... 450
5.6.8 Model Answer ..................................................................................................... 450
5.7 Learning Outcome 5: Replace/service vehicle serviceable parts ........................... 452
5.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 452
5.7.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 452
5.7.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 453
5.7.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 467
5.7.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 467
5.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 467
5.7.7 References ........................................................................................................... 468
5.7.8 Model Answers. ................................................................................................... 468
5.8 Learning Outcome 6: Carry out vehicle component and system adjustments ........ 470
5.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 470
5.8.2 Performance standard .......................................................................................... 470
5.8.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 470
5.8.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 487
5.8.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 487
5.8.6 Tools and equipment ........................................................................................... 487
5.8.7 References. .......................................................................................................... 488
5.8.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 488
5.9 Learning outcome 7: Service Vehicle Wheels and Tyres ....................................... 491
5.9.1 Introduction of the learning outcome. ................................................................. 491
5.9.2 Performance standard. ......................................................................................... 491
 5.9.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 491
5.9.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 503
5.9.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 503
5.9.6 Tools and equipment ........................................................................................... 504
5.9.7 References. .......................................................................................................... 505
5.9.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 505
5.10 Learning outcome 8: Finalize service and repair procedures. ................................. 507
5.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 507
5.10.2 Performance standard .......................................................................................... 507
5.10.3 Information sheet. ................................................................................................ 507
5.10.4 Learning activities ............................................................................................... 522
5.10.5 self-evaluation ..................................................................................................... 522
5.10.6 Tools, Materials and equipment .......................................................................... 522
5.10.7 References. .......................................................................................................... 523
5.10.8 Model Answers. ................................................................................................... 523
CHAPTER 6 SERVICE AND REPAIR VEHICLE ENGINE COMPONENTS .................. 524
6.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 525
6.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 525
6.3 Learning Outcome 1 - Troubleshoot and service vehicle engine components ....... 525
6.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 525
6.3.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 525
6.3.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 526
6.3.3.1 Definition of terms.............................................................................................. 526
6.3.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 537
6.3.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 537
6.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 538
6.3.7 References ............................................................................................................. 538
6.3.8 Model answers ....................................................................................................... 538
6.4 Learning Outcome 2: perform vehicle engine overhaul ........................................................ .
540
6.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 540
6.4.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 540
6.4.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 541
6.4.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 554
6.4.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 554
 6.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 555
6.4.7 References ............................................................................................................. 555
6.7.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 555
6.5 Learning Outcome 3: Service vehicle engine cooling system. ............................... 557
6.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.................................................................. 557
6.5.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 557
6.5.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 557
6.5.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 566
6.5.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 566
6.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 567
6.5.7 References ............................................................................................................. 567
6.5.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 567
6.6 Learning Outcome 4: Service vehicle engine exhaust system ................................ 569
6.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 569
6.6.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 569
6.6.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 569
6.6.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 574
6.6.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 574
6.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 574
6.6.7 Model Answers. ..................................................................................................... 575
6.7 Learning Outcome 5: lubricate vehicle engine system ........................................... 577
6.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 577
6.7.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 577
6.7.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 577
6.7.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 586
6.7.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 587
6.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 587
6.7.7 References ............................................................................................................. 587
6.7.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 587
CHAPTER 7: SERVICE VEHICLE FUEL SYSTEM .......................................................... 589
7.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 589
7.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 589
7.3 Learning Outcome one: Service fuel components. ................................................. 589
7.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 589
7.3.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 589
 7.3.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 589
Definition of terms.......................................................................................................... 589
7.3.4 Learning Activities ............................................................................................... 599
7.3.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 599
7.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 600
7.3.7 References. ............................................................................................................ 600
7.3.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 601
7.4 Learning Outcome 2 - Replace petrol fuel pump. ................................................... 602
7.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 602
7.4.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 602
7.4.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 602
7.5 Learning Outcome 3: Replace diesel injector pump, rail, pipes and nozzles............... 608
7.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 608
7.5.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 609
Diesel system operational test is conducted as per manufacturers manual. ................... 609
7.5.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 609
Test and run the engine. .................................................................................................. 616
7.5.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 616
7.5.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 616
7.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 616
7.5.7 References. ............................................................................................................ 617
7.5.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 617
7.6 Learning Outcome 4 - Perform injector pump timing............................................. 618
7.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 618
7.6.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 618
7.6.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 618
7.6.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 619
7.6.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 619
7.6.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 620
7.6.7 References. ............................................................................................................ 620
7.6.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 620
7.7 Learning Outcome 5 - Test fuel injectors for injection pressure and voltage. ........ 621
7.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 621
7.7.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 621
7.7.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 621
 7.7.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 625
7.7.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 625
7.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 625
7.7.7 References. ............................................................................................................ 626
7.7.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 626
CHAPTER 8: SERVICE MOTOR VEHICLES TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS .................. 627
8.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 627
8.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 627
8.3 Learning Outcome 1: Organize to service a vehicle transmission system. ............. 627
8.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 627
8.3.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 627
8.3.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 627
8.3.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 630
8.3.5 Self – Assessment .................................................................................................. 630
8.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 631
8.3.7 References ........................................................................................................... 631
8.3.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 631
8.4 Learning Outcome 2: Troubleshoot Vehicle Transmission System ....................... 632
8.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 632
8.4.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 632
8.4.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 632
8.4.3.1 Definition of terms.............................................................................................. 632
8.4.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 639
8.4.5 Self – Assessment .................................................................................................. 639
8.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 640
8.4.7 References ............................................................................................................. 640
8.4.8 Response to self-assessment .................................................................................. 640
8.5 Learning Outcome 3: Overhaul gearbox unit (Manual). ............................... 642
8.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 642
8.5.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 642
Definition of terms.......................................................................................................... 642
8.5.4 Learning Outcome 4. Overhaul gearbox unit (semi/automatic) ................... 658
8.5.5 Learning Outcome 5 : Carry out hydraulic/Tiptronic tests and measurements
iv
CHAPTER 5: SERVICE VEHICLE BRAKING SYSTEMS............................................ 11
8.6 Introduction to the unit of learning ....................................................................... 11
8.7 Summary of Learning Outcomes ........................................................................... 11
8.7.3 Learning outcome 1: Assess vehicle braking system ........................................ 11
8.7.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 31
8.7.5 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 31
8.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ........................................................................ 31
8.7.7 References............................................................................................................. 32
8.7.8 Model Answers ..................................................................................................... 32
8.8 Learning Outcome 2: Dismantle wheel brake assembly parts............................ 34
8.8.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 34
8.8.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 34
8.8.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 34
8.8.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 43
8.8.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 43
8.8.8 Tools, Equipment and materials ........................................................................ 43
8.8.9 References............................................................................................................. 44
8.8.10 Model Answers ..................................................................................................... 44
8.9 Learning Outcome 3: Assess braking components .............................................. 46
8.9.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 46
8.9.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 46
8.9.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 46
8.9.6 3.3.3 Learning Activities ..................................................................................... 49
8.9.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 49
8.9.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ....................................................... 49
8.9.9 References............................................................................................................. 50
8.10 Learning Outcome 4: Replace wheel brake assembly parts ............................... 51
8.10.3 1ntroduction to the learning outcome................................................................ 51
8.10.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 51
8.10.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 51
8.10.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 55
8.10.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 55
8.10.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials. ...................................................... 55
8.10.9 References............................................................................................................. 56
8.10.10 ...................................................................................... Responses to Self-Assessment
56
8.11 Learning Outcome 5: Replace brake cylinders .................................................... 57
8.11.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 57
8.11.4 Replacement of the brake master cylinder........................................................ 59
8.11.5 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 62
8.11.6 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 63
8.11.7 References............................................................................................................. 63
8.11.8 Model Answers ..................................................................................................... 64
8.12 Learning Outcome 6: Service brake system ......................................................... 65
8.12.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 65
8.12.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 65
8.12.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 65
8.12.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 75
8.12.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 75
8.12.8 References............................................................................................................. 76
8.12.9 Responses to Self-Assessment ............................................................................. 76
8.13 Introduction to the unit of learning ....................................................................... 77
8.14 Summary of Learning Outcomes ........................................................................... 77
8.15 Learning Outcome 1: Assess vehicle suspension system. .................................... 77
8.15.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 77
8.15.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 77
8.15.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 77
8.15.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 85
8.15.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 86
8.15.8 Tools, Equipment and Materials ........................................................................ 86
8.15.9 References............................................................................................................. 87
8.15.10 ................................................................................................................ Model Answers
87
8.16 Learning Outcome 2: Remove vehicle suspension components. ......................... 88
8.16.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 88
8.16.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 88
8.16.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 88
8.16.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 90
8.16.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 90
8.16.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ....................................................... 90
8.16.9 References............................................................................................................. 91
 8.16.10 .................................................................................................................. Model Answer
91
8.17 Learning Outcome 3: Assess vehicle suspension components serviceability. .... 92
8.17.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 92
8.17.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 92
8.17.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 92
8.17.6 Definition of terms ............................................................................................... 92
8.17.7 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 93
8.17.8 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 94
8.17.9 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ....................................................... 94
8.17.10 ......................................................................................................................... References
94
8.17.11 ................................................................................................................ Model Answers
94
8.18 Learning Outcome 4: Replace/service vehicle suspension components. ............ 95
8.18.3 Introduction to the learning outcome ................................................................ 95
8.18.4 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 95
8.18.5 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 95
8.18.6 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 98
8.18.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................... 99
8.18.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ....................................................... 99
8.18.9 References............................................................................................................. 99
8.18.10 ................................................................................................................ Model Answers
100
8.19 Learning Outcome 5: Fit and test vehicle suspension components. ................. 101
8.19.3 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 101
8.19.4 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 101
8.19.5 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 101
8.19.6 Learning Activities ............................................................................................ 106
8.19.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 107
8.19.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ..................................................... 107
8.19.9 Model answers.................................................................................................... 108
8.20 Learning Outcome 6: Vehicle suspension system service documentation ....... 109
8.20.3 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 109
8.20.4 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 109
8.20.5 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 109
 8.20.6 Learning Activities ............................................................................................ 111
8.20.7 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 111
8.20.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ..................................................... 111
8.20.9 References........................................................................................................... 112
8.20.10 ................................................................................................................ Model Answers
112
9.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 114
9.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ................................................................................. 114
9.3 Learning Outcome 1: Assess vehicle steering system. ........................................... 114
9.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 114
9.3.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 114
9.3.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 114
9.3.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 120
9.3.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 120
9.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ............................................................................ 120
9.3.7 References ............................................................................................................. 121
9.3.7 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 121
9.4 Learning Outcome 2: Remove steering components .............................................. 122
9.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 122
9.4.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 122
9.4.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 123
Drop-arm. ...................................................................................................................... 131
Drag-link........................................................................................................................ 132
Drag-link Arm............................................................................................................... 132
Stub-axles. ..................................................................................................................... 132
Track-rod. ..................................................................................................................... 132
9.4.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 135
9.4.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 136
9.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 136
9.4.7 References ............................................................................................................. 137
9.4.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 137
9.5 Learning Outcome 3: Assess serviceability of vehicle steering components ......... 138
9.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 138
9.5.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 138
9.5.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 138
 9.5.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 141
9.5.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 141
9.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 141
9.5.7 References ............................................................................................................. 142
9.5.8 Model answers ....................................................................................................... 142
9.6 Learning Outcome 4: Replace/service vehicle steering components. ..................... 143
9.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..................................................................... 143
9.6.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 144
Worn/damaged components are replaced as per manufacturer’s manual ...................... 144
9.6.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 144
9.6.4 Learning Activities ................................................................................................ 150
9.6.5 Self-Assessment..................................................................................................... 150
9.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................ 151
9.6.7 References ............................................................................................................. 151
9.6.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 151
9.7 Learning Outcome 4: Fit and test vehicle steering components. ...................... 153
9.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 153
9.7.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 153
9.7.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 154
9.7.4 Learning Activities ............................................................................................ 159
9.7.5 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 160
9.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ...................................................................... 160
9.7.7 References........................................................................................................... 161
9.7.8 Model Answers ................................................................................................... 161
9.8 Learning Outcome 5: Finalize vehicle steering system service. ........................ 164
9.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 164
9.8.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 164
9.8.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 164
Types of tests done on steering system........................................................................ 164
9.8.4 Learning Activities ............................................................................................ 166
9.8.5 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 166
9.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ..................................................... 166
9.8.7 References........................................................................................................... 167
9.8.8 Model Answers ................................................................................................... 167
CHAPTER 10: SERVICE VEHICLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS ................................ 169
10.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ......................................................................... 169
10.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 169
10.3 Learning Outcome 1: Diagnose electrical systems ................................................. 169
10.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 169
10.3.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 169
10.3.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 170
10.3.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 177
10.3.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials .......................................................... 178
10.3.6 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 178
10.3.7 References........................................................................................................... 178
10.3.8 Model Answers ................................................................................................... 179
10.4 Learning outcome 2: Service Vehicle Ignition System ...................................... 179
10.4.1 Introduction to learning outcome .................................................................... 179
10.4.2 Performance standards ..................................................................................... 180
10.4.3 Information sheet............................................................................................... 180
10.4.4 ........................................................................................................ Learning Activities
191
10.4.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials ...................................................................... 192
10.4.6 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 192
10.4.7 References........................................................................................................... 192
10.4.8 Model Answers ................................................................................................... 192
10.5 Learning Outcome 3: Service vehicle electrical accessories .............................. 193
10.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 193
10.5.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 194
10.5.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 194
10.5.4Learning Activities .......................................................................................... 197
10.5.5Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ................................................. 198
10.5.6 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 199
10.5.7 References........................................................................................................... 199
10.5.8 Model Answers ................................................................................................... 199
10.6 Learning Outcome 4: Service vehicle air conditioning system ......................... 199
10.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 199
10.6.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 199
10.6.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 200
10.6.4Learning Activities .......................................................................................... 208
 10.6.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials ...................................................................... 208
10.6.6 Self-Assessment .................................................................................................. 209
10.6.7 References........................................................................................................... 209
10.6.8 Model Answers ................................................................................................... 209
10.7 Learning Outcome 5: Service vehicle charging systems .................................... 210
10.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome .............................................................. 210
10.7.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 210
10.7.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 211
10.7.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ..................................................... 223
10.7.5Self-Assessment ............................................................................................... 223
10.7.6 References........................................................................................................... 223
10.7.7 Responses to Self-Assessment ........................................................................... 224
10.8 Learning Outcome 6: Service vehicle auxiliary systems.................................... 225
10.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 225
10.8.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 225
10.8.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 225
10.8.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 230
10.8.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 230
10.8.6 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 231
10.8.7 References ........................................................................................................... 231
10.8.8 Responses to Self-Assessment............................................................................. 231
10.9 Learning Outcome 7: Service vehicle lighting system............................................ 233
10.9.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 233
10.9.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 233
10.9.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 233
10.9.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 239
10.9.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 239
10.9.6 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 240
10.9.7 References ........................................................................................................... 240
10.9.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 240
10.10 Learning Outcome 8: Service vehicle electrical motors. ................................... 241
10.10.1Introduction to the learning outcome ............................................................. 241
10.10.2 Performance Standard........................................................................................ 241
10.10.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 241
10.10.4 Learning Activities ............................................................................................ 245
 10.10.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials ........................................................................ 245
10.10.6 Self-Assessment................................................................................................. 246
10.10.7 References ......................................................................................................... 246
10.10.8 Responses to Self-Assessment........................................................................... 246
10.11 Learning Outcome 9: Install Vehicle safety systems ......................................... 248
10.11.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................. 248
10.11.2 Performance Standard........................................................................................ 248
10.11.3 Information Sheet .............................................................................................. 248
10.11.4 Learning Activities ............................................................................................ 250
10.11.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ........................................................ 251
10.11.6 Self-Assessment................................................................................................. 251
10.11.7 References ......................................................................................................... 251
10.11.8 Model answers ................................................................................................... 252
CHAPTER 11: PERFORM VEHICLE BODY WORKS ...................................................... 252
Unit of Learning Code........................................................................................................ 252
11.1 Introduction to perform vehicle body works ........................................................... 252
11.2 Summary of learning outcomes............................................................................... 252
11.3 Learning Outcome 1: use body work tools and equipment..................................... 253
11.3.1 Introduction to the outcome ................................................................................. 253
11.3.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 253
11.3.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 253
10.3.4 Learning Activity ................................................................................................. 260
10.3.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 260
10..3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials ......................................................................... 261
10.3.7 References ........................................................................................................... 261
10.3.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 261
10.4 Learning outcome 2: Perform Vehicle Body Jacking ............................................. 262
10.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome................................................................... 262
10.4.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 262
10.4.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 262
10.4.3 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 266
10.4.4 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 266
10.4.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 267
10.4.6 Reference ............................................................................................................. 267
10.4.7 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 267
10.5 Learning Outcome 3 : perform vehicle body pulling .............................................. 268
10.5.1 Introduction to Perform Vehicle Body Pulling.................................................... 268
10.5.2 Performance standards ......................................................................................... 268
10.5.3 Information Sheet ................................................................................................ 268
10.5.4 Learning activity .................................................................................................. 270
10.5.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 270
10.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 270
10.5.7 References ........................................................................................................... 271
10.5.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 271
10.6 Learning outcome 4: Perform vehicle body dent checking, beating and gas welding
272
10.6.1 Introduction to the Learning outcome ................................................................. 272
10.6.2 Performance standard .......................................................................................... 272
10.6.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 273
10.6.4 Learning activity .................................................................................................. 277
10.6.5 Self- Assessment.................................................................................................. 277
10.6.6 Tools, Materials and Equipment· ....................................................................... 277
10.6.7 Reference ............................................................................................................. 277
10.6.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 278
10.7 Learning outcome 5: perform vehicle body filling and sanding ................................ 279
10.7.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 279
10.7.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 279
10.7.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 279
10.7.4 Learning Activities .............................................................................................. 280
10.7.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 280
10.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 281
10.7.8 Reference ............................................................................................................. 281
10.7.9 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 281
10.8 Learning outcome 6: Apply spot putty....................................................................... 283
10.8.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 283
10.8.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 283
10.8.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 283
10.8.4 Learning Activity ................................................................................................. 284
10.8.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 285
10.8.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 285
 10.8.7 Reference ............................................................................................................. 285
10.8.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 285
10.9 Learning outcome 7: Perform vehicle body cleaning/degreasing ........................... 286
10.9.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 286
10.9.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 286
10.9.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 286
Item............................................................................................................................................ 2
Wet sanding .............................................................................................................................. 2
Dry sanding............................................................................................................................... 2
Work speed ................................................................................................................................ 2
Slower ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Faster .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Amount of sandpaper ................................................................................................................. 2
Required ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Less ............................................................................................................................................ 2
More ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Condition of ............................................................................................................................... 2
Finish.......................................................................................................................................... 2
Very good................................................................................................................................... 2
Final finish difficult ................................................................................................................... 2
Workability ................................................................................................................................ 2
Normal ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Good ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Dust ............................................................................................................................................ 2
Little ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Much .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Facilities ..................................................................................................................................... 2
required ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Water drain necessary ................................................................................................................ 2
Dust collector and exhaust necessry .......................................................................................... 2
Drying time ................................................................................................................................ 2
Necessary ................................................................................................................................... 2
Not necessary ............................................................................................................................. 2
10.9.4 Learning Activity ..................................................................................................... 2
10.9.5 Self-Assessment....................................................................................................... 2
 10.9.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .............................................................................. 2
10.9.7 Reference ................................................................................................................. 2
10.9.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 26
10.10 Learning outcome 8 : Spray and valet vehicle body ................................................. 26
10.10.1 Introduction to learning outcome ........................................................................ 26
10.10.2 Performance Standard.......................................................................................... 26
10.10.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................. 26
10.10.4 Learners Activity ................................................................................................. 32
10.10.5 Self-assessment .................................................................................................... 32
10.10.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials .......................................................................... 32
10.10.7 Reference ............................................................................................................. 33
10.10.8 Model Answers .................................................................................................... 33
10.11 Learning outcome 8: Perform vehicle body fitting ..................................................... 2
10.11.1 Introduction to learning outcome .......................................................................... 2
10.11.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 2
10.11.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 2
10.11.4 Learning Activity ................................................................................................... 5
10.11. 5 Self-Assessment.................................................................................................... 5
10.11.6 Tools, Materials and Equipment ............................................................................ 5
10.11.7 Reference ............................................................................................................... 5
10.11.8 Model Answers ...................................................................................................... 5
10.12 Learning outcome 9: Perform vehicle body buffing ................................................... 6
10.12.1 Introduction to Learning outcome ......................................................................... 6
10.12.2 Performance Standard............................................................................................ 6
10.12.3 Information sheet ................................................................................................... 6
Figure 9-16 : Buffing pad ........................................................................................................ 7
Figure 9-17: Buffing towel....................................................................................................... 7
Figure 9-18: Buffing cloth ....................................................................................................... 7
10.12.4 Learning Activity ................................................................................................... 9
10.12.5 Self-Assessment................................................................................................... 10
10.12.6 Tools, Equipment, Materials ............................................................................... 10
10.12.7 References ........................................................................................................... 10
10.12.8 Model answers ..................................................................................................... 10
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Hexagon Puzzle 1 ..................................................................................................... 54
Figure 2: Hexagonal Puzzle 2 .................................................................................................. 55
Figure 3: Circle ........................................................................................................................ 58
Figure 4: Triangle PQV ........................................................................................................... 60
Figure 5: Directional Cosines .................................................................................................. 87
Figure 6: Position Vectors ....................................................................................................... 89
Figure 7: Class Boundaries ...................................................................................................... 98
Figure 8: Histogram ............................................................................................................... 100
Figure 9: Frequency Polygon ................................................................................................. 101
Figure 10: Tally Diagram....................................................................................................... 104
Figure 11: Frequency Distribution ......................................................................................... 105
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Basic Units of Learning ............................................................................................. 35
Table 2: Common Units of Learning ....................................................................................... 35
Table 3: Core Units of Learning .............................................................................................. 35
Table 4: SI Units ...................................................................................................................... 66
Table 5: SI Prefix Symbols ...................................................................................................... 67
Table 6: Conversions of SI Units ............................................................................................. 67
 ACRONYMS
BC Basic Competency
CBET Competency Based Education and Training
CC Common Competency
CDACC Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
CR Core Competency
GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
ICT Information Communication Technology
 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The Automotive Technician Level 5 qualification consists of competencies that a person must
achieve to enable him/her to service and maintain motor vehicles in the motorvehicle service
and repair industry.

The Summary of the Course

The units of competency comprising Automotive Technician certificate Level 5 qualifications
include the following competencies:

Table 1: Basic Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title

ENG/OS/AUT/BC/1/5 Demonstrate communication skills.
ENG/OS/AUT/BC/2/5 Demonstrate digital literacy
ENG/OS/AUT/BC/3/5 Demonstrate entrepreneurial skills.
ENG/OS/AUT/BC/4/5 Demonstrate employability skills
ENG/OS/AUT/BC/5/6 Demonstrate environmental literacy.
ENG/OS/AUT/BC/6/5 Demonstrate occupational safety and health
practices

Table 2: Common Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title
ENG/OS/AUT/CC/1/5 Prepare and interpret technical drawings
ENG/OS/AUT/CC/2/5 Apply engineering Mathematics
ENG/OS/AUT/CC/3/05 Applying automotive engineering science
principles
ENG/OS/AUT/CC/4 /05 Applying workshop technology principles

Table 3: Core Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/1/5 Perform vehicle basic maintenance
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/2/5 Service and repair vehicle engine parts
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/3/5 Service vehicle fuel system
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/4/5 Service vehicle transmission system
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/5/5 Service vehicle steering system
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/6/5 Service vehicle suspension systems
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/7/5 Service vehicle braking systems
ENG/OS/AUT/CR/8/5 Service vehicle electrical systems
 CHAPTER 1: APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CC/1/5

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Engineering Mathematics

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit describes the competencies required by an automotive technician in order to apply
engineering mathematics. It involves use concepts of arithmetic in solving work problems,
applying algebra, applying trigonometry and hyperbolic functions, applying complex numbers,
applying coordinate geometry, carrying out binomial expansion, applying calculus, solving
ordinary differential equations, carrying out mensuration, applying power series, applying
statistics, applying numerical methods, applying vector theory, applying matrix, solving partial
differential equations, applying Laplace transforms and applying Fourier series.

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Use concepts of arithmetic in solving work problems
2. Use common formula and algebraic expressions for work
3. Use trigonometry to solve practical engineering problems
4. Perform estimations, measurements and calculations
5. Apply matrices in work
6. Apply vectors in work
7. Collect, organize and interpret statistical data
8. Apply concepts of probability for work
9. Perform commercial calculation

1.3 Learning Outcome 1: Use Concepts of Arithmetic in Solving Work Problems

1.3.1 Introduction to the Learning Outcome
This learning outcome covers algebra and the learner should be able to: carry out fundamental
operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers,
fractions and decimals operations and conversions, indices, ratios and proportions,

1.3.2 Performance Standard

1. Fundamental operations
2. Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers
3. Fractions and decimals operations and conversions
4. Indices
 5. Ratios and proportions
6. Meaning
7. Conversions into percentages
8. Direct and inverse proportions determination
9. Use of scientific calculator
1.3.3 Information Sheet
Fundamental operations
Brackets and the precedence rules are used to remove ambiguity in a calculation. In any
calculation involving all four arithmetic operations as we proceed follows:

a. Working from the left evaluate divisions and multiplications as they are encountered

This leaves a calculation involving just addition and subtraction.

b. Working from the left evaluate additions and subtraction as they are

The four basic arithmetic operations are: addition and subtraction, multiplication and division

The order of precedence of operations for problems containing fractions is the same as that
for integers, i.e. remembered by BODMAS (Brackets, Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition
and Subtraction).
Rules that govern basic laws of arithmetic:

1. Commutativity

Two integers can be added or multiplied in either order without affecting the result. For
example:

5 + 8 = 8 + 5 = 13 5 × 8 = 8 × 5 = 40

Addition and multiplication are commutative operations, whereas subtraction and division are
not commutative operations.
4−2≠ 2−4 4−2= 2 2 − 4 = −2

4÷2≠2÷4 4÷2=2 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5

2. Associativity

The way in which three or more integers are associated under addition or multiplication does
not affect the result.
 3. Distributivity

Multiplication is distributed over addition and subtraction from both the right and left.

Division is distributed over addition and subtraction from the right but not from the left.

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers

Adding two numbers gives their sum and subtracting two numbers gives their difference. For
example:

7 + 3 = 10

7−3 =4

3 − 7 = −4

Adding a negative number is the same as subtracting its positive counterpart. For example:

7 + −2 = 5

Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding its positive counterpart. For example:

7 − −2 = 9

Multiplication and division

Multiplying two numbers gives their product while dividing two positive and negative numbers
gives their quotient.

Multiplying and dividing two positive or two negative numbers gives a positive number.

12 × 2 = 24 −12 × −2 = 24

12 ÷ 2 = 6 −12 ÷ −2 = 6

Multiplying or dividing a positive number by a negative number gives a negative number.

12 × −2 = −24; 12 ÷ −2 = −6

Fractions and decimals operations and conversions

Fractions
When 2 is divided by 3, it may be written as is called a fraction. The number above the line,

i.e. 2, is called the numerator and the number below the line, i.e. 3, is called the denominator.
When the value of the numerator is less than the value of the denominator, the fraction is
called a proper fraction; thus is a proper fraction. When the value of the numerator is

greater than the denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. Thus is an

improper fraction and can also be expressed as a mixed number, that is, an integer and a
proper fraction. Thus the improper fraction is equal to the mixed number 2

When a fraction is simplified by dividing the numerator and denominator by the same
number, the process is called cancelling. Cancelling by 0 is not permissible.
Simplify: +

The lowest common multiple (i.e. LCM) of the two denominators is 3 d 7, i.e. 21
Expressing each fraction so that their denominators are 21, gives:
1 2 1 7 2 3 7 6 13
+ = × + × = + =
3 7 3 7 7 3 21 21 21
Simplify: − + !÷ × !
"

Solution − + !÷ × != − !÷ !
× # ×
" $

1 13 1 1 13 8
− ÷ = − ×
3 20 8 3 20 1
− = = = −4
% × & %× &

Decimals
The decimal system of numbers is based on the digits 0 to 9. A number such as 53.17 is
called a decimal fraction, a decimal point separating the integer part, i.e. 53, from the
fractional part, i.e. 0.17
A number which can be expressed exactly as a decimal fraction is called a terminating
decimal and those which cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal fraction are called non-
terminating decimals. Thus, = 1.5 is a terminating decimal, but = 1.3333 is a non-

terminating decimal. 1.33333…can be written as 1.P3, called ‘one point three recurring’.
The answer to a non-terminating decimal may be expressed in two ways, depending on the
accuracy
required:
(i) Correct to a number of significant figures, that is, figures which signify something, and
(ii) Correct to a number of decimal places, that is, the number of figures after the decimal
point.
The last digit in the answer is unaltered if the next digit on the right is in the group of
numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, but is increased by 1 if the next digit on the right is in the group of
numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9.
Evaluate
42.7 + 3.04 + 8.7 + 0.06 = 54.50
Indices
The lowest factors of 2000 are2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5. These factors are written
as2 × 5 , where 2 and 5 are called bases and the numbers 4 and 3 are called indices.
When an index is an integer it is called a power. Thus, 24 is called ‘two to the power of four’,
and has a base of 2 and an index of 4.
Special names may be used when the indices are2 and 3, these being called ‘squared’ and
‘cubed’, respectively. Thus 7 is called ‘seven squared’ and 9 is called ‘nine cubed’. When
no index is shown, the power is 1, i.e. 2 means2 .
Reciprocal
The reciprocal of a number is when the index is-1 and its value is given by 1, divided by the
base.
Thus the reciprocal of 2 is 2& and its value is or 0.5.

Square root
The square root of a number is when the index is , and the square root of 2 is written as

2( 21/2 or√2.
'

There are always two answers when finding the square root of a number and this is shown by
putting both a + and a - sign in front of the answer to a square root problem.

Ratios and proportions

The ratio of one quantity to another is a fraction, and is the number of times one quantity is
contained in another quantity of the same kind. If one quantity is directly proportional to
another, then as one quantity doubles, the other quantity also doubles. When a quantity is
inversely proportional to another, then as one quantity doubles, the other quantity is halved.
An alloy is made up of metals A and B in the ratio 2.5: 1 by mass. How much of A has to be
added to 6 kg of B to make the alloy?
Ratio A: B: 2.5: 1 (i.e. A is to B as 2.5 is to 1) or + = = 2.5
* .

= 2.5 from which,

*
%
When B = 6 kg,

, = 6 × 2.5 = 15-.
Conversions into percentages
Percentages are used to give a common standard and are fractions having the number 100 as

$$
their denominators. For example, 25 per cent means i.e. and is written 25%.

A decimal fraction is converted to a percentage by multiplying by 100. Thus,

1.875 corresponds to 1.875 × 100% = 187.5%
Direct and inverse proportions determination
Directly proportional: as one amount increases, another amount increases at the same rate.
The symbol for “directly proportional” is ∝

Inversely proportional: when one value decreases at the same rate the other increases.

Use of scientific calculator

A scientific calculator is a special electronic calculator that aids the calculation involving
problems in mathematics, engineering and science. It can be used in the following ways;

 Basic operations i.e. addition subtraction, multiplication and division.

 Calculation of exponents.
 Solving problems with an order of operations.
 Working out squares and square roots of numbers.
 Solving logarithmic problems.
 Solving of problems in statistics e.g. find the mean, variance, standard deviation etc.
Example: The “log” function in the calculator is the key that allows you to work with the
logarithm.

The steps in using the log functions are;

i. Type the number you are to work with in your scientific calculator.
ii. Press the “log” button on the calculator.
iii. From your screen, obtain the exponent from the original number you entered.
iv. Check your results.
2.4.2 Learning Activities
1. Create an instruction sheet with the following five fractions: , " , ,
Create a pizza (circular cut outs), using construction paper and decorate the toppings to
represent each fraction.
For example, if they had a quarter (fourth), they should cover one-quarter of the pizza with a
specific pattern.

2. Using your calculator check that you agree with the answers to the following
problems:
Evaluate the following, correct to 4 significant figures:
a. 4.7826 + 0.02713 = 4.80973 = 4.810
b. 21.93 × 0.012981 = 0.2846733 = 0.2847
Evaluate the following, correct to 3 decimal places:
a. √0.007328
b. √52.91 − √31.76
2.4.4 Self-Assessment
1. Place the appropriate symbol < 34 > between each of the following pairs of numbers:
a. 3 _ 2
b. 8 _ -13
c. -25 _ 0
2. Find the value of each of the following:
a. 67 + 8 ÷ 7 − 9 × :
b. 67 + 8 ÷ 7 − 9 × :
3. Complete the following:

=
;
:
a.

b. ;<% => :? =
4. Write the following proportions as ratios:

=> @, : => A, 6? => B

6 6 7
9
a.

5. Reduce each of the following to their lowest form:

69
6<
a.
6;;
96
b.

6. Round each of the following decimal numbers, first to 3 significant figures and to 2
decimal places:
a. 21.355
 b. 0.02456
1.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Calculator
 Paper and pencil
 Computer
 Ruler and graph paper
 Marker pen

1.4.5 References
1. Stroud K. A. (2001). Engineering Mathematics. Fifth Edition. North America:
Industrial Press, Inc.
2. John Bird. (2003). Engineering Mathematics. Fourth Edition. London, UK: Newnes
Elsevier Science
1.4.6 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Place the appropriate symbol < 34 > between each of the following pairs of numbers:
a. 3>2
b. 8>-13
c. -25 < 0
2. Find the value of each of the following:
a. 67 + 8 ÷ 7 − 9 × :
13 + 9 ÷ 3 − 2 × 5
13 + 3 − 10 = 13 + 3 − 10 = 6
b. 67 + 8 ÷ 7 − 9 × :
13 + 9 ÷ 3 − 2 × 5 = 22 ÷ 1 × 5 = 22 ÷ 1 × 5 = 110
3. Complete the following:

%=
;
:
a.
4
× 100 = 80%
5
b. ;<% => :? =
48
× 50 = 24
100
4. Write the following proportions as ratios:

=> @, : => A, 6? => B

6 6 7
9
a.

The LCM of the denominators 2, 5 and 10 is 10 then;

 1 1×5 5 1 1×2 2 3
3C , D = , 3C E D = 3C F
2 2 × 5 10 5 5 × 2 10 10
Hence: A: B: C = 5:2:3
5. Reduce each of the following to their lowest form:
69
6<
a.
12 12 ÷ 6 2
= =
18 18 ÷ 6 3
6;;
96
b.
144 144 ÷ 3 48 6
= = =4
21 21 ÷ 3 7 7
6. Round each of the following decimal numbers, first to 3 significant figures and to 2
decimal places:
a. 21.355
21.4 3sf
21.36 2dp
b. 0.02456
0.025 2sf
0.03 2dp
 1.4 Learning Outcome 2: Use formulae and algebraic expressions for work
1.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers algebra and the learner should be able to: perform calculations
involving Indices as per the concept; perform calculations involving Logarithms as per the
concept; use scientific calculator is used mathematical problems in line with manufacturer’s
manual; perform simultaneous equations as per the rules. Algebra is used throughout
engineering, but it is most commonly used in mechanical, electrical, and civil branches due to
the variety of obstacles they face. Engineers need to find dimensions, slopes, and ways to
efficiently create any structure or object.
1.4.2 Performance Standard
1. Algebraic linear equations
2. Simultaneous
3. Quadratic
4. Linear graphs
5. Plotting
6. Interpretation
7. Applications of linear graphs
8. Curves of first and second degree
9. Plotting
10. Interpretation
11. Applications
1.4.3 Information Sheet
1.4.3.1 Definitions of terms
Algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols; it
is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from elementary
equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields.
Logarithms: This is the power to which a number must be raised in order to get some other
number which means that logarithms is the inverse of the exponential.

Linear equations: A linear equation is any equation of the form G + HI=0 where a and b are
real numbers and I is a variable.

Quadratic equation: It is any equation of the form aI9 + HI + J.It is any equation of the second
degree meaning that one of its terms is a squared.
Performance of calculations involving indices
The lowest factors of 2000 are 2×2×2×2×5×5×5. These factors are written as 24 × 53,
where 2 and 5 are called bases and the numbers 4 and 3 are called indices. When an index is
an integer it is called a power. Thus, 24 is called ‘two to the power of four’, and has a base of
2 and an index of 4.
GivenHI , b is known as the base and x is known as the power or index to which b is raised. It
can be interpreted as:

HI = H × H × H … … … … … … I LMNOP

I Can be real number.

The reciprocal of a number is when the index is _1 and its value is given by 1, divided by the
base.

The square root of a number is when the index is9, and the square root of 2 is written as 99
6
6

or√9. The value of a square root is the value of the base which when multiplied by itself
gives the number.
Laws of indices
When simplifying calculations involving indices, certain basic rules or laws can be applied,
called the laws of indices.
For any number I and Q the following basic laws hold;

GI GI = GI#Q

= GI&Q
GI
GQ

GI Q
= GIQ
I
GQ = √GI
Q

G&Q = GQ
6

G? = 1

Note: The above law only applies if bases are similar e.g. 97 . 9; = 9R =69<

GI
= GI&Q
GI
Example:

= 9;&7 = 96 =9. If I and Q equals one, I = 6, Q = 6 then = G6&6 = G? =1

9; G6
97 G6

GI Q
= GIQ = GQ I
]jh

Example:

G7 9
= GS = G9 7

GH I
= GI GI

Example:

GH ;
= G; H;

NB: The expression G&I is equivalent to

6
I

= = G?&I = G&I
6 G?
GI GI

Calculating the indicial equations

Given 7 99I +12 9I − 8S = ?, P=TUO >=V I

Steps

Let 9I = W

Substitute p in the equation

M. O 7W9 + 69W − 8S = ?, simplifying the equation, it becomesW9 + ;W − 79 = ?.

Factorize W9 + ;W − 79 = ?

W9 + <W − ;W − 79 = ?

X X+< − ; X+< = ?

X−; W+< = ?

X = ; ?V W = −<

Since 9I = 99 I = 9 then the other solution has no real roots

Performance of calculations involving logarithms

Laws of logarithms
YZ[ @ + YZ[ A = YZ[@A
Example

Solve T=\6? : + T=\6? ;

T=\6? : + T=\6? ;= T=\6? :I; = T=\6? 20

]=\ @ − ]=\ A = Log

@
A

Example:

Use the second law to simplify:

T=\6? S − T=\6? 7

T=\6? S − T=\6? 7 =T=\6? = T=\6? 9

S
7

Log A^ = ^ YZ[ A
Example:

Use the third law to write the alternative form of

3 T=\6? : = T=\6? :7 =T=\6? 69:

1.4.3.1.1 1.2.2.3.5 Solving logarithmic equations

GivenT=\9 I + ; + T=\9 S = T=\9 :;, Find x,

Steps

From laws of logarithms

Law 1, T=\9 I + ; + T=\9 S = T=\9 :;

T=\9 I + ; × S = T=\9 :;

Distribute I + ; S = SI + 9;
T=\9 SI + 9; = T=\9 :;

Drop the logs

SI + 9; = :;

Solve the linear equation

SI = 7?

I=:
Use of scientific calculator in solving mathematical problems
A scientific calculator is a special electronic calculator that aids the calculation involving
problems in mathematics, engineering and science. It can be used in the following ways;

 Basic operations i.e. addition subtraction, multiplication and division.

 Calculation of exponents.
 Solving problems with an order of operations.
 Working out squares and square roots of numbers.
 Solving logarithmic problems.
 Solving of problems in statistics e.g. find the mean, variance, standard deviation etc.
Example: The “log” function in the calculator is the key that allows you to work with the
logarithm.

The steps in using the log functions are;

v. Type the number you are to work with in your scientific calculator.
vi. Press the “log” button on the calculator.
vii. From your screen, obtain the exponent from the original number you entered.
viii. Check your results.
Obtainment of solution to system of linear equations involving three unknowns
This is how one should solve a system with three unknowns.

Steps

i. Take a pair of the equation from the system.

ii. Using addition/subtraction, eliminate the same variables from each pair.
iii. Using additional/subtraction, solve the system of two new equations.
iv. Substitute the solution back into one of the equations and solve for the third variable.
v. Confirm your solution by the use of one of the equations.
Example:

Solve the following system of equations.

<I − SQ + 9_ = −9?

;I + 9Q + S_ = ?

−9I + ;Q − 6?` = 7;
Pick two pairs

<I − SQ + 9_ = −9?

;I + 9Q + S_ = ?

G^a

;I + 9Q + S_ = ?

−9I + ;Q − 6?` = 7;

Eliminate the same variables from each system

<I − SQ + 9_ = −9?

;I + 9Q + S_ = ?

Simplify

;I − 7Q + _ = −6?

9I + Q + 7_ = ?

;I − 7Q + _ = −6?

−;I − 9Q − S_ = ?

−:Q − :_ = −6?

;I + 9Q + S_ = ?

−9I + ;Q − 6?_ = 7;

Simplify

9I + Q + 7_ = ?

−I + 9Q − :_ = 6R

9I + Q + 7_ = ?

−9I + ;Q − 6?_ = 7;

:Q − R_ = 7;

Solve the system of the equations.

−:Q − :_ = −6?

:Q − R_ = 7;

−69_ = 9;

Thus z = −9 , solving for Q, Q = ;

Substitute in the original to obtain x

−9I + ;Q − 6?_ = 6R

−9 + ; ; − 6? −9 = 6R

−9I = −9 I=6

Performance of calculations involving Quadratic Equations

It is an equation of the dorm GI9 + HI + J = ?
Solving the quadratic equation
Quadratic equations can be solved by factorization.
Quadratic equation can be solved by the use of the quadratic formula.
&H ±cH9 &;GJ
I= 9G

Also, quadratic equations can be solved through the completing squares method.
By the use of the graphical method.
Example:
Solve using the quadratic formula;
I9 + 9I + 6 = ?
Solution:

d=6

e=9

f=6

&H ±cH9 &;GJ

I=
9G

&9 ±c99 &;×6×6

I= 9×6
The discriminant is;

H9 − ;GJ = 99 − ; × 6 × 6 = ?

I=
&9 ±√?
9×6

= =6
&9
9×6

Calculations involving sequence and series are performed as per the concept
A sequence are numbers or functions arranged in a special order while series is the sum of
sequence of terms.

Types of sequence in mathematics

 Arithmetic sequence: is a set of the numbers that follows a pattern formed by adding a
common difference to the proceeding number.
 Geometric sequence: is a set of numbers that are multiplied (or divided) by a constant
called the common ratio.
Types of series

Arithmetic series is the sum of the terms of arithmetic sequence while geometric series is the
sum of the terms of the geometric sequence. The ^Lg term of the arithmetic sequence is given
by G + ^ − 6 a while the sum of terms in the series is given by9 h9G + ^ − 6 a i. The
^

^Lg term of a G.P is given byGV^&6 . The sum of the infinite terms of the series P^ =6&V
G^

Where 0< r<1

G Is the first term.

^ Is the number of terms?

a Is the common difference

V Is the common ratio

Example

Determine the type of the sequence

6, ;, R, 6?, 67 … It is an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 3.

9, ;, <, 6S, 79 … Is a geometric sequence with a common ratio of 9
In the arithmetic sequence 6, ;, R, 6?, 67, … find the sum of the first 10 terms.
G = 6, a=7 ^ = 6?

Use the formula h9G + ^ − 6 a i

^
9

h9 6 + 6? − 6 7 i
6?
9

= : 9 + 9R = 6;:

In the geometric sequence9, ;, <, 6S, 79. Find the sum of the first 10 terms.

1.4.4 Learning Activities

1. In groups of two solve this hexagon puzzle as an algebra challenge. It involves rolling a
dice to work out the value of an algebraic expression. Students to take turns rolling the dice
and the number rolled becomes the value of ’n’. The player then gets one chance to choose a
hexagon and solve the equation using the assigned value of ’n’. At the end of the game, the
student with the most number of solved hexagons wins.

Figure 1: Hexagon Puzzle 1

Figure 2: Hexagonal Puzzle 2

2. Perform a survey in your locality (in around 50 homesteads) and find out the total
number of rabbits’ population. It is believed that the population will increase by 2% every
year. Predict the rabbit population after 3 years.
1.4.5 Self-Assessment

1. Find the value of;W9 jV7 , given that W = 9, j = G^a V = 6 9

6 6
9

2. Find the sum of: :G − 9H, 9G + J, ;H − :a G^a H − G + 7a − ;J

3. Subtract 9I + 7Q − ;_ >V=N I − 9Q + :_
4. Multiply 7I − 9Q9 + ;IQ by 9I − :Q
5. Simplify: 9W ÷ <Wj
I9 Q
6. Simplify: IQ9 &IQ

7. Simplify:

kG7 √H√J: lk√G√HJ7 l And evaluate when G = ; , H = S G^a J = 6

7 6

8. Factorize: 9GI − 7GQ + 9HI − 7HQ

1.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Calculator
 Paper and pencil
 Computer
 Ruler and graph paper
 Dice
 1.4.7 References
Anto H & Lolles, C (2013). Elementary Linear Algebra: Applications version
Greub Werner H. (2012). Linear Algebra Vol 23 springer Science
John Bird, (2003). Engineering Mathematics, Fourth Edition
Wilkinson, J.H Beur F.l& Reisch, (2013) Linear Algebra (Vol 12) Springer.
1.4.8 Answers to the Self-Assessment

1. Find the value of;W9 jV7 , given that W = 9, j = G^a V = 6

6 6
9 9

Solution:
Replacing p, q and r with their numerical values gives:
7 7
;W9 jV7 = ; 9 × 99 × × m ! n = 9R
6
9 9

2. Find the sum of: :G − 9H, 9G + J, ;H − :a G^a H − G + 7a − ;J

Solution:
The algebraic expressions may be tabulated as shown below, forming columns for a’s, b’s,
c’s and d’s. Thus:
:G + −9H + 9G + J + ;H + −:a + H + −G + 7a + −;J
= SG + 7H − 7J − 9a
3. Subtract 9I + 7Q − ;_ >V=N I − 9Q + :_
I − 9Q + :_ − 9I + 7Q − ;_
= −I − :Q + 8Q
4. Multiply 7I − 9Q9 + ;IQ by 9I − :Q
9I 7I − 9Q9 + ;IQ = SI9 − ;IQ9 + <IQ9
−:Q 7I − 9Q9 + ;IQ = −6:IQ + 6?Q7 − 9?IQ9
SI9 − ;IQ9 + <IQ + −6:IQ + 6?Q7 − 9?IQ9
SI9 − 9;IQ9 + <IQ9 − 6:IQ + 6?Q7
5. Simplify: 9W ÷ <Wj

= ;j
9W 6
<Wj

I9 Q
6. Simplify: IQ9 &IQ

The highest common factor (HCF) of each of the three terms comprising the numerator and
denominator is xy. Dividing each term by xy gives:
I9 Q

= =
I9 Q IQ I
I IQ
IQ9 &IQ & Q&6
IQ IQ
7. Simplify:

kG7 √H√J: lk√G√HJ7 l And evaluate when G = , H = S G^a J = 6

7 6
;

Using the fourth law of indices, the expression can be written as:

mG7 H9 J9 n G9 H7 J7 !
6 : 6 9

Using the first law of indices gives:

G7#9 H9#7 J9#7 = G9 HS J 9

6 6 9 : R R 66

It is usual to express the answer in the same form as the question. Hence:

6 R
G9 HS J 9 = √GR √HR √J66 = o ;! k √SR lk√666 l=1
R R 66
S S

8. Factorize: 9GI − 7GQ + 9HI − 7HQ

a is a common factor of the first two terms and b a common factor of the last two terms
Thus: 9GI − 7GQ + 9HI − 7HQ = G 9I − 7Q + H 9I − 7Q
9p − 7Q G + H
 1.5 Learning Outcome 3: Use trigonometry to solve practical work problems
1.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers applications of trigonometric rules, identities the calculation of
area, perimeter of shapes and solids .it also covers one to one relationships and calculation
involving hyperbolic functions and identities.

1.5.2 Performance Standard

1. Meaning of trigonometry
2. Pythagoras theorem
3. Trigonometry ratios of angles
4. Trigonometric identities
5. Conversion of angles

1.5.3 Information Sheet

1.5.3.1 Definition of Terms
Trigonometry rule: This is a rule aimed at expressing the relationship between the angles of a
triangle and the side lengths.

Hyperbolic function: This is a function of an angle that is defined for the hyperbola, not on the
circle.

One to one function: A function said to be one to one if different elements in G map different
element in H.

Performance of calculations are performed using trigonometric rules

Consider a unit circle of radius 1

Figure 3: Circle

PM^q =
H
J

J=Pq =
G
J
LG^ =
H
G

G9 + H9 = J9

+ =6
G9 H9
J9 J9

Some of the trigonometric rules are;

(Cos θ2) + (sinθ2 = 6

J=P9 q + PM^9 q = 6 … . 6

aMUMaM^\ 6 HQ PM^9 q

J=L9 q + 6 = J=POJ9 q

J=L9 q = J=POJ9 q − 6

Note:

J=Lq =
fZr q
rst q

J=POJq = PM^q
6

POJq = fZr q
6

LG^q =
rst q
fZr q

Dividing M by

PM^9 q

6 + LG^9 q = POJ9 q − 6

LG^9 q = POJ9 q − 6

The double angle formula can then be given as rst 9@ = @ J=P@ + fZr @uM^@

rst 9@ = fZr @ fZr @ − rst @ rst @

Note: If values are different, it becomes a factor theorem with 2A=A+B.

From the above relationship, we derive the half angle formula; that is
 fZr 9@ = B=P9 @ − uM^9 @

fZr 9@ = 9 J=P9 =A-1

fZr @ = 9 J=P9 −6
@
9

fZr @ = 6 − 9PM^9 k@v9l

Therefore, 9PM^9 @v9 = 6 − J=P A

fZrk@v9l = ±o and rstk@v9l = ±o

6#fZr @ 6&BwuG
9 9

Example

Without using calculator, find J=P 6:°

Solution

J=P6:° = J=P;:° − J=P7?°

= J=P;: J=P7? + PM^;: PM^7?

= o 9 . o9 + o9 . o9
9 7 9 6

=o √7 + 6
9
;

Figure 4: Triangle PQV

From triangle PQV

PM^A = B=P@ = yz = B=P@uM^A

yz

Therefore from M G^a MM

rst @ + A = PM^@J=PA + J=P@PM^A

Replacing B by (-B) in equation (i), we get:

rst @ − A = PM^@J=P −A + fZr @PM^ −A

rst @ − A = rst @J=PA − J=P@PM^A

Similarly;

fZr @ + A = J=P@J=PA − PM^@PM^A

fZr @ − A = J=P@J=PA + PM^@PM^A

Performance of calculations are performed using hyperbolic functions

These functions are expressed as exponential functions and are generally expressed as
hyperbolic sine or hyperbolic cosine, where other relationships can be derived.

The hyperbolic identities

Hyperbolic identities are obtained from the hyperbolic trigonometric functions. i.e

{dt| I = J=PgI = OI#O}I

PM^gI OI &O}I

uOJg I =
9
OI #O}I

fZ~| I = OI #O}I
OI #O}I

J=POJg I =
9
OI &O}I

The derived hyperbole identities then become:

J=Pg9 I − PM^g9 I = 6

6 − LG^g9 I = POJg9 I

J=Lg9 I − 6 = J=POJg9 I

rst| I ± Q = rst| I J=Pg Q ± J=PgI rst| Q

fZr| I ± Q = fZr| I fZr| Q ± rst| I rst| Q

rst| −I = − rst| I

fZr| I = fZr| −I
Examples

Solve the following equation in terms of a natural logarithm.

;J=Pg 9 I + 9? PM^g 9I = 6?

Solution

fZr| 9I =
O9I # O}9I
9

rst| 9I =
O9I & O}9I
9

Therefore 9O9I + 9O&9I + 6?O9I − 6?O&9I = 6?

699I − <O&9I = 6?

SO;I − :O9I − ; = ?

7O9I − ; 9O9I + 6 = ?

O9I = 7 =V O9I = − 9
; 6

I = 9 •^ PM^JO LgO VOGT P=T€LM=^ =JJ€VP •gO^ O9I > ?

6 ;
7

J=PgI =
OI #O}I
9

PM^gI =
OI &O}I
9

Most of the properties are similar tom properties of trigonometric functions. For example; cosh
function is even while PM^g function is odd. The only difference in properties is,

J=PgI 9
− PM^gI 9

Examples

Calculate PM^g : using exponential functions.

Solution

PM^g: =
O: &O}:
9

= R;. 9. 7 L= 7 a. W
Calculate cosh 7 using the factor theorem.

‚Zr| R = fZr| 7 + ; = J=Pg7J=Pg; − PM^g7PM^g;

= 6?. . S< 9R. 7?< − 6?. ?6< 9R. 98?

= 6. :;7

Given the value of x, one is able to calculate inverse of the hyperbolic functions
1.5.4 Learning Activities
1. Prove the following hyperbolic identities, use the definition of D ℎp „3 ℎp in terms
of exponential functions
a) cos ℎ p − sin ℎ p = 1
b) 1 − Š ℎ p = ‹„ℎ p
c) „3Šℎ p − 1 = „3 ‹„ℎ p

2. On graph papers:

a) Plot the graphs of D ℎp „3 ℎp

b) Superimpose the graphs above, do the curves intersect?
c) Predict the graphs of Œ = „3Šℎp, Œ = „3 ‹„ℎp Œ = ‹„ℎp

1.5.5 Self-Assessment
1) Solve the following equation in terms of a natural logarithm.

;J=Pg9 I + 9? PM^g9 I = 6?

2) Indicate the sign needed to make the following identity true.

a) •D ℎ p cosh2 x = 1
3) A tree casts a horizontal shadow 8√3 Ž, if a line is drawn from the end of the shadow
to the top of the tree an angle of60°. What is the height of the tree?
 = ~dt
PM^@#uM^A @#A
B=P @#fZr A 9
4) Prove that:

5) With an aid of an example, analyze when a function is said to be injective?

6) Justify the relationship between the hyperbolic and the trigonometric functions.
7) Given;
G, H, J > ? , show that when G > H ,then GJ=Pg I + H PM^gI can be written in the form R
J=Pg I + • .Therefore determine a further condition for which the following equation has
real solutions. GB=Pg I + HPM^g I = J
1.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Calculator
 SMP tables
 Measuring tables
 Graph Papers
 Pens and Pencils
1.5.7 References
Mikusinski J. (2014).Operational Calculus .Elsevier.

Milne, W.E (2015) Numerical Calculus .Princeton University Press.

Zill D. &Dewar, J (2011).Algebra And Trigonometry, ones &Bartlett Publishers.

1.5.8 Answers to Self-Assessment

1. Solve the following equation in terms of a natural logarithm.

;J=Pg 9 I + 9? PM^g 9I = 6?

Solution

fZr| 9I =
O9I # O}9I
9

rst| 9I =
O9I & O}9I
9

Therefore 9O9I + 9O&9I + 6?O9I − 6?O&9I = 6?

699I − <O&9I = 6?

SO;I − :O9I − ; = ?

7O9I − ; 9O9I + 6 = ?
O9I = =V O9I = −
; 6
7 9

I = •^ PM^JO LgO VOGT P=T€LM=^ =JJ€VP •gO^ O9I > ?

6 ;
9 7

J=PgI =
OI #O}I
9

PM^gI =
OI &O}I
9

2. Indicate the sign needed to make the following identity true.

•D ℎ p + F3 ℎ p = 1
3. A tree casts a horizontal shadow 8√3 Ž, if a line is drawn from the end of the shadow
to the top of the tree an angle of60°. What is the height of the tree?

ℎ‹D.ℎŠ 3C Š4‹‹
• 60° =
‘‹ .Šℎ 3C ℎ 3’

• 60° = "√
“

ℎ = 8√3 • 60° = 24Ž

 1.6 Learning Outcome 4: Perform estimations, measurements and calculations of
quantities
1.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This topic covers the units of measurement and their symbols, conversion of units of
measurement, mensuration, measuring tools and equipment and performing measurements and
estimations of quantities.

1.6.2 Performance Standard

1) Units of measurements and their symbols
2) Conversion of units of measurement
3) Calculation of length, width, height, perimeter, area and angles of figures
4) Measuring tools and equipment
5) Performing measurements and estimations of quantities

1.6.3 Information Sheet

1.6.3.1 Definition of terms
Units of measurements and their symbols
There are seven base units in the SI system:
 the kilogram (kg), for mass
 the second (s), for time
 the kelvin (K), for temperature
 the ampere (A), for electric current
 the mole (mol), for the amount of a substance
 the candela (cd), for luminous intensity
 the meter (m), for distance

Table 4: SI Units

QUANTIES UNIT SYMBOL

Length  Millimeter mm
 Meter m
 Kilometer km
Mass  Gram g
 Kilogram kg
 Tonne
 Time 1 Second s

Temperature Degree Celsius ℃

Area Square kilometer -Ž
Volume Cubic Meter Ž
Speed 2 Meter per m/s
second
km/hr
3 Kilometer
per hour
-.v
Ž
Density Kilogram per cubic
meter
Force Newton N

Conversion of units of measurement

Table 5: SI Prefix Symbols

Prefix Symbol Ordinary Notation Factor

Giga G 1000000000 10•
Mega M 1000000 10%
Kilo K 1000 10
Milli M 0.001 10&
Micro – 0.000001 10&%
Nano N 0.000000001 10&

Table 6: Conversions of SI Units

QUANTIT UNITY VALUE IN SI UNITS

Y
Length 1.6.3.1.1 Millimeter 1.6.3.1.4 1000m
1.6.3.1.2 Centimete m = 1m
r 1.6.3.1.5 100cm =
1.6.3.1.3 Kilometer 1m
1.6.3.1.6 1km =
1000m
Time 1.6.3.1.7 Minute 1minute = 60s
 1.6.3.1.8 Hour 1hour = 60minute=3600s
1.6.3.1.9 Day 1day = 24hrs

Calculation of length, width, height, perimeter, area and angles of figures

Perimeter
The perimeter is the length of the outline of a shape. To find the perimeter of a rectangle or
square you have to add the lengths of all the four sides. X is in this case the length of the
rectangle while y is the width of the rectangle.

The perimeter, P, is:

—= ˜+˜+™+™

— = 9˜ + 9™

P=2(x+y)

Find the perimeter of this rectangle

7

—=R+R+;+;
—=9⋅R+9⋅;
— =9⋅ R+;
— = 9 ⋅ 66
— = 99›
Area
Area is the measurement of the surface of a shape. To find the area of a rectangle or a square
you need to multiply the length and the width of a rectangle or a square.
Area, A, is x times y.

@=I⋅Q

Examples:

Find the area of this square.

œ=˜⋅™

œ= :⋅S

œ = 7?›9

There are different units for perimeter and area. Perimeter has the same units as the length of
the sides of rectangle or square whereas the area's unit is squared.

Obtain volume and surface area of solids

The surface area of a figure is defined as the sum of the areas of the exposed sides of an object.

The volume of an object is the amount of three-dimensional space an object takes up. It can
be thought of as the number of cubes that are one unit by one unit by one unit that it takes to
fill up an object.

Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid (Box)

•œ = 9 Yž + Y| + ž|

Y = YŸt[~| Z ~|Ÿ edrŸ Z ~|Ÿ rZYs¡

ž = žs¡~| Z ~|Ÿ edrŸ Z ~|Ÿ rZYs¡

| = |Ÿs[|~ Z ~|Ÿ rZYs¡

Volume
Volume of a Solid with a Matching Base and Top
V=Ah
A = area of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid
Volume of a Rectangular Solid (specific type of solid with matching base and top)
V= ‘ × ’ × ℎ
l = length of the base of the solid
w = width of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid
Example:

2.7

4.2 3.8

Based on the way our box is sitting, we can say that the length of the base is 4.2 m; the width
of the base is 3.8 m; and the height of the solid is 2.7 m. Thus, we can quickly find the volume
of the box to be:
¢ = Yž| = ;. 9 ×
7. < × 9. R = ;7. ?89N7
A cylinder

A cylinder is an object with straight sides and circular ends of the same size. The volume of a
cylinder can be found in the same way you find the volume of a solid with a matching base and
top. The surface area of a cylinder can be easily found when you realize that you have to find
the area of the circular base and top and add that to the area of the sides. If you slice the side
of the cylinder in a straight line from top to bottom and open it up, you will see that it makes a
rectangle. The base of the rectangle is the circumference of the circular base, and the height of
the rectangle is the height of the cylinder.

Volume of a cylinder

V=Ah

A = the area of the base of the cylinder

h = the height of the cylinder

Surface Area of a Cylinder

SA=2(πr2)+2πrh

r = the radius of the circular base of the cylinder

h = the height of the cylinder

π = the number that is approximated by 3.141593

Find the area of the cylinder

12 cm

10
cm

•œ = 9 £¤9 + 9£¤|

•œ = 9 £. S9 + 9£ S 6? = S?7. 6<:R8

Measuring tools and equipment

Vernier Caliper
Vernier Caliper is a widely used linear measurement instrument with a least count of 0.02
mm. It is used to measure linear dimensions like length, diameter and depth.

Micrometer
External Micrometer is also known as Outside Micrometer or External Micrometer.
It is used to check outside diameter of circle by the means of accuracy of 0.01 mm or up to
0.001 mm.
Steel Scale
Steel scale is single piece linear measuring instrument. Steel scale indicates two units that are
cm and inches, cm division on one side and inches, on another side.
Measuring tape.
Ruler and Rule
Performing measurements and estimations of quantities
 1.6.4 Learning Activities
1. In this particular activity, apples will be used to practice math skills of estimation and
measurement of the circumference of an apple.
Materials you’ll need:

 An apple
 A ruler
 Scissors
 Thread
a) You begin by placing the apple in front of your students. Let them hold the apple to
ascertain its circumference. Encourage your students to cut the yarn to a length that they
feel would properly wrap around the apple. This will require estimation on their part.
b) Use multiple apples of varying sizes, and have students estimate the amount of string that
they’ll need for each measurement.
c) Use the ruler to measure the string.
d) After determining whether they’re too long or too short, have your students cut a second
string to try to get closer to the circumference of the apple.

1.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. A rectangular tray is 820 mm long and 400 mm wide. Find its area in: (a) ŽŽ (b) Ž (c)
„Ž
2. Calculate the areas of the following sectors of circles having:
(a) Radius 6 cm with angle subtended at center 50°

¦4
¥(
%$
Area of sector of a circle=

(b) Diameter 80 mm with angle subtended at center 107°42′

(c) Radius 8 cm with angle subtended at center 1.15 radians

3. A water tank is the shape of a rectangular prism having length 2 m, breadth 75 cm and
height 50 cm. Determine the capacity of the tank in (a) Ž (b) „Ž (c) litres
4. Find the volume and total surface area of a cylinder of length 15 cm and diameter 8 cm
1.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Scientific Calculators
 Rulers, pencils, erasers
  Charts with presentations of data
 Graph books
 Dice
 Computers with internet connection
 Tape measure
 Thread
 Mathematical set
1.6.7 References
Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (1994), System Reliability Theory: Models and Statistical
Methods, (New York).

Kaplan, W. (1984), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).

Kreyszig, E. (1999), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., (New York).

O'Neil, P.V. (1995), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 4th ed., PWS-Kent Pub. (Boston).

1.6.8 Answers to Self-Assessment

1. A rectangular tray is 820 mm long and 400 mm wide. Find its area in: (a) ŽŽ (b) Ž (c)
„Ž
,4‹ = ‘‹ .Šℎ × ’D Šℎ = 820 × 400 = 328000ŽŽ Area D length ð width D 820 ð 400
D
1„Ž = 100ŽŽ
Hence: 328000ŽŽ = „Ž = 3280„Ž
"$$$
$$

1Ž = 10000„Ž
Hence: 3280„Ž = = 0.3280Ž
"$
$$$$

2. Calculate the areas of the following sectors of circles having:

(a) Radius 6 cm with angle subtended at center 50°

¦4
¥(
%$
Area of sector of a circle=
50 50 × ¦ × 36
= ¦6 = = 5¦ = 15.71„Ž
360 360
(b) Diameter 80 mm with angle subtended at center 107°42′
If the diameter= 80ŽŽ, then the radius, r = 40mm
42
107 60
= ¦40 = 1504ŽŽ
360
(c) Radius 8 cm with angle subtended at center 1.15 radians
3. A water tank is the shape of a rectangular prism having length 2 m, breadth 75 cm and
height 50 cm. Determine the capacity of the tank in (a) Ž (b) „Ž (c) litres
Volume of rectangular prism= ‘ × ¨ × ℎ
Volume of tank = 2 × 0.75 × 0.5 = 0.75Ž
6N7 = 6?S JN7

?. R:N7 = = R:????JN7
?.R:
6?S

6 TMLVO = 6???JN7
Hence:
750000„Ž = = 750‘DŠ4‹
$$$$
$$$

4. Find the volume and total surface area of a cylinder of length 15 cm and diameter 8 cm
Volume of cylinder= ¦4 ℎ
Since diameter= 8„Ž, then radius = 4„Ž
Hence:
©3‘ªŽ‹ = ¦ × 4 × 15 = 754„Ž
Total surface area = 2¦4ℎ + 2¦4 = 477.5„Ž
 1.7 Learning Outcome 5: Apply Matrices in work
1.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers Matrix definition, types, matrix operations, compatibility and
determination of inverse of a matrix, solving simultaneous equations with two and three and
application of the matrices.

1.7.2 Performance Standard

1. Meaning of matrix
2. Types of matrices
3. Matrix operations
4. Compatibility
5. Addition
6. Subtraction
7. Multiplication
8. Determination of inverse of a matrix
9. Solution of simultaneous equations with two and three unknowns
10. Applications of matrices

1.7.3 Information Sheet

Matrix: This is a set of real or complex numbers arranged in rows and columns to form a
rectangular array and it is always denoted by capital letters.
Order: A matrix of order of N × ^
Determinant: It is a physical quantity/value assigned to any square matrix.

G H
E.g. given « ¬ = Ga − Ja
J a

Inverse: The inverse of a matrix y&6 is the matrix than when multiplied by the original matrix
y gives the identity matrix. i.e. y y&6 =-.

Matrices
The numbers within a matrix are called an array and the coefficients forming the array are
called the elements of the matrix. The number of rows in a matrix is usually specified by m
and the number of columns by n and a matrix referred to as an ‘m by n’ matrix. Thus,
9 7 S
! is a ‘2 by 3’ matrix?
; : R
Type of matrix
The numbers within a matrix are called an array and the coefficients forming the array are
called the elements of the matrix. The number of rows in a matrix is usually specified by m
and the number of columns by n and a matrix referred to as an ‘m by n’ matrix.

Matrix Operations

To be added or subtracted matrices must be of the same order.

In describing the matrix, the number of rows the number of rows is stated first and the number
of columns second. i.e.

6 3
®2 4¯ is a matrix of order of 3× 2
5 1

Compatibility
A row matrix consists of 1 row only

A column matrix consists of 1 column only.

Addition
Corresponding elements in two matrices may be added to form a single matrix.
Problem 1. Add the matrices
9 −6 −7 ?
!+ !
−R ; R −;
9 + −7 −6 + ?
!
−R + R ; + −;
−6 −6
!
? ?
=

Subtraction
If A is a matrix and B is another matrix, then (A_B) is a single matrix formed by subtracting
the elements of B from the corresponding elements of A.
Problem 2. Subtract
−7 ? 9 −6
!− !
R −; −R ;
To find matrix A minus matrix B, the elements of B are taken from the corresponding
elements of A.
Thus:
 −7 ? 9 −6
!− !
R −; −R ;
−7 − 9 ? − −6
!
R − −R −; − ;

−: 6
!
6; −<
Multiplication
When a matrix is multiplied by a number, called scalar multiplication, a single matrix results
in which each element of the original matrix has been multiplied by the number.
Problem 4.
−7 ? −9 −6 −6 ?
!, B = ! and C = !
−R −; −R ; −9 −;
If A =

Find
2A – 3B + 4C
For scalar multiplication, each element is multiplied by the scalar quantity, hence
−7 ? −S ?
!= !
−R −; −6; −<
2A = 2

−9 −6 −S −7
!= !
−R ; −96 69
3B = 3

−6 ? −; ?
!= !
−9 −; −< −6S
4C = 4

Hence 2A - 3B + 4C
−S ? −S −7 −; ?
!− !+ !
−6; −< −96 69 −< −6S
When a matrix A is multiplied by another matrix B, a single matrix results in which elements
are obtained from the sum of the products of the corresponding rows of A and the
corresponding columns of B. Two matrices A and B may be multiplied together, provided the
number of elements in the rows of matrix A are equal to the number of elements in the
columns of matrix B. In general terms, when multiplying a matrix of dimensions (m by n) by
a matrix of dimensions (n by r), the resulting matrix has dimensions (m by r). Thus a 2 by 3
matrix multiplied by a 3 by 1 matrix gives a matrix of dimensions 2 by 1.
−9 7 −: R
!B= !
6 −; −7 ;
Problem 5. If A =

Find A × B.
B B69
Let A × B = C where C = m 66 n
B96 B99
C11 is the sum of the products of the first row elements of A and the first column elements of
B taken one at a time, i.e. B66 = k−9 × −: l + k7 × −7 l = −68
B69 is the sum of the products of the first row elements of A and the second column elements
of B, taken one at a time, i.e. B69 = 9 × R + 7 × ; = 9S
C21 is the sum of the products of the second row elements of A and the first column elements
of B, taken one at a time, i.e. B96 = 6 × −: + −; × −7 = R
Finally, C22 is the sum of the products of the second row elements of A and the second
column elements of B, taken one at a time, i.e. B99 = 6 × R + −; × ; = −8
−68 9S
!
R −8
Thus, A × B =

Determination of inverse of a matrix

The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix
G H
! is defined as (ad _ bc).
J a
The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix,

The elements of the determinant of a matrix are written between vertical lines. Thus, the
7 −; 7 −;
! is written as° ° and is equal to 7 × S − −; × 6 = 99.
6 S 6 S
determinant of

Hence the determinant of a matrix can be expressed as a single numerical value, i.e.
7 −;
° ° = 99
6 S
The inverse or reciprocal of a 2 by 2 matrix
The inverse of matrix A is @&6 such that@ × @&6 = 6, the unit matrix.
6 9 G H
! and let the inverse matrix, @&6 be !
7 ; J a
Let matrix A be

Then, since @ × @&6 = 6

6 9 G H 6 ?
! × != !
7 ; J a ? 6
Multiplying the matrices on the left hand side, gives
G + 9J H + 9a 6 ?
!= !
7G + ;J 7H + ;a ? 6
Equating corresponding elements gives:
H + 9a = ?
H = −9a And 7G + ;J = ?
;
G= − „
7
Substituting for a and b gives:
 − 7 J + 9J
−9a + 9a
;
6 ?
± ²= !
7 − J! + ;J 7 −9a + ;a
; ? 6
7

− J ? 6 ?
9
³ 7 ´= !
? −9a ? 6

Showing that J = 6, J = G^a − 9a = 6 M. O. a = −

9 7 6
7 9 9

Since H = −9a , H = 6 G^a PM^JO G = − J , G = −9

;
7

6 9 G H −9 6
! is ! that is ³ 7 − ´
6
7 ; J a
Thus the inverse of matrix
9 9

Solution of simultaneous equations with two and three unknowns

The procedure for solving linear simultaneous equations in two unknowns using matrices is:
(i) Write the equations in the form G6 I + H6 Q = J6 , G9 I + H9 Q = J9
G6 H6 I
(ii) Write the matrix equation corresponding to these equations, i.e. m n × Q! =
G9 H9
J6
J9 !
¨ ¨ −¨
(iii) Determine the inverse matrix of m n i.e. m n
¨ µ' ¶( & ¶' µ( −
(iv) Multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse matrix
(v) Solve for x and y by equating corresponding elements.

The procedure for solving linear simultaneous equations in three unknowns using matrices is:
(i) Write the equations in the form
p+ ¨ Œ+ „ ·=
p+ ¨ Œ+ „ · =
p+ ¨ Œ+ „ · =
(ii) Write the matrix equation corresponding to these equations, i.e.
¨ „ p
® ¨ „ ¯ × ³Œ ´ = ® ¯
¨ „ ·
(iii) Determine the inverse matrix of
¨ „
® ¨ „ ¯
¨ „
(iv) Multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse matrix
(v) Solve for x, y and z by equating the corresponding elements.

Applications of Matrices
 Cryptography

This is the process of hiding information for security purposes.

 Fourier analysis
 Gauss theorem
 Finding forces in the bridge
 Finding electric currents using matrix equation

1.7.4 Learning Activities

1. Adding and Subtracting Matrices
Use this kinesthetic activity to help students add and subtract matrices by creating human
matrices.
Materials
 Masking/painter's tape
 Copy paper
 Markers
Teacher Directions
 Show students examples of matrices and demonstrate how to add and subtract them. If
possible, use matrices that reflect real-life data, such as population numbers for a
specific continent.
 Give each student a piece of paper and marker.
 Have students write a number of their choice on the paper.
 Divide the classroom in half using a piece of masking/painter's tape.
 Create a matrix on both sides of the tape using students as the numbers. Have students
stand in rows and columns holding their number signs on either side of the tape.
 Have students not involved in creating the matrices add or subtract them.
 Review the correct answers with the class.
 Have students rotate between serving as the numbers in the matrices and figuring out
the sums or differences.
Discussion Questions
  What steps do you follow to add and subtract matrices?
 In what real-world situations might you need to add and subtract matrices?

1.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. Add the matrices

4 −2 −3 5
!+ !
−1 3 7 6

2. Subtract

3 1 −4 2 7 −5
®4 3 1 ¯ − ®−2 1 0 ¯
1 4 −3 6 3 4

3. Determine the value of:

3 −2
° °
7 4

2 3 2 3
4. If , = ! and E = !, show that , × E ≠ E × ,
1 0 0 1

1.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Scientific calculator
 15 cm ruler
 Pen, pencil
 Ruled and graph paper
 Mark Pens
 Cards
1.7.7 References
Aitken, A.C (2017) Determinant and matrices Read Book Ltd.

Panju, M(2011) Iterative methods for computing eigen values and eigen vectors ar.xiv
11051185

Searle. S.R., & Khun, A.I. (2017) matrix algebra useful for statistics. John wiley & sons.

1.7.8 Answers to Self-Assessment

1. Add the matrices

4 −2 −3 5 4 + −3 −2 + 5 1 −3
!+ != = !
−1 3 7 6 −1 + 7 3+6 6 9
2. Subtract

3 1 −4 2 7 −5 3−2 1 − 7 −4 − −5 1 −6 1
®4 3 1 ¯ − ®−2 1 0 ¯ = ®4 − −2 3−1 1−0 ¯=® 6 2 1¯
1 4 −3 6 3 4 1−6 4−3 −3 − 4 −5 1 −7

3. Determine the value of:

3 −2
° ° = 3 × 4 − −2 × 7 = 26
7 4

2 3 2 3
4. If , = ! and E = !, show that , × E ≠ E × ,
1 0 0 1

2 3 2 3 h 2×2 + 3×0 i h 2×3 + 3×1 i

,×E = !× !=m n
1 0 0 1 h 1×2 + 0×0 i h 1×3 + 0×1 i

4 9
= !
2 3

2 3 2 3 h 2×2 + 3×1 i h 2×3 + 3×0 i

E×,= !× !=m n
0 1 1 0 h 0×2 + 1×1 i h 0×3 + 1×0 i

7 6
= !
1 0

Therefore , × E ≠ E × ,
 1.8 Learning Outcome 6: Apply Vectors in work
1.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers; derivation of vectors in two and three dimensions and
performing various operations on vectors which includes obtaining vector position and
performing resolution of vectors.

1.8.2 Performance Standard

1. Meaning of vector
2. Representations of vectors
3. Operations of vectors
4. Addition
5. Subtraction
6. Scalar and vector products
7. Determination of angles

1.8.3 Information Sheet

1.8.3.1 Definition of terms
Scalar: These are quantities with magnitude but no direction.

Vector: These are quantities with both magnitude and direction.

Position vector: This is a vector that originates form the origin to a given point e.g. velocity
and acceleration.

Meaning of vector
A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction such as force, velocity etc. A
vector is also defined as a tensor of order one. A scalar has only magnitude and is completely
characterized by one number.
It is a tensor of order zero and temperature is an example of a scalar. A second order tensor,
in a three-dimensional space, is represented by nine numbers (components).

Representations of vectors
The vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line, drawn so that:

i. The length of the line denotes the magnitude of the quantity according to the stated
vector scale
 ii. The direction of the line denotes the direction in which the vector quantity acts. The
sense of the direction is indicated by an arrowhead.

¸¸¸¸ or a.
The vector quantity AB is referred to as ,E

¸¸¸¸ | or | | or simply AB or
The magnitude of the vector quantity is written |,E
a.

Operations of vectors
To add or to subtract vectors, we add or subtract the respective corresponding components.

I.e. let º»⃗ = »⃗ = „,

, ¨ and ½

Then ¾⃗ + ¿⃗ = + „, ¨ +

Let 4⃗ = 4 , 4 and •⃗ = ,

= 4 − ,4 −

Example: Find

kº»⃗ + ½
»⃗ l B) kº»⃗ − ½
»⃗ l Given º»⃗ = 4, 5 And ½
»⃗ = 6, −1

Solution

º»⃗ + ½
»⃗ = ¾ + ¿ , ¾ + ¿

= 4 + 6, 5 + −1

= 10, 4

ii) º»⃗ - ½
»⃗ = ¾ − ¿ , ¾ − ¿

= 4 − 6, 5 − −1

= −2, 6

OR
Rewrite the difference º»⃗ - ½
»⃗ as the sum º»⃗ +k−½
»»»»»»⃗ l. To determine »»»»»»⃗
−½ , we do a scalar

multiplication of -1 times »»»»»»⃗

−½

»»»»»⃗
−¿ = -1 6, −1

= −6, 1

Hence º»⃗ + ½
»⃗ = 4 − 6, 5+1 = −2 , 6

Addition
¸¸¸¸ and EF
The sum of two vectors, ,E ¸¸¸¸¸is defined as the single equivalent or resultant vector,F
¸¸¸¸ .

¸¸¸¸ + EF
,E ¸¸¸¸¸ = ,F
¸¸¸¸

+¨ =„

Example:
A force of 40N is acting in the direction due east represented by p and a force of 30N is
acting in the direction due south represented as q, find the magnitude (r) of the vector of the
two forces.
4 =¾ +¿ =c ¾ +¿ = c 40 + 30 =50

Scalar and vector products

In the concept of two-dimensions, we can use the Cartesian planes to draw our vectors

Œ − pD B

The vector can be identified º»⃗

A
Or ,, E

1 2 3 4 5 p − pD

Vector P is a 2-dimensional vector drawn with 3 units on the x-axis and 3 units on the y-
axis.

The magnitude of vector P is simply the length of vector P which we can calculate using
the basic Pythagoras theorem i.e. we can denote the vector components as ÀE = 3 and AN
=3
 B

A N

Magnitude of P (denoted as /p/)

|º|=√3 + 3 = 4.24 ª DŠ

Direction of a vector normally we use degrees or radians from the horizontal in an

anticlockwise direction to describe direction of a vector
B

Where AB – Hypotenuse side

BN - Adjacent side
A P ºŒ = 3 ∅ NB – Opposite side to
angle ∅
N
PX= 3
We first form a right-angled triangle by joining the ends of the vector then apply simple
ÃÄÄÃÅÆÇÈ
trigonometry. So, we have: Tan = (µÉʵËÈÌÇ) = 1

Š &
= 450 = 0.785 4 D
Hence, we can describe our vector as having magnitude 4.24 units and direction 450 from
the right horizontal axis. In three dimensional spaces, we construct three mutually
perpendicular axes (commonly the x, y, z axis).

Example: Sketch point 2,3,4

z - Axis P (2,3,4

x - Axis
0
Just like in two dimensional we can also denote three dimensional vectors using the
standard unit vectors i, j, k, i= 1, 0, 0 j= 0, 1, 0 , k= 0, 0, 1 an then express the vector
y - Axis

as sum of scalar multiples of these units vectors i.e. P=(P1 P2 P3)= P1i + P2j+ P3k

For vector OP1

 |ͺ| = √2 + 3 + 4 = 5.385units

Ï-Angle between P and x-

axis


 

Use scalar products to get the direction cosines.

I.e. ¾ = º. Î = 1 × 1 × „3 Ï

¾ = º. Ð = 1 × 1 × „3 Ñ

¾ = º. - = 1 × 1 × „3 Ò

So, we can write a unit vector P as:

º = F3 ÏD + F3 Ñ Ð + F3 Ò -

Determination of angles
The direction of a vector in three directions is determined in angles which the vector makes
with the three axes of reference.

Let ¸¸¸¸
ͺ = 4 = D + ¨Ð + „-

Then; Ó = „3 Ô ∴ = 4„3 Ô
µ

= „3 Ñ ∴ ¨ = 4„3 Ñ
¶
Ó

= „3 Ò ∴ „ = 4„3 Ò
Ë
Ó
Figure 5: Directional Cosines

Also +¨ +„ =4

4 „3 Ô + 4 „3 Ñ + 4 „3 Ò = 4

„3 Ô + „3 Ñ + „3 Ò = 1

Scalar (Dot) product of vectors

Product of two non-zero vectors ⃗ and ¨»⃗ denoted by ⃗.¨»⃗ = | ⃗|Ö¨»⃗Ö CosÂ
Where  is the angle between ⃗ and ¨»⃗.

When either ⃗ = 0 or ¨»⃗ = 0 then  is not defined and in this case, ⃗ . ¨»⃗ = 0

If both ⃗ and ¨»⃗ are non-zero and yet ⃗ . ¨»⃗ = 0, then this implies that ⃗ and ¨»⃗ are perpendicular
to each other. The angle between two non-zero vectors is given by;

*⃗.+
»⃗
Cos  = Ö*⃗ÖÖ+»⃗Ö

*⃗.+
»⃗
Or simply Â= cos −1 Ö*⃗ÖÖ+»⃗Ö

If the  has not been given,

⃗ . ¨»⃗ = ¨ ,+ ¨ = K (a constant).

Example

Compute the product for each of the following.

¾⃗ = 4i -3j ¿⃗ = 2i + j
Solution

¾⃗ . ¿⃗ = 4 × 2 + −3 × 1

= 8-3 = 5

¾⃗ = 8, 0, 3 ¿⃗ = 3, 2, 7

Solution

¾⃗. ¿⃗ = 8 × 3 + 0 × 2 + 3 × 7

= 6 + 0 + 21

= 27

Determine the angle between ¾⃗ = 3, −4, −1 and 0, 5, 2

Solution

First, we need to calculate ¾⃗ . ¿⃗ And then |¾⃗| and |¿⃗|

¾⃗. ¿⃗ = 3 × 0 + −4 × 5 + −1 × 2
 = 0+ -20-2

= −22

|¾⃗| = c3 + −4 + −1 = √26

|¿⃗| = √0 + 5 + 2 = √29

»⃗
×»⃗.Ø
Cos  = Ö×»⃗ÖÖØ»⃗Ö =
&
c %√ •
=-0.8011927 =

F3 &
−0.8011927 = 143.24° (2.5 radians)

Let º»⃗ = ¾ , ¾ , ¾ and »⃗ = ¿ , ¿ , ¿

½

Then º»⃗ × ½
»⃗ = ¾ ¿ , ¾ ¿ − ¾ ¿ i - ¾ ¿ −¾ ¿ j - ¾ ¿ −¾ ¿ k

Position of vectors

Definition: A position vector is a vector that starts from the origin i.e. its origin is 0, 0, 0

P (3,6)
8,5

Figure 6: Position Vectors

The position vector of º»⃗ is k%l and position vector of ½

»⃗ k"l

Example 1

»⃗ is k l and the position vector and the position vector of Ù»⃗ k& l is
The position vector of ½ %

»»»»»⃗
Find the vector ½Ù
Solution

»»»»»⃗ = ½Í
½Ù »»»»»»⃗ + ÍÙ
»»»»»⃗

»»»»»»⃗ = - ͽ
NB: ½Í »»»»»»⃗ (opposite direction)

-k l + k&% l = k&"l

»»»»»⃗ = -a + b or simply b-a since from A to B, you must first move from A to the
Generally, ,E
origin hence (-a) then from the origin to B.

Performance of vector resolution

Definition: A vector resolution is the breaking down of one vector into two or more smaller
vectors. In e1this regard, we only discuss the rectangular components of a vector (X-component
and Y component). Thus,

The rectangular components of º»⃗ are º»⃗X and º»⃗y

Ú+
Ú*
Cos =

OB = º»⃗ Cos *ÉʵËÈÌÇ

Recall Cosine = ÛÜÄÃÇÈÌÝÅÈ
But OB = Px
 Px = º»⃗ CosÂ
Hence -The magnitude of horizontal component

«•D Â = ¬
*+ ÚÄÄÃÅÆÇÈ
Ú+ ÛÜÄÃÇÈÌÝÅÈ
SinÂ=

AB= OA Sin (but AB= Py)

Hence ºÜ = º»⃗ D  is the magnitude of vertical component.

1.8.4 Learning Activities

1. Activity 1
Labeling Components
One of the first steps to understanding vectors is knowing what the different components are.
Have your students work with partners for the first part of this activity. Each pair should
create a graph that represents a vector. Their graphs should carefully represent the difference
between a vector and a line, particularly because the graphs can have some similarities.

Then, have all students hang their graphs on a classroom wall, numbering each graph. Ask
students to walk along the wall with their notebooks and notate the horizontal and vertical
components of each of their classmates' vectors.

Once you have discussed their answers, ask each partnership to take their own graph and use
colors and arrows to show how the horizontal and vertical components of their own vectors
are determined.

2. Activity 2
To understand the principles of adding vectors by the graphical method and of adding vectors
by component addition.

Two or more vectors can be added together to determine a vector sum or resultant. Two
methods of adding vectors are the graphical or head-to-tail method and the trigonometric or
component addition method. For each problem, vectors A, B and C are shown.

i. Sketch the head-to-tail addition of Þ , Þ , Þ Þ on the empty grid; label each

vector.
ii. Draw and label the resultant (R).
iii. Record the magnitude and direction of each component; use a + to indicate East or
North; use a – to indicate a West or South.
iv. Sum the components to determine the components of the resultant.
 v. Use the Pythagorean theorem and SOH CAH TOA to determine the magnitude and
direction of R

Magnitude of R =

Direction of R =

1.8.5 Self-Assessment
1. Calculate the resultant force of the two forces:

i. The magnitude of the resultant of vector addition

ii. The direction of the resultant of vector addition
1 »⃗ is k l and the position vector and the position vector of Ù»⃗
The position vector of ½

D k&% l

»»»»»⃗
Find the vector ½Ù

3. Use a graphical method to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the
three velocities
 1.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Calculator
 Ruler
 Black/white board
 Chalk/ board markers (Assorted)
1.8.7 References
Pramod S. Joag. (2016). An introduction to vectors, vector operators and vector analysis. Delhi:
Cambridge University Press.

Ray M. Bowen & C.C. Wang (2008). Introduction to vectors and tensors: Mineola: Dover
Publications.

Richard E. Johnson (2010). Vector Algebra Meerut: Krishna Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

1.8.8 Answers to Self-Assessment

1. Calculate the resultant force of the two forces:

Horizontal component of force,

ß = 7FÍ•0° + 4FÍ•45°
= 7 + 2.828 = 9.828N

Vertical component of force,

© = 7 D 0° + 4 D 45° = 0 + 2.828 = 2.828
The magnitude of the resultant of vector addition

= √ß + © = √9.828 + 2.828 =10.23N

The direction of the resultant of vector addition

2.828
=Š &
m n = 16.05°
9.828

»⃗ is k l and the position vector and the position vector of Ù»⃗

2. The position vector of ½

k&% l is

»»»»»⃗
Find the vector ½Ù

Solution

»»»»»⃗ = ½Í
½Ù »»»»»»⃗ + ÍÙ
»»»»»⃗

»»»»»»⃗ = - ͽ
NB: ½Í »»»»»»⃗ (opposite direction)

-k l + k&% l = k&"l

3. Use a graphical method to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the
three velocities

à + à + à = 17.5 Ž⁄ Š 82° Š3 Šℎ‹ ℎ34D·3 Š ‘

 1.9 Learning Outcome 7: Collect, Organize and Interpret Statistical Data
1.9.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers obtainment of mean, median, mode and standard deviation from
given data, performance of calculations based on laws of probability, performance of
calculation involving probability distributions, mathematical expectation sampling
distributions and application of sampling distribution methods in data analysis.

1.9.2 Performance Standard

1. Classification of data
a) Grouped data
b) Ungrouped data
2. Data collection
a) Tabulation of data
b) Class intervals
c) Class boundaries
d) Frequency tables
e) Cumulative frequency
3. Sampling
a) Importance of sampling
b) Errors in sampling
c) Types of sampling and their limitations
4. Diagrammatic and graphical presentation of data e.g.
a) Histograms
b) Frequency polygons
c) Bar charts
d) Pie charts
e) Cumulative frequency curves
5. Measures of central tendency
a) Measures
b) Properties
6. Calculation and interpretation of mean, mode and median, variance and standard
deviation
 1.9.3 Information Sheet
1.9.3.1 Definition of Terms
Mode: This is the number which is the most repeated in a series.
Standard deviation: This is the amount of variation of a set of numbers. It is the square root
variance.
Variance: This is the mean of the squared differences of the number from the mean.
Classification of data
A variable may be of two kinds:
Discrete – a variable that can be counted, or for which there is a fixed set of values.
Continuous – a variable that can be measured on a continuous scale, the result depending on
the precision of the measuring instrument or the accuracy of the observer.
Ungrouped data can be presented diagrammatically in several ways and these include:
(a) Pictograms, in which pictorial symbols are used to represent quantities
(b) Horizontal bar charts, having data represented by equally spaced horizontal rectangles
(c) Vertical bar charts, in which data are represented by equally spaced vertical rectangles
Trends in ungrouped data over equal periods of time can be presented diagrammatically by a
percentage component bar chart.
Grouped data
When the number of members in a set is small, say ten or less, the data can be represented
diagrammatically without further analysis, by means of pictograms, bar charts, percentage
components bar charts or pie diagrams.
For sets having more than ten members, those members having similar values are grouped
together in classes to form a frequency distribution. To assist in accurately counting members
in the various classes, a tally diagram is used.
A frequency distribution is merely a table showing classes and their corresponding
frequencies.
The new set of values obtained by forming a frequency distribution is called grouped data.
Data collection
We can use this example to define a number of terms, consider the class labelled 7.1 – 7.3
The class values stated in the table are the lower and upper limits of the class and their
difference gives the class width.
The class boundaries are 0.05 below the lower class limit and 0.05 above the upper class
limit.
The lower class boundary is 7.1 - 0.05 = 7.05
The upper class boundary is 7.3 + 0.05 = 7.35
The class interval is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries.
Class interval = upper class boundary – lower class boundary
= 7.35 – 7.05 = 0.30
Where the classes are regular, the class interval can also be found by subtracting any lower
class limit from the lower class limit of the following class.
The central value (mid value) of the class is the average of the upper and lower class
boundaries.

Figure 7: Class Boundaries

Sampling
Performance of calculations involving use of standard normal table, sampling distribution,
t-distribution and estimation

Standard normal table (known Z table)

p−µ
â=
Ô

ä = 4 ’ „34‹

µ = Ž‹

Ô = Š 4 ‹àD ŠD3

A Z found on the both tables should be used on the table provided to known the percentile and
therefore compare. Note; if it is a negative then a table for negative values is used.

Sampling distribution
It is also known as probability distribution and the standard deviation of this topic is known as
standard error. Sampling distribution mean is equal to the mean of the population.

µå =µ

Therefore, standard error is:

SE Standard error

ç =Standard deviation

–=Size of population

n= size of sample

If C¾„ = 1 from factorcÀ − /À − 1 , therefore standard arror formula can be approximated

by

√ x = Ô /√

Distribution

It is a type of distribution similar with the normal distribution curve but with a bit shorter and
fatter tail. Therefore distribution is used because small size is small.

p−µ
Š=
√

Where,

x̧ is the sample mean

µ is the population mean

s is the standard deviation

n is the size of the sample given

Estimation

This is the process of identifying a value by approximating due to a certain purpose. It can be
done by rounding off to the nearest whole number.

Application of sampling distribution methods in data analysis

There are three main types;

• Normal distribution; commonly used in investing, finance, science and engineering.
It fully based on its mean and standard deviation.

• Binomial distribution: It is discrete, as opposed to continuous, since 1 or 0 / yes or

no is a valid response.

• Chi-squared distribution

• Poisson distribution

DIAGRAMMATIC AND GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Histograms

Frequency histogram

A histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution, in which vertical

rectangular blocks are drawn so that:

i. The centre of the base indicates the central value of the class
ii. The area of the rectangle represents the class frequency

If the class intervals are regular, the frequency is then denoted by the height of the rectangle.

Figure 8: Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Another method of presenting grouped data diagrammatically is by using a frequency
polygon, which is the graph produced by plotting frequency against class mid-point values
and joining the coordinates with straight lines.

Figure 9: Frequency Polygon

A cumulative frequency distribution is a table showing the cumulative frequency for each
value of upper class boundary. The cumulative frequency for a particular value of upper class
boundary is obtained by adding the frequency of the class to the sum of the previous
frequencies.
The curve obtained by joining the co-ordinates of cumulative frequency (vertically) against
upper class boundary (horizontally) is called an ogive or a cumulative frequency
distribution curve

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A single value, which is representative of a set of values, may be used to give an indication of
the general size of the members in a set, the word ‘average’ often being used to indicate the
single value. The statistical term used for ‘average’ is the arithmetic mean or just the mean.
Other measures of central tendency may be used and these include the median and the modal
values.
Obtainment of mean, median, mode and standard deviation from given data
A set is a group of data and an individual value within the set is called a member of the set.
Some members selected at random from a population are called a sample.
Mean: It is also known as average therefore it is addition of the number divided by the number
of the numbers.
∑ 3C ªŽ¨‹4
ê‹ =
3 3C ªŽ¨‹4
Median: This is the number in the middle after being arranged from the lowest to the highest
number; if they are two, find the mean.
Mode: This is the number which is the most repeated in a series.

Variance: This is the mean of the squared differences of the number from the mean.
© 4D „‹ = ∑ p & µ /
Standard deviation: This is the amount of variation of a set of numbers known as square root
variance.
Example:
Determine the mean, median and mode for the set:
{2, 3, 7, 5, 5, 13, 1, 7, 4, 8, 3, 4, 3}
Thus, mean value,
p̅ = =
# # # # # # # # #"# # # %
=5

Median
To obtain the median value the set is ranked, that is, placed in ascending order of magnitude,
and since the set contains an odd number of members the value of the middle member is the
median value. Ranking the set gives: h1,2,3,3,3,4,4,5,5,7,7,8,13i
{1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7, 7, 8, 13}
The middle term is the seventh member, i.e. 4, thus the median value is 4.
Mode
The modal value is the value of the most commonly occurring member and is 3, which
occurs three times, all other members on occurring once or twice.
1.9.4 Learning Activities
1. As the teacher ask your students to collect 25 bottle tops and start making a histogram of
their dates they forward the bottle tops. Each student has collected 25 bottle tops over the past
few days. The students come to place the pennies in groups above a number line on the floor,
according to the years in which the pennies were minted.

i. Construct a histogram of the dates of return within a week.

ii. Ask the class to estimate the mean and standard deviation of the distribution
 1.9.5 Self-Assessment
1. The data given below refer to the gain of each of a batch of 40 transistors, expressed
correct to the nearest whole number.
Form a frequency distribution for these data having seven classes.
81 83 87 74 76 89 82 84
86 76 77 71 86 85 87 88
84 81 80 81 73 89 82 79
81 79 78 80 85 77 84 78
83 79 80 83 82 79 80 77

a) Calculate the range

b) Calculate the range
c) Construct the frequency distribution
d) Construct the histogram
3. The frequency distribution for the value of resistance in ohms of 48resistors is as shown.
Determine the mean value of resistance.
20.5–20.9: 3, 21.0–21.4: 10, 21.5–21.9: 11,
22.0–22.4: 13, 22.5–22.9: 9, 23.0–23.4: 2
4. Determine the standard deviation from the mean of the set of numbers: (5, 6, 8, 4, 10, 3)
correct to 4 significant figures.

1.9.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Scientific Calculators
 Rulers, pencils, erasers
 Charts with presentations of data
 Graph books
 Computers with an internet connection
1.9.7 References
K. A. Stroud, (2001). Engineering Mathematics, 5th Ed. Industrial Press Inc, New York.

John Bird, (2003). Engineering Mathematics, Fourth Edition. Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK
 1.9.8 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. The data given below refer to the gain of each of a batch of 40 transistors, expressed
correct to the nearest whole number.
Form a frequency distribution for these data having seven classes.
81 83 87 74 76 89 82 84
86 76 77 71 86 85 87 88
84 81 80 81 73 89 82 79
81 79 78 80 85 77 84 78
83 79 80 83 82 79 80 77

a) Calculate the range

The value obtained by taking the value of the smallest member from that of the largest
member. Inspection of the set of data shows that, range=89−71=18
b) Construct a tally diagram
This is obtained by listing the classes in the left-hand column, and then inspecting each of the
40 members of the set in turn and allocating them to the appropriate classes by putting ‘1s’ in
the appropriate rows. Every fifth ‘1’ allocated to the particular row is shown as an oblique
line crossing the four previous ‘1s’, to help with final counting.

Figure 10: Tally Diagram

c) Construct the frequency distribution

Class Class mid-point Frequency
70 – 72 71 1
73 – 75 74 2
76 – 78 77 7
79 – 81 80 12
82 – 84 83 9
85 – 87 86 6
 88 - 90 89 3
Figure 11: Frequency Distribution

d) Construct the histogram

The width of the rectangles correspond to the upper class boundary values minus the lower
class boundary values and the heights of the rectangles correspond to the class frequencies.
The easiest way to draw a histogram is to mark the class mid-point values on the horizontal
scale and draw the rectangles symmetrically about the appropriate class mid-point values and
touching one another.

5. The frequency distribution for the value of resistance in ohms of 48resistors is as shown.
Determine the mean value of resistance.
20.5–20.9: 3, 21.0–21.4: 10, 21.5–21.9: 11,
22.0–22.4: 13, 22.5–22.9: 9, 23.0–23.4: 2
The class mid-point/frequency values are:
20.7 - 3, 21.2 - 10, 21.7 - 11, 22.2 - 13, 22.7 - 9 and 23.2 - 2
For grouped data, the mean value is given by:
∑ Cp
p̅ =
∑C
20.7 × 3 + 21.2 × 10 + 21.7 × 11 + 22.2 × 13 + 22.7 × 9 + 23.2 × 2
=
48
= 21.9
6. Determine the standard deviation from the mean of the set of numbers: (5, 6, 8, 4, 10,
3) correct to 4 significant figures.

The arithmetic mean p̅ = = =6

∑å #%#"# # $#
Ì %

Standard deviation í = o
∑ å&å̅ (
Ì
The p − p̅ values are 5 − 6 , 6 − 6 , 8 − 6 , 4 − 6 , 10 − 6 , 3 − 6
The sum of the p − p̅ values, i.e.

î p − p̅ = 1 + 0 + 4 + 4 + 16 + 9 = 34

∑ p − p̅ 34
= = = 5.6
6
Since, there are 6 members in the set.

∑ p − p̅
í=ï = √5.6 = 2.38
 1.10 Learning Outcome 8: Apply Concepts of probability for Work
1.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers: Probability, Types of probability events, Laws of probability,
Counting techniques, Permutation, Combination, Tree diagrams and Venn diagrams.

1.10.2 Performance Standard

1. Probability
2. Types of probability events
 Dependent
 Independent
 Mutually exclusive
3. Laws of probability
4. Counting techniques
5. Permutation
6. Combination
7. Tree diagrams
8. Venn diagrams

1.10.3 Information Sheet

1.10.3.1 Definition of terms
Probability
Probability of something happening is the likelihood or chance of it happening. Values of
probability lie between 0 and 1, where 0 represents an absolute impossibility and 1 represents
an absolute certainty.
The probability of an event happening usually lies somewhere between these two extreme
values and is expressed either as a proper or decimal fraction.
If p is the probability of an event happening and q is the probability of the same event not
happening, then the total probability is p + q and is equal to unity, since it is an absolute
certainty that the event either does or does not occur, i.e. p + q = 1
The expectation, E, of an event happening is defined in general terms as the product of the
probability p of an event happening and the number of attempts made, n, i.e. E = pn.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY EVENTS
Dependent event
A dependent event is one in which the probability of an event happening affects the
probability of another ever happening.
Independent event
An independent event is one in which the probability of an event happening does not affect
the probability of another event happening.
Conditional probability
Conditional probability is concerned with the probability of say event B occurring, given that
event A has already taken place. If A and B are independent events, then the fact that event A
has already occurred will not affect the probability of event B. If A and B are dependent
events, then event A having occurred will affect the probability of event B.
Mutually exclusive event
Two events are known as mutually exclusive, when the occurrence of one of them excludes
the occurrence of the other. I.e. in tossing of a coin the outcomes are either head or tail.

Laws of probability
The addition law of probability
The addition law of probability is recognized by the word ‘or’ joining the probabilities. If º*
is the probability of event A happening and º+ is the probability of event B happening, the
probability of event A or event B happening is given by º* + º+ (provided events A and B
are mutually exclusive, i.e. A and B are events which cannot occur together).
Similarly, the probability of events A or B or C or . . . N happening is given by
X@ + XA + XB … … … … Xð
The multiplication law of probability
The multiplication law of probability is recognized by the word ‘and’ joining the
probabilities. If º* is the probability of event A happening and º+ is the probability of event
B happening, the probability of event A and event B happening is given byº* × º+ .
Similarly, the probability of events A and B and C and . . . N happening is given by:
º* × º+ × ºñ … … … … . ºò
Not Mutually Exclusive Events
Consider the case where two events A and B are not mutually exclusive. The probability of
that event that either A or B or both occur is given as
 º ,∪E =º , +º E −º ,∩E
Permutations
If n different objects are available, they can be arranged in different orders of selection. Each
different ordered arrangement is called a permutation.
For example, permutations of the three letters X, Y and Z taken together are:
XYZ, XZY, YXZ, YZX, ZXY and ZYX
This can be expressed as 3º =6, the upper 3 denoting the number of items from which the
arrangements are made, and the lower 3 indicating the number of items used in each
arrangement.
In general, nºÓ = −1 − 2 ………… − 4 + 1 or =
Ì!
Ì&Ó !

Combinations
Using three letters A, B, C we now make selections without regard to the order of the letters
in each group i.e. AB is now the same as BA, etc. Each group is called a combination and
„Ó , ’ℎ‹4‹ n is the total number of items and r is the number in each selection, gives the
n

number of possible combinations.

Note that AB and BA are different permutations, but are not different combinations.

Tree Diagram
A probability tree diagram shows all the possible events. The first event is represented by a
dot. From the dot, branches are drawn to represent all possible outcomes of the event. The
probability of each outcome is written on its branch.

Venn Diagram
A set is a collection of things. A Venn diagram uses overlapping circles or other shapes to
illustrate the logical relationships between two or more sets of items. Often, they serve to
graphically organize things, highlighting how the items are similar and different.

Each friend is an "element" (or "member") of the set. It is normal to use lowercase letters for
them.

Now let's say that alex, casey, drew and hunter play Soccer:

Soccer = {alex, casey, drew, hunter}

(It says the Set "Soccer" is made up of the elements alex, casey, drew and hunter.)

And casey, drew and jade play Tennis:

Tennis = {casey, drew, jade}

We can put their names in two separate circles:

You can now list your friends that play Soccer OR Tennis.

This is called a "Union" of sets and has the special symbol ∪:

Soccer ∪ Tennis = {alex, casey, drew, hunter, jade}

Not everyone is in that set ... only your friends that play Soccer or Tennis (or both).

In other words we combine the elements of the two sets.

"Intersection" is when you must be in BOTH sets.

In our case that means they play both Soccer AND Tennis ... which is casey and drew.

The special symbol for Intersection is an upside down "U" like this: ∩

And this is how we write it:

Soccer ∩ Tennis = {casey, drew}

Difference

You can also "subtract" one set from another.

For example, taking Soccer and subtracting Tennis means people that play Soccer but NOT
Tennis ... which is alex and hunter.

And this is how we write it:

Soccer − Tennis = {alex, hunter}

 1.10.4 Learning Activities
1. In groups of 2 have the students play the Rock, Paper and Scissors game. Play the first
round:

i. What is the probability that your friend will throw a rock?

ii. What is the probability that your friend will not throw a paper?

Now get a paper and pen and play 20 times and record your data.

i. How many times was rock thrown by the partner?

ii. What was the probability of it being thrown?
iii. How many times was paper thrown by the partner?
iv. What was the probability?
v. How many times was scissors thrown by the partner?
vi. What was the probability?

1.10.5 Self-Assessment
1. Determine the probabilities of selecting at random (a) a man, and (b) a woman from a
crowd containing 20 men and 33 women.
2. Find the expectation of obtaining a 4 upwards with 3 throws of a fair dice.
3. The probability of a component failing in one year due to excessive temperature is $,

due to excessive vibration is and due to excessive humidity is $. Determine the

probabilities that during a one-year period component: (a) fails due to excessive
temperature and excessive vibration, (b) fails due to excessive vibration or excessive
humidity, and (c) will not fail because of both excessive temperature and excessive
humidity.
1.10.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Scientific Calculators
 Rulers, pencils, erasers
 Charts with presentations of data
 Graph books
 Computers with an internet connection
1.10.7 References
K. A. Stroud, (2001). Engineering Mathematics, 5th Ed. Industrial Press Inc, New York.

John Bird, (2003). Engineering Mathematics, Fourth Edition. Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK
 1.10.8 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Determine the probabilities of selecting at random (a) a man, and (b) a woman from a
crowd containing 20 men and 33 women.
Solution
a. The probability of selecting at random a man, p, is given by the ratio =
ÌÝö¶ÈÓ Ã÷ öÈÌ
ÌÝö¶ÈÓ Ã÷ ËÓÃøÉ

20 20
º= = = 0.3774
20 + 33 53
b. The probability of selecting at random women, q, is given by the ratio=
ÌÝö¶ÈÓ Ã÷ øÃöÈÌ
ÌÝö¶ÈÓ Ã÷ ËÓÃøÉ

33 33
½= = = 0.6226
20 + 33 53
2. Find the expectation of obtaining 4 upwards with 3 throws of a fair dice.

$
3. The probability of a component failing in one year due to excessive temperature is , due

to excessive vibration is and due to excessive humidity is $. Determine the

probabilities that during a one-year period component: (a) fails due to excessive
temperature and excessive vibration, (b) fails due to excessive vibration or excessive
humidity, and (c) will not fail because of both excessive temperature and excessive
humidity.
Solution
Let º, be the probability of failure due to excessive temperature, then
1 19
º, = ¸¸¸¸ =
º,
20 20
¸¸¸¸
º, The probability of not failing.
Let ºE be the probability of failure due to excessive vibration, then
1 24
ºE = ¸¸¸¸ =
ºE
25 25
¸¸¸¸
ºE
Let ºE be the probability of failure due to excessive humidity, then
1 49
ºF = ¸¸¸¸ =
ºF
50 50

a. The probability of a component failing due to excessive temperature and excessive

vibration is given by:
 1 1 1
º, × ºE = × = = 0.002
20 25 500
b. The probability of a component failing due to excessive vibration or excessive humidity
is:
1 1 3
ºE + ºF = + = = 0.06
25 50 50
c. The probability that a component will not fail due to excessive temperature and will not
fail due to excess humidity is:
19 49 931
¸¸¸¸ ¸¸¸¸ =
º, × ºF × = = 0.931
20 50 1000
 1.11 Learning Outcome 9: Perform Commercial Calculation
1.11.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
The learning outcome covers: Product pricing, Average sales determination, Stock turnover,
Calculation of incomes, Profit and Loss calculations, Salaries,

1.11.2 Performance Standard

1. Product pricing
2. Average sales determination
3. Stock turnover
4. Calculation of incomes
5. Profit and loss calculations
6. Salaries
7. Wages
 Time rate
 Flat rate
 Overtime
 Piece rate
 Commission
 Percentage
 Bonus
8. Exchange rates calculation
 Devaluation
 Revaluation

1.11.3 Information Sheet

1.11.3.1 Definition of terms
Product pricing
Price is the money that customers must pay for a product or service. In other words, price is
an offer to sell for a certain amount of currency.
Pricing is the art of translating into quantitative terms the value of a product to customers at a
point of time.
There are three components to the overall pricing strategy:

 Choice of a Pricing Principle: Cost-Plus, Competitive, Value-Based

 Choice of a Price Positioning: Market Skimming, Neutral, Penetration
  Choice of a Pricing Structure: Unit Pricing, Tiered Pricing, Bundled Pricing,
Subscriptions etc.
Average sales determination

The selling price formula is:

Selling Price = Cost Price + Profit Margin

Cost price is the price a retailer paid for the product. And the profit margin is a percentage of
the cost price.
 Cost Price: The price a retailer paid for the product
 Profit Margin: A percentage of the cost price.

How to Calculate Selling Price per Unit

1. Determine the total cost of all units purchased.
2. Divide the total cost by the number of units purchased to get the cost price.
3. Use the selling price formula to calculate the final price: Selling Price = Cost Price +
Profit Margin

Stock turnover
Inventory turnover is a ratio showing how many times a company has sold and replaced
inventory during a given period. A company can then divide the days in the period by the
inventory turnover formula to calculate the days it takes to sell the inventory on hand.
Inventory Turnover = Sales / Average Inventory
Where:
Average Inventory = (Beginning Inventory + Ending Inventory) / 2
Companies calculate inventory turnover by:
 Calculating the average inventory, which is done by dividing the sum of beginning
inventory and ending inventory by two.
 Dividing sales by average inventory.

Profit and loss calculations

Cost price (C.P.): This is the price at which an article is purchased.

Selling price (S.P.): This is the price at which an article is sold.

Profit or Gain: If the selling price is more than the cost price, the difference between them is
the profit incurred.

Formula: Profit or Gain = S.P. – C.P.

Loss: If the selling price is less than the cost price, the difference between them is the loss
incurred.

Formula: Loss = Cost price (C.P.) – Selling Price (S.P.)

Profit or Loss is always calculated on the cost price.

Marked price: This is the price marked as the selling price on an article, also known as the
listed price.

Discount or Rebate: This is the reduction in price offered on the marked or listed price.

Below is the list of some basic formulas used in solving questions on profit and loss:

 Gain % = (Gain / CP) * 100

 Loss % = (Loss / CP) * 100
 SP = [(100 + Gain%) / 100] * CP
 SP = [(100 – Loss %) / 100]*CP

Salaries
A salary is a form of payment from an employer to an employee, which may be specified in
an employment contract. It is contrasted with piece wages, where each job, hour, or other unit
is paid separately, rather than on a periodic basis.

Gross Pay
Gross income for an individual—also known as gross pay when it's on a paycheck—is the
individual’s total pay from his or her employer before taxes or other deductions. This includes
income from all sources and is not limited to income received in cash; it also includes property
or services received. Gross annual income is the amount of money a person earns in one year
before taxes and includes income from all sources.

Net Pay
Net pay refers to the amount an employee takes home, not the amount it costs to employ them.
Wages
 Time rate
 Flat rate
 Overtime
 Piece rate
 Commission
 Percentage
 Bonus

Exchange rates calculation

The exchange rate is defined as the rate on the basis of which two countries involved in trade
exchange marketable items or commodities. It is basically the cost of exchanging one
currency for another currency.

Exchange rates fluctuate constantly throughout the week as currencies are actively traded.
This pushes the price up and down, similar to other assets such as gold or stocks. Therefore,
the exchange rate can be calculated as per the below-mentioned relationship: –

Exchange Rate = Money in Foreign Currency / Money in Domestic Currency

Additionally, it can also be determined as per the below-mentioned relationship: –

Exchange Rate = Money in After Exchange / Money before Exchange

Devaluation
Devaluation is the deliberate downward adjustment of the value of a country's money relative
to another currency, group of currencies, or currency standard. Countries that have a fixed
exchange rate or semi-fixed exchange rate use this monetary policy tool. It is often confused
with depreciation and is the opposite of revaluation, which refers to the readjustment of a
currency's exchange rate.

Given two exchange rates in terms of a Base Currency and a Quote Currency we can
calculate appreciation and depreciation between them using the percentage change
calculation. Letting V1 be the starting rate and V2 the final rate.

The percentage change of the Quote Currency relative to the Base Currency is
 © −©
%„ℎ .‹ = × 100
©

The percentage change of the Base Currency relative to the Quote Currency is

© −©
%„ℎ .‹ = × 100
©

A positive change is appreciation and a negative change is depreciation.

 Revaluation
A revaluation is a calculated upward adjustment to a country's official exchange rate relative
to a chosen baseline. The baseline can include wage rates, the price of gold, or a foreign
currency.

Revaluation is the opposite of devaluation, which is a downward adjustment of a country's

official exchange rate.

1.11.4 Learning Activities

Activity 1

The activity below is to enhance knowledge on taxes.

Materials:
 computer/internet
 W-2 form (pre-filled)
 1040 tax form

Guiding Questions:

 What types of taxes do people in your community pay?

 What is the tax rate for each type of tax?
 How much of your income will go to taxes?

Procedures:

 Divide students into pairs or small groups.

 Have students determine their annual income if they work 40 hours a week 52 weeks
a year at the current minimum wage rate.
  Have students fill out a 1040 tax form using a prepared W-2.
 Have students determine their income tax rate for federal and state taxes.
 Have students research what other taxes apply to their personal situation and figure
out the amount.
 Have students create a slide presentation that explains the difference between their
annual salary and the actual amount they are able to count as part of their budget after
paying taxes.

Activity 2
In groups of 4, have the students buy 20 biro pens at wholesale price of KShs. 10 per pen,
they will spend a total cost of KShs. 2.50 per pen to advertise and on labor. If they made a
total of profit of KShs. 120 from sale of the 20pens Using the template below let them fill the
results.

Cost of the pen?

Profit per pen?

Selling price?

1.11.5 Self-Assessment
1. The market oriented pricing, there are three pricing ways, outline them?
2. Hot Pie's Bakery Supply needs to calculate the selling price for its product line of
bread machines. The business purchased 20 bread machines for $3,000.
a. Calculate the cost price
b. The cost price for each bread machine is $150, and the business hopes to earn a 40% profit
margin. Calculate the selling price?

3. In a transaction, the profit percentage is 80% of the cost. If the cost further increases
by 20% but the selling price remains the same, how much is the decrease in profit
percentage?
4. A man bought two bicycles for Rs. 2500 each. If he sells one at a profit of 5%, then
how much should he sell the other so that he makes a profit of 20% on the whole?
5. A trader wants to make an investment in the exchange-traded funds traded in US
markets. However, the trader lives in India and 1 INR corresponds to 0.014 USD. The
 trader has INR 10,000 to invest in the exchange-traded funds traded in the offshore
market.

Help the trader determine the value of INR investment in terms of US currency.

1.11.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Scientific Calculators
 Rulers, pencils, erasers
 Charts with presentations of data
 Graph books
 Computers with an internet connection
1.11.7 References
K. A. Stroud, (2001). Engineering Mathematics, 5th Ed. Industrial Press Inc, New York.

John Bird, (2003). Engineering Mathematics, Fourth Edition. Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK

1.11.8 Answers to Self-Assessment

1. In market oriented pricing, there are three pricing ways, outline them.

 Price above market: Consciously pricing your product above the competition to
brand yourself as having a higher-quality or better-performing item
 Copy market: Selling your item at the same price as your competition to maximize
profit while staying competitive
 Price below market: Using data as a benchmark and consciously pricing a product
below competitors, to lure customers into your store over theirs

2. Hot Pie's Bakery Supply needs to calculate the selling price for its product line of
bread machines. The business purchased 20 bread machines for $3,000.
a. Calculate the cost price

Total cost of units purchased: $3,000

Number of units purchased: 20

Cost price: = = $150

$ ,$$$
$
b. The cost price for each bread machine is $150, and the business hopes to earn a 40% profit
margin. Calculate the selling price?

Selling Price = $150 + (40% x $150)

Selling Price = $150 + (0.4 x $150)

Selling Price = $150 + $60

Selling Price = $210

3. In a transaction, the profit percentage is 80% of the cost. If the cost further increases
by 20% but the selling price remains the same, how much is the decrease in profit
percentage?

Solution:

Let us assume CP = Rs. 100.

Then Profit = Rs. 80 and selling price = Rs. 180.

The cost increases by 20% → New CP = Rs. 120, SP = Rs. 180.

Profit % = 60/120 * 100 = 50%.

Therefore, Profit decreases by 30%.

4. A man bought two bicycles for Rs. 2500 each. If he sells one at a profit of 5%, then
how much should he sell the other so that he makes a profit of 20% on the whole?

Solution:

Before we start, it’s important to note here that it is not 15% to be added to 5% to make it a
total of 20%.

Let the other profit percent be x.

Then, our equation looks like this.

105/100 * 2500 + [(100+x)/100] * 2500 = 120/100 * 5000 → x= 35.

Hence, if he makes a profit of 35% on the second, it comes to a total of 20% profit on the
whole.

5. A trader wants to make an investment in the exchange-traded funds traded in US

markets. However, the trader lives in India and 1 INR corresponds to 0.014 USD. The
trader has INR 10,000 to invest in the exchange-traded funds traded in the offshore
market.

Help the trader determine the value of INR investment in terms of US currency.

Determine the value of exchange in terms of US dollars.

ê3 ‹Œ D CŠ‹4 ‹p„ℎ .‹ = úp„ℎ .‹ 4 Š‹ × ê3 ‹Œ ¨‹C34‹ ‹p„ℎ .‹

The value of exchange in terms of US dollars = 0.014 × 10000

Money in After Exchange = $140

CHAPTER 2: PREPARE AND INTERPRET TECHNICAL DRAWINGS
Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CC/2/5

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Prepare and Interpret Technical

Drawings

2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit covers the competencies required to prepare and interpret technical drawings. It
involves competencies to select, use and maintain drawing equipment and materials. It also
involves producing plain geometry drawings, solid geometry drawings, pictorial and
orthographic drawings of components and application of Computer Aided Design (CAD)
packages.

2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials
2. Produce plane geometry drawings
3. Produce solid geometry drawings
4. Produce pictorial and orthographic drawings of components
5. Apply CAD packages

2.3 Learning Outcome 1: Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials
2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers drawing equipment and materials, the learner should be able to:
identify equipment and materials, use and maintain equipment, use drawing materials as per
workplace procedures, dispose waste materials and use PPEs according to occupational safety
and health.
2.3.2 Performance Standard
1. Drawing equipment are identified and gathered according to task requirements
2. Drawing materials are identified and gathered according to task requirements
3. Drawing equipment are used and maintained as per manufacturer’s instructions
4. Drawing materials are used as per workplace procedures
5. Waste materials are disposed in accordance with workplace procedures and
environmental legislations
6. Personal Protective Equipment is used according to occupational safety and health
regulations
 2.3.3 Information Sheet
2.3.5.1 Definitions of Terms
Drawing: This is the use of lines, shapes, and sizes to construct objects or structures either in
2-dimesnional or 3-dimensional view.
Technical drawing: This is a precise detailed representation of an idea using symbols, lines,
and signs in creating objects in the manufacturing of engineering articles.
Drafting: This is the act of producing a picture/sketch either in 2-dimesnional or 3-dimensional
view and providing dimensions and notes. It is usually a quick sketch/ presentation with details
and not to scale.
The subject in general is designed to impart the following skills.
1. Ability to read and prepare engineering drawings.
2. Ability to make free - hand sketching of objects.
3. Power to imagine, analyze and communicate, and
4. Capacity to understand other subjects:
Drawing equipment are identified and gathered according to task
requirements
They include the following:
 Set squares

Figure 12: Set Squares

 Compass

Figure 13: Compasses

 Protractor
Figure 14: Protractor
 Divider

Figure 15: Divider

 Drawing set
 Computer with CAD packages
 Drawing board

 Rule/ Ruler

Figure 16: Steel Rule

 T-square: Guides in drawing parallel horizontal lines.
Figure 17: T- Square
 Computers installed with CAD packages
 Clips or tape
 Emery board or fine sandpaper: Makes pencil points conical and long without
breaking.
Drawing materials are identified and gathered according to task
requirements
They include the following:
 Drawing papers: A thick paper specifically for drafting and sketching.

Figure 18: Drawing Papers

 Pencils: Consists of thick graphite used for writing and drawing.
 Erasers: Used to remove unwanted lines and marks in drawing.
 Masking tapes: It secures the drawing paper on the table

Figure 19: Masking Tape

 Paper clips
 Drawing equipment are used and maintained as per manufacturer’s
instructions
It is advisable to use the drawing equipment provided according to the methods outlined by
the manufacturer. This will prevent the tools from damage due to wrong use.

Do not slide instruments across a drawing board

Avoid dropping your tools and equipment.

Never use measuring tools in cutting paper.
Wipe off the surface and edges of triangles and T-squares.

Drawing materials are used as per workplace procedures

Sharpen pencils away from the drawing

Maintain an orderly drawing area

Keep your drawing sheets in a plastic tube to protect them from a dust and dirt.

Sharpen and store your pencils properly after use.

Waste materials are disposed in accordance with workplace

procedures and environmental legislations
There are eight major groups of waste management methods, each of them divided into
numerous categories. Those groups include:

 Source reduction and reuse.

 Recycling.
 Composting.
 Landfills.
 Incineration.
 Waste Management
Waste containers must be labeled mentioning chemical compositions, the accumulation start
date, and hazard warnings as appropriate. The institute's EHS office typically provides these
required labels.
Incompatible waste types should not be mixed and should be kept separate in order to avoid
any reaction, heat generation, and/or gas evolution.
Waste containers should be stored in secondary containers in a ventilated, cool, and dry area.
In the central accumulation area, waste containers should be grounded to avoid fire and
explosion hazards.
 Personal Protective Equipment is used according to occupational
safety and health regulations
Personal Protective Equipment is used to protect a worker from exposure to hazards or other
injuries at the workplace

Example of PPEs

 Goggles and welding shields

 Respirator and dust masks
 Overall and gloves
 Helmet
 Safety boots
2.3.6 Learning Activities
Activity 1
Determining the various Drawing Paper sizes
Materials
 A0 Drawing Paper
 Scissors
 Marker Pen
Using the drawing paper, fold along the paper to achieve the A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6
paper sizes. As shown below

Figure 20: Drawing Paper Sizes

2.3.7 Self-Assessment
1. Give two types of pencils used in drawing
2. Which of the following tools is used to draw horizontal lines?

a) Mini – drafter
 b) Protractor
c) T – square
d) French curve
3. Which of the following instruments can be used to draw accurate perpendicular lines,
parallel lines and angular lines?
a) Mini-drafter
b) T-square
c) Protractor
d) Set square
4. Which is the most common tool used for drawing circles?
a) French curve
b) Mini – drafter
c) Divider
d) Compass
5. For drawing circles with a large radius, which of the following tool is used?
a) Bow compass
b) Lengthening bar compass
c) Divider
d) Protractors
6. Discuss three best ways of waste disposal methods that are environmental friendly

2.3.8 Tools, Equipment and Materials

 Drawing room
 Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
 Drawing tables
 Pencils, papers, erasers
 Masking tapes
 Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.3.9 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-
4018-4249-6
 3. K. Morling (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier,
Jamestown, London
4. K. Venkata Reddy(2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS
Publications, Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.3.10 Model Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Give two types of pencils used in drawing
i. Soft
ii. Hard
2. Which of the following tools is used to draw horizontal lines?

a) Mini – drafter
b) Protractor
c) T – square
d) French curve
3. Which of the following instruments can be used to draw accurate perpendicular lines,
parallel lines and angular lines?
a) Mini-drafter
b) T-square
c) Protractor
d) Set square
4. Which is the most common tool used for drawing circles?
a) French curve
b) Mini – drafter
c) Divider
d) Compass
5. For drawing circles with a large radius, which of the following tool is used?
a) Bow compass
b) Lengthening bar compass
c) Divider
d) Protractors
6. Discuss three best ways of waste disposal methods that are environmental friendly
 Source reduction and reuse.
 Recycling
 Composting
 2.4 Learning Outcome 2: Produce plane geometry drawings
2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This unit covers: types of lines, geometric forms, types of angles, measurement of the
different types of angles and the appropriate measuring tools, bisection of angles and
interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns.

2.4.2 Performance Standard

1. Different types of lines used in drawing and their meanings are identified according to
standard drawing conventions
2. Different types of geometric forms are constructed according to standard drawing
conventions
3. Different types of angles are constructed according to principles of trigonometry
4. Different types of angles are measured using appropriate measuring tools
5. Angles are bisected according to standard drawing conventions
6. Sketches and drawings of patterns are interpreted according to standard conventions
7. Patterns are developed in accordance with standard conventions
2.4.3 Information Sheet
2.4.5.1 Definition of terms
Line - creates a series of continuous line segments
Types of lines in drawings
Visible Outlines, Visible Edges: (Continuous wide lines) the lines drawn to represent the
visible outlines/ visible edges / surface boundary lines of objects should be outstanding in
appearance.
Dimension Lines: (Continuous narrow Lines) Dimension Lines are drawn to mark
dimension.
Extension Lines: (Continuous narrow Lines) There are extended slightly beyond the
respective dimension lines.
Construction Lines: (Continuous narrow Lines)
Construction Lines are drawn for constructing drawings and should not be erased after
completion of the drawing.
Hatching / Section Lines: (Continuous Narrow Lines)
Hatching Lines are drawn for the sectioned portion of an object. These are drawn inclined at
an angle of 45° to the axis or to the main outline of the section.
Guide Lines: (Continuous Narrow Lines)
Guide Lines are drawn for lettering and should not be erased after lettering.
Break Lines: (Continuous Narrow Freehand Lines)
Wavy continuous narrow line drawn freehand is used to represent of an object.
Break Lines: (Continuous Narrow Lines with Zigzags)
Straight continuous arrow line with zigzags is used to represent break of an object.
Dashed Narrow Lines: (Dashed Narrow Lines)
Hidden edges / Hidden outlines of objects are shown by dashed lines of short dashes of equal
lengths of about 3 mm, spaced at equal distances of about 1 mm. the points of intersection of
these lines with the outlines / another hidden line should be clearly shown.
Center Lines: (Long-Dashed Dotted Narrow Lines)
Center Lines are drawn at the center of the drawings symmetrical about an axis or both the
axes. These are extended by a short distance beyond the outline of the drawing.
Table 7: Types of lines

Construction of geometric forms e.g. circles, triangles, quadrilaterals

Triangles

This is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides.

Types of triangles
 i. Scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
ii. Isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides, and hence two angles, equal.
iii. Equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides, and hence all the angles, equal.
iv. Right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite the right
angle is called the ‘hypotenuse’.
v. Obtuse-angled triangle
vi. Acute-angled triangle

Construct the different types of triangles

Construct the different triangles given:
 One of the sides
 Perimeter and altitude
 Base angles and perimeter
 Base, altitude and vertical angle
 Perimeter and the ratio of the sides
 Perimeter, altitude and vertical angle
 Similar triangle with different perimeter

Quadrilaterals

This is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.

Types of quadrilaterals
i. Square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and one of its angles (and
hence the other three) a right angle.
ii. Rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and one of its angles
(and hence the other three) a right angle.
iii. Parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel.
iv. Rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
v. Trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
vi. Trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.

Construct the different types of quadrilaterals

1. Construct a square given:
a. Length of the side
 b. Diagonal length
2. Construct a rectangle given:
a. Diagonal length and one of the sides
3. Construct a parallelogram given:
a. Two sides and an angle
4. Construct a rhombus given:
a. Diagonal length and length of side
5. Construct a trapezium given:
a. Lengths of parallel sides, perpendicular distance and one angle

Polygons

This is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides.

Types of polygons
i. Pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.
ii. Hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
iii. Heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
iv. Octagon is a plane figure bounded by eight sides.
v. Nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
vi. Decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides.
Construct the different types of polygons
1. Construct a polygon given length of one side
i. Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the sides.
ii. Bisect GA.
iii. From A construct an angle of 45 ° to intersect the bisector at point 4.
iv. From G construct an angle of 60 ° to intersect the bisector at point 6.
v. Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 5.
vi. Point 4 is the centre of a circle containing a square. Point 5 is the centre of a circle
containing a pentagon. Point 6 is the centre of a circle containing a hexagon. By
marking off points at similar distances the centres of circles containing any regular
polygon can be obtained.
vii. Mark off point 7 so that 6 to 7 _ 5 to 6 (4 to 5).
viii. With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 to A (7 to G).
ix. Step off the sides of the figure from A to B, B to C, etc.
Figure 21: Heptagon
2. Construct a polygon given the diagonal length
i. Draw the given circle and insert a diameter AM.
ii. Divide the diameter into the same number of divisions as the polygon has sides.
iii. With centre M draw an arc, radius MA. With centre A draw another arc of the same
radius to intersect the first arc in N.
iv. Draw N 2 and produce to intersect the circle in B (for any polygon).
v. AB is the first side of the polygon. Step out the other sides BC, CD, etc.

Figure 22: Pentagon

Circles

A circle is the locus of a point which moves so that it is always a fixed distance from another
stationary point.
i. Concentric circles are circles that have the same centre.
ii. Eccentric circles are circles that are not concentric.
Figure 23: Parts of a circle
Construct to satisfy the following conditions

 Circumference of a circle, given the diameter

 Construct the diameter of a circle, given the circumference
 Centre of any circle
 Circle to pass through three given points

Tangency
A tangent to a circle is a straight line that touches the circle at one point.
Construct the different conditions of tangency
 Common tangent to two equal circles
 Common interior tangent to two equal circles
 Common tangent between two unequal circles
 Common internal tangent between two unequal circles

Construct the following conditions Inscribed, Circumscribed and Escribed

i. Inscribed Circle
Bisect any two of the interior angles to intersect in O. (If the third angle is bisected it should
also pass through O.)
O is the centre of the inscribed circle. This centre is called the in centre.

Figure 24: Inscribed Circle

 ii. Circumscribed Circle
Perpendicularly bisect any two sides to intersect in O. (If the third side is bisected it should
also pass through O.)
O is the centre of the circumscribed circle. This centre is called the circumcentre.

Figure 25: Circumscribed circle

iii. Escribed Circle
An escribed circle is a circle that touches a side and the two adjacent sides produced. Thus, the
first step is to produce the adjacent sides.
Bisect the exterior angles thus formed to intersect in O.O is the centre of the escribed circle

Figure 26: Escribed Circle

Construction of different angles
Constructing a 60º Angle

We know that the angles in an equilateral triangle are all 60º in size. This suggests that to
construct a 60º angle we need to construct an equilateral triangle as described below.

Step 1: Draw the arm PQ.

Step 2: Place the point of the compass at P and draw an arc that passes through Q.
Step 3: Place the point of the compass at Q and draw an arc that passes through P. Let this
arc cut the arc drawn in Step 2 at R.
Figure 27: 60º angle

Constructing a 30º Angle

We know that:

So, to construct an angle of 30º, first construct a 60º angle and then bisect it. Often, we apply
the following steps.
Step 1: Draw the arm PQ.
Step 2: Place the point of the compass at P and draw an arc that passes through Q.
Step 3: Place the point of the compass at Q and draw an arc that cuts the arc drawn in Step 2
at R.
Step 4: With the point of the compass still at Q, draw an arc near T as shown.
Step 5: With the point of the compass at R, draw an arc to cut the arc drawn in Step 4 at T.
Step 6: Join T to P. The angle QPT is 30º.

Figure 28: 30º Angle

Constructing a 120º Angle

We know that:
This means that 120º is the supplement of 60º. Therefore, to construct a 120º angle, construct
a 60º angle and then extend one of its arms as shown below.

Figure 29: 120º Angle

Constructing a 90º Angle

We can construct a 90º angle either by bisecting a straight angle or using the following steps.

Step 1: Draw the arm PA.

Step 2: Place the point of the compass at P and draw an arc that cuts the arm at Q.
Step 3: Place the point of the compass at Q and draw an arc of radius PQ that cuts the arc
drawn in Step 2 at R.
Step 4: With the point of the compass at R, draw an arc of radius PQ to cut the arc drawn in
Step 2 at S.
Step 5: With the point of the compass still at R, draw another arc of radius PQ near T as
shown.
Step 6: With the point of the compass at S, draw an arc of radius PQ to cut the arc drawn in
step 5 at T.
Step 7: Join T to P. The angle APT is 90º.
Figure 30: 90º Angle
Bisect a given angle

Figure 31: Bisecting an angle

i. Draw line AB and BC making the given angle
ii. With centre A and any convenient radius R draw an arc intersecting the sides at D and
E.
iii. With centres D and E and radius larger than half the chord length DE, draw arcs
intersecting at F.
iv. Join AF, <BAF = <FAC

Measurement of different angles

An angle is a fraction of a circle where the whole circle is 360°. A straight angle is the same
as half the circle and is 180° whereas a right angle is a quarter of a circle and is 90°.

You measure the size of an angle with a protractor.

Figure 32: Protractor

In geometry, an angle measure can be defined as the measure of the formed by the two or
arms at a common vertex.
A line that has one defined endpoint is called a ray and extends endlessly in one direction. A
ray is named after the endpoint and another point on the ray.

A degree is defined as a complete rotation in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction,

where the beginning and the ending point is the same. The rotation is divided into 360 units.

It is said to be 10 if the rotation from the initial and ending side is [1 / 360]th of the rotation.
The degree is divided into hours, minutes and seconds. One degree is 60 minutes and one
minute is 60 seconds.

Measurement of Angle – Radian Measure

Consider a circle of radius one unit. Let the arc of the circle be one unit. The measure of the
angle is 1 radian if the arc subtends at the center, provided the radius and arc lengths are
equal.

The arc length of a circle with radius unity is equal to the angle in radian.

Measurement of Angle – Grade Measure

A grade can be defined as a right angle divided into a hundred equal parts. Further, each
grade is divided into a hundred minutes and each minute into a hundred seconds.

Measurement of Angles Formula

The following formulae can be used in the measurement of angles.

Degree Measure

Ç“
1° = « ¬ Of a complete rotation
%$

Radian Measure

 = Ó Where l is the arc length and r is the radius of the circle

û

Relation between Degree, Radian and Grade Measure

Degree and Radian measure

It is known that a complete rotation in degrees is 3600 and 1 complete rotation = 2π radians in
radian measure.

2π (radians) = 360° (degrees) or π (radians) = 180° (degrees)

Assuming, π = 3.14159

180°
14 D =
¦

¦
1 ‹.4‹‹ =
180

Bisection of different angles and lines

How to bisect an angle with compass and straightedge or ruler. To bisect an angle means that
we divide the angle into two equal (congruent) parts without actually measuring the angle.
This Euclidean construction works by creating two congruent triangles.

This construction works by effectively building two congruent triangles. The image below is
the final drawing above with the red lines added and points A, B, C labelled.

Bisecting an angle
Steps
1. Place compass point on the vertex of the angle (point B).
2. Stretch the compass to any length that will stay ON the angle.
3. Swing an arc so the pencil crosses both sides (rays) of the given angle. You should now
have two intersection points with the sides (rays) of the angle.
4. Place the compass point on one of these new intersection points on the sides of the angle.
If needed, stretch the compass to a sufficient length to place your pencil well into the
interior of the angle. Stay between the sides (rays) of the angle. Place an arc in this
interior (it is not necessary to cross the sides of the angle).
5. Without changing the span on the compass, place the point of the compass on the other
intersection point on the side of the angle and make a similar arc. The two small arcs in
the interior of the angle should be intersecting.
6. Connect the vertex of the angle (point B) to this intersection of the two small arcs.
You now have two new angles of equal measure, with each being half of the original
given angle.
Figure 33: Bisecting an angle

Bisecting a Line

1. Place your compass point on A and stretch the compass MORE THAN half way to point
B (you may also stretch to point B).

2. With this length, swing a large arc that will go above and below .
3. Without changing the span on the compass, place the compass point on B and swing the
arc again. The two arcs need to be extended sufficiently so they will intersect in two
locations.
4. Using your straight edge, connect the two points of intersection with a line or segment to
locate point C which bisects the segment.

Figure 34: Bisecting a line

Standard drawing conventions
Conventions are a widely used practice or procedure. Standards are a set of rules for doing
things. Because drawings contain a lot of information they can easily become cluttered and
not easily understood by all working with them. One way to keep them tidy and consistent is
to use standards and conventions.

Dimensions
Dimensioning is the convention used for adding measurement notes, such as the length and
breadth of the object, to a drawing. Dimensions include text, lines, extension lines and
arrowheads.

The conventions relating to dimensions are as follows:

 State dimensions once only.

 Place in the most appropriate view.
 Keep related dimensions on the same view.
 Select the functional dimensions.
 Avoid redundant dimensions.

Give metric dimensions to the least number of significant figures, for example;
2.5 not 2.50
3 not 3.0
Dimensions less than 1 are expressed with a zero preceding the decimal point;
0.5 not 5

Letters and Numbers

All drawings require some form of lettering and numbers. The principles to remember are:

 They should be legible and clear – especially numbers, as they often have to be read
on their own.
 They should be of a suitable size and not less than 3mm tall. Title blocks and relative
information are usually larger.
 They should be correctly spaced and positioned. Notes and captions should be placed
so that they can be read in the same direction as in the title block. In other worlds it
should not be necessary to turn a drawing on its side to read the information.
 Notes should be grouped together and not spread over the drawing.
 Underlining is not recommended.

Borders and Title Blocks

One of the most important features of any drawing is the border and title block. The border
(or margin) is a line which follows the outer edge of the drawing and is usually 10 or 20mm
inside it. This margin is very important because everything inside it forms part of any
contract.
The ‘Title Block’ is locked within the boarder and contains information such as:

 Project title – i.e. New Community School.

 The subject – i.e. Hot and Cold Water Services.
 The date of the original drawing.
 Dates of any revisions.
 Job Number.
 Drawing Number.
 Scale.
 The name of the person who drew up the drawing.
 Name of architects, consultant engineers or surveyors.

Title Blocks are usually located along the bottom or sides of drawings as shown below:

Scales

A scale can be used to increase the detail of a small object or to accurately represent a large
object on a smaller piece of paper. The majority of scaled work done in the construction
industry is to reduce objects to a smaller more suitable size that will fit on a sheet of paper.
The list below shows the scales used in BS 1192:

 Block Plans 1:2500 – These show the outlines of buildings and may also indicate
roads, railway lines or rivers.
 Site Plans: Between 1:500 and 1:2500 – Although often drawn at the same scale as
the block plan site plans only give details relevant to the actual project. These details
could relate to landscaping arrangements or show underground drainage pipe-work.
 General Location Drawings 1:200 or 1:100 – These drawings can show pipe runs
within the building and the location of radiators and sanitary fixtures.
 When details of boiler houses or plant rooms are given the scale may increase to
1:50. This enables greater detail to be shown.
 Where particular detail is necessary the scale could be as high as 1:20 or 1:10. This
could be in the case of a bracket or support for a piece of equipment.
Graphical Symbols and Abbreviations

In order to read a drawing properly, and to understand what is happening, an agreed set of
graphical symbols and abbreviations are used.

Table 8: Abbreviations for Pipe Rises/Drops

Table 9: Service Abbreviations

The symbols on the following pages are from the British Standards Institution and are used
extensively in drawings relating to mechanical services.
Table 10: BSI Symbols
Table 11: BSI Mechanical Symbols

2.4.6 Learning Activities

Activity 1
Materials
 Drawing Papers
 Drawing Board
 Pencils
 T-square
 Set- square
 Engineering drawing set
 Tape
1. Construct margins on the drawing paper
2. Construct a Title Block at the bottom right hand corner of length 120mm by 50mm and S
3. Print letters of the alphabet and numerical 0 - 9

2.4.7 Self-Assessment
1. Construct a hexagon of side 20mm
2. Construct a tangent to a circle of diameter 20mm from any point P on its
circumference.
3. Construct a diagonal scale 1/50, showing meters, decimeters and centimeters, to
measure up to 5 meters. Mark a length 4. 75 m on it.

2.4.8 Tool, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Drawing room
 Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
 Drawing tables
 Pencils, papers, erasers
 Masking tapes
 Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.4.9 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-
4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications,
Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.4.10 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Construct a hexagon of side 20mm
2. Construct a tangent to a circle of diameter 20mm from any point P on its
circumference.

3. Construct a diagonal scale 1/50, showing metres, decimetres and centimetres, to

measure upto 5 metres. Mark a length 4. 75 m on it.
 2.5 Learning Outcome 3: Produce solid geometry drawings
2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns, sectioning
of views, development and interpenetration of solids.

2.5.2 Performance Standard

1. Interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns e.g. cylinders, prisms, cones and
pyramids
2. Sectional views are produced according to standard conventions of drawing.
3. Development and interpenetrations of solids e.g. cylinder to cylinder and cylinder to
triangular, prism according to standard conventions of drawings

2.5.3 Information Sheet

Interpretation of drawing patterns
A solid has three dimensions, the length, breadth and thickness or height. A solid may be
represented by orthographic views, the number of which depends on the type of solid and its
orientation with respect to the planes of projection. Solids are classified into two major
groups. (i) Polyhedra and (ii) Solids of revolution
Prism
A prism is a polyhedron having two equal ends called the bases parallel to each other. The
two bases are joined by faces, which are rectangular in shape. The imaginary line passing
through the centers of the bases is called the axis of the prism.

Figure 35: Prism

Pyramids
A pyramid is a polyhedron having one base, with a number of isosceles triangular faces,
meeting at a point called the apex. The imaginary line passing through the center of the base
and the apex is called the axis of the pyramid.

Sectional views
A sectional view or a section looks inside an object. Sections are used to clarify the interior
construction of a part that cannot be clearly described by hidden lines in exterior views.
Types of sectional views

1. Full sections. This is the most common section (called a full section) with the imaginary
laser cutting a line across the entire construction, offering a view of a portion of the
building with the rest of it put to one side.

Figure 36: Full Sections

2. Half sections or views. In this type of section, only half of the space or object is cut
away. This allows you to see part of it in elevation, while the other part of the drawing
gives a glimpse inside.
3. Offset sections or views. In an offset section, the cutting plane does not follow a straight
line. This might be used, for example, if the architect or engineer wanted to show a
 section of one room but also the section of another that is located behind it. In other
words, while the cutting planes are parallel, the one in one portion of the drawing may be
some distance from the plane in another portion.
4. Broken out sections or broken views. With these drawings, only a small portion of the
object or space is shown in section. Instead of a section line, the portion that is shown in
section is indicated by an irregular cut line.
5. Revolving sections or view. With this type of section, a space or detail is shown with a
cutting plane at an angle, and then the section is rotated so that the cutting plane faces the
viewer.
6. Removed sections. With a removed section, only a portion of the drawing is shown in
section, and this detail is removed to the side. The scale of the section will be different
from the main drawing, providing a more detailed perspective.

Rules of Sectioning
1. A section lined area is always completely bounded by a visible outline.
2. The section lines in all areas should be parallel. Section lines shown in opposite
directions indicate a different part.
3. All the visible edges behind the cutting plane should be shown.
4. Hidden features should be omitted in all areas of a section view. Exceptions include
threads and broken out sections.

Development and interpenetrations of solids

Methods of development
The method to be followed for making the development of a solid depends upon the nature of
its lateral surfaces. Based on the classification of solids, the following are the methods of
development.
1. Parallel-line Development
It is used for developing prisms and single curved surfaces like cylinders in which all the
edges / generators of lateral surfaces are parallel to each other.
2. Radial-line Development
It is employed for pyramids and single curved surfaces like cones in which the apex is taken
as center and the slant edge or generator (which are the true lengths) as radius for its
development.
Development of surfaces of prisms

Figure 37: Prism

Development of surfaces of pyramids

Figure 38: Pyramid

Development of surfaces of cylinders

Figure 39: Cylinder

Development of surfaces of cones

The development of the lateral surface of a cone is a sector of a circle. The radius and length
of the arc are equal to the slant height and circumference of the base of the cone respectively.
The included angle of the sector is given by (r / s) x 360°, where r is the radius of the base of
the cone and s is the true length.
Figure 40: Cone
Intersection of regular solids
Ducts, pipe joints, smoke stacks, boilers, containers, machine castings etc., involve intersection
of surfaces. Sheet metal work required for the fabrication of the above objects necessitate the
preparation of the development of the joints objects.
Orthographic drawings of lines and curves of intersection of surfaces must be prepared first for
the accurate development of objects.
Intersection of cylinder and cylinder

Figure 41: Intersection of cylinder

Case II Cylinders of Same size
Figure 42: Intersection of cylinders with the same size
Intersection of prism and prism

When a prism penetrates another prism, plane surface of one prism intersects the plane surfaces
of another prism and hence the lines of intersection will be straight lines.
In these cases, lines on the surface of one of the solids need not necessarily be drawn as it is
done with cylinders.
Instead, the points of intersections of the edges with the surface are located by mere inspection.
These points are projected in the other view and the lines of intersection obtained.

Figure 43: Intersection of prisms

2.5.4 Learning Activities
Activity 1
Materials
 Drawing Papers
  Pencil
 T- square
 Set squares
 Drawing set
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone, whose base is 40mm
diameter and height 60mm rests with its base on H.P. and bisects the axis of the cone. Using
the following steps:
1. Draw the two views of the given cone and indicate the cutting plane.
2. Draw the lateral surface of the complete cone.
3. Divide the base into 8 equal parts.
4. Draw the generators in the front view corresponding to the above divisions.
5. Mark the points of intersection 1, 2, 3 etc. between the cutting plane and the generators.
6. Transfer the points 1, 2, 3 etc. to the development after finding the true distances of 1,2,3
etc. from the apex 0 of the cone in the front view.
2.5.5 Self-Assessment
1. Draw the projections of a cube of 35mm side, resting on one of its faces (bases) on HP.
such that one of its vertical faces is parallel to and 10mm in front of VP.
2. A triangular prism with side of base 35mm and axis 50mm long is resting on its base on
HP. Draw the projections of the prism when one of its rectangular faces is perpendicular
to VP and the nearest edge parallel to VP is 10mm from it.
3. A hexagonal prism of side of base 30 mm and axis 70 mm long is resting on its base on
HP. such that a rectangular face is parallel to VP. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 300 to HP. The section plane is passing through the
top end of an extreme lateral edge of the prism. Draw the development of the lateral
surface of the cut prism.
4. A T-pipe connection consists of a vertical cylinder of diameter 80mm and a horizontal
cylinder of the same size. The axes of the cylinders meet at right angles. Draw the curves
of intersection.
2.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
1. Drawing room
2. Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
3. Drawing tables
4. Pencils, papers, erasers
5. Masking tapes
6. Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.5.7 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-
4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications,
Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.5.8 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Draw the projections of a cube of 35mm side, resting on one of its faces (bases) on HP.
such that one of its vertical faces is parallel to and 10mm in front of VP.

2. A triangular prism with side of base 35mm and axis 50mm long is resting on its base on
HP. Draw the projections of the prism when one of its rectangular faces is perpendicular
to VP and the nearest edge parallel to VP is 10mm from it.
3. A hexagonal prism of side of base 30 mm and axis 70 mm long is resting on its base on
HP. such that a rectangular face is parallel to VP. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 300 to HP. The section plane is passing through the
top end of an extreme lateral edge of the prism. Draw the development of the lateral
surface of the cut prism.

4. A T-pipe connection consists of a vertical cylinder of diameter 80mm and a horizontal

cylinder of the same size. The axes of the cylinders meet at right angles. Draw the curves
of intersection.
 2.6 Learning Outcome 4: Produce orthographic drawings
2.6.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome
This learning outcome covers free hand sketching, orthographic views, first angle
orthographic drawings and third angle orthographic drawings.

2.6.2 Performance Standard

1. Development of free hand sketching of geometric forms in orthographic view
2. Development of first angle orthographic drawings of components
3. Development of third angle orthographic drawing of components and parts

2.6.3 Information Sheet

2.6.5.1 Definition of terms
'ORTHO' means right angle
Orthographic means right angled drawing

Freehand sketching of views

Orthographic Drawing
'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. When the projectors
are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it is known as orthographic
projection.

Types of views

 Front view
 Plan view
 End view

Figure 44: Orthographic views

First Angle Projection
When the object is situated in First Quadrant, that is, in front of V.P and above H.P, the
projections obtained on these planes is called First angle projection.
i. The object lies in between the observer and the plane of projection.
ii. The front view is drawn above the XY line and the top view below XY. (Above XY
line is Y.P and below XP line is H.P).
iii. In the front view, H.P coincides with XY line and in top view Y.P coincides with XY
line.
iv. Front view shows the length (L) and height (H) of the object and Top view shows the
length (L) and breadth (B) or width (W) or thickness (T) of it.
Third Angle Projection
In this, the object is situated in Third Quadrant. The Planes of projection lie between the object
and the observer. The front view comes below the XY line and the top view about it.

Figure 45: Orthographic projections

Orthographic views from Isometric drawing

Figure 46: Orthographic views from Isometric drawing

Orthographic views from Oblique drawing

Figure 47: Orthographic views from Oblique drawing

Conversion

The following principles of orthographic views are considered in making the above drawings:
1. In first angle projection; the Front view on the above and the Top view at the bottom are
always in line vertically.
2. The front view and the side view are always in line horizontally.
3. Each view gives two dimensions; usually the front view gives length and height, top view
gives length and width and side view gives height and width.
4. When the surface is parallel to a plane its projection on that plane will show its true shape
and size.
5. When the surface is inclined its projection will be foreshortened as shown

Figure 48: Conversion of orthographic views

2.6.6 Learning Activities
Activity
Materials
 Drawing Papers
 Pencil
 T- square
 Set squares
 Drawing set
Using the steps listed below, draw the front and plan view of point A is 40 mm above HP and
60 mm in front of VP.

Steps
The point A lies in the I Quadrant

Looking from the front, the point lies 40 mm above H.P. A- a1 is the projector perpendicular
to
V.P. Hence a1 is the front view .of the point A and it is 40 mm above the xy line.
To obtain the top view of A, look from the top. Point A is 60mm in front of VP. A is the
projector perpendicular to H.P Hence, a is the top view of the point A and it is 60 mm in front
of xy.
To convert the projections a1 and a obtained in the pictorial view into orthographic
projections the following steps are needed.
(a) Rotate the H.P about the xy line through 90° in the clock wise direction as shown.
(b) After rotation, the first quadrant is opened out and the H.P occupies the position vertically
below the V.P line. Also, the point A on H.P will trace a quadrant of a circle with 0 as center
and o-a as radius. Now a occupies the position just below o. The line joining a1 and a, called
the projector, is perpendicular to xy
To draw the orthographic projections.
Note:
(a) Front view: Draw the xy line and draw a projector at any point on it. Mark a1 40mm above
xy on the projector.
(b) Top view: on the same projector, mark a 60 mm below xy.
2.6.7 Self-Assessment
1. Construct the following orthographic views from the given diagram in first angle.
i. Front view
ii. Plan view

2. From the orthographic views given construct the isometric drawing

2.6.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

1. Drawing room
2. Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
3. Drawing tables
4. Pencils, papers, erasers
5. Masking tapes
6. Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.6.9 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-
4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications,
Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.6.10 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Construct the following orthographic views from the given diagram in first angle.
i. Front view
ii. Plan view

2. From the orthographic views given construct the isometric drawing

 2.7 Learning Outcome 5: Produce pictorial drawings
2.7.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome
This learning outcome covers the meaning of pictorial drawings, the isometric projections
and oblique drawings.

2.7.2 Performance Standard

1. Different pictorial drawings are identified, and their meaning interpreted according to
standard drawing conventions
2. Isometric sketches and drawings of components are interpreted and produced in
accordance with the standard conventions of isometric drawings
3. Oblique sketches and drawings of components are interpreted and produced in
accordance with the standard conventions of isometric drawings
2.7.3 Information Sheet
2.7.5.1 Definition of terms
Pictorial drawings - A Pictorial drawing is a 3D representation of an object.
It is a pictorial orthographic projection of an object in which a transparent cube containing the
object is tilted until one of the solid diagonals of the cube becomes perpendicular to the vertical
plane and the three axes are equally inclined to this vertical plane.
Types of Pictorial projections
(i) Perspective projection
(ii) Isometric projection
(iii) Oblique projection

Isometric drawing
An isometric drawing is a type of 3D drawing that is set out using 30-degree angles.

Types of isometric drawing

 Cavalier
 Cabinet

Lines in Isometric Projection

The following are the relations between the lines in isometric projection
 The lines that are parallel on the object are parallel in the isometric projection.
 Vertical lines on the object appear vertical in the isometric projection.
 Horizontal lines on the object are drawn at an angle of 3 0° with the horizontal in the
isometric projection.
 A line parallel to an isometric axis is called an isometric line and it is fore shortened to
82%.
 A line which is not parallel to any isometric axis is called non-isometric line and the extent
of foreshortening of non-isometric lines are different if their inclinations with the vertical
planes are different.
Isometric drawing methods
 Box construction
 Four center method

Oblique Drawing
A projective drawing of which the frontal lines are given in true proportions and relations and
all others at inclined angles with 45° being the most common.

Characteristics of an oblique drawing

In oblique projection, the front face of the object appears in its true size and shape, as it is
placed parallel to the picture plane. The receding lines representing the other two faces are
usually drawn at 30°, 45° or 60° to the horizontal, 45° being the most common practice.
Oblique projections are classified as cavalier, cabinet.
Draw an oblique box

Figure 38 : Isometric and Oblique Circles

Construction of Isometric circles using the method of points

i. Enclose the circle in a square 1-2-3-4 and draw diagonals. Also draw lines YA
horizontally and XA vertically.
ii. To draw the isometric view of the square 1-2-3-4
iii. Mark the mid points of the sides of the square as B 0 F and H.
 iv. Locate the points X and Y on lines 1-4 and 1-2 respectively.
v. Through the point X, draw A X parallel to line 1-2 to get point A on the diagonal 1-3.
The point A can be obtained also by drawing Y A through the point Y and parallel to
the line 1-4.
vi. Similarly obtain other points C, E and G
vii. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points to obtain the required isometric
view of the horizontal circular plane.
viii. Similarly obtain isometric view of the vertical circular plane

Figure 39 : Angles, Circles and Curves in Oblique Projection

As already mentioned, angles, circles and irregular curves on the surfaces, parallel to the picture
plane, appear in true size and shape. However, when they are located on receding faces, the
construction methods, similar to isometric drawing may be followed.
For example, the method of representing a circle on an oblique face may be carried out by
offset method and the four center method cannot be used. In case of cabinet oblique, the method
and the result is the same as that of isometric drawing, since the angle of the receding axis can
be the same as that of isometric axis.
Shows circles of same size in both isometric and oblique projections using 45° for the receding
axis for oblique projections.
Curved features of all sorts on the receding faces or inclined surfaces may be plotted either by
the off-set or co-ordinate methods as shown
 2.7.6 Learning Activities
Using the drawing instrument and materials listed below draw the isometric projection of a
square plane. The following steps are to be followed.
1. Draw a line at 30° to the horizontal and mark the isometric length on it.
2. Draw verticals at the ends of the line and mark the isometric length on these parallel lines.
3. Join the ends by a straight line which is also inclined at 30° to the horizontal

2.7.7 Self-Assessment
1. Construct isometric drawings from the orthographic views below.

2. Construct the isometric drawing below in cavalier.

2.7.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

1. Drawing room
2. Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
3. Drawing tables
4. Pencils, papers, erasers
5. Masking tapes
6. Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.7.9 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-
4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications,
Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.7.10 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. Construct isometric drawings from the orthographic views below

2. Construct the isometric drawing below in cavalier.

 2.8 Learning Outcome 6: Produce electrical drawings
2.8.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome
This learning outcome covers, the electrical symbols and abbreviations and the construction
and interpretation of electrical drawings.

2.8.2 Performance Standard

1. Different electrical symbols and abbreviations are identified, and their meaning interpreted
according to standard drawing conventions
2. Electrical drawings are drawn and their meaning interpreted according to standard drawing
conventions
2.8.3 Information Sheet
Electrical symbols
Symbols are a shorthand way of showing the locations, types, and sizes or ratings of
electrical wiring and equipment, and the interrelationships between these items. It should be
emphasized that drawings need to be supplemented with specifications in order to establish
the details of the electrical systems.

Table 12: Electrical symbols

Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay

Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet

SPDT Relay

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols

Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock

Earth Ground
protection.

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols
Resistor (IEEE)

Resistor reduces the current flow.

Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.

Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor / Rheostat

(IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor / Rheostat
(IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when temperature

Thermistor
changes

Photoresistor / Light Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity

dependent resistor (LDR) change

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation

Generator
of the generator

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

 Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current of
Controlled Voltage Source
other circuit element.

Generates current as a function of voltage or current of

Controlled Current Source
other circuit element.

Meter Symbols

Measures voltage. Has very high resistance. Connected

Voltmeter
in parallel.

Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Ammeter
Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in one direction only - left

Diode
(anode) to right (cathode).

Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow

Zener Diode
in the reverse direction when above breakdown voltage
Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode

LED emits light when current flows through
(LED)

Photodiode Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to light

Transistor Symbols

Allows current flow when high potential at base

NPN Bipolar Transistor
(middle)

Allows current flow when low potential at base

PNP Bipolar Transistor
(middle)

Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of the

Darlington Transistor
product of each gain.

JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor

JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor

 Misc. Symbols

Motor Electric motor

Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated

Buzzer Produce buzzing sound

Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Fuse

Bus

Bus Contains several wires. Usually for data / address.

Bus

Optocoupler / Opto-isolator Optocoupler isolates connection to other board

Loudspeaker Converts electrical signal to sound waves

Microphone Converts sound waves to electrical signal

 Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.

Analog-to-digital converter
Converts analog signal to digital numbers
(ADC)

Digital-to-Analog converter
Converts digital numbers to analog signal
(DAC)

Crystal Oscillator Used to generate precise frequency clock signal

⎓ Direct current Direct current is generated from constant voltage level

Antenna Symbols

Antenna / aerial

Transmits & receives radio waves

Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols

NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0

AND Gate Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.

NAND Gate Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)

 OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

NOR Gate Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)

XOR Gate Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)

D Flip-Flop Stores one bit of data

Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1

Connects the output to selected input line.

Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1

Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to
Connects selected output to the input line.
4

Electrical drawings
An electrical drawing is a type of technical drawing that shows information about power,
lighting, and communication for an engineering or architectural project, Floor plans showing
the location of electrical systems on every floor. Power-riser diagrams showing panel boards.

2.8.4 Learning Activities

Using the drawing equipment and materials, draw the electrical wiring plan for the TD
classroom.

2.8.5 Self-Assessment
Construct the symbols of the following electrical components

1. Diode
2. Connected crossing wires
3. NOR gate
4. Fuse
 2.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
1. Drawing room
2. Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
3. Drawing tables
4. Pencils, papers, erasers
5. Masking tapes
6. Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.8.7 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-
4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications,
Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.8.8 Answers to Self-Assessment
Construct the symbols of the following electrical components

1. Diode

2. Connected crossing wires

3. NOR gate
4. Fuse
2.1 2.9 Learning Outcome 6: producing Assembly drawings
2.9.1 Introduction to the learning Outcome
This unit of competence involves how to create various types of sectional views, assembly
drawings, hatching and creating a parts list of the assembly drawing according to drawing
standards and convention.
2.9.2 Performance Standard
1. Produce sectional views of various assembly drawings according to standard drawing
conventions.
2. Different sectional views are hatched according to the technical drawing standards
and conventions.
3. Generate a parts list from the different assembly drawings using technical drawings
standards
2.9.3 Information Sheet
What is a section view?
A sectional view or a section looks inside an object. Sections are used to clarify the interior
construction of a part that cannot be clearly described by hidden lines in exterior views. By
taking an imaginary cut through the object and removing a portion, the inside features may be
seen more clearly.

Creating a section view.

The part is cut using an imaginary cutting plane. The unwanted portion is mentally discarded
exposing the interior construction.
Lines used in section views.
Cutting Plane - An imaginary plane along which a section is taken.
Cutting Plane Line - A line on a normal view that shows where the cutting plane passes
through the object. It is used to show where the object is being cut. (Phantom or Hidden line
type)

Figure 40 : use of long distance and short distance lines

Figure 41 : Cutting line
Section Lines - Used to indicate where the cutting plane cuts the material. Section lines are
thin and the symbols (type of lines) are chosen according to the material of the object.
Section lines are generally drawn at a 45° angle and they are generally drawn 1/8” apart.
However, different materials (steel and bronze) have different patterns that may have a
uniquely different spacing.

Cast iron, all materials. Steel. Brass, Bronze, Copper.

Rules of Sectioning
A section lined area is always completely bounded by a visible outline.
The section lines in all areas should be parallel. Section lines shown in opposite
directions indicate a different part. All the visible edges behind the cutting plane should be
shown. Hidden features should be omitted in all areas of a section view. Exceptions include
threads and broken out sections.
What type of section should I use?
The type of section used depends on the situation and what information needs to be
conveyed.
Types of Sectional Views
1. Full Sections
2. Offset Sections
3. Half Sections
4. Broken-Out Sections
5. Revolved Sections
6. Removed Sections
7. Auxiliary Sections
8. Phantom Sections
Full Section
To create a full section, the cutting plane passes fully through the object. Used in many
cases to avoid having to dimension hidden lines. Material: General Use

Half Section
A half section exposes the interior of one half of an object while retaining the exterior
of the other half. Half sections are used mainly for symmetric objects or assembly drawings.
A centerline is used to separate the two halves. Hidden lines should not be shown on either
half.

Offset Section
An offset section is produced by bending the cutting plane to show features that don’t lie in the same
plane.
Parts list
All parts in assembly drawing have to be identified, each single part is usually labelled by
means of a reference number which maybe its detail drawing number or an independent item
number. The separate parts comprising the assembly are located are locate in the drawing
leaders radiating from the circles or balloons which contain the relevant reference numbers
and are usually listed in a parts list. For small assemblies the parts list is placed next to the
title block on the drawing, while for large assemblies it is usually on sheet separate from the
drawing.
A typical parts list might have the following details;
a) The part number
b) The name or description of the part
c) The material from which the part is to be made
d) The quantity required

Figure 42 : Parts list

Title block
For any drawing to be stored and when required, to be identified and located quickly, an
efficient system of labelling and cross referencing is required. To facilitate all these drawing s
they must have a title block, which should usually contain the following information required
for identification and interpretation of the drawing:
 a) The name of the firm/ college
b) The drawing number
c) the title
d) the scale ratio used
e) the date of the drawing
f) The signature of the draughtsman/student
g) The projection symbol (first or third angle)
h) The tolerances
The title block should preferably be positioned at the bottom of the sheet, with the drawing
number in the lower right hand corner/ top left hand corner of the drawing for filing reference
purposes.

Figure 43 : suggested title blocks

Figure 44 : Assembly drawing with explanatory notes

Note: Assembly drawings may include a grid reference system which is based on numbered
and lettered divisions in the margin of the drawing sheet as shown in the assembly drawing
above.
2.9.4 Learning Activities
Using drawing instruments, draw an assembly drawing from the given sectional views
according to the technical drawings standards. Include a parts list.
2.9.5 Self-assessment
1 Given the top and right-side views, sketch the front view as a full section. The material
used is steel. Trace over the dashed lines with the correct line type needed. Add the
appropriate section view label letters for identification purposes.
 F
2 Given the front and right side views, sketch the top view as a full section and create a half
sectioned right side view. Top View first, Side view second. The material used is brass.
Add appropriate letters to identify different section view labels.
2.9.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Drawing Instruments
 Drawing paper
 Drawing pencils
 Rubber

2.9.7 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar
Thomson Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for
Engineering Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-
4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications,
Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.9.8 Model answers
- Invisible lines added

- With section lines added

2. – Top view shown with object lines drawn. - Top view shown as full section

Right side view shown as a half section view

Right side view shown with object lines.
 2.9 Learning Outcome 7: Apply CAD Packages
2.9.3 Introduction to the learning Outcome
This unit of competence involves how to establish drawing requirements, identify key features
of CAD software, and navigate CAD software and produce engine parts, electrical and electronic
circuits and vehicle body parts drawings

2.9.4 Performance Standard

1. CAD packages are selected according to task requirements
2. CAD packages are applied in production of engine parts, electrical and electronic
circuits and vehicle body parts drawings

2.9.5 Information Sheet

Identification of CAD packages, computing equipment and software
CAD software on computers allow engineers to create precision drawings or technical
illustrations in 2D or 3D. These software can increase productivity, improve quality, and
maximize organization by creating a documentation database for manufacturing.
There are many different types of CAD software that can be used depending on an
individual/institution’s preference:
 AutoCAD
 Solid works
 CATIA
 Cero
 Autodesk Inventor
 Fusion 360
The following factors may affect the choice of a CAD software:
 The application feature set should fully meet our needs
 The total cost of ownership of the application
 Ability to easily find answers to common questions through community resources
 The CAD solution is natively interoperable with other solutions such as simulation
 There is an active online support / community
CAD packages are applied in production of engine parts, electrical and electronic circuits
and vehicle body parts drawings
The common AutoCAD tools present to assist in drawing a certain part or component in the
CAD software include; line, circle, rectangle, polyline, trim, extend, copy, mirror, rotate, erase,
offset, move, array, scale, fillet, and explode.
The drawing elements can be invoked by clicking on them from the toolbar, for example,
 Line: You can invoke the LINE command by choosing the LINE tool from the Draw
panel or you can also invoke the LINE tool by entering LINE or L at the Command
Prompt. You will have to specify the starting point of the line by clicking mouse then you
will be prompted to specify the second point. You can terminate the LINE command by
pressing ENTER, ESC or SPACEBAR.
 Circle: A circle is drawn by using the CIRCLE command. You can draw a circle by
using six different tools i.e.: by specifying center and radius, by specifying center and
diameter, by specifying two diametrical ends, by specifying three points on a circle,
tangent to two objects, tangent to three objects.
 Extend: The Extend tool may be considered as the opposite of the Trim tool. You can
extend lines, polylines, rays, and arcs to meet the other objects using the Extend tool.
You can use this option whenever you want to extend the objects that do not actually
intersect the boundary edge but would intersect its edge if the boundary edges were
extended

Manipulation of editing tools to draw

AutoCAD drawings are rarely completed simply by drawing lines, circles, etc.
Most likely you will need to modify these basic drawing objects in some way in order to create
the object or image you need.
AutoCAD provides a range of editing tools such as trim, scale, move, copy, rotate, mirror, offset,
erase, fillet, explode, array etc.
For example, the offset command adds concentric circles around an existing circle, the copy
command creates a copy of the side view selected, the scale command scales the copied view.
To use these modification tools in AutoCAD, for example,
 Erase- To erase an object, use the ERASE command. You can enter E in the Command
window, or click the Erase tool. When you see the cursor change to a square pickbox,
click each object that you want to erase, and then press Enter or the Spacebar.
 Offset- Click the OFFSET tool or enter O

in the Command window. Select the object (1), specify the offset distance, and click to
indicate on which side of the original that you want the result (2). Here is an example of
offsetting a polyline.

Generation of different views as software functionality

After a structure is drawn and well defined in a CAD software, view drawings can be created.
A view drawing references a number of constructs to present a specific view of the structure
drawn.
To create a view drawing, first decide which portion of the drawing you wish to look at and
which type of view to generate.
For example, in a building design you can start create a first-floor reflected ceiling plan or a
second-floor framing plan, or create a composite view of all floors in the building.
In a view drawing you can add data like annotation, dimensions, and schedule tables.
The types of view drawings include;
  General view drawing: A general view drawing contains referenced constructs from the
project, representing a specific view on the building model. General view drawings are
based on the general view template defined in the project settings.
 Detail view drawing: A detail view drawing contains one or more model space views
that show a defined portion of the detail drawing in the level of detail you specify. A
model space view containing a detail can be associated with a callout. Detail view
drawings are based on the detail view template defined in the project settings.

 Section/Elevation view drawing: A section/elevation view drawing contains one or

more model space views, each showing a defined portion of the section/elevation view
drawing. A model space view containing a section or elevation can be associated with a
callout. Section/Elevation view drawings are based on the section/elevation view
template defined in the project settings.
An example of a typical procedure to follow when generation a drawing view from AutoCAD
3D model is as follows;
i. At the bottom right of the drawing area, click the tab corresponding to the layout you
intend to create the base view on
ii. Click Home tab View panel Base drop-down From Model Space
Entire model space is selected and a preview of the base view appears at the cursor. To create the
base view for selected objects only:
 1. Click Drawing View Creation tab Select panel Model Space

Selection. Find

2. SHIFT-click the objects you don't want to include in the base view.

Tip: If you accidently removed an object that you didn't intend to, click the object. The
object is selected for the base view.

3. Press ENTER to return to the layout.

iii. In the Orientation panel of the Drawing View Creation contextual ribbon tab, select the
orientation for the base view.

iv. In the Appearance panel, specify the scale and view style

v. Click in the drawing area to indicate the location to place the base view and press
ENTER. A preview of a projected view appears at the cursor.

Note: You can change the properties of the base view using the ribbon until you press
ENTER.

vi. Move the preview to the desired location and click. Repeat until all the required projected
views are created.

vii. Note: As you move the preview, the orientation of the projected view changes to reflect
its relationship to the base view
viii. Click Drawing View Creation tab Create panel OK.

2.9.6 Learning Activities

Use CAD application to draw the following views of the figure below in first angle
projection.
a) Front elevation looking from the direction arrow A
b) End elevation looking from the direction arrow B

2.9.7 Self-Assessment
1. The computer communicates with the user via _____________
A. CPU
B. CGI
C. GIF
D. IFG
2. An orthographic projection map is a map projection of _______________
 A. Sphere
B. Earth
C. Cartography
D. Top view
3. The input devices in CAD can be divided into ______________________
A. 2
B. 5
C. 3
D. 4
4. What are the benefits of CAD?
5. What are the uses of CAD in Mechanical Engineering?
2.9.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
1. Drawing room
2. Drawing instruments e.g. T-squares, set squares, drawing sets
3. Drawing tables
4. Pencils, papers, erasers
5. Masking tapes
6. Computers installed with relevant CAD packages

2.9.9 References
1. David A. Madsen, Karen Schertz, (2001) Engineering Drawing & Design. Delmar Thomson
Learning
2. Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for Engineering
Design (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, ISBN 1-4018-4249-6
3. Morling K. (2010), Geometric and engineering drawing (3rd Edition), Elsevier, Jamestown,
London
4. Venkata K. R. (2008), Textbook of Engineering drawing(2nd Edition), BS Publications, Giriraj
Lane, Sultan Bazar
5. Duggal, Vijay (2000). Cadd Primer: A General Guide to Computer Aided Design and
Drafting-Cadd, CAD. Mailmax Pub
2.9.10 Answers to Self-Assessment
1. The computer communicates with the user via _____________
 A. CPU
B. CGI
C. GIF
D. IFG
2. An orthographic projection map is a map projection of _______________
A. Sphere
B. Earth
C. Cartography
D. Top view
3. The input devices in CAD can be divided into ______________________
A. 2
B. 5
C. 3
D. 4
4. Explain the benefits of CAD?
Increases Productivity

CAD software allows designers to lower production costs, work faster and smarter, and
ultimately leads to quicker project completion. Because designers can work more efficiently,
companies are able to keep their teams small. This allows organizations to produce high quality,
low-cost products and lets them push products out faster, making changes on the fly when
necessary. This is a huge advantage in the competitive global marketplace.

CAD software allows designers to visualize their designs and test them against real-world
variables. Should something need to be changed, they can easily alter the same file.

Higher Quality Designs

The use of CAD allows design teams to control the quality of the final engineered product. It’s
easy to investigate an error, diagnose the problem, and solve it all using the software before any
prototypes are made. This not only saves time, but also money.

This translates to getting your design right the first time rather than having to make multiple
iterations of the same design before it comes out as expected.
Reuse and Easily Change Designs

It allows designers to create clothes and see how they would fit on virtual models, all without
spending a dime on manufacturing. If they need to alter their design in any way, whether that be
the material it’s made of or the fit, they can do that easily using CAD.

Easier to Read

CAD drawings are easily read, as they’re standardized and organized. Legibility is increased, and
there are no issues with reading the drawings.

CAD software produces models that can be used by other departments, including marketing and
sales. They are impressive to look at and demonstrate the aesthetics and function of a design
without spending money on a prototype. It’s an easy way to demonstrate your work and impress
investors.

Simplified Sharing

CAD software makes it easy to collaborate with team members. One person can work on the
design and send it to another, where they can view the design history to see exactly what was
done and how. CAD makes collaborating easy, even for remote teams.
 CHAPTER 3: AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING SCIENCE PRINCIPLES
Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CC/3/05
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Automotive Engineering
Science Principles.
3.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies the competencies required to apply automotive engineering science principles.
It involves using concepts of science, resolution of forces, determining effects of various loads on
engineering systems, analyse properties of materials, determine parameters of a fluid system,
describe the nature of friction and apply the gas laws. This unit of learning will entail Resolution
of forces, determining effects of loads in automotive systems, analyzing of properties of materials,
determining the nature of friction in automotive systems, solving problems related to motion and
application of simple machines concepts.
3.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes
1. Resolve forces
2. Determine effects of loads in automotive systems
3. Analyze properties of materials
4. Determine the nature of friction in automotive systems.
5. Solve problems related to motion
6. Apply simple machines concepts
7. Determine the effect of heat and gas laws
8. Use the concept of density and pressure.
3.3 Learning Outcome 1: Resolve forces
3.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to resolve forces in a system.
It includes definition of terms related to forces, parallelogram of forces, and triangle of force and
polygon of forces theorems. It also entails procedure of determining the resultant of coplanar forces
and the application of force theorems.
3.3.2 Performance Standard
1. Forces are defined as per reference
2. Theorems are stated and explained
3. Forces are resolved as per theorems
 4. Resultant forces are determined as per the methods.
3.3.3 Information Sheet
Definitions of terms
Force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object
Displacement is distance moved by a body in a specified direction.
Speed is the distance covered per unit time.
Scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude (size) only. Examples are
distance, mass, speed.
Vector quantity is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Examples
are displacement, weight, velocity.
Statics: deals with equilibrium of bodies under action of forces (bodies may be
either at rest or move with a constant velocity).

Types of forces
1. Gravitational force -this is the force of attraction between two bodies of
given masses.
- Earth’s gravitational force is the force which pulls a body towards its center.
This pull of gravity is called weight.
2. Force of friction - this is a force which opposes the relative motion of two
surfaces in contact with each other. Friction in fluids is known as viscosity.
3. Tension force - this is the pull or compression of a string or spring at both its ends.
4. Up thrust force - this is the upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid.
5. Cohesive and adhesive forces - cohesive is the force of attraction of molecules
of the same kind while adhesive is the force of attraction of molecules of different
kinds.
6. Magnetic force - this is a force which causes attraction or repulsion in a magnet.
7. Electrostatic force - this is the force of attraction or repulsion of static charges.
8. Centripetal force - this is a force which constrains a body to move in a circular
orbit or path.
9. Surface tension - this is the force which causes the surface of a liquid to behave
like a stretched skin. This force is cohesive.
Units of force
The two commonly used units of force are:
1. Absolute units
2. Gravitational units.
Absolute units. Because the mass and acceleration are measured differently in
different systems of units, so the units of force are also different in the various
systems as given below : In the F.P.S. (Foot-Pound-Second) system the absolute unit
of force is a poundal which is that much force as produces an acceleration of 1 ft/sec2
in a mass of one pound. In the C.G.S. (Centimetre-Gram-Second) system the absolute
unit of force is dyne which is that much force as produces an acceleration of 1
cm/sec2 in a mass of one gram. In the M.K.S. (Metre-Kilogram-Second) system the
absolute unit of force is a newton which is that much force as produces an
acceleration of 1 m/sec2 in a mass of the kilogram. Obviously, 1 newton = 105 dynes.

Characteristics of a force are:

(i) Magnitude
(ii) Direction or line of action (angle relative to a co-ordinate system)
(iii) Sense or nature
(iv) Point of application.
Factors affecting surface tension
a) Impurities - they reduce the surface tension of a liquid i.e. addition of detergent
b) Temperature - rise in temperature reduces tension by weakening inter-
molecular forces.
Mass and weight
Mass is the amount of matter contained in a substance while weight is the pull of
gravity on an object. The SI unit for mass is the Kg while weight is the newton (N).
Mass is constant regardless of place while weight changes with place. The
relationship between mass and weight is given by the following formula, W = mg
where g = gravitational force.

Differences between mass and weight

Mass
It is the quantity of matter in a body.
It is measured in kilograms
It is the same everywhere
It is measured using a beam balance.
Weight
It is the pull of gravity on a body
It is measured in newton’s
It changes from place to place
Measured using a spring balance
Has both magnitude and direction
Measuring force
We use a spring balance to measure force. A spring balance is an instrument that
uses the extension of a spring to measure forces.
Vector and scalar quantities
 A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude (size) only.
Examples are distance, mass, speed
 A vector quantity is a quantity which has both magnitude and
direction. Examples are displacement, weight, velocity.

RESULTANT OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

Introduction
Two systems of forces are said to be equivalent if they produce the same mechanical effect on a
rigid body. A single force that is equivalent to a given force system is called the resultant of the
force system.
Resultant of a Concurrent Coplanar Force System
The forces F1 and F2 are acting on the rigid body at point A as shown. The line of action of
each force are concurrent at point A. Therefore, the line of action of the resultant force R must
also pass through point A.
 Figure 1 : Resolution of forces
To determine the resultant of a number of coplanar concurrent forces any of the following two
methods may be used:
1. Graphical method (Polygon law of forces)
2. Analytical method (Principle of resolved parts).

Laws of forces
The method of determination of the resultant of some forces acting simultaneously on a particle
is called composition of forces. The various laws used for the composition of forces are given as
under.
 Parallelogram Law
 Triangle Rule
 Graphically
 Rectangular Components

Resultant of a No concurrent Coplanar Force Systems

Any system of no concurrent coplanar forces can be replaced by a single resultant that is equivalent
to the given force system. The location of the line of action of the resultant is not immediately
known.
 Figure 2 : Direction of the line of action of a force

Method - Parallelogram Law

It states that: If two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their resultant may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through their point of
intersection.
The parallelogram of forces is a method for solving (or visualizing) the results of applying
two forces to an object.
P and Q are joined at their tails. Parallel lines drawn from the head of each vector intersect at a
common point, forming the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. Resultant R is the diagonal of the
parallelogram, which extends from the tails of P and Q to the intersection of the lines.

Method - Triangle Rule

It states that if two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of triangle taken in order then their resultant may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the third side taken in opposite order.”
P and Q are added in a “head-to-tail” fashion by connecting the head of P to the tail of Q. Resultant
R extends from the tail of P to the head of Q forming a triangle.
 Figure 3 : Resultant of a force – triangle method

Method - Polygon Rule

It states that if a number of coplanar concurrent forces, acting simultaneously on a body are
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order, then their resultant
may be represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of a polygon, taken in the
opposite order
The sum of three or more concurrent coplanar vectors may be accomplished by adding two vectors
successively. Vectors P, Q, and S can be added successively by first finding P + Q, then adding S
to P + Q. Forms a polygon called a force polygon.

Figure 3 : Resultant of a force – polygon method

Or, Vectors P, Q, and S can be added successively by first finding P + S, then adding Q to P + S.
Forms a polygon called a force polygon.

Rectangular Components
A vector can always be specified by its magnitude and direction, but it is often necessary or
convenient to specify one by its rectangular components Fx and F y (and Fz if the vector is three
dimensional). Fx , the x component of the vector F, is the x coordinate of the head of F when the
vector F is drawn with its tail at the origin of a coordinate system. The y component of F, Fy , is
similarly defined. Fx and F y are illustrated in the figure below. Note that the rectangular
components of a vector are real numbers that may be positive, zero, or negative.

Figure 4 : Rectangular components

The vector F shown above is a vector in the first quadrant. The direction (angle Ɵ) of a vector in
the first quadrant is between 0° and 90°v

Figure 4 : Direction of a vector

The vector F shown in the second diagram is a vector in the second quadrant. The direction (angle
Ɵ) of a vector in the second quadrant is between >90° and 180° In the second quadrant x is negative
and y is positive. The rectangular components of vector F can be drawn beginning at the the tail
of the vector. The x-component is drawn in the negative x direction (arrow to the left) and the y-
component is drawn in the positive y direction (arrow upward). The dashed lines complete the
"rectangle". F Fx F y Ɵ F Fx F y x y Ɵ 29 Any force can be resolved into its rectangular components
Fx and Fy, which lie along the x and y axes respectively.

3.3.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities one
Test the hypothesis that forces combine by the rules of vector addition, and confirm that the net
force acting on an object at rest is zero (Newton’s First Law).
Practical activity two
Identify, analyze and determine at least ten forces that are on a four wheeled automobile while in
motion
3.3.5 Self-assessment
1. An astronaut weighs 900 N on earth. On the moon he weighs 150 N.
Calculate the moons’ gravitational strength. (Take g = 10 N/kg).
2. The length of a spring is 16.0 cm. its length becomes 20.0 cm when supporting a weight
of 5.0 N. calculate the length of the spring when supporting a weight of:
a) 2.5 N b) 6.0 N c) 200 N

3. The angle between the two forces of magnitude 20 N and 15 N is 60° ; the 20 N force being
horizontal. Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction, if (a) the forces are pulls;
and (b) the 15 N force is a push and 20 N force is a pull.

3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

- A functional mechanical laboratory
- Spring balance.
- Wheel balancing manuals
- Computers
- Stationery
- Classroom and classroom resources
- An automotive vehicle maintenance workshop
 3.3.5 References
Shames, I. H (2002). Engineering Mechanics: Statics and dynamics, 4th Ed, PHI.
Beer F. P. and Johnston E. R. (2011), Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Vol I - Statics, Vol II -
Dynamics, 9th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill.
Meriam J. L. and Kraige L. G. (2008), Engineering Mechanics, Vol I – Statics, Vol II –
Dynamics, 6th Ed, John Wiley.
Hibbler R. C (2006), Engineering Mechanics: Principles of Statics and Dynamics, Pearson
Press.
Andy Ruina and Rudra Pratap (2011), Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University
Press.
3.3.6 Model Answers
1. An astronaut weighs 900 N on earth. On the moon he weighs 150 N.
Calculate the moons’ gravitational strength. (Take g = 10 N/kg).
Solution
Moons’ gravitational strength = weight of astronaut on the moon / mass of astronaut.
= 150 / 90 = 1.67 Nkg-1.
2. The length of a spring is 16.0 cm. its length becomes 20.0 cm when supporting a weight of
5.0 N. calculate the length of the spring when supporting a weight of:
a) 2.5 N b) 6.0 N c) 200 N
Solution
5N causes an extension of 4.0 cm, therefore 1.0 cm causes an extension of
4 /5 = 0.8 cm.
a) 2.5 N => 2.5 × 0.8 = 2.0 cm therefore length becomes = 16.0
+ 2.0 = 18.0 cm.
b) 6.0 N => 6.0 × 0.8 = 4.8 cm therefore length becomes = 16.0
+ 4.8 = 20.8 cm.
c) 200 N => 200 × 0.8 = 160.0 cm therefore length becomes =
16.0 + 160.0 = 176.0 cm.
3. The angle between the two forces of magnitude 20 N and 15 N is 60° ; the 20 N force being
horizontal. Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction, if (a) the forces are pulls; and
(b) the 15 N force is a push and 20 N force is a pull.
Sol. Case (a). Refer to Fig. 2.19. P = 20 N, Q = 15 N, θ = 60° Using the relation, R = P Q
PQ 2 2 + + 2 cos θ = ( ) ( ) cos 20 15 2 20 15 60 2 2 + +× × × ° = 400 225 600 0 5 ++× . =
30.4 N. (Ans.) tan α = Q P Q sin cos sin cos θ + θ = × ° + ° 15 60 20 15 60 . or tan α = 12
99 20 7 5 . + . α = tan–1 12 99 20 . + F H G I K J 7.5 or α = 32.05° = 25° 3′ with 20 N
force. (Ans.)
(b) Refer to Fig. 2.19 R = ( ) ( ) cos 20 15 2 20 15 120 2 2 + +× × ° = 400 225 300 + − =
18 N. (Ans.) tan α = 15 120 20 15 120 12 99 20 15 0 5 sin cos . . ° + ° = − × = 1.039 or α
= tan–1 (1.039) or α = 46.1° or 46° 6′ with 20 N force. (Ans.)
 3.4 Learning Outcome 2: Determine effects of loads in automotive systems
3.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to determine effects of loads
in automotive systems, to identify type of forces, to determine the Equilibrium of forces and plane
framework are calculated, to analyze point loads and to apply principles of moments. It includes
definition of terms related to loads, methods, processes/ procedures/ guidelines, Illustrations
(photographs, pictures, videos, charts, plans, digital content links, simulations links) and case
studies.
3.4.2 Performance Standard
1. Types of forces are identified
2. Equilibrium of forces and plane framework are calculated
3. Point loads are analyzed as per procedure.
4. Principle of moments is stated as per reference
3.4.3 Information Sheet
3.4.3.1 Definitions of terms
A moment is the tendency of a force to cause rotation about a point or an axis.
Moment of a force of a point: the product of the distance from the point to the point of application
of the force and the component of the force perpendicular to the line of the distance.
Moment of a line: the product of the perpendicular distance from the axis to the point of
application of the force and the component of the force perpendicular to the line of the distance
and in a plane perpendicular to the axis.
The center of gravity (CG) of an object is the point at which weight is evenly dispersed and all
sides are in balance.
The center of mass is a position defined relative to an object or system of objects. It is the average
position of all the parts of the system, weighted according to their masses.
Equivalent Forces We defined equivalent forces as being forces with the same magnitude acting
in the same direction and acting along the same line of action (this is through the Principle of
Transmissibility), but why do the forces need to act along the same line

INTRODUCTION TO MOMENTS
The tendency of a force to rotate a rigid body about any defined axis is called the Moment of the
force about the axis.
 Figure 5 : Direction of a vector
(i) Elements of a Moment
The magnitude of the moment of a force acting about a point or axis is directly proportinoal to the
distance of the force from the point or axis. It is defined as the product of the force (F) and the
moment arm (d). The moment arm or lever arm is the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the force and the center of moments
Moment = Force x Distance or M = (F)(d)
The Center of Moments may be the actual point about which the force causes rotation. It may also
be a reference point or axis about which the force may be considered as causing rotation. It does
not matter as long as a specific point is always taken as the reference point. The latter case is much
more common situation in structural design problems.
A moment is expressed in units of foot-pounds, kip-feet, newton-meters, or kilo newton-meters.
A moment also has a sense; A clockwise rotation about the center of moments will be considered
a positive moment; while a counter-clockwise rotation about the center of moments will be
considered negative. The most common way to express a moment I.

(ii) Properties of a Moment

1. Moments not only have a magnitude, they also have a sense to them.
2. The sense of a moment is clockwise or counterclockwise depending on which way it
will tend to make the object rotate
 3. The sense of a Moment is defined by the direction it is acting on the Axis and can be
found using Right Hand Rule

(iii) Sign convention used for moment of a force

If the force applied to the body rotates the body in a anticlockwise sense, then it is considered as
positive
If the force applied to the body rotates the body in a clockwise direction sense then it is
considered as negative.
The direction of the moment of a force (torque) is given by the right hand rule. It states that “
Encircle the axis axis of rotation by fingers of the right hand which point in the direction in
wich the body tend to rotate, then thumb the points in the direction of the torque or moment of
the force vector”
3.4.3.1.1 Principle of Moments/law of moments

The principle of moments states that when in equilibrium the total sum of the anti-clockwise
moment is equal to the total sum of the clockwise moment.

When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as all the forces acting on the
system cancel each other out.

In equilibrium

Total Anticlockwise Moment = Total Clockwise Moment

This principle can be explained by considering two people on a seesaw

Calculating the moment in 2-D using components:

1) Select a positive direction (CCW or CW),

2) Calculate each moment and add them, using the proper sign for each term,

3) Always remember to write the unit of moment which is Nm

As shown, d is the perpendicular distance from point O to the line of action of

the force. In 2-D, the direction of MO is either clockwise or counter-clockwise, depending on the
tendency for rotation

Figure 6 : Moments in 3D

Moment of a Force about a Specific Axis

In 2D bodies the moment is due to a force contained in the plane of action perpendicular
to the axis it is acting around. This makes the analysis very easy.
In 3D situations, this is very seldom found to be the case. The moment about an axis is still
calculated the same way (by a force in the plane perpendicular to the axis) but most forces are
acting in abstract angles. By resolving the abstract force into its rectangular components (or into
its components perpendicular to the axis of concern) the moment about the axis can then be
found the same way it was found in 2D – M = Fd (where d is the distance between the force and
the axis of concern

(i) How to Calculate Reactions at Supports

When solving for reactions, the following steps are recommended:
- Draw the beam free body diagram
- Replace the uniform distributed load (if any) with the equivalent point load
- Solve ΣMA = 0 (sum of moments about support A). This will give you RB (reaction at
support B).
- Solve ΣMB = 0. This will give you RA.
- Using RA and RB found at steps 3 and 4 check if ΣV = 0 (sum of all vertical forces) is
satisfied.
Note that steps 4 and 5 can be reversed.
For a cantilever beam use ΣV = 0 to find the vertical reaction at the wall and ΣMwall = 0 to find
the moment reaction at the wall. There is no other equation to validate your results.

(ii) Stability and the center of gravity

The direction of the force of gravity through the body is downward, towards the center of the earth
and through the COG. This line of gravity is important to understand and visualize when
determining a person's ability to successfully maintain Balance. When the line of gravity falls
outside the Base of support (BOS), then a reaction is needed in order to stay balanced.
When the line of gravity is within the BOS, an object or person is said to be stable. When the line
of gravity falls outside the BOS, the object or person is said to be unstable. Given that the line of
gravity must fall within the BOS in order to satisfy the criteria for stability, the following factors
should be considered:

- A larger BOS increases stability (the line of gravity must move a greater distance to fall
outside the BOS)
- A lower COG increases stability (it's unlikely that the line of gravity will fall outside the
BOS)
For a general shaped object, there is a simple mechanical way to determine the center of gravity:
Step 1
Choose the location of the x-axis and the y-axis. These can be chosen in any location, the
outcome of the calculation will remain the same if these axes are chosen in a different location
Step 2
Choose which side of the x-axis is the positive side and which one is the negative side. This is
needed because a 1 meter distance from the y-axis could be on either side and without the “+” or
“-“designation there is no way of knowing this and, by definition, the outcome of the calculation
will be wrong
Step 3
We now need to divide the object into smaller “sub-objects” for which we can easily determine
the CoG. This is shown in figure 2 and in figure 3. There is no real science behind choosing
these smaller objects. Anything will do, as long as the total object is covered, obviously nothing
should be forgotten or left out.
Step 4
Of each of these sub-objects the CoG should be determined and expressed in co-ordinates.
Observe figures 4 and 5. By drawing assist lines (shown in red) from one corner to the opposite
corner the location of the CoG can be found for squares and rectangles. By drawing (assist) lines
from one corner to the center of the opposite side the location of the CoG can be found for
triangles. This CoG location is found at the intersection of these assist lines
Step 5
Arrange all the numbers in order to perform the CoG calculation
Step 6
The formula to calculate the CoG is: CoG = (ΣD* W) / ΣW
In words it reads that the location of the CoG can be found by summing (Σ) the multiplication of
the distance by the weight (area) and divide it by the summation of all the weights (areas).
Since this is a two-dimensional object, this calculation should be performed in x-direction as
well as y-direction. For a three-dimensional object it should also be performed in the z-direction.
If we just balance the object using a string or an edge, the point at which the object is balanced is
the center of gravity. (Just like balancing a pencil on your finger!)
Another, more complicated way, is a twostep method shown on the slide. In Step 1, you hang the
object from any point and you drop a weighted string from the same point. Draw a line on the
object along the string. For Step 2, repeat the procedure from another point on the object you
now have two lines drawn on the object which intersect. The center of gravity is the point where
the lines intersect. This procedure works well for irregularly shaped objects that are hard to
balance.

(iii) Parallel forces and equilibrium

For a body to be in equilibrium (neither moving nor rotating), under the action of parallel forces,
the following conditions will be satisfied;

a) The sum of upward forces must be equal to the sum of downward forces.

b) The sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments. The two are called
the first and second condition of equilibrium respectively.

(iv) Center of mass

For simple rigid objects with uniform density, the center of mass is located at the centroid. For
example, the center of mass of a uniform disc shape would be at its center. Sometimes the center
of mass doesn't fall anywhere on the object. The center of mass of a ring for example is located at
its center, where there isn't any material.
 Figure 7: Centre of mass for simple geometric shapes (red dots)
For more complicated shapes, we need a more general mathematical definition of the center of
mass: it is the unique position at which the weighted position vectors of all the parts of a system
sum up to zero
(v) What is useful about the centre of mass?
The interesting thing about the center of mass of an object or system is that it is the point where
any uniform force on the object acts. This is useful because it makes it easy to solve mechanics
problems where we have to describe the motion of oddly-shaped objects and complicated
systems.

For the purposes of calculation, we can treat an oddly-shaped object as if all its mass is
concentrated in a tiny object located at the center of mass. We sometimes call this imaginary
object a point mass.
If we push on a rigid object at its center of mass, then the object will always move as if it is a
point mass. It will not rotate about any axis, regardless of its actual shape. If the object is
subjected to an unbalanced force at some other point, then it will begin rotating about the center
of mass.
(vi) How can we find the centre of mass of any object or system?
In general the center of mass can be found by vector addition of the weighted position vectors
which point to the center of mass of each object in a system. One quick technique which lets us
avoid the use of vector arithmetic is finding the center of mass separately for components along
each axis.
(vii) Radius of gyration
Radius of gyration (r) is the property of a cross-section that measures the distribution of the area
of the cross-section in relation to the axis. In structural design, it is used in relation to the length
of compression members, such as columns and struts, to estimate their slenderness ratio and hence
their tendency to buckle. Slender compression members tend to buckle about the axis for which
the radius of gyration is a minimum value. From the equations, it will be seen that the least radius
of gyration is related to the axis about which the least moment of inertia occurs
(viii) Application of moments of a force
To find the mass of an object
In levers (simple machine)
(ix) Application of moments to automotive systems and vehicle dynamics
For vehicles such as cars, vehicle dynamics is the study of how the vehicle will react to driver
inputs on a given solid surface.
Vehicle dynamics is a part of engineering primarily based on classical mechanics.
The aspects of a vehicle's design which affect the dynamics can be grouped into drivetrain and
braking, suspension and steering, distribution of mass, aerodynamics and tires.
(x) Distribution of mass
Some attributes or aspects of vehicle dynamics are purely due to mass and its distribution. These
include:
- Center of mass
- Moment of inertia
- Roll moment
- Sprung mass
- Unsprung mass
- Weight distribution

3.4.4 Learning activities

Practical activity
Required Materials:
- 2 pencils
- A fine edge like a ruler or a credit card
- A permanent marker
- A ruler (if you don't have one, you may be able to eyeball it)

Step 1: Attempt to balance the pencil on the edge you have selected.
Balancing the pencil may take some trial and error. The point at which the pencil balances may
not be where you first thought. If it begins to tip in one direction, move the pencil back slowly in
the opposite direction until it will stay there on its own.

Step 2: Once the pencil is balanced, mark the location of the balancing point with a
permanent marker.

Step 3: Measure the distance between the ends of the pencil and the balancing point you have
marked. Are the two lengths equal? On my pencil, the length from the eraser to the balancing
point was actually 1.25 inches less than the length from the pencil tip to the balancing point. Why
would this be the case?

In our experiment, the balancing point was another word for the center of gravity of this pencil. In
other words, if we cut the pencil in two at the mark we made in the experiment, the two parts would
be equal in weight. However, they are not equal in length. As you may have already figured out,
the metal piece that houses the eraser contributes more to the weight of the pencil, so the CG is
closer to that side of the pencil.

Field/Visit to nearby wheel balancing and alignment workshop

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3.4.5 Self-assessment
1. The example shows a wrench being applied to a nut. A 100 pound force is applied to it at
point C, the center of the nut. The force is applied at an x- distance of 12 inches from the nut.
The center of moments could be point C, but could also be points A or B or D.
2. In the following figure, calculate the moment about the point O:

3. Solve for the reaction Ra and Rb

3.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

- A functional mechanical workshop
- A functional motor vehicle.
- Motor vehicle repair manual
- Wheel balancing machine
- Safety manual
- Computers
- Stationery
- Classroom and classroom resources
- PPE
3.4.7 Reference

Hall S. J. Equilibrium and Human Movement. In: Hall SJ. eds. Basic Biomechanics, 8e New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill; .

Physics of Football - Center of Gravity. Available

from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WUdHBso3Vk [last accessed 09/03/13]

Body Center of Mass Example - Motion Analysis. Available

from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSW8gXmOazs [last accessed 09/03/13]

http://accessphysiotherapy.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2433&sectionid=1915115
90. (Accessed June 12, 2019).

Al Nageim, H., Durka, F., Morgan, W. & WilliamsD.T. (2010). Structural mechanics: loads,
analysis, materials and design of structural elements. 7th edition. London, Pearson Education

Definition of terms related to force is provided in the webpage

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-center-of-gravity-definition-equation-.

3.4.8 Model Answers

1. Moment about C
The moment arm for calculating the moment around point C is 12 inches. The magnitude of
the moment about point C is 12 inches multiplied by the force of 100 lbs to give a total
moment of 1200 inch-lbs (or 100 ft-lbs).
Moment Arm (d) = 12 inches
Magnitude (F) = 100 lbs
Moment = M = 100 lbs x 12 in. = 1200 in-lbs
2. In the following figure, calculate the moment about the point O:
 We choose the CCW as positive direction for moment,
Moment of component of F along x about O is Fx times the perpendicular distance from O

(or d1), which is clockwise, so it is

Moment of component of F along y about O is Fy times the perpendicular distance from O

(or d2), which is counter clockwise, so it is

Moments add together as vectors, so the total moment is:
3. Solve for the reaction Ra and Rb

Answer 0.75 and 0.25 KN respectively

 3.5 Learning Outcome 3: Analyze properties of materials
3.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to analyze properties of
materials. It includes definition of terms related to material [properties, material testing and its
application, definition of mechanical properties of materials, the stress strain graph, how to carry
out material testing, factors affecting choice of materials and shear and torsion stress in materials

3.5.2 Performance Standard

1. Mechanical properties and stress are identified in accordance with standard
2. Mechanical properties of a materials are tested as per procedure
3. Direct, shear and torsion stresses are calculated as per formula
4. Factors affecting choice of materials are identified.
3.5.3 Information Sheet
3.5.3.1 Definitions of terms
Stress: the force acting normally per unit cross section area. It measured in Newtons per metre
square. (N/m2)

Strain: the ratio of extension to the original length of a material subjected to a tensile/compressive
load. Strain is unitless.

Brittleness: Ability of a material to break or shatter without significant deformation when under
stress; opposite of plasticity.

Bulk modulus: Ratio of pressure to volumetric compression (GPa) or ratio of the infinitesimal
pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume.

Ductility: Ability of a material to deform under tensile load (% elongation)

Durability: Ability to withstand wear, pressure, or damage; hard-wearing.

Elasticity: Ability of a body to resist a distorting influence or stress and to return to its original
size and shape when the stress is removed

Ultimate strength: Maximum stress a material can withstand under repeated loading (MPa)

Flexibility: Ability of an object to bend or deform in response to an applied force; pliability;

complementary to stiffness
Flexural strength: The stresses in a material just before it yields.

Coefficient of friction: The amount of force normal to surface which converts to force resisting
relative movement of contacting surfaces between material pair

Hardness: Ability to withstand surface indentation and scratching (e.g. Brinell hardness number)

Malleability: Ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under applications of heavy
compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold working means.

Plasticity: Ability of a material to undergo irreversible or permanent deformations without

breaking or rupturing; opposite of brittleness

Poisson's ratio: Ratio of lateral strain to axial strain (no units)

Resilience: Ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically (MPa);

combination of strength and elasticity

Shear modulus: Ratio of shear stress to shear strain (MPa)

Shear strength: Maximum shear stress a material can withstand

Slip: A tendency of a material's particles to undergo plastic deformation due to a dislocation motion
within the material. Common in Crystals.

Stiffness: Ability of an object to resist deformation in response to an applied force; rigidity;

complementary to flexibility

Surface roughness: the deviations in the direction of the normal vector of a real surface from its
ideal form.

Tensile strength: Maximum tensile stress of a material can withstand before failure (MPa)

Toughness: Ability of a material to absorb energy (or withstand shock) and plastically deform
without fracturing (or rupturing); a material's resistance to fracture when stressed; combination of
strength and plasticity

Viscosity: A fluid's resistance to gradual deformation by tensile or shear stress; thickness

Yield strength: The stress at which a material starts to yield plastically (MPa)

Young's modulus: Ratio of linear stress to linear strain (MPa

Modulus of rigidity (modulus of elasticity in shear): The rate of change of unit shear stress with
respect to unit shear strain for the condition of pure shear within the proportional limit.

Stress and Strain

The relationship between stress and strain in a material is determined by subjecting a material
specimen to a tension or compression test. In this test, a steadily increasing axial force is applied
to a test specimen, and the deflection is measured as the load is increased. These values can be
plotted as a load-deflection curve. The deflection in the test specimen is dependent on both the
material's elastic modulus as well as the geometry of the specimen (area and length). Since we are
interested material behavior without regard to geometry, it is useful to generalize the data to
remove the effect of geometry. This is done by converting the load values to stress values and
converting the deflection values to strain values.

In the equation for stress, P is the load and A0 is the original cross-sectional area of the test
specimen. In the equation for strain, L is the current length of the specimen and L0 is the original
length.

(i) Stress-Strain Curve

The values of stress and strain determined from the tensile test can be plotted as a stress-strain
curve, as shown below.
 Figure 8: Stress – strain diagram
There are several points of interest in the diagram above:
P: This is the proportionality limit, which represents the maximum value of stress at which the
stress-strain curve is linear.
E: This is the elastic limit, which represents the maximum value of stress at which there is no
permanent set. Even though the curve is not linear between the proportionality limit and the elastic
limit, the material is still elastic in this region and if the load is removed at or below this point the
specimen will return to its original length.
Y: This is the yield point, which represents the value of stress above which the strain will begin to
increase rapidly. The stress at the yield point is called the yield strength, Sty. For materials without
a well-defined yield point, it is typically defined using the 0.2% offset method in which a line
parallel to the linear portion of the curve is drawn that intersects the x-axis at a strain value of
0.002. The point at which the line intersects the stress-strain curve is designated as the yield point.
U: This point corresponds to the ultimate strength, Stu, which is the maximum value of stress on
the stress-strain diagram. The ultimate strength is also referred to as the tensile strength. After
reaching the ultimate stress, specimens of ductile materials will exhibit necking, in which the
cross-sectional area in a localized region of the specimen reduces significantly.
F: This is the fracture point or the break point, which is the point at which the material fails and
separates into two pieces.
Below the proportionality limit of the stress-strain curve, the relationship between stress and strain
is linear. The slope of this linear portion of the stress-strain curve is the elastic modulus, E, also
referred to as the Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. Hooke's law expresses the
relationship between the elastic modulus, the stress, and the strain in a material within the linear
region:
σ=Eε
(ii) Poisson's Ratio
As load is applied to a material, the material elongates and the cross-sectional area is reduced. This
reduction in cross-sectional area is called lateral strain, and it is related to the axial strain
by Poisson's ratio, ν. For a circular specimen this reduction in area is realized as a reduction in
diameter, and the Poisson's ratio is calculated as:
Poisson's ratio only applies within the elastic region of the stress-strain curve, and it is typically
about 0.3 for most metals. The theoretical maximum limit of Poisson's ratio is 0.5.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Relate to deformation of a material due to an applied load or force, example include elasticity,
hardness, strength.
Terms in connection with Mechanical Properties:
a) STRENGTH
- ability of a material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by a load.
- tensile strength, compressive strength, proof stress, shear strength
b) ELASTICITY
- proportionality constant between stress and strain.
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c) PLASTICITY
- property that enables the formation of permanent deformation in a material w/out cracking.
Examples of Plastic Materials
 Gold
 Lead
 Steel
  Copper
 Hot bitumen
d) DUCTILITY
 ability of a metal to withstand elongation/bending.

e) MALLEABILITY
 ability of a material to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets w/out rupture.
f) BRITTLENESS
 when a body breaks easily when subjected to shocks.
 lack of ductility
g) HARDNESS
 ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body.
h) FATIGUE
 is the phenomenon that leads to fracture under such conditions.
Effects of Fatigue
 increased uncertainty in strength and service life
 loss of ductility
 loss of strength
i) CREEP
 slow plastic deformation of metals under constant stress or under prolonged loading
usually at high temperature.

MATERIAL TESTING
(i) Purposes of material testing
 To assess numerically the fundamental mechanical properties of ductility, malleability
toughness etc.
 To check chemical composition.
 To determine suitability of a material for a particular application.
 To determine data i.e., force deformation (or stress) values to draw up sets specifications upon which the engineer can
base his design.
 To determine the surface or surface defects in raw materials or processed parts.
(ii) Classification of Tests.

1) Non-destructive tests.
 In non-destructive testing a component does not break and so even after being tested it be
used for the purpose for which it was made.
Example: Radiography, ultrasonic inspection etc.
2) Destructive Tests (Mechanical tests)
The component or specimen, after being destructively tested, either breaks or remains no longer useful for further use.
Examples: Tensile test, impact test, torsion test, bend test, fatigue test etc.
(iii) Importance of mechanical tests:
• Structures, machines and products of various kinds are usually subjected to load and deformation. Therefore, the
properties of materials under the action of load and deformation so produced under various environments become an
important engineering consideration.
• The microscopic properties of materials under applied forces or loads are broadly classed as mechanical properties.
They are a measure of the strength and lasting characteristic of a material in service and are of great importance particular
to the design engineer.

Factors affecting choice of materials/ material selection

1. Mechanical properties. When a certain design is going to be actually produced it must be
subjected to a number of manufacturing practices depending on the material and the design
process. At the completion of production it must be totally fit for the service phase, too. In
order to predict the reliability of both of these requirements, the materials must be able to
withstand a certain load. Therefore the material must possess a certain strength and
stiffness. Selected materials are examined for strength and stiffness values, and then
potential materials are further inspected for other desired properties.

2. Cost is a critical fact to consider when selecting materials for a certain design for most
products because they are facing a severe competition in the market. So you may see that
most of the metal or other valuable materials are replaced by plastics in most of the
designs which they are applicable such as mechanical engineering designs. The cost
factor can be neglected when performance is given the top priority. When estimating
costs, all the associated cost factors must be considered to get a more reasonable value. It
may involve the transportation, processing, etc. costs.

3. Ability to manufacture. Before selecting the materials this fact also must be considered.
These facts are widely varied with the type of manufacturing method. For an example,
when producing a gear its dimensions must be very accurate. Otherwise the application
may not provide the expected performance. To make the dimensions more accurate it has
 to be machined in the production. So the selected material must able to be machined with
a minimum cost. Otherwise there is no point of selecting that material for that particular
gear

4. Corrosion. The importance of material selection in engineering is clearly visible in

corrosive environments. Also it is an important engineering design criterion for designs
open to the environment for a longer period of time. Some materials are very likely to be
corroded in the service depending on the service environment. Metals like iron are heavily
prone to corrosion if it not prepared to resist corrosion. Therefore it must be assured that
the material is capable of being employed for the particular design before selecting it.
Painting or any other surface coating method, cathodic protection, etc. are possible ways
to minimize the effect and increase the service life.

5. Wear of materials. Wear is a problem when the materials are contacting each other in a
product. So it must be ensured that the selected materials have sufficient wear resistance.
One of the best examples for this is designing gears to cope with wear. There are many
production techniques available to improve the wear resistance and make the material is
more suitable for the application. This is also very important factor to consider when
selecting a material for a particular design. In the engineering design process this has to be
considered with great care.

3.5.4 Learning activities

Practical activities

Identify the different materials and their properties used to make a motorcycle and give reasons
why the designers choose those materials over the others

Table: Field visit to KEBS labs

 Visit Indicators Special
Objective/ Instruc
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identify - Relevant material testing relevan
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3.5.5 Self-Assessment
1) The response of a material due to the function of heat is known as __________
a) Mechanical property
b) Electrical property
c) Chemical property
d) Thermal property
2) What is the attribute of a material which resists the flow of electricity known?
a) Conductivity
b) Thermoelectricity
c) Dielectric strength
d) Resistivity
3) The property of a material that produces an opposing magnetizing force, which removes the
preceding magnetizing effect, is called as ___________
a) Permeability
b) Coercive force
 c) Hysteresis
d) Superconductivity
4) Which of the following is a non-destructive test?
a) Tensile test.
b) Compression test.
c) Ultrasonic test.
d) Creep test.
5) The ultimate stress of a material is _________than the breaking stress.
a) Higher.
b) Lower.
6) Which of the following factors affect the mechanical properties of a material under applied
load?
a) Content of alloy
b) Grain size
c) Imperfection and defects
d) Shape of material
7) The following are methods of corrosion prevention. Which one is not?
a) Painting
b) Galvanizing
c) Hardening
d) Chromizing

3.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

- A material testing laboratory
- An automotive workshop
- Material testing manual
- Computers
- Stationery
- Classroom and classroom resources

3.5.7 References
Totemeier, T.C. (2004), Smithells Metals Reference Book (8th Edition), Elsevier
Budynas.R , Nisbett.K . (2014) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design . 10th
edition. McGraw-Hill

Beer.F.P. , Johnston.E.R. (1992). Mechanics of Materials , 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill.

Case and Chilver "Strength of Materials and Structures

3.5.8 Model Answers

1) The response of a material due to the function of heat is known as __________
a) Mechanical property
b) Electrical property
c) Chemical property
d) Thermal property
2) What is the attribute of a material which resists the flow of electricity known?
a) Conductivity
b) Thermoelectricity
c) Dielectric strength
d) Resistivity
3) The property of a material that produces an opposing magnetizing force, which removes the
preceding magnetizing effect, is called as ___________
a) Permeability
b) Coercive force
c) Hysteresis
d) Superconductivity

4) Which of the following is a non-destructive test?

a) Tensile test.
b) Compression test.
c) Ultrasonic test.
d) Creep test.
5) The ultimate stress of a material is _________than the breaking stress.
a) Higher.
b) Lower.
6) Which of the following factors affect the mechanical properties of a material under applied
load?
a) Content of alloy
b) Grain size
 c) Imperfection and defects
d) Shape of material
7) The following are methods of corrosion prevention. Which one is not?
a) Painting
b) Galvanizing
c) Hardening
d) Chromizing
 3.6 Learning Outcome 4: Determine the nature of friction in automotive systems

3.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to determine the nature of
friction in automotive systems. It includes definition of terms related to friction, coefficient of
friction, importance of friction, how to increase or reduce friction. In general it elaborate the laws
of friction ,State the effects of friction, how to calculate the force to overcome friction on horizontal
and inclined planes, bearings ,brakes, belts, and clutch.

3.6.2 Performance Standard

1. Friction is defined from reference

2. Laws of friction are stated as per reference

3. Effects of friction are identified from experiments

4. Tools and equipment are operated

3.6.3 Information Sheet

3.6.3.1 Definitions of terms
Friction is the force that resists motion between two touching and moving objects or surfaces.
Normal force, is the force that surfaces exert to prevent solid objects from passing through each
other
Coefficient of friction, ratio of the frictional force resisting the motion of two surfaces in contact
to the normal force pressing the two surfaces together.

Adhesion, is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another

Lubrication, is the process or technique of using a lubricant to reduce friction and wear and tear
in a contact between two surfaces

Boundary lubrication, is defined as that in which the sliding surfaces are separated by a very
thin molecular film of lubricant, so that the chemical and physical natures of the surfaces and
the lubricant are of major importance

TYPES OF FRICTIONS
Static Friction
Static Friction is created when two objects are touching or pushing against each other without
sliding.
For example, when you drive, your wheels push against the pavement causing the car to move,
but there is no sliding of the tires against the pavement.
When you stop, your brakes create friction inside the wheels, which slows down the wheels,
meaning your tires still push against the pavement, but in slower motion rather than sudden
stopping (which causes sliding).
Kinetic or Sliding Friction
Kinetic or Sliding Friction is created when two objects are touching and sliding against each
other.
For example, if you drive on a slippery road, or stop suddenly, your tires may slide against the
pavement. When your tires slide against the pavement, you will be more likely to lose control of
your vehicle.
So for driving, you always want to be using static friction instead of kinetic or sliding friction.
When you drive, friction occurs between:
 Your tires and the road (normal operation is static friction).
 Brake pads and brake disks when you apply your brakes.
 Different parts of your engine.
 Different parts of your transmission.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FRICTION AS YOU DRIVE

(i) Vehicle weight.

The heavier the vehicle, the more friction is created between your tires and the road; this means
you will need more engine power to push forward, and it will be easier to stop the vehicle on a
level surface road.

When your vehicle is heavy, the increased friction between the tires and road will heat up the
tires. Thus, heavier vehicles will need tires that are more resistant to heat.

(ii) Braking.

When you apply your brakes, it causes the car's brake pads to touch the brake discs, which
creates friction between the pads and discs; the friction causes heat and also resists the motion of
the wheels and, therefore, slows down or stops your car.

Sudden Braking
If you suddenly apply your brakes, you will cause your wheels to lock and slide on the pavement
(this is called losing traction and skidding).
You will not want your wheels to slide on the pavement because:

 You will more likely lose control of your vehicle.

 When your wheels slide, you are using kinetic or sliding friction (instead of static
friction), which increases the stopping distance of your vehicle.

You will want your wheels to always turn on the pavement while driving or stopping because:

 You have more control of your vehicle.

 With your wheels still turning while stopping, you will be using static friction, which is
the more efficient stopping force, and have shorter time and distance for stopping your
vehicle.

So, when gradually stopping, your wheels continue turning until the car comes to a full stop,
which is the most efficient method, using static friction to stop the vehicle.

Anti-lock brakes prevents the wheels from locking and sliding and provide the operations of
wheels turning while stopping – this way, the more efficient friction (static friction) is used to
stop the vehicle; the vehicle will stop in shorter time and distance and you will have a better
control of your vehicle.

Downhill Braking

If you are driving on an extended downhill stretch road (for a few minutes), you may need to
shift to a lower gear to slow down your vehicle. This is because if you use your brakes
consistently for a few minutes on an extended downhill, the friction created between your brake
pads and brake disks (rotors) keeps generating heat, and your brake component can become too
hot and lose the ability to absorb any more downhill kinetic force.

(iii) Over-inflated, worn out smooth tires or slippery road conditions

When your tires are over-inflated, your tires are worn out their treads and are smooth, or if the
road is slippery due to ice, snow, rain, oil, sand or dirt, there is less gripping power between the
tires and pavement and therefore, less static friction and more kinetic or sliding friction. This
creates the following problems for drivers:
  Increased time and distance needed to stop your vehicle. In this situation, you will need
to drive slower (safely – never drive too slowly compared to the flow of traffic) and allow
more space to compensate for having less static friction.

 You may not be able to start and start smoothly because your tires tend to have more
sliding friction than static friction. You will need to start and stop your vehicle gradually
to compensate for the less gripping power of your wheels.

 You may not be able to have a good control of your vehicle, especially when turning
because your wheels may slide to the sides instead of moving forward.

Under-inflated tires

When your tires are under-inflated, there will be more static friction between your tires and the
road. The increased friction will cause more heat between your tires and road and can cause
more wear on your tires, and possibly tire tread separation or blowouts.

(iv) Coefficient of friction

How far a vehicle will slide and how slippery the road is, is determined by the coefficient of
friction.

Different materials and textures provide different friction. The coefficient of friction is a measure
for how much friction a material or texture provides. This coefficient is useful to scientists when
developing new materials for tires and road surfaces, but for the average driver it’s enough to
conclude that high friction is desirable – it keeps us steadily on the road.

LAWS OF FRICTION
There are five laws of friction and they are:

1. The friction of the moving object is proportional and perpendicular to the normal force.

2. The friction experienced by the object is dependent on the nature of the surface it is in
contact with.

3. Friction is independent of the area of contact as long as there is an area of contact.

4. Kinetic friction is independent of velocity.

5. The coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction
(i) Explanation of the laws of sliding friction for metals.
To explain the laws of friction, it is necessary to introduce additional experimental information.
Firstly, a variety of techniques show that even when the surfaces look smooth, they are
microscopically rough.

Since the surfaces are rough, it is tempting to think that the friction must be due to the
intermeshing of the surfaces. But the sliding of such surfaces over each other is non-dissipative.
That this cannot be the explanation is also shown by the fact that after a certain degree of
polishing, further polishing results in an increase of the friction. Once it is realized the surfaces
are rough, it is apparent however that the real area of contact must be small - the surfaces must
only touch at a few points.

(ii) Effects of Friction

1. It produces heat that helps in heating parts of any object or to warm ourselves.

2. It also causes loss in power.

3. It produces noise during any kind of operation.

Heating effects
Friction is a non-conservative force. When objects slide on each other, kinetic energy is
converted to heat resulting in increase in the temperature of the surfaces.

Viscosity

This is the internal friction of a fluid. Viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature increases.
When a body is released in a viscous fluid it accelerates at first then soon attains a steady velocity
called terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is attained when F + U = mg where F is viscous force,
U is upthrust and mg is weight

(iii) Reducing friction

a) Lubrication
The reduction of friction between two surfaces by placing another material between them is
known as lubrication.
- Hydrodynamic lubrication The type of lubrication in which the surfaces are completely
separated by a thin film of fluid is known as hydrodynamic lubrication. It results in very low
coefficients of friction, of the order of 0.001 and completely eliminates wear. In this type of
lubrication, the frictional energy loss is due only to the viscous forces in the lubricant (see
post-lecture material). The viscosity cannot be reduced indefinitely, however, since the
separation between the surfaces decreases as the viscosity decreases and eventually the
surfaces come into contact

- Boundary lubrication When metal contact begins to occur as can happen if the speed of the
journal is decreased, a continuous film of fluid no longer exists. If the journal speed is further
decreased, the lubricant is reduced to localized patches a few molecules thick. Lubrication
under these conditions is known as boundary lubrication. In this type of lubrication, the
coefficient of friction does not depend on the viscosity of the lubricant but rather on its
chemical nature. A good boundary lubricant is one which will attach itself firmly to the clean
metal surfaces formed as the cold-welded junctions are sheared. A layer is then formed
which acts as a lubricating film, and if it can be easily sheared than the friction is low.
Typically coefficients of friction of the order of 0.1 are obtained and the wear is slight.

b) Devices
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid
bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.
Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low
friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with
increasing imposed load. For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are
usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.
- Bearings A friction bearing consists of a fixed, non-moving bearing surface, such as
machined metal or pressed-in bushing that provides a low-friction support surface for
rotating or sliding surfaces. Friction bearings commonly use lubricating oil to separate the
moving component from the mated non-moving bearing surface. Bearings reduce friction by
means of a rolling motion.
 Figure 9: Plain bearing
- Races Figure below shows two bearings, called "thrust bearings", which support a force
applied in the same direction as the shaft. Races are used for these thrust bearings. The race
on the side, into which the shaft, is inserted is called the shaft race. The race inserted, into the
housing, is called the housing race.

Figure 10: Roller bearing

The surfaces of bearing rings (races) on which the rolling elements roll are made to be extremely
smooth, to allow for smooth bearing rotation.

c) Rolling elements

Table below shows the "balls" and "rollers" used as rolling elements.
Table 3: The different shapes of rolling elements

- Cage As shown in Figure below, when the bearing's inner ring rotates this causes the rolling
elements to roll. When this happens, unless the bearing has a cage, the rolling elements next
to each other will make contact. When their surfaces come in contact, the rolling elements'
rolling direction will be inverted relative to each other, and the rolling motion of the rolling
elements will be disrupted.

Figure 11: Rolling Element

In order to prevent this, a cage is put in place to keep the rolling elements separated from each
other. This allows them to roll smoothly.
There are a variety of different types of cage designed to suit the specific conditions of the
bearing, such as the strength of the supporting force or the speed of the rotation.

Friction and the inclined plane

To measure the coefficient of friction for several combinations of materials, making use of an
inclined plane.

To study equilibrium and non-equilibrium of a body on an inclined plane under the action of forces.

(iv) Measuring frictional forces

We can relate weight of bodies in contact and the force between them. This relationship is called
coefficient of friction. Coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the force needed to overcome
friction Ff to the perpendicular force between the surfaces Fn. Hence

µ = Ff/ Fn

3.6.4 Learning activities

Practical activities
1. Look for a motor vehicle with worn out brake pads/shoes and replace them
2. Check six vehicles and confirm if there is any signs of worn out components as a result of
effect of friction.
3. Clean the work area correctly
3.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. A 5 kg box on a horizontal table is pushed by a horizontal force of 15 N as shown on the right.
If the coefficient of friction is 0.4, will the box move?
2. A 100 N force acts as shown on a 300 N block placed on an inclined plane. The coefficients
of friction between the block and plane are ms = 0.25 and mk = 0.20. Determine whether the
block is in equilibrium and find the value of the friction force

3. A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough floor. The coefficient of friction between the
floor and the box is 0.6. Calculate

The force required to just move the box

 3.6.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
The following resources are provided
- A functional mechanical workshop
- A functional automotive technology workshop
- PPES
- Pressure Gauge
- Torque Wrench
- Screw Driver
- Socket wrenches
- Oil
- Oil catch pan
- Chain breaker and riveter
- Grease
- Pliers
- Mechanic gloves
- Set Allen Key
- Service manual
 Computers
 Stationery
 Classroom and classroom resources

3.6.7 References
B. Bhushan, (2002), Introduction to Tribology Wiley, New York
P.J. Blau,(2008), Friction Science and Technology, Marcel Dekker, New York.
P. Filip, L. Kovařík, M.A.(1997), Wright, Automotive brake lining characterization,
in Proceedings of 15th Annual SAE Brake Colloquium, P-319, p. 41–61
The five laws of friction has been explained in details in the following YouTube video
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-five-laws-of-friction.html
Video presentation on how to replace car brakes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lU6OKQxSg8U
3.6.8 Model answers
1. A 5 kg box on a horizontal table is pushed by a horizontal force of 15 N as shown on the
right. If the coefficient of friction is 0.4, will the box move?
Think about what is the smallest force that could make the box slide along the table?
Solution The sketch shows the forces acting on the box. Note that the weight of a box of
mass 5 kg is 5g where g = 9.8 ms–2 Since the vertical forces are in equilibrium, R = 5g
 Therefore the maximum possible friction is F = μR = 0.4  5g = 19.6 N The pushing
force, 15 N, is less than this and so cannot overcome the friction. The box will not move

2. A 100 N force acts as shown on a 300 N block placed on an inclined plane. The coefficients
of friction between the block and plane are ms = 0.25 and mk = 0.20. Determine whether the
block is in equilibrium and find the value of the friction force

Factual = 48 N

3. A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough floor. The coefficient of friction between the
floor and the box is 0.6. Calculate

The force required to just move the box

If a force of 200 N is applied the box with what acceleration will it move?
Solution
Frictional force Ff= µFn = µ(mg)
= 0.6×30×10 = 180 N
The resultant force = 200 – 180 = 20 N
From F =ma, then 20 = 30 a
a = 20 / 30 = 0.67 m/s2
 3.7 Learning Outcome 5: Solve problems related to motion
3.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to solve problems related to motion. It
involves Definition of terms related to motion, newton’s laws of motion, law of conservation of
momentum, how to Calculate: velocity, acceleration, momentum, impulse, inertia force and simple
harmonic motion how to Draw velocity time graphs, how to Determine relationship between linear
and angular motion, how to Analyze motion of a vehicle on a curved and banked track.

3.7.2 Performance Standard

1. Terms are defined according to reference
2. Laws of motion are stated as per reference
3. Parameters of motion are calculated.
4. Motion graphs are drawn for different situations
5. Relationship between linear and angular motion is established from formula
3.7.3 Information Sheet
3.7.3.1 Definitions of terms:
Speed is the distance covered per unit time.
Displacement is the distance moved by a body in a specified direction is called displacement.
Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit time

NEWTON LAWS OF MOTION

1. Newton’s 1st law states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or
uniform motion until and unless a net external force acts on it.

2. Newton’s 2nd law states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net
force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

 The second law of motion describes what happens to the massive body when acted upon
by an external force. The 2nd law of motion states that the force acting on the body is equal
to the product of its mass and acceleration.

 The second law explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an
external force. The law defines a force to be equal to change in momentum (mass times
velocity) per change in time. Newton also developed the calculus of mathematics, and the
 "changes" expressed in the second law are most accurately defined in differential forms.
(Calculus can also be used to determine the velocity and location variations experienced
by an object subjected to an external force.) For an object with a constant mass m, the
second law states that the force F is the product of an object's mass and its acceleration a:

3. The Newton’s 3rd law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The third law of motion describes what happens to the body when it exerts a force on
another body.
When two bodies interact, they apply force on each other that are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction. To understand Newton’s third law with the help of an example, let
us consider a book resting on a table. The book applies a downward force equal to its
weight on the table. According to the third law of motion, the table applies an equal and
opposite force on the book. This force occurs because the book slightly deforms the table;
as a result, the table pushes back on the book like a coiled spring. Newton’s third law of
motion implies the conservation of momentum.

Figure 12: Laws of motion

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
In physics, the term conservation refers to something which doesn't change. This means that the
variable in an equation which represents a conserved quantity is constant over time. It has the same
value both before and after an event.

The conservation of momentum is a fundamental concept of physics along with the conservation
of energy and the conservation of mass. Momentum is defined to be the mass of an object
multiplied by the velocity of the object. The conservation of momentum states that, within some
problem domain, the amount of momentum remains constant; momentum is neither created nor
destroyed, but only changed through the action of forces as described by Newton's laws of motion.
Dealing with momentum is more difficult than dealing with mass and energy because momentum
is a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a direction. Momentum is conserved in all three
physical directions at the same time. It is even more difficult when dealing with a gas because
forces in one direction can affect the momentum in another direction because of the collisions of
many molecules. On this slide, we will present a very, very simplified flow problem where
properties only change in one direction. The problem is further simplified by considering a steady
flow which does not change with time and by limiting the forces to only those associated with
the pressure.

Motion graphs
Distance-time graphs
This is equivalent to the area under the graph. The area under velocity-time graph gives the
distance covered by the body under’ seconds.
Equations of linear motion
The following equations are applied for uniformly accelerated motion;
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
v2= u2 +2as
Motion under gravity
1. Free fall
The equations used for constant acceleration can be used to become,
v =u+gt
s =ut + ½ gt2
v2= u+2gs
2. Vertical projection
Since the body goes against force of gravity then the following equations hold
v =u-gt ……………1
s =ut- ½ gt2 ……2
v2= u-2gs …………3
N.B time taken to reach maximum height is given by the following
t=u/g since v=0 (using equation 1)

Time of flight
The time taken by the projectile is the time taken to fall back to its point of projection. Using eq.
2 then, displacement =0
0= ut- ½ gt2
0=2ut-gt2
t(2u-gt)=0
Hence, t=0 or t= 2u/g
t=o corresponds to the start of projection
t=2u/g corresponds to the time of flight
The time of flight is twice the time taken to attain maximum height.
Maximum height reached.
Using equation 3 maximum height, Hmax is attained when v=0 (final velocity). Hence
v2= u2-2gs;- 0=u2-2gHmax, therefore
2gHmax=u2
Hmax=u2/2g
Velocity to return to point of projection
At the instance of returning to the original point, total displacement equals to zero.
v2 =u2-2gs hence v2= u2
Therefore v=u or v=±u

3. Horizontal projection
The path followed by a body (projectile) is called trajectory. The maximum horizontal distance
covered by the projectile is called range.
 3.7.4 Learning activities
While driving to work, Naveen always keeps his purse on the passenger seat. By the time he
gets to work, his purse would have fallen on the floor in front of the passenger seat. One day, he
asks you to explain why this happens in terms of physics. What do you say?
3.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. Suppose a bike with a rider on it having a total mass of 63 kg brakes and reduces its velocity
from 8.5 m/s to 0 m/s in 3.0 second. What is the magnitude of the braking force?
2. Why are the laws of motion important?
3. What is Newton’s laws of motion all about?
4. What are some daily life examples of Newton’s 1st, 2nd and 3rd laws of motion?
5. A 6000 kg moving truck with a velocity of 10 m/s hits a parked car of 1000 kg causing it to
move at 15 m/s. What is the velocity of the moving truck after the collision assuming the
momentum is conserved?
6. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration.
7. A car is brought to rest from 180km/h in 20 seconds. What is its retardation?
8.
A body moving with uniform acceleration of 10 m/s2 covers a distance of 320 m. if its initial
velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity.
3.7.6 Reference
1. Witten, Edward (1981). "A new proof of the positive energy
theorem" (PDF). Communications in Mathematical Physics. 80 (3): 381–402
2. Grossman, Lisa (18 January 2012). "Death-defying time crystal could outlast the
universe". Newscientist.com. New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2017-02-02.
3. Cowen, Ron (27 February 2012). ""Time Crystals" Could Be a Legitimate Form of
Perpetual Motion". Scientificamerican.com. Scientific American. Archived from the
original on 2017-02-02.
4. Powell, Devin (2013). "Can matter cycle through shapes eternally.

3.7.7 Model Answers

1. Suppose a bike with a rider on it having a total mass of 63 kg brakes and reduces its velocity
from 8.5 m/s to 0 m/s in 3.0 second. What is the magnitude of the braking force?
Solution:
The combined mass of the rider and the bike = 63 kg
Initial Velocity = 8.5 m/s
Final Velocity = 0 m/s
the time in which the bike stops = 3 s
The net force acting on the body is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the object.
F=ΔpΔt

The momentum of a body with mass m and velocity v is given by p = mv

Hence, the change in momentum of the car is given by
Δp=mv−mu=m(v−u)

Hence, the net force acting on the car is given by

F=m(v−u)Δt

Substituting the value, we get

 F=63kg×(0−8.5m/s)3.0s=1.8×102N

F=1.8×102N
2. Why are the laws of motion important?
Newton’s laws are essential because they relate to everything that we do or see in everyday
life. These laws tell us how things move or stay still, why we don’t float out of our bed or
fall through the floor of our house.

3. What is Newton’s laws of motion all about?

Newton’s laws of motion imply the relationship between an object’s motion and the forces
acting on it. In the first law, we come to understand that an object will not change its
motion unless a force acts on it. The second law states that the force on an object is equal to
its mass times its acceleration. And, finally, the third law states that for every action, there
is an equal and opposite reaction.

4. What are some daily life examples of Newton’s 1st, 2nd and 3rd laws of motion?
The motion of a ball falling through the atmosphere, or a model rocket being launched up
into the atmosphere are both excellent examples of Newton’s 1st law.

Riding a bicycle is a good example of Newton’s 2nd law. In this example, the bicycle is the
mass. The leg muscles pushing on the pedals of the bicycle is the force.

You hit a wall with a certain amount of force, and the wall returns that same amount of
force. This is an example of Newton’s 3rd law.

5. A 6000 kg moving truck with a velocity of 10 m/s hits a parked car of 1000 kg causing it to
move at 15 m/s. What is the velocity of the moving truck after the collision assuming the
momentum is conserved?
Just after the collision the truck will move in the positive direction with speed 7.5 m/s
6. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration.
Solution
Initial velocity= 72 km/h=20m/s
Final velocity= 144 km/h=40m/s
Therefore ‘a’ =v-u/t
 = 40-20/10
2m/s2
7. A car is brought to rest from 180km/h in 20 seconds. What is its retardation?
Solution
Initial velocity=180km/h=50m/s
Final velocity= 0 m/s
A = v-u/t=0-50/20
= -2.5 m/s2
Hence retardation is 2.5 m/s2
8. A body moving with uniform acceleration of 10 m/s2 covers a distance of 320 m. if its initial
velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity.
Solution
V2 = u2 +2as
= (60) +2×10×320
=3600+6400
= 10,000
Therefore v= (10,000)1/2
v= 100m/s
 3.8 Learning Outcome 6: Apply simple machines concepts
3.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to apply simple machines
concepts in automotive engineering. It includes definition of terms related work, power energy,
mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency. In addition it contain descriptions of simple
machines: gears, levers, pulleys, screw jack, and wheel and axle. Furthermore how to apply the
law of machine is elaborated. Determination of work, energy, power, mechanical advantage,
velocity ratio and efficiency.

3.8.2 Performance Standard

1. Terms related to machines are defined from reference

2. Simple machines are described from design.
3. The law of machine is applied from formula
4. Machines performance indicators are determined from law
3.8.3 Information Sheet
3.8.3.1 Definitions of terms
Energy is the ability to do work.

Work is done when a force acts on a body and the body moves in the direction of the force.

Power is the time rate of doing work or the rate of energy conversion.

Machines is any device that uses a force applied at one point to overcome a force at another
point

Mechanism: the fundamental physical or chemical processes involved in or responsible for an

action, reaction or other natural phenomenon.

Mechanical advantage (M.A.) - this is defined as the ratio of the load (L) to the effort (E). It has
no units. M.A = load (L) / effort (E)

Velocity ratio – this is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the
load

V.R = distance moved by effort/ distance moved by the load

Efficiency – is obtained by dividing the work output by the work input and the getting
percentage

Efficiency = (work output/work input) × 100

= (M.A / V.R) × 100

FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Chemical energy: - this is found in foods, oils charcoal firewood etc.

2. Mechanical energy: - there are two types;

3. Potential energy – a body possesses potential energy due to its relative position or state

4. Kinetic energy – energy possessed by a body due to its motion i.e. wind, water

5. Wave energy – wave energy may be produced by vibrating objects or particles i.e. light,
sound or tidal waves.

6. Electrical energy – this is energy formed by conversion of other forms of energy i.e.
generators

The law of conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy states that “energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
be transformed from one form to another.

Any device that facilitates energy transformations is called transducer. Energy can be transformed
from one form to another i.e. mechanical – electrical – heat energy.

Work
Work done = force × distance moved by object

W=F×d

Work is the application of a force over a distance. Lifting a weight from the ground and putting it
on a shelf is a good example of work. The force is equal to the weight of the object, and the distance
is equal to the height of the shelf (W= Fx)

Units of Work
Whenever a new quantity is introduced in physics, the standard metric units associated with that
quantity are discussed. In the case of work (and also energy), the standard metric unit is
the Joule (abbreviated J). One Joule is equivalent to one Newton of force causing a displacement
of one meter. In other words,

The Joule is the unit of work.

1 Joule = 1 Newton * 1 meter

1J=1N*m

In fact, any unit of force times any unit of displacement is equivalent to a unit of work. Some
nonstandard units for work are shown below. Notice that when analyzed, each set of units is
equivalent to a force unit times a displacement unit.

Non-standard Units of Work:

foot•pound kg•(m/s2)•m kg•(m2/s2)

In summary, work is done when a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement. Three
quantities must be known in order to calculate the amount of work. Those three quantities are
force, displacement and the angle between the force and the displacement.
The Meaning of Negative Work

On occasion, a force acts upon a moving object to hinder a displacement. Examples might include
a car skidding to a stop on a roadway surface or a baseball runner sliding to a stop on the infield
dirt. In such instances, the force acts in the direction opposite the objects motion in order to slow
it down. The force doesn't cause the displacement but rather hinders it. These situations involve
what is commonly called negative work. The negative of negative work refers to the numerical
value that results when values of F, d and theta are substituted into the work equation. Since the
force vector is directly opposite the displacement vector, theta is 180 degrees. The cosine (180
degrees) is -1 and so a negative value results for the amount of work done upon the object. Negative
work will become important (and more meaningful).
Power
Power is the time rate of doing work or the rate of energy conversion.

Power (P) = work done / time

P=W/t

The SI unit for power is the watt (W) or joules per second (J/s).

Examples

A person weighing 500 N takes 4 seconds to climb upstairs to a height of 3.0 m. what is the average
power in climbing up the height?

Solution

Power = work done / time = (force × distance) / time

= (500 ×3) / 4 = 375 W

Calculating Work, Energy and Power

WORK = W=Fd

Because energy is the capacity to do work , we measure energy and work in the same units (N*m
or joules).

POWER (P) is the rate of energy generation (or absorption) over time:P = E/t

Power's SI unit of measurement is the Watt, representing the generation or absorption of energy at
the rate of 1 Joule/sec. Power's unit of measurement in the English system is the horsepower, which
is equivalent to 735.7 Watts.

Simple machines
Any of several devices with few or no moving parts that are used to modify motion and the
magnitude of a force in order to perform work. They are the simplest mechanisms known that can
use leverage (or mechanical advantage) to increase force. The simple machines are the inclined
plane, lever, wedge, wheel and axle, pulley, and screw.
 Figure 13: simple machines
LAWS OF MOTION
(i) The Inclined Plane

An inclined plane consists of a sloping surface; it is used for raising heavy bodies. The plane offers
a mechanical advantage in that the force required to move an object up the incline is less than
the weight being raised (discounting friction). The steeper the slope, or incline, the more nearly
the required force approaches the actual weight. Expressed mathematically, the force F required
to move a block D up an inclined plane without friction is equal to its weight W times the sine of
the angle the inclined plane makes with the horizontal (θ). The equation is F = W sin θ.
 Figure 14: Incline Plane
The principle of the inclined plane is used widely—for example, in ramps and switchback roads,
where a small force acting for a distance along a slope can do a large amount of work

(ii) Levers

This is a simple machine whose operation relies on the principle of moments. A lever is a bar or
board that rests on a support called a fulcrum. A downward force exerted on one end of the lever
can be transferred and increased in an upward direction at the other end, allowing a small force to
lift a heavy weight.

(iii) The Wedge

A wedge is an object that tapers to a thin edge. Pushing the wedge in one direction creates a force
in a sideways direction. It is usually made of metal or wood and is used for splitting, lifting, or
tightening, as in securing a hammer head onto its handle.
 Figure 15: Wedge
An ax is also a wedge, as are the teeth on a saw. In terms of its mechanical function, the screw
may be thought of as a wedge wrapped around a cylinder.

(iv) The Wheel And Axle

A wheel and axle is made up of a circular frame (the wheel) that revolves on a shaft or rod (the
axle). In its earliest form it was probably used for raising weights or water buckets from wells.

Its principle of operation is best explained by way of a device with a large gear and a small gear
attached to the same shaft. The tendency of a force, F, applied at the radius R on the large gear to
turn the shaft is sufficient to overcome the larger force W at the radius r on the small gear. The
force amplification, or mechanical advantage, is equal to the ratio of the two forces (W:F) and also
equal to the ratio of the radii of the two gears (R:r).
 Figure 16: Wheel and Axle arrangements
If the large and small gears are replaced with large- and small-diameter drums that are wrapped
with ropes, the wheel and axle becomes capable of raising weights. The weight being lifted is
attached to the rope on the small drum, and the operator pulls the rope on the large drum. In this
arrangement the mechanical advantage is the radius of the large drum divided by the radius of the
small drum. An increase in the mechanical advantage can be obtained by using a small drum with
two radii, r1 and r2, and a pulley block. When a force is applied to the large drum, the rope on the
small drum winds onto D and off of d.
A measure of the force amplification available with the pulley-and-rope system is the velocity
ratio, or the ratio of the velocity at which the force is applied to the rope (VF) to the velocity at
which the weight is raised (VW). This ratio is equal to twice the radius of the large drum divided
by the difference in the radii of the smaller drums D and d. Expressed mathematically, the equation
is VF/VW = 2R/(r2 - r1). The actual mechanical advantage W/F is less than this velocity ratio,
depending on friction. A very large mechanical advantage may be obtained with this arrangement
by making the two smaller drums D and d of nearly equal radius.
(v) Screw Jack

One of the most common application of the principle of the inclined plane is in the screw
jack which is used to overcome a heavy pressure or raise a heavy weight of W by a much smaller
force F applied at the handle. R represents the length of the handle and P the pitch of the screw, or
the distance advances in one complete turn.

Figure 17: Wheel and Axle arrangements

Neglecting the friction the following rule is used: The force F multiplied by the distance through
which it moves in one complete turn is equal to the weight lifted times the distance through which
it is lifted in the same time. In one complete turn the end of the handle describes a circle of
circumference 2 R. This is the distance through which the force F is exerted.

Therefore from the rule above

(vi) Gears

A gear, or toothed wheel, when in operation, may actually be considered as a lever with the
additional feature that it can be rotated continuously, instead of rocking back and forth through a
short distance. One of the basic relationships for a gear is the number of teeth, the diameter, and
the rotary velocity of gears.

Gear Ratios

It is important when working with gears to know what number of teeth the gears should have so
that they can mesh properly in a gear train. The size of the teeth for connecting gears must be
match properly.

(vii) Belts and Pulleys

Belts and pulleys are an important part of most machines. Pulleys are nothing but gears without
teeth and instead of running together directly they are made to drive one another by cords, ropes,
cables, or belting of some kinds.

As with gears, the velocities of pulleys are inversely proportional to their diameters.

Figure 18: Belts and Pulleys

Pulleys – this is a wheel with a grooved rim used for lifting heavy loads to high levels. The can
be used as a single fixed pulley, or as a block-and-tackle system.
3.8.4 Learning activities
Practical activities
Visit an automotive engineering workshop and identify the various type of simple machines
being applied. Calculate the efficiency and mechanical advantage of each machine.
3.8.5 Self-assessment
1. Calculate the work done by a stone mason lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a height of 2.0
m. (take g=10N/kg)

2. A girl of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of 12 steps. If each step is 30 cm high, calculate the
work done by the girl climbing the stairs.

3. A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in stretching this
spring by 8.0 cm?

4. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an applicationof brakes and

comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg. Calculate;

5. A box of mass 500 kg is dragged along a level ground at a speed of 12 m/s. If the force of
friction between the box and floor is 1200 N. Calculate the power developed.

6. A machine; the load moves 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used to raise
a load of 60 N, what is the efficiency of the machine?
 3.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
The following resources are provided
- A functional mechanical workshop
- A functional automotive workshop.
- PPE
- Sample simple machines
 Winch
 Wedge
 Screws
 Gears
 Gear trains
 Levers
 Hoist
 Inclined plane
- Computers
- Stationery
- Classroom and classroom resources
3.8.7 References
Chambers, Ephraim (1728), "Table of Mechanicks", Cyclopædia, A Useful Dictionary arts and
Sciences, London, England, 2, p. 528, Plate 11.

Paul, Akshoy; Roy, Pijush; Mukherjee, Sanchayan (2005), Mechanical sciences: engineering
mechanics and strength of materials, Prentice Hall of India, p. 215, ISBN 978-81-203-2611-8

simov, Isaac (1988), Understanding Physics, New York: Barnes & Noble, p. 88, ISBN 978-0-
88029-251-1.

Anderson, William Ballantyne (1914). Physics for Technical Students: Mechanics and Heat. New
York: McGraw Hill. p. 112. Retrieved 2008-05-11.

"Mechanics". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 3. John Donaldson. 1773. p. 44. Retrieved 5 April 2020.

Morris, Christopher G. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Gulf
Professional Publishing. p. 1993. ISBN 9780122004001.

Compound machines, University of Virginia Physics Department, retrieved 2010-06-11.

Usher, Abbott Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions. US: Courier Dover
Publications. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-486-25593
Wallenstein, Andrew (June 2002). "Foundations of cognitive support: Toward abstract patterns of
usefulness".

Proceedings of the 9th Annual Workshop on the Design, Specification, and Verification of
Interactive Systems. Springer. p. 136. ISBN 9783540002666. Retrieved 2008-05-21.

Prater, Edward L. (1994), Basic machines (PDF), U.S. Navy Naval Education and Training
Professional Development and Technology Center, NAVEDTRA 1403

3.8.8 Model Answers

1. Calculate the work done by a stone mason lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a height of 2.0
m. (take g=10N/kg)

Solution

Work done = force × distance

= (15× 10) × 2 = 300 Nm or 300 J

2. A girl of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of 12 steps. If each step is 30 cm high, calculate the
work done by the girl climbing the stairs.

Solution

Work done = force × distance

= (50× 10) × (12 ×30) ÷ 100 = 500 × 3.6 = 1,800 J

3. A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in stretching this
spring by 8.0 cm?

Solution

A force of 7.5 produces an extension of 5.0 cm.

Hence 8.0 cm = (7.5 ×8)/ 5 = 12.0 N

Work done = ½ × force × extension

= ½ × 12.0 × 0.08 = 0.48 J

4. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an applicationof brakes and
comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg. Calculate;

The breaking force

The work done in bringing it to rest

Solution

F = ma and a = v – u/t

But 72 km/h = 20m/s

a = 0 -20/8 = - 2.5 m/s

Retardation = 2.5 m/s

Braking force F = 1,250 × 2.5

= 3,125 N

Work done = kinetic energy lost by the car

= ½ mv2 – ½ mu2

= ½ × 1250 × 02 – ½ × 1250 × 202

= - 2.5 × 105 J

5. A box of mass 500 kg is dragged along a level ground at a speed of 12 m/s. If the force of
friction between the box and floor is 1200 N. Calculate the power developed.

Solution

Power = F v

= 2,000 × 12

= 24,000 W = 24 kW

6. A machine; the load moves 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used to raise
a load of 60 N, what is the efficiency of the machine?

Solution
Efficiency = (M.A / V.R) × 100 M.A = load/effort =60/20 = 3

V.R =DE/ DL = 8/2 = 4

Efficiency = ¾ × 100 = 75%

 3.9 Learning Outcome 7: Determine the effect of heat and gas laws
3.9.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to determine the effect of heat and the
competence and knowledge required to apply the gas laws. It involves Definition of heat,
temperature and heat capacity, explain the effect of heat on matter. Describe modes of heat transfer,
state the gas laws. Measure quantity of heat and temperature. Solve problems on heat and gases.

3.9.2 Performance Standard

1. Terms are defined in accordance with reference
2. Effects of heat on matter are identified from experiments.
3. Modes of heat transfer are identified from observation
4. Gas laws are stated from reference.

3.9.3 Information Sheet

3.9.3.1 Definitions of terms:
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat.
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount
of heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its temperature.

Introduction
When solids are heated they expand. The expansion is so small such that we can’t see them. The
following experiments will demonstrate actual expansion of solids.

Expansion of liquids and gases

Liquids expand more than solids so it is easy to observe and see clearly as they expand. We use
the hot water bottle to demonstrate the expansion of water. Water is put in the bottle as shown
below.

Thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometer-this applies to the expansion of a liquid in a thin-walled glass-tube.
The liquid moves up the tube when the bulb is heated. The liquid must be a good conductor, visible
and be able to contract and expand quickly and uniformly over a wide range of temperatures. It
should also not stick on the sides of the tube. Liquids commonly used are mercury and colored
alcohol. The scale is obtained by choosing two temperature points called fixed points. In Celsius
lower point is taken to be 0oC (when placed in ice) and the upper point as 100oC (boiling steam).
The two points are therefore divided into 100 equal parts (calibration). The melting and boiling
points of both mercury and alcohol are (-39 oC - 357 oC) and (-112 oC - 78 oC) respectively.

Heat transfer
Heat is transferred in matter through the following methods: conduction, convection and
radiation.
(i) Conduction
This is the transfer of heat in solids. The rate of conduction depends on
1. Amount of temperature - the higher the temperature the higher the rate of transfer.
2. Cross-sectional area - the larger the cross-sectional area the higher the transfer.
3. Length of material - the shorter the material the higher the rate of transfer.
4. Type of material - different materials transfer heat at different rates. Good and bad conductors
Good conductors of heat are those materials which are able to transfer heat easily and steadily.
Bad conductors are those which do not conduct heat.

Poor conductors

1. Used as insulators in handles of cooking utensils

2. Used in making good winter clothes i.e. wool

3. Hot water cylinders are lagged with fiber-glass since glass is a poor conductor of heat.

4. Houses in cold countries have double walls with air trapped in them to keep them warm.

(ii) Convection
This is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases). This occurs when part of the fluid is
heated: they become less dense and rise above the cold fluid. As they move they carry heat with
them. In convection we observe streams of moving fluid called convectional
currents.

Applications of convection
1. brings about the land and sea breezes.
2. Can be used to explain the weather phenomena.
3. Used in car radiators.
4. Used in immersion water heaters by placing them at the bottom.
Applications of radiation

1. Electric kettles have a chrome coat to reduce radiation.

2. Electric iron are silver coated to minimize radiation.

3. Green houses use radiation (heat trap) to grow crops.

4. Clouds reflect radiation back to the earth hence cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights.

Specific Heat and Heat Capacity

How to calculate the change in temperature of a substance given its heat capacity and the energy
used to heat it
Key Points
- Heat capacity is the ratio of the amount of heat energy transferred to an object to the
resulting increase in its temperature.
- Molar heat capacity is a measure of the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature
of one mole of a pure substance by one degree K.
- Specific heat capacity is a measure of the amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of one gram of a pure substance by one degree K.
(i) Determination of specific heat capacity

A calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance. This uses the principle
of heat gained by a substance is equal to the heat lost by another substance in contact with each
other until equilibrium is achieved. Heat losses in calorimeter are controlled such that no losses
occur or they are very minimal.
 Figure 19: Belts and Pulleys
(ii) Fusion and latent heat of fusion

Fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid. Change of state from liquid to solid is called
solidification. Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy absorbed or given out during fusion. Specific
latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to change completely 1
kg of a substance at its melting point into liquid without change in temperature. It is represented
by the symbol (L), we use the following formula,

Q = m Lf

Different substances have different latent heat of fusion.

(iii) Factors affecting the melting point

 Pressure

 Dissolved substances

Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change completely 1 kg of a
liquid at its normal boiling point to vapor without changing its temperature. Hence

Q = m Lv

The SI unit for specific latent heat of vaporization is J / Kg.

 (iv) Evaporation

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

 Temperature

 Surface area

 Draught (hot and dry surrounding)

 Humidity

Comparison between boiling and evaporation

Evaporation Boiling

Takes place at all temperature - takes place at a specific temperature

Takes place on the surface (no bubbles formed)- takes place throughout the liquid ( bubbles
formed)

Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases the rate –decreases as atmospheric pressure lowers

Applications of cooling by evaporation

Sweating

Cooling of water in a porous pot

The refrigerator

THE GAS LAWS

(i) Pressure law

This law states that “the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature if the volume is kept constant”. The comparison between Kelvin scale and degrees
Celsius is given by; θ0 = (273 + θ) K, and T (K) = (T – 273) 0C

(ii) Charles law

Charles law states that “the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (Kelvin) provided the pressure is kept constant”. Mathematically expressed as
follows,

V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

(iii) Boyle’s law

Boyle’s law states that “the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
provided the temperature of the gas is kept constant”. Mathematically expressed as,

P1 V1 = P2 V2

(iv) A general gas law

Any two of the three gas laws can be used derive a general gas law as follows,

P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2or

P V / T = constant – equation of state for an ideal gas.

3.9.4 Learning activities

Practical activities
Experiment 1: Comparing thermal conductivity of metals Procedure
1. Obtain four identical rods of copper, iron, aluminum and brass.
2. At one end of each rod attach a matchstick using paraffin wax and let it solidify.
3. Place the rods on a tripod stand with the free ends close to one another as shown.
4. Heat the free ends strongly with a Bunsen burner.
5. Observe what happens.
Discussion

When done correctly and carefully the matchsticks will fall off in the following order: copper,
aluminum, brass and finally iron. This shows that different metals conduct heat at different rates.

NOTE - on a cold morning a metallic chair would feel cold compared to a wooden chair at the
same temperature, this is because the metallic chair absorbs heat from your body as opposed to
wood which is a bad conductor of heat
Experiment 2: model chimney (smoke box)
Procedure

1. Obtain a model chimney system or construct one as shown

2. Place a lighted candle under one of the chimneys

3. Place a smoldering cloth near the other chimney and observe what happens.

Discussion

Smoke will be seen going into the chimney and coming out through the other chimney. The air
above the candle gets heated and rises up the chimney causing convectional currents which carry
the smoke out with them

3.9.5 Self-assessment
1. A gas in a fixed volume container has a pressure of 1.6 × 105 Pa at a temperature of 27
0C. What will be the pressure of the gas if the container is heated to a temperature of
2770C?
2. At 200C, the pressure of a gas is 50 cm of mercury. At what temperature would the
pressure of the gas fall to 10 cm of mercury?

3. A gas has a volume of 20 cm3 at 270C and normal atmospheric pressure. Calculate the
new volume of the gas if it is heated to 540C at the same pressure.

4. 0.02m3 of a gas is at 27 0C is heated at a constant pressure until the volume is 0.03 m3.
Calculate the final temperature of the gas in 0C.

5. A gas in a cylinder occupies a volume of 465 ml when at a pressure equivalent to 725 mm

of mercury. If the temperature is held constant, what will be the volume of the gas when
the pressure on it is raised to 825 mm of mercury?

6. A fixed mass of gas occupies 1.0 × 10-3 m3 at a pressure of 75 cmHg. What volume does
the gas occupy at 17.0 0C if its pressure is 72 cm of mercury?

3.9.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

- A functional physics laboratory
- A functional chemistry laboratory
- Computers
 - Stationery
- Classroom resources
3.9.7 References
Castka, Joseph F.; Metcalfe, H. Clark; Davis, Raymond E.; Williams, John E. (2002). Modern
Chemistry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-056537-5.

Guch, Ian (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Chemistry. Alpha, Penguin Group Inc. ISBN 1-
59257-101-8.

Zumdahl, Steven S (1998). Chemical Principles. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-83995-
5.

Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (2013). Fundamentals of Physics. Wiley. p. 524.

Koch, Werner (2013). VDI Steam Tables (4 ed.). Springer. p. 8. ISBN 9783642529412.Published
under the auspices of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI).

^Cardarelli, Francois (2012). Scientific Unit Conversion: A Practical Guide to Metrication. M.J.
Shields (translation) (2 ed.). Springer. p. 19. ISBN 9781447108054.

D. Lynden-Bell; R. M. Lynden-Bell (Nov 1977). "On the negative specific heat

paradox". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 181 (3): 405–419.

3.9.8 Model Answers

1. A gas in a fixed volume container has a pressure of 1.6 × 105 Pa at a temperature of 27 0C.
What will be the pressure of the gas if the container is heated to a temperature of 2770C?
Solution
Since law applies for Kelvin scale, convert the temperature to kelvin
T1 = 270C = (273 + 27) K = 300 K
T2 = 2270C = (273 + 277) = 550 K
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2, therefore P2 = (1.6 × 105) × 550 / 300 = 2.93 × 105 Pa.
2. At 200C, the pressure of a gas is 50 cm of mercury. At what temperature would the pressure
of the gas fall to 10 cm of mercury?
Solution
P / T = constant, P1 / T1 = P2 / T2, therefore T2 = (293 × 10) / 50 = 58.6 K or (– 214.4 0C)
3. A gas has a volume of 20 cm3 at 270C and normal atmospheric pressure. Calculate the new
volume of the gas if it is heated to 540C at the same pressure.

Solution

Using, V1 / T1 = V2 / T2, then V2 =(20 × 327) / 300 = 21.8 cm3.

4. 0.02m3 of a gas is at 27 0C is heated at a constant pressure until the volume is 0.03 m3.
Calculate the final temperature of the gas in 0C.

Solution

Since V1 / T1 = V2 / T2, T2 = (300 × 0.03) / 0.02 = 450 K 0r 1770C

5. A gas in a cylinder occupies a volume of 465 ml when at a pressure equivalent to 725 mm of

mercury. If the temperature is held constant, what will be the volume of the gas when the
pressure on it is raised to 825 mm of mercury?

Solution

Using, P1 V1 = P2 V2, then V2 = (725 × 465) / 825 = 409 ml.

6. A fixed mass of gas occupies 1.0 × 10-3 m3 at a pressure of 75 cmHg. What volume does the
gas occupy at 17.0 0C if its pressure is 72 cm of mercury?

Solution

P V / T = constant so V1 = (76 × 1.0 × 10-3 × 290) / 273 ×72 = 1.12 × 10-3 m3

 3.10 Learning Outcome 8: Use the concept of density and pressure.
3.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to Use the concept of density
and pressure. It includes definition of terms related measurements of density and pressure, how to
how to measure density, relative density and pressure using appropriate instruments. It describe
Archimedes principle and the law of floatation. How to solve problems on density, relative density
and pressure. Application of pressure in brakes, pumps, jacks and other engineering

3.10.2 Performance Standard

1. Terms are defined from reference

2. Parameters are measured using instruments

3. Laws and principles are stated in accordance with reference

4. Calculations on density and pressure are performed from derived formula

3.10.3 Information Sheet

3.10.3.1 Definitions of terms
 Area is the measure of the extent of a surface. It is a derived quantity of length. Its SI units
are square meters (m2).

 Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter. The SI units for volume is cubic meter
(m3).

 Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a substance

 Density is mass per unit volume of a substance. It is symbolized by rho (ρ) and its SI units
are kg/m3

 Relative density is the density of a substance compared to the density of water

 Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area. The SI
units for pressure is newton per meter squared (N/m2). (Pa).
The following is a list of densities of some common substances
Substance Density (g/cm3) Density (kg/m3)
Platinum 21.4 21,400
Gold 19.3 19,300
Lead 11.3 11,300
Silver 10.5 10,500
Copper 8.93 8,930
Iron 7.86 7,860
Aluminium 2.7 2,700
Glass 2.5 2,500
Ice 0.92 920
Mercury 13.6 13,600
Sea water 1.03 1,030
Water 1.0 1,000
Kerosene 0.80 800
Alcohol 0.79 790
Carbon (iv) oxide 0.00197 1.97
Air 0.00131 1.31
Hydrogen 0.000089 0.089

Densities of mixtures
We use the following formula to calculate densities of mixtures
Density of the mixture = mass of the mixture / volume of the mixture

Relative density
We have established the relative density as the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of water. Since by the law of floatation an object
displaces a fluid equal to its own weight hence the following mathematical
expressions can be established.
Relative density = density of substance / density of water.
= weight of substance / weight of equal volume of water
= mass of substance / mass of equal volume of water
Applying Archimedes principle, the relative density‘d’; d = weight of substance in air / upthrust
in water or d = W / u Since upthrust is given by (W2 - W1) where W2 - weight in air, W2- weight
when submerged. Hence d = W / u = W / W2 - W1, the actual density, ρ of an object can be
obtained as follows ρ of an object = d × 1,000 kgm-3
Calculating pressure
Examples
1. A rectangular brick of weight 10 N, measures 50 cm × 30 cm × 10 cm. calculate the values of
the maximum and minimum pressures which the block exert when resting on a horizontal table.

Solution

Area of the smallest face = 0.3 × 0.1 = 0.03 m2.

Area of the largest face = 0.5 × 0.3 = 0.15 m2.

Maximum pressure = 10 N / 0.03 = 3.3 × 102 N/m2. Minimum pressure = 10 N / 0.15 = 67 N/m2.

2. A man of mass 84 kg stands upright on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes and the floor
is 420 cm2, determine the average pressure he exerts on the floor. (Take g = 10 N/Kg)

Solution

Pressure = force / area = 840 / 0.042 = 20,000 Nm-2.

Pressure in liquids

The following formula is used to determine pressure in liquids.

Pressure = h ρ g, where h - height of the liquid, ρ - density and g - is force of
gravity.

Examples
1. A diver is 10 m below the surface of water in a dam. If the density of water is
1,000 kgm -3, determine the pressure due to the water on the diver. (Take g = 10
Nkg-1)
Solution
Pressure = h ρ g = 10 × 1000 × 10 = 100,000 Nm-2.
U-tube manometer
It is a transparent tube bent into U-shape. When a liquid is poured into a u-tube it
settles at equal level since pressure depends on height and they share the same
bottom. Consider the following diagrams;

Figure 20: U – tube manometer

For the levels to differ the pressure P1 must be greater than P2, hence P1 = P2 + hρg.

If P1 is the lung pressure, P0 is the atmospheric pressure, then if the difference is ‘h’ then lung
pressure can calculated as follows.

P1 = P0 + hρg.

Example

A man blows into one end of a U-tube containing water until the levels differ by 40.0 cm. if the
atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 N/m2 and the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, calculate his
lung pressure.

Solution

Lung pressure = atmospheric Pressure + liquid pressure

P1 = P0 + hρg. Hence P1 = (1.01 × 105) + (0.4 × 10 × 1000) = 1.05 × 105 N/m2.

Measuring pressure
 1. Simple mercury barometer- it is constructed using a thick walled glass tube of length 1
m and is closed at one end. Mercury is added into the tube then inverted and dipped into a
dish containing more mercury. The space above the mercury column is called Torricelli
an vacuum. The height ‘h’ (if it is at sea level) would be found to be
760 mm. Atmospheric pressure can be calculated as, P = ρ g h =>where ρ (mercury)-
1.36 × 104 kg/m3, g- 9.81 N/kg, h- 0.76 m. Then P = (1.36 × 104) × 9.81 × 0.76 = 1.014
× 105 Pa.

NOTE- this is the standard atmospheric pressure, sometimes called one atmosphere. It is
approximately one bar.

2. Fortin barometer-this is a more accurate mercury barometer. The adjusting screw is

adjusted first to touch the mercury level in the leather bag.

3. Aneroid barometer- increase in pressure causes the box to contract, the movements are
magnified by the system of levers and is transmitted to the pointer by the fine chain and this
causes the pointer to move. The scale is suitably calibrated to read pressure. Since pressure
falls or rises as altitude falls or rises, the pointer can also be calibrated to read altitude

4. Bourdon gauge- it is also called gauge pressure and is used in gas cylinders. When air is
blown into the rubber tube, the curved metal tube tries to straighten out and this causes
movement which is transmitted by levers and gears attached to a pointer. This gauge can
measure both gas and liquid pressure.

Application of pressure in gases and liquids

1. Rubber sucker- this is a shallow rubber cap. Before use it is moistened to get a good seal
then pressed firmly on a smooth surface so that the air inside is pushed out. The atmospheric
pressure will then hold it firmly against the surface as shown below. They are used by printing
machines to lift papers, lifting glass panes, heavy metal sheets etc.
2. Drinking straw- when a liquid is drawn using a straw air is sucked through the straw to
the lungs. This leaves the space in the straw partially evacuated. The atmospheric pressure
pushing down the liquid in the container becomes greater than the pressure inside the straw
and this forces the liquid into your mouth.
3. The syringe- they work in the principle as the straw. They are used by the
doctors in hospitals for giving injections.
 4. Bicycle pump- it uses two valves, one in the pump (greasy leather) and the other in the
tire. When the handle is pushed in, the pressure inside the barrel becomes greater than the
one in the tire and this pushes air inside. The valve in the tire is made such that air is locked
inside once pumped.
5. The siphon- it is used to empty tanks which may not be easy to empty by pouring their contents
out. The tubing must be lowered below the base of the tank. The liquid flows out due to pressure
difference caused by the difference in height (h ρ g).
6. Lift pump.
7. Force pump

Transmission of pressure in liquids and gases

It was first recognized by a French mathematician and physicist called Blaise Pascal in the 17th
century. Pressure is equally distributed in a fluid and equally transmitted as shown in the
following:
a) Hydraulic brake system- the master cylinder transmits pressure to the four slave cylinders
on each wheel. The cylinders contain brake fluid. Fluid is used because liquids are almost
incompressible. When force is applied in the pedal the resulting pressure in the master cylinder
is transmitted to the slave cylinders. This forces the piston to open the brake shoes which then
pushes the brake lining against the drum. This force the rotation of the wheel to slow down. It is
important to note that pressure is equally distributed in all wheels so that the car doesn’t pull or
veer to one side.
 Figure 21: Hydraulic Braking System

Figure 22: Hydraulic Press

b) Hydraulic press- it consists of two pistons with different cross -sectional areas. Since
pressure is transmitted equally in fluids, when force is applied in one piston it is transmitted to
the other piston. The smaller piston is called the force while the bigger piston is called the load.
They are used to lift heavy loads in industries, bending metals and sheets etc.

Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes, a Greek scientist carried out first experiments to measure up thrust on an object in
liquid in the third century. Archimedes principle states that ‘When a body is wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid (liquid/ gas), it experiences an up thrust equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid”.

(i) Floating objects

Objects that float in a liquid are less dense than the liquid in which they float. We have to
determine the relationship between the weight of the displaced liquid and the weight of the body.

(ii) Applications of Archimedes principle and relative density

1. Ships - steel which is used to make ships is 6-7 times dense than water but a ship is able to
float on water because it is designed to displace more water than its volume. Load
lines called plimsoll marks are marked on the side to indicate the maximum load at different
seasons to avoid overloading.

2. Submarines - they are made of steel and consists of ballast tanks which contain water when
they have to sink and filled with air when they have to float. This makes the submarines to
balance their weight and be able to rise upwards.

3. Balloons - when they are filled with helium gas balloons become lighter and the upthrust on
the balloon becomes greater than their weight therefore becoming able to rise upwards.

4. Hydrometers - they are used to measure the relative densities of liquids quickly and
conveniently. Various types of hydrometers are made to measure different ranges of different
densities i.e. lactometer - for measuring milk water (range 1.015 - 1.045), battery acid tester -
used to test the charge in a lead-acid battery.

3.10.4 Learning activities

Practical activity

To demonstrate Archimedes principle

 1. Pour water into an overflow can (eureka can) until it starts to flow out then wait until it
stops dripping 2.

2. Tie a suitable solid body securely and suspend it on a spring balance. Determine weight in
air.

3. Lower the body slowly into the overflow can while still attached to the spring balance then
read off its weight when fully submerged.

4. Weigh the displaced water collected in a beaker. Record your readings as follows;
Weight of body in air = W1

Weight of body in water = W2

Weight of empty beaker = W3
Weight of beaker and displaced liquid = W4 Upthrust of the
body = W1-W2
Weight of displaced water = W4 - W3

Discussion

The up thrust on the solid body will be found to be equal to the weight of displaced water
therefore demonstrating the Archimedes principle.

3.10.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

- A functional chemistry laboratory
- A functional physics laboratory
- An automotive workshop
- Stationery
- Classroom resources

3.10.6 Self-assessment.
1. A block of glass of mass 187.5 g is 5.0 cm long, 2.0 cm thick and 7.5 cm high. Calculate the
density of the glass in kgm-3.

. The density of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.8 g/cm3. Calculate the volume of 3.1 kg of the
acid.
2. The density of mercury is 13,600 kgm-3. Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76 cm
below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)
3. The height of the mercury column in a barometer is found to be 67.0 cm at a certain place.
What would be the height of a water barometer at the same place? (Densities of mercury and
water are 1.36 × 104 kg/m3 and 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 respectively.)
Solution
4. The area of the smaller piston of a hydraulic press is 0.01 m2 and that of the bigger piston is
0.5 m2. If the force applied to the smaller piston is 2 N, what force is transmitted to the larger
piston?
5. The master cylinder piston in a car braking system has a diameter of 2.0 cm. The effective area
of the brake pads on each of the four wheels is 30 cm 2. The driver exerts a force of 500 n on
the brake pedal. Calculate
a) The pressure in the master cylinder

b) The total braking force in the car.

3.10.7 References
1. Knight, PhD, Randall D. (2007). "Fluid Mechanics". Physics for Scientists and Engineers

2. Archimedes, A Gold Thief and Buoyancy Archived August 27, 2007, at the Wayback
Machine – by Larry "Harris" Taylor, Ph.D

3. Raymond Serway; John Jewett (2005), Principles of Physics: A Calculus-Based Text,

Cengage Learning, p. 467

4. "Pressure". Retrieved 2018-06-14.

5. "14th Conference of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures". Bipm.fr.

Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2012-03-27.

3.10.8 Model Answers

1. A block of glass of mass 187.5 g is 5.0 cm long, 2.0 cm thick and 7.5 cm high. Calculate the
density of the glass in kgm-3.

Solution

Density = mass / volume = (187.5 /1000) /(2.0 × 7.5 × 5.0 /1,000,000) = 2,500 kgm-3.

2. The density of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.8 g/cm3. Calculate the volume of 3.1 kg of the
acid.
Solution

Volume = mass / density = 3,100 / 1.8 = 1,722 cm3 or 0.001722 m3

3. The density of mercury is 13,600 kgm-3. Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76 cm
below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)
Solution
Pressure = h ρ g = 0.76 × 13,600 × 10 = 103,360 Nm-2.
4. The height of the mercury column in a barometer is found to be 67.0 cm at a certain place.
What would be the height of a water barometer at the same place? (Densities of mercury and
water are 1.36 × 104 kg/m3 and 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 respectively.)
Solution
Let the pressure due to water be h1ρ1g1 = h ρ g, hence;
h1 = h ρ / ρ1= (6.7 × 10-1) × (1.36 × 104) = 911.2 cm or 9.11 m
5. The area of the smaller piston of a hydraulic press is 0.01 m2 and that of the bigger piston is
0.5 m2. If the force applied to the smaller piston is 2 N, what force is transmitted to the larger
piston?
Solution

Pressure = force / area - hence P = 2 / 0.01 = 200 Pa.

Force = Pressure × Area = 200 × 0.5 = 100 N.

6. The master cylinder piston in a car braking system has a diameter of 2.0 cm. The effective area
of the brake pads on each of the four wheels is 30 cm 2. The driver exerts a force of 500 n on the
brake pedal. Calculate

a) The pressure in the master cylinder

b) The total braking force in the car.

Solution

a) Area of the master cylinder - π r2 = 3.14 cm2

Pressure = force /area = 500 / 3.14 × 10-4 = 1.59 × 106 N/m2

b) Area of brake pads = (30 × 4) cm2. Since pressure in the wheel cylinder is the same as in the
master cylinder)
F = Pressure × Area = (1.59 × 106) × (120 × 10-4) = 1.91 × 104 N.
298
 CHAPTER 4: APPLYING WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRINCIPLES

Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CC/4 /05

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Workshop Technology
principles.

4.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit describes the competencies required by an automotive technician in order to apply a wide
range of workshop technology skills in their work. It involves use of different methods to produce
work pieces using basic tools while observing occupational safety and health legislations,
regulations and safe working practices, interpret working drawings, select appropriate techniques
for a given task to achieve specified results as well as perform housekeeping.

4.2 Summary of learning outcomes

1) Use technical drawing to plan work operations
2) Choose appropriate tools and materials
3) Measure and mark out dimensions on work pieces
4) Use hand tools to cut and file parts
5) Use drills to make holes
6) Thread using taps and dies
7) Assemble metal parts and sub-assemblies
8) Polish finished work
9) Perform housekeeping
10) Inspect finished work for accuracy and quality
11) Maintenance of tools and equipment

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 4.3 Learning Outcome 1: Use technical drawing to plan work operations
4.3.2 Performance Standards
1. Technical drawings and geometric symbols are read and interpreted as per drawing
standards.
2. Operation Plan is produced as per the technical drawings.
3. Technical drawings are produced as per drawing Standards.

4.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome covers interpretation of technical drawings and geometric symbols,
production of operation plan and production of technical drawings.

4.3.3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms
BS (British standards): The specification recommended procedures of quality input, terminology
and other details in a particular field drawn by British standard institution.

ISO (International Organization for Standardization): It is an international standard setting

body comprised of representatives from various nations’ standard organization.

ANSI (American National Standards Institute): is a private non-profit organization that oversees
the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems and
personnel in United States.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations

Reading and interpretation of technical drawings and geometric symbols

Drawings are used in all fields of Engineering. The main purpose of engineering drawings is
to communicate to other engineers, machinists, etc. Drawings do the communication best merely
because a picture is worth a thousand words. Giving all of the information needed to make the
product and being accurate in that information is the main goal. Engineers are very picky about
their drawings and must pay attention to detail.

How to Read a Technical Drawing

300
 ● Start by looking at the Title Block on each drawing.
● Drawings generally include the front, side and top of the object being designed.
● Parallel projections include orthographic drawings: flat, multi-view drawings of the
subject.
● The drawing of the front of the object shows dimensions of width and height.
Purpose of engineering drawings

Common standards allow interchangeability, compatibility and interoperability, which indirectly

help in developing new products faster. The uniformity in drafting standards allows better
communication between inter-departmental levels and improves manufacturing processes to
international quality.

Production of operation plan

Table 3: Operation plan template
Product
Operation (check
and Machines, Tools and against
S/NO standards equipment. Time standards) Remarks.
1
2
3
4
5

Production of technical drawings

The instruments used in engineering drawing are:

● Drawing sheet
● Drawing board
● T square
● Compass
● Divider

301
 ● Set squares
● Templates
● Pencils
● Eraser
Stages in engineering drawing

● Draw the object with fine lines, so that errors can be fixed easy.
● Adding cut always to view hidden contours.
● Drawing patterns on cuts and special surfaces.
● Retracing all lines in the right thickness and line type (for example interrupted lines for
hidden contours).

4.3.4 Learning activity

Practical Activity

 Interpretation of technical drawings and geometric symbols

 Production of operation plan (sequence, measuring tools, hand tools, cutting tools,
inspection tools)

Project
Prepare a work plan for the part in the figure below.

302
 4.3.5 Self-Assessment
1. Code of Practice for General Engineering Drawing is published in ________
2. IS 15021: Part 2: 2001 is standard for _________________________
3. _________ is used to draw curves which are not circular.
4. which main equipment are used in engineering drawing?
5. What is the importance of engineering drawing?
6. Engineering can be considered as a language. What do we mean by this?
7. Which application of continuous lines are used in engineering drawings?
4.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe
● scribers
● calipers
● Dies and taps
● Surface plate
4.3.7 References
Gare, S. K. (2005). Workshop Technology (manufacturing process) New Delhi. Larmi
Publications.
Greese, R. (2017). Introduction to Manufacturing process and material. CRC press.
Signh, R. (2006). Introduction To Basic manufacturing process &Workshop Technology. New Age
International.
4.3.8 Model Answers
1. Code of Practice for General Engineering Drawing is published in ________
a) 1960
b) 1955
c) 2003
d) 1973
2. IS 15021: Part 2: 2001 is standard for _________________________
a) Axonometric representations
303
 b) Orthographic representations
c) Di-metric representations
d) isometric representations
3. _________ is used to draw curves which are not circular.
a) Compass.
b) Protractor.
c) French curves.
d) Pro circle
4. Which main equipment are used in engineering drawing?
● Mechanical pencils
● Clutch pencils
● Technical pens
● Rulers
● Compass
● Drawing boards
● Erasers
● Sharpeners
5. What is the importance of engineering drawing?
- the purpose of an engineering drawing is to clearly and accurately capture all
geometric features of a product or component so that a manufacturer or engineer can
produce the required item
6. Engineering can be considered as a language. What do we mean by this?
Because the engineering drawing teach us to imagine,calculate and read the
drawing,which is important for engineers to execute the construction with the help of
the drawing and execute according to drawing. Without drawing we can't construct
in construction works.
7. Which application of continuous lines are used in engineering drawings
● Continuous thick- Used for visible outlines and edges.
● Continuous thin- Used for projection, dimensioning, leader lines, hatching and
short centre lines.
● Continuous thin straight with zigzags- Used for limits of partial or interrupted
views and sections if the limit is not an axis.
● Dashed thin line- Used for hidden outlines and edges.
● Chain thin - Used for centre lines, lines of symmetry
● Chain thin double dash. Used for ghost outlines and bend
● Continuous thin irregular- Used as the limit to an interrupted view when an axis is
not present
● Chain thin thick at both ends and changes in direction- Used on Cutting planes..

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 4.4 Learning Outcome 2: Choose appropriate tools and materials
4.4.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome covers selection materials, tools and equipment used in
engineering processes and application to produce various items.
4.4.2 Performance standards
Working tools, equipment and materials are selected for the task.
1. The work areas are tidied up as per organization policy.

4.4.3 Information Sheet

4.4.3.1 Definition of terms
Tools: A tool can be any item that is used to achieve a goal.

Equipment: Equipment usually denotes a set of tools that are used to achieve a specific objective.

Engineering materials: These are substances which are subjected to various operations and
processes so as to produce finished products.

Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
Selection of working tools, equipment and materials

Classification of engineering materials

a) Metals
They are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of differentially oriented fine crystals.
Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such as
mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature. All metals are having high thermal and
electrical conductivity. All metals are having positive temperature coefficient of resistance.

305
 Figure 1. Metals

i. Non-metallic (synthetic materials)

These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in nature, although they are manufactured from
natural substances such as oil, coal and clay. They combine good corrosion resistance with ease of
manufacture by molding to shape and relatively low cost. Synthetic adhesives are also being used
for the joining of metallic components even in highly stressed applications.

ii. Non-metallic (Natural materials)

Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be listed here to give a basic introduction to
some typical applications. Wood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite material used for
the manufacture of casting patterns.

b) Rubber
This is used for hydraulic and compressed air hoses and oil seals. Naturally occurring latex is too
soft for most engineering uses but it is used widely for vehicle tyres when it is compounded with
carbon black.

c) Glass
This is a hardwearing, abrasion-resistant material with excellent weathering properties. It is used
for electrical insulators, laboratory equipment, optical components in measuring instruments and
in the form of fibers, it is used to reinforce plastics. It is made by melting together the naturally
occurring materials: silica (sand), limestone (calcium carbonate) and soda (sodium carbonate).

d) Emery
This is a widely used abrasive and is a naturally occurring aluminum oxide. Nowadays, it is
produced synthetically to maintain uniform quality and performance.

306
 e) Ceramic
These are produced by baking naturally occurring clays at high temperatures after molding to
shape. They are used for high voltage insulators and high-temperature-resistant cutting tool tips.

Classification of engineering materials properties

● Mechanical properties
● Physical properties
● Chemical properties
● Thermal properties

Mechanical properties
● Hardness
● Malleability
● Brittleness
● Elasticity
● Plasticity
● Strength
● Stiffness
● Ductility

Physical Properties
The important physical properties of the metals include:
● Density
● Color
● Size and shape
● Specific gravity
● Porosity
● Luster

Chemical Properties
The study of chemical properties of materials is necessary because most of the engineering
materials, when they come in contact with other substances with which they can react, suffer from
chemical deterioration of the surface of the metal. Some of the chemical properties of the metals
include:
● Corrosion resistance
● Chemical composition
● Acidity or alkalinity
307
Thermal properties
The study of thermal properties is essential in order to know the response of metal to thermal
changes i.e. lowering or raising of temperature. Thermal properties include:
● Thermal conductivity
● Thermal expansion
● Specific heat
● Melting point
● Thermal diffusivity

Material testing

There are types of material testing methods which include:

● Destructive testing
● Non- destructive testing
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) commonly applied are:

● Visual Inspection, dye penetrant fluid

● Radiography: X-ray and Gamma-ray
● Ultrasonic
● Application & load

The material under test can be used after the test. Destructive Testing (DT) commonly applied
include:

● Hardness testing
● Tensile testing.
● Impact testing.
● Stiffness testing.

Table 4. Differences between destructive testing and nondestructive testing

308
309
 4.4.3.2 Workshop tools and equipment
Workshop tools can be classified as:
● Marking tools.
● Measuring devices and instruments.
● Cutting tools.
● Holding tools.
● Striking tools.
● Tightening tools.
Marking tools
Marking out Tools are used to mark the given measurement on the surface of the workpiece.
a) Scriber

Figure 2. Scriber
b) Dot punch

Figure 3. Dot punch

c) Center punch

Figure 4. Centre punch

d) Hermaphrodite caliper

310
 Figure 5. Hermaphrodite caliper
e) Dividers

Figure 6. Dividers
f) Try square

Figure 7. Try square

g) Steel rule

Figure 8. Steel rule

h) Scribing block

311
 Figure 9. Scribing block

i) V-blocks

Figure 10. V-blocks

Cutting tools
● Files
● Hacksaw
● Chisel
● Scraper

a) File

Figure 11. Hand File

b) Hacksaw

Figure 12. Hacksaw

312
 c) Chisel
Parts of a chisel
● Ferrule: The ferrule is the brass or iron extension of the blade that attaches to the handle.
● Handle: A chisel handle can be made of hard timber materials such as beech, oak,
hickory or ash.

Holding tools
● Vices
● Clamps
● Pliers

Striking tools
● Hammers
● Mallets

Tightening tools
● Spanners
Tiding up the work areas
Care and maintenance of the above tools and equipment

Proper care and routine maintenance of hand tools and power tools makes improvement or repair
project easier, safer and more successful. Proper tool care also saves you money because the better
they’re cared for, the longer they’ll last.

● Keep Power tools Clean. Dust and grime can bring your power tools to a grinding halt
if left unchecked over time.
● Store Power tools correctly.
● Inspect for Wear or Damage.
● Lubricate Moving Parts.
● Keep Batteries in Shape.
Proper tools storage

313
 Figure 13: Proper tools storage.
It should be a habit to clean tools after each use before returning them to storage. Wipe them down
with a rag or old towel and be sure they are free of dust, grease and debris before putting them into
their proper places. This is also an opportunity to look for any damage or defects. Check your tools'
handles for splinters, breaks and cracks. Also, make sure that metal parts show no signs of
corrosion or rust. Repair or replace any tools that show signs of damage. Cold chisels, log-splitting
wedges and other striking tools can be very dangerous if they are not maintained properly. Because
these types of tools are used for repeated striking, the surface of the metal head eventually
mushrooms out and spreads to form a lip or ridge around the edge. With continued use, there is
more spreading and the metal lip may continue to thin, split or curl until it finally breaks. If the
metal head separates from the handle while in use, this could result in a dangerous projectile. To
prevent this hazard, just grind off the metal edges with a powered grinder on a regular basis.

Care of measuring tools

● Always wipe not only the measuring faces of your tools, but of the work piece being measured
as well. This will help prevent dust or dirt from marring your tools. Generally speaking, it is
best not to use such tools as vernier calipers or micrometers on rough, abrasive surfaces if you
can possibly avoid it.
● Always keep your tools used for measuring separate from your hand tools to save them being
knocked about and damaged. Never lay your tools on something like a lathe, either, because
the vibrations could compromise the accuracy of the tool.

314
● Always use your tools used for measuring for that alone---measuring. This means don't use
your micrometers for little hammers or a vernier caliper as a line marker, for instance. This
will certainly damage them.
● Always keep your tools used for measuring at or around room temperature. Never lay them on
a heat source or in direct sunlight as doing so could really mess them up so that their accuracy
is affected.
● Always be wary of laying or using your tools too close to a magnet or magnetized surface.
Magnets can wreak havoc with many of these precision tools.
● Always clean your tools after use. Unless they're made of stainless steel, each tool should have
some anti-rust oil dabbed on it and then stored by itself in a dry place.

4.4.4 Learning activities

Practical Activities
Visit an engineering workshop within the locality and write a report on the method of tools care
storage and workshop cleaning

4.4.5 Self-Assessment
1. The wheel rims on some vehicles are manufactured from mild steel. Others are cast in
aluminum alloys. Answer the questions that follow.
a) Give THREE reasons for choosing to manufacture vehicle wheel rims out of
aluminum alloy.
b) Why the wheel rims of heavy-duty vehicles (trucks) are manufactured from steel?

Give TWO reasons

2. Why alloys are produced? Give FOUR reasons.

3. What FIVE general safety rules are to be considered when using equipment like the lathe
and drill press.
4. What is the difference between a destructive test and a non-destructive test on materials?
5. Classify the various properties of engineering materials.
6. Explain the following material testing methods.
a) Hardness testing.
b) Dye penetrant method

4.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

 Welding
 Drilling machines

315
 Vices
 Burnishing machine
 Cutting tools
 Combination square
 Centre punch
 Centre lathe

4.4.7 References
 Sharma, s., Bajracharya,R.& Sitaula , B.(2009)Indigenous Technology Knowledge in
Nepal. A review.
 Shawhney , G.(2009).Mechanical Experiments and workshop practice .IK International
PVT Ltd.
 Singh,R.(2006).Introduction to basic manufacturing processes and workshop technology/
Rajender Singh .New age . Ltd -2006-483p.
 Shawhney , G.(2009).Mechanical Experiments and workshop practice .IK International
PVT Ltd.
 Gare, S. K. (2005). Workshop Technology (manufacturing process) New Delhi. Larmi
Publications.
 Greese, R. (2017). Introduction to Manufacturing process and material. CRC press.
 Signh, R. (2006). Introduction To Basic manufacturing process &Workshop Technology.
New Age International.

4.4.8 Model Answers

1. The wheel rims on some vehicles are manufactured from mild steel. Others are cast in
aluminum alloys. Answer the questions that follow.
a) Which are the THREE reasons for choosing to manufacture vehicle wheel rims out
of aluminum alloy.
● Alloy wheels are lighter than steel wheels. Their weight makes them more
desirable for high performance driving.
● Alloy wheels are also generally considered more attractive.
● Alloy wheels have better heat dissipation.
● Alloy wheels can have more intricate designs than steel wheels.
● have a wider variety of finishes.
● The versatility of alloy wheels makes them the better choice for most
drivers.
b) Why the wheel rims of heavy-duty vehicles (trucks) are manufactured from steel?

Give TWO reasons

● Least expensive wheel option..

● Steel wheels are durable.
● Easy to repair if damaged
2. Explain why alloys are produced? Give FOUR reasons.

316
 ● to increase strength increase
● corrosion resistance
● reduce costs.
3. What FIVE general safety rules are to be considered when using equipment like the lathe
and drill press.
● Do not wear gloves, rings, watches or loose clothing.
● Do not lean on the machine.
● Do not make adjustments while the machine is operating.
● Do not place hands on work turning in the lathe.
● Do not use calipers or gauges on a workpiece while machine is moving
4. What is the difference between a destructive test and a non-destructive test on materials?
- Destructive testing destroys or changes the part in some way such that even if it
passes the test it is no longer fit for service.
- Non-destructive Test does not destroy or change the part such that it is still fit for
service if it passes the test.
5. What do you understand by the following material testing methods.
a) Hardness testing.
A hardness test is typically performed by pressing a specifically dimensioned
and loaded object (indenter) into the surface of the material you are testing. The
hardness is determined by measuring the depth of indenter penetration or by
measuring the size of the impression left by an indenter.
b) Dye penetrant method
Dye penetrant inspection, also called liquid penetrate inspection or penetrant
testing, is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to check
surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or
ceramics).

317
 4.5 Learning Outcome 3: Measure and mark out dimensions on work pieces
4.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers selection of measuring tools suitable for the work, inspection and
calibration of measuring tools if required and marking on the work piece dimensions as per the
working drawing.
4.5.2 Performance standards
1. Measuring tools suitable for the work are selected
2. Measuring tools are inspected and calibrated if required
3. Dimensions are marked on the workpiece as per the working drawing.

4.5.3 Information Sheet

4.5.3.1 Definition of terms
Measuring: A measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data that describes a
property of an object or event. A measurement is made by comparing a quantity with a standard
unit. It is the aspect of taking the dimensions of a given object.

Marking out: Marking out or layout means the process of transferring a design or pattern to a
work piece, as the first step in the manufacturing process.

Calibration: Calibration is a process used to compare the inspection, measuring, and test
instruments to a recognized reference standard of known certified accuracy and precision, noting
the difference and adjusting the instrument, where possible, to agree with the standard.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Selection of measuring tools suitable for the work
Line measuring: While using line measuring device, the ends of a dimension being measured are
aligned with the graduations of the scale from which the length is read directly such as scales or
steel rules.

End measuring devices. Whereas, with end measuring device, the measurement is taken between
two ends as in a micrometer, veneer calipers and gauge block, etc. End measuring devices are
commonly used for measuring accurate and precision dimensions of components. Some measuring
instruments are employed for measuring linear dimensions and others are suitable for determining
angular or geometric dimensions. Few measuring instruments are also kept for reference purposes
as standards of comparison.

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Linear measurements
a) Non-precision instruments
● Steel rule
● Calipers
● Dividers
● Telescopic gauge
● Depth gaug
b) Precision instruments
● Micrometers
● Vernier calipers
● Vernier depth gauges
● Vernier height gauges.
● Slip gauges
Angular measurements
a) Non-precision instruments
● Protector
● Engineers square
● Adjustable bevel
● Combination set
b) Precision instruments
● Bevel protector
● Angle gauges
● Side bar
● Clinometers
● Autocollimators
Steel rule

Figure 14. Steel rule

Vernier caliper

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Figure 15. Vernier caliper
Steps in use
i. Place sliding jaw against upper step of object. Open the caliper slightly. ...
ii. Open caliper jaws. Open the jaws of the caliper using the thumb screw until the fixed upper
jaw contacts the lower step.
iii. Turn Lock Screw.
iv. Read Measured Value.

Reading a Vernier caliper

Figure 16: Vernier Caliper

Micrometer

Figure 17. Micrometer

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Steps in the use
i. Close the jaws of the micrometer and check for a zero error.
ii. Place the wire between the anvil and spindle end as indicated in the diagram.
iii. Rotate the thimble until the wire is firmly held between the anvil and the spindle.
iv. The ratchet is provided to avoid excessive pressure on the wire.
v. Reading a micrometer.

Figure 18: Reading Micrometer

Depth gauge

Figure 19. Depth gauge.

Vernier height gauge
A veneer height gauge is used for measuring height of an object or for marking lines onto an object
of given distance from a datum base.

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Figure 20: Vernier height gauge.

Combination Set
Combination set is an important instrument which has the combination of instruments namely
square head, a center head, and a bevel protractor and sprit level as shown below:

Figure 21. Combination set

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Inspection and calibration of measuring tools
Care of steel rule
● Never use a rule to open cans.
● Never use a rule as a screwdriver to loosen screws.
● Never use a rule to clean chips in tight comers.
● Take as good care of a rule as you would an expensive measuring tool.

Vernier caliper inspection

Make sure you close the jaws of the caliper before making any reading and that means every
reading. Each time you close the jaws of the caliper you must get a zero reading on its display or
your measurements will be inaccurate. Clean off the jaws of the caliper before making any reading
if the caliper does not zero out. Dirt and debris can accumulate on the jaws and cause the caliper
to give you a larger measurement. Always check the load capacity of the clevis shackle before
using it as rigging. Overloading a clevis shackle causes the shackle to fail. A broken clevis shackle
under load can cause bodily injury to any personnel standing close to the rigging.

Table 5. Inspection and calibration.

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Micrometer inspection for zero reading
● Find set screw and loosen it.
● Close micrometer using friction stop.
● Insert LARGE end of wrench in hole on external cylinder.
● Use wrench to rotate cylinder until Zero is aligned.
● Gently Open micrometer to 0.1” and tighten set screw.
● Micrometer Inspection Set

Consists of:
● 0-1" (25mm) IP54 fluid resistant electronic micrometer (MT-54-860-001).
● Compact, folding micrometer stand with a unique locking mechanism that positions
the micrometer for perfect use and viewing (MT-52-247-005).
● Two each .200" ball attachments for special inspection applications (MT-52-285-
005).
● Packaged in a durable wooden case.

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Micrometer calibration set

Figure 22. Micrometer calibration set

● 11 Pc. 9 rectangular blocks and two optical flats
● Assists in meeting both federal specifications GGG-C-105c and ISO-9000 requirements
● Contains one block of each of the following sizes; 0.0625, 0.100, 0.125, 0.200, 0.250,
0.300, 0.500, 1.000 & 2.000
● Two optical flats that vary in size by 0.0125” which allow checking anvil faces at half
rotations of spindle for measuring flatness
● Supplied with fitted wooden case and certification to NIST on each block

Calibration Records. The recorded information shall include:

● Description and unique identification of equipment

● Date on which each confirmation was completed.
● Calibration results obtained after and, where appropriate, before any adjustment and repair.
● Assigned confirmation interval; e) identification of the confirmation procedure.
● Designated limits of permissible error; g) source of the calibration used to secure the
traceability.
● Relevant environmental condition and the information on necessary corrections.
● Information on the uncertainties involved in calibrating the equipment and on their
cumulative effect.
● Details of any maintenance carried out, such as servicing, adjustment, repairs or
modifications.

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 ● Any limitations in use.
● Identification of the person(s) performing the confirmation.

Marking of dimensions on the work piece as per the working drawing.

Purpose of marking and punch marking

i. Marking means laying off the shape and size of a work piece from data in the
manufacturing drawing onto the blank.
ii. This is done by scribing, with special scribing tools, lines on the work piece which must
remain visible during the period of manufacture.
iii. Punch marking means impressing conical marks for permanent marking of the scribed lines
by means of a special tool - the prick punch. Punch marks are also applied as a guide for
dividers points or drills.
iv. Marking and punch marking are necessary preparatory operations for subsequent working
operations, such as cutting, forming and joining in single-piece production.
v. Careful and accurate scribing, easily visible during the entire manufacturing process is
essential for the dimensional accuracy of the finished product.

Figure 23. Marking

Marking tools
Scribed lines are produced by tools which are either slightly notching the surface of the work piece
or leaving a thin line by wearing themselves.

Steel scriber

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Widely used scribing tool with hardened or carbide points which are straight or angular. It is used
for rough or rough-machined steel parts and leaves a fine notch.
Brass scriber
Scribing tool of brass wire with filed point. It is used for scribing on finished surfaces only and
applied a thin yellow line - no notching effect.

Soft pencil
Scribing tool for thin, notch-sensitive as well as surface-refined or very soft work pieces. It applies
a black line - no notching effect.

Dividers
Scribing tool for scribing circular arcs and curvatures. The use of dividers always necessitates a
punch mark for the guiding point. It leaves a fine notch.

Scribing blocks
Adjustable scribing tools used for scribing of parallel lines along datum faces or edges.

Prick punches
Tools of various types producing punch marks;

Table 6: Tools
Marking-out Angle of taper 40°, for prick-punching of scribed lines.
punch:
Centre punch: Angle of taper 60°, to produce punch marks for holes to be drilled.
Double-point - Punch with two points, for symmetric prick-punching of marks for bore
punch: lines.
Stencil punch: - Angle of taper 60° with very slender point, for prick-punching of holes
to be drilled through stencils.

Accessories
● Surface plate
● Angle plate
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 ● Big steel-parallels
● Vees
● T-square and Centre square
● Scratch gauges.
Preparation of the work piece surface

The condition of some work piece surfaces does not permit easily visible scribed lines. Such
surfaces must be coated with special paint.

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 Table 7: Preparation of Workpiece surface
Work piece surface Paint coat (engineer’s blue)
Rough, big-pore surfaces of castings To be coated with whiting mixed in water adding a
and forgings bit of linseed oil.
Hard and scaled steel parts To be coated with copper sulphate solution (CuSO4) -
danger - toxical!
Big pre-machined surfaces and light To be coated with shellac or scribing varnish.
metal
The work piece must have pre-scribed lines, pre-machined edges and faces from where further
layout out of dimensions can be done with various possibilities of datum:

Datum faces and datum edges

Usually pre-machined faces or edges which are flat and partly perpendicular to other faces or
edges. They are used as location for measuring tools or as supporting face on surface plates. When
datum faces or edges are used, scribing is mostly done by means of scribing blocks.

Datum lines: On symmetrical parts or parts with indefinite shape, lines or Centre lines are marked
which are used as datum for further scribing.

Figure 24. Datum lines

Scribing based on one datum line (Centre line) and one datum edge
1 Datum Line
2 Datum Edge
Learning Activities

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Practical Activities
1. Leaners to practice the use of marking out tools using:
a. Centre line as the datum.
b. Two ends flat and square as the datum.
2. Leaners to undertake a project involving marking out.
4.5.4 Self-Assessment
1. Laying large circles which tool do you use?
a) Trammel
b) Divider
c) Jenny caliper
d) Scriber
2. Scriber is made of which material?
a) Cast iron
b) Mild steel
c) High carbon steel
d) Copper
3. Which is not a part of combination set?
a) Stock
b) Protractor head
c) Square head
d) Centre head
4. Which one of the following parts of a universal surface gauge helps to draw parallel lines
along a datum edge?
a) Fine adjusting screw.
b) Guide pins.
c) Base.
d) Rocker arm
5. During marking, the reference surface is provided by
a) Sketch of the job.
b) Workpiece.
c) Marking off table surface.
d) Surface gauge.
6. Which type of rule is used for marking and measuring patterns and hot jobs handled by
blacksmith?
a) Narrow rule.
b) Shrink rule.
c) Hook rule.
d) short rule
7. The point angle of center punch is
a) 300
b) 60o
c) 90o
d) 120o

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8. Which requirements must be met by workpieces for which scribing blocks shall be used?
9. What is the difference between the use of centre squares and try squares?
4.5.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials
● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe
4.5.6 References
Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing. Routledge.
Sawhney, G. S. (2009). Mechanical experiments and workshop practice. IK International
Pvt Ltd.
Singh, R. Introduction to basic manufacturing processes and workshop
technology/Rajender Singh. New age int. Ltd.–2006.–483 p.
Mechanical experiment and workshop practice by GS Schwhney geometric and
engineering drawing by Kenneth martin.

4.5.7 Model answers

1. Laying large circles, which tool do you use?
a) Trammel
b) Divider
c) Jenny caliper
d) Scriber
2. Scriber is made of which material?
a) Cast iron
b) Mild steel
c) High carbon steel
d) Copper
3. Which is not a part of combination set?
a) Stock
b) Protractor head
c) Square head
d) Centre head
4. Which one of the following parts of a universal surface gauge helps to draw parallel lines
along a datum edge?
a) Fine adjusting screw.

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 b) Guide pins.
c) Base.
d) Rocker arm
5. During marking, the reference surface is provided by
a) Sketch of the job.
b) Workpiece.
c) Marking off table surface.
d) Surface gauge.
6. Which type of rule is used for marking and measuring patterns and hot jobs handled by
blacksmith?
a) Narrow rule.
b) Shrink rule.
c) Hook rule.
d) short rule
7. The point angle of center punch is
a) 300
b) 60o
c) 90o
a) 120o
8. Where is a scribing block used?
- Is a gauge consisting of a scriber mounted on an adjustable stand; used to test the
accuracy of plane surfaces
9. What is the difference between the use of centre squares and try squares?
- try squares-used for marking and checking 90° angles
- centre squares- designed for marking the centre of round materials, such as dowels.

4.6 Learning Outcome 4: Use hand tools to cut and file parts

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 4.6.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome covers selection of hand tools based on operation plan, cutting of work
piece to specification, filing of work piece to specification and production of part to specifications
(dimensions, tolerances, geometry, surface finish, functionality).
4.6.2 Performance standards
1 Hand tools are selected based on operation plan
2 Workpiece is cut to specification
3 Workpiece is filed to specification
4 Part are produced to specifications
4.6.3 Information Sheet
4.6.3.1 Definition of terms
Operation plan: Comprises the selection and sequencing of processes and operations to transform
a chosen raw material into a finished component. It is the act of preparing detailed work
instructions to produce a component. This includes the selection of manufacturing processes and
operations, production equipment, tooling and jigs and fixtures.

Tolerance: It is the total allowable amount by which, measurement many vary.

Geometry: Branch of mathematics that deals with the properties of point’s space positional angle
and patterns.

Procedures/methods/illustrations
Selection of hand tools based on operation plan
Cutting tools
● Files
● Hacksaw
● Chisels
● Scrapers
File

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 Figure 25. File

a) Hacksaw

Figure 26: Hacksaw.

b) Chisels
Parts:
● Ferrule. The ferrule is the brass or iron extension of the blade that attaches to the handle.
● Handle. A chisel handle can be made of hard timber materials such as beech, oak, hickory
or ash.
● Head.

Figure 27. Chisels

Combination Cutting Pliers
This is made of tool steel and is used for cutting as well as for gripping the work. The handles of
the pliers used by electricians are insulated with PVC covering to protect from electric shocks.

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 Figure 28. Combination cutting pliers
Twist drill
Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of high-speed steel. Both straight and taper
shank twist drills are used with machines.

Figure 29: Parts of a twist drill

Cutting of work piece to specification
There are various processes of cutting to specification;
i. Punching: This is the process of creating cutout and holes of various shapes sizes and
dimensions in a metal sheet.
ii. Drilling: This process also allows cutting to specification where a specific dimension hole
is made.

The steps in drilling a hole

i. Make a Dimple
Drill bits have a tendency to wander when you first start drilling. To prevent this, measure and
mark where you want the hole and then use a center punch and hammer to create a small dimple.
This gives the tip of your drill bit a place to ride in as you begin to drill.

ii. Clamps the workpiece

Never hold a piece of metal in one hand while trying to drill through it with the other. The drill bit
for metal could catch, instantly causing the workpiece to spin, strike and slash (sharp metal edges
slice to the bone!). Always use a minimum of two clamps to securely hold down your workpiece.

335
 iii. Lubricated Bits
Lubricating the bit reduces friction and heat build-up, which makes drilling easier and your bits
last longer. For easier-to-drill metals like aluminium, brass or cast iron, lubrication isn’t usually
necessary.

iv. Pilot drill where necessary

If you are making a big hole Start small! Most twist bits are available in sizes up to 1 in. in diameter,
but you’ll get the best results by starting with a 1/4-in. hole and drilling successively larger holes
with your drill bit for metal until you reach the size you want.

v. Drill at a Slow Speed

The faster a bit spins, the hotter it gets. And heat dulls bits quickly. In general, it’s a good idea to
drill through metal using as slow a speed as possible using a drill bit for metal. Hard metals like
steel and larger drill bits require even slower speeds.

vi. Debur the Hole

After drilling a hole in metal, it’s a good idea to remove any sharp edges or burrs left behind.

vii. Chipping process

Chipping is a process of removing metal from a work piece by means of a cutting instrument such
as a chisel and a hammer. This process is used when a large piece of metal has to be removed from
a work piece; this process is very labour-consuming and is applied only in cases when the work
piece cannot be machine.

Filing of work piece to specification

Classification of Files
The files are classified on basis of type of cuts, grade and shapes. These are further sub-classified
under:

Type of Cut
The most commonly used files according to cuts of teeth are shown below.
a) Single
b) Double and
c) Rasp

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 Figure 30: Types of cut files

Length of the file

Files are supplied in different lengths for different purposes.

Grade of Cut
Files are cut with teeth of different grades. Those in general are
● Smooth
● Second cut
● Bastered
● Rough

Common shapes of Files

● Hand file: Hand files are commonly used for finishing surface work. Both faces of the file
are double cut. Either both edges are single cut or one is uncut to provide a safe edge.
● Flat files: Flat files are generally used for filing flat surfaces in fitting shop.
● Triangular files: Triangular files are commonly used for filing corners between 60° and
90°. They are double cut on all faces.
● Square files: Square files are commonly used for filing in corners in jobs. They are double
cut on all sides and tapers.
● Round files: Round files are generally used for opening out holes and rounding inside
corners. Rough, bastard, second cut and smooth files under 15 cm in length are single cut.
● Half round files: These files comprises of flat and half round sides. The flat side of half
round file is used for general work and the half round side for filing concave surfaces.
These files are double cut on the flat side. The curved side is single cut, smooth or second
cut.

337
 Figure 31: Common shapes of Files
Filing to specification
● Cross filing: Cross filing is so commonly used that it could be considered 'normal' filing.
Examples of tasks that require cross filing include debarring the edge of a piece of metal,
removing scale from pipes and sharpening a chainsaw.

Figure 32. Cross filing

● Draw filling: Draw filing is a technique used for producing smooth, square edges,
particularly on pieces of metal. The process works by moving any type of single cut file
forwards and backwards along the length of the material's edge. This method is mostly
applied for finning work.

Figure 33. Draw filing

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Production of art to specifications
There are several kinds of fabrication processes, of which the most common are:
● Cutting
● Folding
● Machining
● Punching
● Shearing
● Stamping
● Welding
As per the specifications the products are produced through the application of the above methods.
The following concepts must be checked;

i. Dimensions: Use the appropriate tools to check the dimensions of the product during and
after production.
● Lengths
● Radius
● Angles
● Diameters
● Curves
ii. Tolerances: Three basic tolerances that occur most often on working drawings are:
● Limit dimensions
● Unilateral
● Bilateral tolerances

Types of fits
● Clearance fit

339
 Figure 34: Clearance fit

● Transition fit

Figure 35: Transition Fit

● Interference fit

340
 Figure 36: Interference Fit

Types of Metal Finishing

● Metal plating
● Brushed metal
● Buff polishing
● Metal grinding
● Metal vibratory finishing
● Sand blasting
● Powder coating
● Hot blackening
Functionality

Product testing, also called consumer testing or comparative testing, is a process of measuring the
properties or performance of products. Product should be tested to function and perform the
required tasks.

4.6.4 Learning Activities

Practical Assessment

Use hand tools, cut file and produce parts to specification based on the operation plan developed.

Project

341
Make a door hinge provided the necessary tools and materials in materials in mechanical
workshop.

4.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. The jaws in this type of wrench open parallel with the help of a screw thus providing
suitable for all sizes of nuts. These are ____________
a) Pipe wrenches
b) Monkey wrenches
c) Socket wrenches
d) Allen wrenches
2. What will happen if the job is loosely fitted between centres in cylindrical grinding?
a) The job will be out of round
b) The job will be oversized
c) The job will be thrown out
d) The job will not rotate
3. Which one among the following is NOT the cause for a broken tap while tapping?
a) The tap has coarse threads
b) Too much downward pressure is applied
c) Cutting oil is not used
d) Smaller tap drill size is used
4. What are the uses of a divider?
5. What is the purpose of the following tools?
a) Drill
b) Reamer
c) Taps
d) Die and die stock
6. The term "Allowance" in limits and fits is usually referred to what?
7. Which instrument has all the features of try-square, bevel protractor, rule and scriber?

4.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch

4.6.7 References
Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing. Routledge.
342
Sawhney, G. S. (2009). Mechanical experiments and workshop practice. IK International Pvt Ltd.
Singh, R. Introduction to basic manufacturing processes and workshop technology/Rajender
Singh. New age int. Ltd.–2006.–483 p.
Lewis w.G.&Narayan ,C,V(11993)Design and sizing of economic handles for hand tools. Applied
ergonomics 24(5),35-356.
Mccormick,W(1973),U.S.Potent No.3,749,233 Washington DC;US.Patent and Trademark office.

4.6.8 Model answers

1. The jaws in this type of wrench open parallel with the help of a screw thus providing
suitable for all sizes of nuts. These are ____________
a) Pipe wrenches
b) Monkey wrenches
c) Socket wrenches
d) Allen wrenches
2. What will happen if the job is loosely fitted between centres in cylindrical grinding?
a) The job will be out of round
b) The job will be oversized
c) The job will be thrown out
d) The job will not rotate
3. Which one among the following is NOT the cause for a broken tap while tapping?
a) The tap has coarse threads
b) Too much downward pressure is applied
c) Cutting oil is not used
d) Smaller tap drill size is used
4. What are the uses of a divider?
- instrument for measuring, transferring, or marking off distances, consisting of two
straight adjustable legs hinged together and ending in sharp points.
5. What is the purpose of the following tools?
a) Drill- cutting tool used for making round holes.
b) Reamer- rotary cutting tool used in metalworking to enlarge the size of a
previously formed hole by a small amount but with a high degree of accuracy
to leave smooth sides.
c) Taps- cutting tool used to form external threads on a work piece.
d) Die and die stock- cutting tools for forming external threads on a work piece.
6. The term "Allowance" in limits and fits is usually referred to what?
- Difference between maximum and minimum sizes of hole.

343
344
 4.7 Learning Outcome 5: Use drills to make holes

4.7.1 Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers marking and centering of punch hole centers as per operation plan
selection and mounting of drill bits, mounting and clamping of work piece, drilling of hole
(location, counter sinking, counter boring, reaming, and boring) to specification and inspection of
holes to specification (dimensions, tolerances, geometry, surface finish, functionality).

4.7.2 Performance standards

1. Hole centers are marked and center-punched as per operation plan.
2. Drill bits are selected and mounted
3. Workpiece is mounted and clamped
4. Hole is drilled to specification
5. Holes inspected to specification

4.7.3 Information Sheet

4.7.3.1 Definition of terms
Drilling: It is the cutting process of a material using a specially designed rotating cutting tool
called a drill bit so as produce a hole.

Boring: It is the process of enlarging a hole that is already in the material.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Marking of whole centers as per operation plan.
Laying out work for drilling consists of locating and marking the exact centers of the holes to be
drilled. The accuracy of the finished work piece depends, in most part, on the accuracy of the
layout. If the work does not require extreme accuracy, then laying out may be a simple punching
at the center only. The position of the center of the hole to be drilled is marked by scribing two or
more lines which intersect at the hole center. This intersecting point is then marked lightly with a
prick punch and hammer. Check to see that the punch mark is exactly at the center of the
intersection; use a magnifying glass if necessary. Use a pair of dividers, set to the radius of the
hole to be drilled, to scribe a circle on the work piece. When all scribing is finished, enlarge the
prick punch mark with a center punch to aid the center drilling process. Enlarging the mark with a

345
center punch allows the center drill point to enter the work piece easier and cut smoother. When
more than one hole must be drilled, lay out the holes along a common reference line, then put in
the intersecting lines and scribe the circles. Throughout the layout process, avoid making the layout
lines too heavy. Use lines as thin as possible and avoid any scratches or other marks on the surface
to be drilled.

Selection and mounting of drill bits

The different types of drilling machines are:

● Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine

● Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine
● Upright drilling machine
● Radial drilling machine
● Gang drilling machine
● Multiple spindle drilling machine
● Deep hole drilling machine

346
Figure 36. Sensitive drilling machine

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Drilling machine operations
Drilling
This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of material from the job by
a rotating cutting tool called drill as shown.

Figure 37: Drilling Operation

Reaming
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is performed
by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown.

Figure 38: Reaming

Boring
It is the process of enlarging an already existing hole to a suitable diameter.

348
 Figure 39: Boring

Counter boring
It is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically, as for the recess for a counter-sunk
rivet.

Figure 40: Counter boring

Countersinking
This is the operation of making a cone shaped enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess
for a flat head screw.

Figure 41: ( a), (b) Countersinking.

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Spot facing
This is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface around a hole

to accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut.

Figure 42: Spoil facing

Tapping
It is the operation of cutting internal threads by using a tool called a tap.

Figure 43: Trapping

Mounting and clamping of work piece
Before attempting to use a drilling machine, some provision must be made for holding the work
piece rigidly and securely in place. The work piece should always be firmly fastened to the table
or base to produce holes that are located accurately.

Methods of Mounting a Work piece

a. Mounting on vice
Most hand-feed drilling machines have no means of clamping or bolting workplaces to the table
or base. The work piece must be secured tightly in a machine table vise and swung around so that
the tail of the vise contacts and column of the drill press. The hole must be centered by hand so
350
that the center drill point is directly over the center punched mark. Other larger drilling machines
have slotted tables and bases so that the work and work holding devices can be bolted or clamped
firmly. All work should be securely clamped or set against a stop for all drilling to avoid letting
the drill grab and damage the work piece or injure the machine operator.

b. Table or base mounting

When a work piece is table or base mounted, the strap clamps must be as parallel to the table or
base as possible. All bolts and strap clamps should be as short as possible for rigidity and to provide
for drilling clearance.
Parallel bars should be set close together to keep from bending the work. Washers and nuts should
be in excellent condition. The slots and ways of the table, base, or vise must be free of all dirt and
chips. All work holding devices should be free of burrs and wiped clean of oil and grease. Work
holding devices should be the right size for the job. Devices that are too big or too small for the
job are dangerous and must be avoided.

Drilling of hole to specification

Drill bits are selected depending on the desired outcompete. if large units of production per unit
time is required, it will be suitable to use bits with roller bearings.

Note:
● Shale has a better drilling response to drill speed.
● Limestone has a better drilling response to bit weight.
● Bits with roller bearings can be run at a higher speed than bits with journal bearings.
● Bits with sealed bearings have a longer life than bits with open bearings.

Table 8. Inspection of holes to specification

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 Figure 44: Holes inspected to specification.

4.7.4 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
1 Marking and centering of punch hole centers as per operation plan
2 Selection and mounting of drill bits
3 Mounting and clamping of work piece
4 Drilling of Hole (location, counter sinking, counter boring, reaming, and boring) to
specification
5 Inspection of holes to specification (dimensions, tolerances, geometry, surface finish,
functionality)
Practical Assessment
Perform the following drilling operations:
● Drilling
● Reaming
● Boring
● Counter boring
● Countersinking
● Tapping
Project
Drill and ream 12 M8 * 1.5 HOLES on a 5mm thick plate with PCD 120mm.
NB: This product to be stored for use in the next learning outcome project work.

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 4.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. Which drilling machine is used for drilling holes where electricity is not available?
a) Bench drilling machine
b) Pillar drilling machine
c) Radial drilling machine
d) Ratchet drilling machine
2. Tap water is not used as coolant while drilling. What is the reason for this?
a) Insufficient cooling effect
b) Danger of corrosion
c) Decrease in cutting action of drill
d) Quick evaporation of water
3. The tapping hole should be ____________
a) Larger than the tap size
b) Smaller than the tap size
c) Equal to the tap size
d) Equal to the core diameter of the tap
4. Which of the following reamers is particularly suitable for reaming holes having keyway
grooves?
a) Straight fluted reamer
b) Helical fluted reamer
c) Taper reamer
d) Pilot reamer
5. Which of the following device is not used for holding the work in a drilling machine?
a) Step block
b) Drill jigs
c) Both step block and drill jigs
d) None of the mentioned
6. which parts of a drilling machine do you know?.
● Base
● Column or Pillar
● Arm
● Worktable
● Drill head
● Feed Mechanism
● Spindle
● Drill jigs
● Chuck
● Electric Motor
● Pulley or gears

7. What operations can be done on a drilling machine?

● Reaming

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 ● drilling
● boring
● counterboring
● countersinking
● spot facing
● Tapping
8. Differentiate between cutting speed and feed in drilling.
- Cutting speed is defined as the speed (usually in feet per minute) of a tool when it is
cutting the work.
- Feed rate is defined as the tool's distance travelled during one spindle revolution.
- Feed rate and cutting speed determine the rate of material removal, power
requirements, and surface finish.

4.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe

4.7.7 References
Morling, K. (1974). Geometric and Engineering drawing (3rded). Butterworth-Heine
Amann.
Sawhney, G.S. (2009). Mechanical Experiments and workshop. IK International
Publishing House.
Sharma. (2001). Workshop technology and practice.
L. Peurifoys, J.Schexnayder. (2018).Construction Planning, Equipment and methods. Mc
Gram-Hill Education.
D.proulx .(2003).The Pocket Hole Drilling Jig project Book.kreg
Read more on the procedure of inspection of holes to specification

4.7.8 Model Answers

1. Which drilling machine is used for drilling holes where electricity is not available?
a) Bench drilling machine
b) Pillar drilling machine
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 c) Radial drilling machine
d) Ratchet drilling machine
2. Tap water is not used as coolant while drilling. What is the reason for this?
a) Insufficient cooling effect
b) Danger of corrosion
c) Decrease in cutting action of drill
d) Quick evaporation of water
3. The tapping hole should be ____________
a) Larger than the tap size
b) Smaller than the tap size
c) Equal to the tap size
d) Equal to the core diameter of the tap
4. Which of the following reamers is particularly suitable for reaming holes having keyway
grooves?
a) Straight fluted reamer
b) Helical fluted reamer
c) Taper reamer
d) Pilot reamer
7. Which of the following device is not used for holding the work in a drilling machine?
e) Step block
f) Drill jigs
g) Both step block and drill jigs
h) None of the mentioned
8. which parts of a drilling machine do you know?.
● Base
● Column or Pillar
● Arm
● Worktable
● Drill head
● Feed Mechanism
● Spindle
● Drill jigs
● Chuck
● Electric Motor
● Pulley or gears
9. What operations can be done on a drilling machine?
● Reaming
● drilling
● boring
● counterboring
● countersinking
● spot facing
● Tapping

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10. Differentiate between cutting speed and feed in drilling.
- Cutting speed is defined as the speed (usually in feet per minute) of a tool when it is
cutting the work.
- Feed rate is defined as the tool's distance travelled during one spindle revolution.
- Feed rate and cutting speed determine the rate of material removal, power
requirements, and surface finish.

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 4.8 Learning Outcome 6: Thread using taps and dies
4.8.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome covers selection of taps and dies based on operation plan, setting up taps
and dies on the work piece and cutting of threads (internal and external threads, v-profile threads)
to specification.

4.8.2 Performance standards

1. Taps and dies selected based on operation plan.
2. Taps and dies are set up on the work piece
3. Threads are cut to specification
4.8.3 Information Sheet
4.8.3.1 Definition of terms
Tapping: It is the process of cutting internal thread inside a hole so that a cap screw or bolt can
be threaded into the hole.

Dicing: It is the process of cutting external threads by use of hand cutting tool known as tap.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations

Selection of taps and dies based on operation plan

Taps and Tap Wrenches

A tap is a hardened steel tool, used for cutting internal threads after drilling a hole. Hand taps are
usually supplied in sets of three for each diameter and thread pitch. Each set consists of a taper
tap, intermediate tap and plug or bottom tap.

Dies and Die-holders

Dies are cutting tools used for making external threads. Dies are made either solid or split type.

They are fixed in a die holder for holding and adjusting the die gap. They are made of tool steel or
high carbon steel. The following are the stages in producing external threads:

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Figure 45: Adjustment split die

Figure 46: Diestock

Figure 47: Thread Nomenclature.

Standard metric tapping drill sizes:

● M4 (x0.70mm pitch) - tapping drill 3.3mm
● M5 (x0.80mm pitch) - tapping drill 4.2mm
● M6 (x1.00mm pitch) - tapping drill 5.0mm
● M8 (x1.25mm pitch) - tapping drill 6.8mm
● M10 (x1.50mm pitch) - tapping drill 8.5mm

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 ● M12 (x1.75mm pitch) - tapping drill 10.2mm

Table 9: Coarse Thread size

Table 10: Fine thread sizes

Setting up of taps and dies on the work piece

In order for taps and dies to cut, they must be harder than the materials they are cutting. This
additional hardness also makes them brittle, meaning, they can be easily broken, something you
want to avoid at all costs. It is always preferable to use a proper T-handle for taps rather than a
wrench or locking pliers. The latter two work, in a pinch, but you must be careful because turning
the tap from one side only can put asymmetrical stress on the tap, causing it to go off center, or
break. Using a T-Handle keeps the force applied over the center of the tap or die, maintaining
proper symmetry.

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 Figure 48. Tie and Die
Use a spirit level and make sure that the face of the die stock or tap wrench is at right angles to the
work piece.

Cutting of threads to specification

Tapping process.
The following are the stages involved in tapping operation:
i. Select the correct size tap, with the desired pitch. A thread is specified by its shape, size
and pitch.eg. M20 × 2.5 (nominal dia 20 mm, pitch 2.5 mm Metric thread).
ii. Select the correct size tap drill, usually indicated on the tap.
iii. Drill the hole.
iv. Secure the tap in the tap wrench.
v. Insert the first or taper tap in the drilled hole and start turning clockwise, by applying
downward pressure.
vi. Check the alignment of the tap with the whole axis (verticality) with a try-square and
correct it if necessary, by applying sidewise pressure while turning the tap.
vii. Apply lubricant while tapping.
viii. Turn the tap forward about half a turn and then back until chips break loose. Repeat the
process until threading is completed with intermediate and bottom taps.
ix. Remove them carefully. If it gets stuck, work it back and forth gently to loosen.

Cutting external threads on rods (using a die)

1. Fit the die with the sizing information on the die facing up and the top screw fitting into
the slot, making sure all the screws are loose to allow the die to sit flush.
2. Tighten up the screw on the die holder to keep the die in place, ensure all the screws fit in
the indices in the die.
3. Put some Rocol cutting grease on the end of the rod to be threaded,
4. Place the rod in a vice square and tighten, use a set square to ensure the rod is square in the
vice.
5. Place the dice on top of the rod and turn to create the first cut.
6. Once a grip on the material has been made turn half a turn into the material and then a
quarter turn back this will ensure that the die doesn’t get clogged with the offcuts of
material and a better thread is created.

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 7. Keep turning until the depth of thread is achieved, there should be no resistance once the
cut has been made level and square to the rod.
8. Check the threading using the appropriately sized nut.
4.8.4 Learning Activities
Practical activity one
Selection of taps and dies based on operation plan.
Set up of taps and dies on the work piece.
Cutting of threads (internal and external threads, v-profile threads) to specification
Practical Assessment
Cut internal and external threads using taps and dies. Identify all the approaches you
followed in cutting the threads basing on the metric standards used.

Project
Thread the above project for previous learning outcome (Drill and ream 12 M8 * 1.5
HOLES on a 5mm thick plate with PCD 120mm) and produce bolts for the same.

4.8.5 Self-Assessment
1. A cutting tool used to cut outside threads is called?
a) Drill
b) Reamer
c) Die
d) Tap
2. What is used for removing a broken tap?
a) Tap disposer
b) Tap wrench
c) Tap extractor
d) Tap nut
3. A hole, which is not made through full depth of the component is known as ______
a) Core hole
b) Blind hole
c) Pinhole
d) Bore hole

4.8.6 References
Brooks ,R.C(1988).Standard screw threads for scientific instruments .Part: Production
techniques and filiere Suisse.
Ducharme ,R.(2006).Greenfield Tap and Die .Economic and Historical journal of
Massachusetts.
Juneja,B. L(2000). Fundamentals of metal cutting and machine tools. New age
International.

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 Hex Rethreading dies and T handle Tap wrenches from Brooks, R.C (1988). Standard
screw threads for scientific instruments .Part: Production techniques and filiere Suisse.

4.8.7 Tools, Equipment and Materials

● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe
4.8.8 Model answers
1. A cutting tool used to cut outside threads is called?
a) Drill
b) Reamer
c) Die
d) Tap
2. What is used for removing a broken tap?
a) Tap disposer
b) Tap wrench
c) Tap extractor
d) Tap nut
3.A hole, which is not made through full depth of the component is known as ______
a) Core hole
b) Blind hole
c) Pinhole
d) Bore hole

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 4.9 Learning Outcome 7: Assemble metal parts and sub-assemblies

4.9.1 Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for the leaner to
assemble metal parts and inspect final assemblies

4.10 Performance standards

1. Parts joined, fitted and assembled
2. Final assembly inspected as per specification

4.11 Information Sheet

4.11.1 Definition of terms
Major diameter: The major diameter is the largest diameter of the thread. It determines the
nominal size.

Minor diameter: It is the smallest diameter of the thread. In external thread, it is also called as
root diameter.

Pitch: Is the axial distance between any point of one thread and the corresponding point of an
adjacent thread.

Lead: The distance a bolt advances into a nut in one revolution is called lead.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Joining, fitting and assembly of parts
There are two methods of metal joining;
● Mechanical joining
● Fusion joining

Mechanical joining include:

Bolts and nuts

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Bolts and nuts are used in several applications, with a primary function to hold things or
components together. A bolt, also known as a screw, does not always have to be used together
with a nut; however, a nut is always used together with a bolt. Nuts and bolts serve as the
fundamental components in several construction projects as they provide strong bonds that do not
break even under great amounts of pressure. Bolts and nuts can have several different styles and
types, each suited to match the needs of a particular application or the needs of the job. A bolt
features a thread on a cylindrical shape and the nut features an internal thread which binds with
the thread on the bolt. By running the bolt through the nut, it forms a very strong bond which has
the ability to withstand great amounts of stress. The process of binding a nut and a bolt together is
usually very simple but can be complicated depending on the type of bolt and nuts used and how
the bolt is inserted through an object with the nut on the other side securely binding the object
together.

Figure 49: Bolt and Nut.

Studs
A stud is an externally threaded headless fastener. One end usually mates with a tapped component
and the other with a standard nut. Stud bolts, a term used for cut-to-length all thread rod, are used
for: bolting together flanges, anchor bolting, as well as general fastening. Studs provide the ability
to obtain much more accurate torque values because the studs don't twist during tightening as
do bolts. Because the studs remain stationary during nut tightening, the studs stretch in one axis
alone, providing much more even and accurate clamping forces.

364
Figure 50: Studs
Rivets
There are four basic types of rivets;
a) Tubular
Tubular rivets Tubular rivets are cylindrical sleeves that have a flat edge at one end. A special tool
is used to flange the other end during processing. This type of rivet is frequently used to join metal
parts with sensitive materials (leather, cardboard, plastics) in electrical engineering. A further
advantage of these tubular rivets: cables can be led through the very clean hollow.

Figure 51: Tubular rivets

b) Solid
Solid rivets Solid rivets are used less and less. They have been replaced in many cases by welding
or bonding. The most common head is the round head.

Figure 52 : Round head rivets

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 c) Expanding rivets
Expanding rivets Expanding rivets (hammer drive rivets). No special tools are required for these
rivets. A hammer is used to drive a pressed slotted pin or a grooved expanding mandrel into the
hollow part. This creates a firm riveted connection with good properties against vibrations

Figure 53 : Expanded rivets

Blind rivets

Figure 54: Blind rivets

Types
a) Large, flanged rivets: The large head diameter on the ASL is ideal for soft materials. The
clamping force is spread over a wider area, which prevents excessive damage on the face
of the job.
b) Grooved rivets: Angular grooves around the rivet shell provide excellent holding power
when set in less stiff materials such as wood and plastics.
c) Aluminum sealed rivets: The base of a TA rivet is sealed and therefore waterproof. The
mandrel is attached to the inside of the shell ensuring no gaps for water or air to pass
through. Commonly used in water tanks, roofing and aluminum windows.
d) Aluminum peel rivets: Peel rivets are extremely versatile and are necessary for good
cohesion of soft materials without fracture or distortion. The ridges under the head of the
stem cause the shell to peel back in four different directions giving a strong reliable fix. •
They are particularly useful for uneven surfaces or where oversize holes remain after
repairs. Upholstery, rubber and fiberglass are easily fastened with peel rivets.
Specification of blind rivet

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 Figure 55: Specification of blind rivet.

There are two basic types of threaded inserts;

● Press-in
● Blind

Welding
Terminological elements of welding process
The terminological elements of welding process used with common welding joints such as base
metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root opening toe and root:

Figure 56: Butt Weld and Fillet weld.

Joint preparation for welding

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 Figure 57: Joint preparation for welding

Welding positions:
● Flat position
● Horizontal position
● Vertical position
● Overhead position

Figure 58: Welding positions

Arc welding processes

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic principle of
arc welding is as shown:

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 Figure 59. Basic principle of arc welding

Classification of Metal
i. Welding permanent
ii. Brazing permanent
iii. Soldering permanent
iv. Adhesive bonding, semi-permanent
v. Mechanical Assembly
a) Bolt and screw Non-permanent
b) Riveting-permanent
c) Clamping Non-permanent

Riveting: It is the metal joining process in which the two metallic parts are joined by the use use
of reverts.

Bolting: The metallic parts are joined together by means of bolt/screw (and nut).

Welding: In this metal joining process in which the filler metal or alloy is heated to a temperature
above 450 degree Celsius and melted only filler metal melts and deposits
Fuse the work piece, that is, work piece does not melt.

Soldering: Solder is an alloy of Tin (639) and head (377).It is a metal joining process in which the
filler metal or alloy is heated to a temperature below 450 degrees Celsius and melted.

Inspection of final assembly inspected as per specification

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 Table 11. Bolt specification with respective torque sample

Riveted joints inspection

● Selected grip range too large: The mandrel does not break off at the rupture joint so that
it may still project from the drawn sleeve after processing. The connection has insufficient
or no tensile or shearing strengths.
● Grip range too small: The connection has weak points in the area of tensile and shearing
strength. The rivet mandrel breaks off at the rupture joint but still projects from the sleeve.
● Bore hole too big: The rivet can be inserted but there is no high connection strength
because the sleeve material is insufficient to fill the bore hole.
● Bore hole too small: The rivet sleeve cannot be inserted into the material because the rivet
sleeve diameter is greater than the bore hole.

Types of welding defects:

They can be classified into two categories:
● External defects (they occur on the upper face of the weld work)

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 ● Internal defects (they occur under the surface of the welded work)

External defects (they occur on the upper face of the weld work)
● Incomplete profile (weld is not done properly)
● Crater (a large cavity occurs where electrode sparks continuous on a single point)
● Cracks
● Spatter and surface porosity(on the welded parts there some drops occur)
● Incomplete filled groove (not filled completely)
● Distortion (this occurs because of lack of proper welding)

Internal defects (they occur under the surface of the welded work)
● Blowholes and internal porosity
● Cracks
● Inclusions
● Lack of fusion
● Incomplete fusion
4.11.2 Learning Activities
1 Fitting and assemble of parts joined (riveting, fastening, soldering, brazing, and
welding).
2 Inspection of final assembly
3 Selection of joining and assembly method

Practical Assessment
Apply the various assembly methods in the mechanical workshop with the help of technicians.

Project
Design and implement a project on joining of pipes and inspect for air passage.

4.11.3 Self-Assessment
1. This is the smallest diameter of a screw thread:
a) Internal thread diameter
b) Minor diameter
c) Major diameter
d) External thread diameter
2. Amount of current required to generate the arc under no load condition is called?
a) Open circuit current
b) Closed circuit current

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 c) Short circuit current
d) Arc current
3. Amount of time during which the transformer will be used for welding under normal loading
condition is known as?
a) Hold time
b) Off time
c) Weld time
d) Duty cycle
4. Weaving in arc welding refers to __________
a) Side to side motion of electrode at right angles to the direction of the welding.
b) Side to side motion of electrode along the direction of the welding.
c) Spiral motion given to electrode.
d) A technique of striking the arc.
5. In arc welding operations the current value is decided by.
a) The thickness of plate
b) Length of welded portion
c) Voltage across the arc
d) Size of the electrode
6. For a good weld ____________
a) Cross-section of the added metal should be small and oxidation should be minimum.
b) Cross-section of the added metal should be small and oxidation should be maximum.
c) Cross-section of the added metal should be large and oxidation should be minimum.
d) Cross-section of the added metal should be large and oxidation should be maximum.
7. Give a list of equipment required in general for electric arc welding.

4.11.4 References
Greese, R. (2017). Introduction to Manufacturing process and material.CRCpress.
Gare, S. K. (2005). Workshop Technology (manufacturing process)New Delhi.Larmi
Publications.
Signh, R. (2006). Introduction to Basic manufacturing process &Workshop
Technology.New Age International.Lindberg, R. A,& Braton ,N.R.(1976).welding and
other joining process .Ally and Bacon.
Linnertz, G. E (1947). Welding metallurgy (Vol.2, pp.483-485). Miami, Florida: American
Welding society.

4.11.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials

● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices

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 ● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe
● Scribers
● Calipers
● Dies and taps
● Surface plate

4.11.6 Model answers

1. This is the smallest diameter of a screw thread:
a) Internal thread diameter
b) Minor diameter
c) Major diameter
d) External thread diameter
2. Amount of current required to generate the arc under no load condition is called?
a) Open circuit current
b) Closed circuit current
c) Short circuit current
d) Arc current
3. Amount of time during which the transformer will be used for welding under normal loading
condition is known as?
a) Hold time
b) Off time
c) Weld time
d) Duty cycle
4. Weaving in arc welding refers to __________
a) Side to side motion of electrode at right angles to the direction of the welding.
b) Side to side motion of electrode along the direction of the welding.
c) Spiral motion given to electrode.
d) A technique of striking the arc.
5. In arc welding operations the current value is decided by.
a) The thickness of plate
b) Length of welded portion
c) Voltage across the arc
d) Size of the electrode
6. For a good weld ____________
a) Cross-section of the added metal should be small and oxidation should be
minimum.
b) Cross-section of the added metal should be small and oxidation should be maximum.
c) Cross-section of the added metal should be large and oxidation should be minimum.
d) Cross-section of the added metal should be large and oxidation should be maximum.

373
7. Which equipment is required in general for electric arc welding?
● Welding Machine
● Electrode Holders
● Cables or Leads
● Cable Connectors and Lugs
● Chipping Hammer
● Wire Brush, Power Wire Wheel
● Protective Clothing
● Screen or Face Shield

4.12 Learning Outcome 8: Polish finished work

4.12.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome covers selection of polishing (emery cloth, polishing and burnishing
machine, filing) material, cleaning of finished work and polishing of finished work to
specification.

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 4.12.2 Performance standards
1. Polishing material are selected
2. Finished work is cleaned
3. Finished work is polished to specification
4.12.3 Information Sheet
4.12.3.1 Definition of terms
Polishing: Refers to processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the work wheel,
while buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel. Polishing is a more aggressive
process while buffing is less harsh, which leads to a smoother, brighter finish.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations

Selection of polishing material

Choosing a Metal Finishing Process

There are a few considerations that can help you narrow your choices in selecting a metal finishing
technique suitable for your project. Some helpful things to keep in mind are:

● Production speed: How quickly does the technique apply finish to the product?
● Cost-effectiveness: Certain finishing machines (such as vibratory tumblers) can be
expensive, but may compensate for their price by delivering faster cycle rates
● Metal hardness: harder metals usually require more intense finishing techniques, like
grinding, or may need tougher abrasives than those used on softer materials
● Potential for vulcanization.
Types of finishing

Brushed Metal: Unlike plating, brushed metal finishing is an effective method for removing
surface imperfections. These finishing machines create a uniform, parallel grain surface texture to
smooth out a product’s exterior. An abrasive belt or wire brush is usually employed to achieve this
effect.

Buff Polishing: If your project requires a smooth, non-textured finish, then a buff polishing
machine may be your answer. This machine uses a cloth wheel to buff the product’s surface,
resulting in a high, glossy sheen. The process is often used for decorative products that benefit
from luster and smoothness.

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Figure 60. Buffing compounds.

Table 12. Buff polish.

Metal Vibratory Finishing: Vibratory finishing machines are used to debur products and remove
sharp edges. They position material inside a drum filled with abrasive pellets and a substrate, then
apply tumbling vibration to create a uniform random texture. The machine’s cycle speed and
magnitude of vibration are usually variable, allowing effective treatment for a range of small- to
large-sized parts.

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Metal Grinding: Grinding machines use friction, attrition and/or compression to smooth out a
metal product’s surface. There are several types of grinding machines designed to deliver different
levels of finite smoothness.

Sand Blasting: Sand-blasting machines are typically employed in projects requiring a uniform
matte texture. The process (also known as bead blasting) forces sand, steel shots, metal pellets or
other abrasives into a substrate at high speed. This results in a smooth, clean product texture,
particularly in soft metals.

Powder Coating: Powder coating applies a decorative finish that is similar to paint, but with
greater durability. The process involves melting dry plastic powder onto the metal to produce a
textured, matte, or glossy coating. A textured powder-coating machine is also highly effective in
removing surface defects.

Cleaning of finished work

In cleaning spray, the chloride free glass cleaner, or a plain substitute of rubbing alcohol, on a soft
non-abrasive cloth or sponge. Rub the cleanser dampened cloth on the stainless-steel surface,
switching to a clean area of the cloth and using additional cleanser as necessary.

Methods of cleaning:

Dish Soap & Baby or Mineral Oil

First, you need to understand the direction of the grain. Just like wood and some fabrics, steel has
a grain. These are the faint striations that you can see on the surfaces of your appliances. In fact,
an entire sheet of steel will have the same directional grain. If you wipe vertical to the grain, more
cleaning residue may get deeper into the tiny crevices of the grain. For optimum shine, it is best to
clean with the grain. Use two non-abrasive cleaning rags, preferably those that are 100 percent
cotton because they leave almost no residual lint. You can use paper towels, but there will be some
lint left behind. Also, pick up some plain dish soap and baby or mineral oil. Dish soap cleans off
excess oils and simplifies the polishing process. Put just a little bit on your rag and moisten with a

377
modest amount of water (just enough to dampen your cloth). Wipe along the grain of your
appliance. For extra stubborn fingerprints, you might have to go over the area a few times. When
you finish cleaning an area, dry any water streaks with a clean towel. Dab a small amount of
mineral or baby oil onto your second rag. A couple of tiny drops will suffice. Comparable to the
cleaning process, follow the grain of your steel, moving in either direction. Polishing the steel this
way will produce optimal results.

White Vinegar & Olive Oil

Apply white vinegar directly to a microfiber cloth, or spray directly onto your surface. Let sit for
just a moment, and then wipe clean in the direction of the grain. Apply the vinegar as many times
as necessary to remove any grime. Then dab a clean towel into some olive oil and polish the
freshly-cleaned surface in the direction of the grain. If any extra olive oil residue remains, wipe
away with a clean cloth. This method works well because the vinegar gets rid of all the grime,
while the olive oil gives it a fresh, shiny polish.

Polishing of finished work to specification

Before polishing your work piece, it's important to first clean it thoroughly.

● Sanding.
● Select Polishing Compound and Buffing Wheel.
● Apply Polishing Compound.
● Repeat.
● Finish with Fine Compound.

Clean Before Polishing

Before polishing your work piece, it's important to first clean it thoroughly. Metals appear dull
when there are scratches or dirt preventing the light from reflecting directly off the surface. Dull
material may just be dirty. Clean thoroughly, and if your work piece is still dull then proceed to
polishing.

i. Detailed Buffing & Polishing Instructions

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Metal polishing is part art and part science. These polishing instructions will take you from start
to finish through the process to help you understand the science and begin mastering the art of
metal polishing. Please note these instructions are for use with the polishing compounds, jewellers
rouge, and buffing wheels found on PJTool.com. Polishing compound grades and colours are not
consistent between manufactures.

ii. Clean Before Polishing

Before polishing your work piece, it's important to first clean it thoroughly. Metals appear dull
when there are scratches or dirt preventing the light from reflecting directly off the surface. Dull
material may just be dirty. Clean thoroughly, and if your work piece is still dull then proceed to
polishing.

iii. Polishing and Sanding

Polishing is similar to sanding. In order to make the material more reflective and smoother, when
polishing you are simply removing the surface of the material down to the depth of the deepest
scratch. Always work from coarse to fine when polishing (the same as if you were sanding a piece
of wood). The following steps can be followed for most reflective surfaces including metals,
plastics, rubber and even wood. Every material has different properties and will buff differently.
We recommend before polishing a new surface to practice on a piece of scrap to familiarize
yourself with the material and how it responds to polishing.

iv. Safety
Always wear protective gear when polishing including safety goggles or face shield, dust mask,
shop apron and gloves. You may also want to protect surfaces and tools with tape or padding to
prevent accidental gouging. Step by Step Polishing Instructions.

v. Sanding
Determine if the material you wish to polish needs to be sanded first. A good rule of thumb is if
your fingernail can catch the edge of a scratch then it will need to be sanded before it can be
polished. Select Polishing Compound and Buffing Wheel. To begin polishing start with a stiffer
buff such as a felt bob or felt cone, sisal buffing wheel, specialty buff, or spiral sewn buffing wheel.
(Note: loose single stitched buffing wheels are primarily for finishing and working with fine
compounds).

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Apply Polishing Compound

Coat the buffing wheel or felt bob by lightly spinning the buff against the polishing compound.
Use the compounds sparingly as you only need a small amount for them to work properly. Next,
spin the coated buff or felt bob onto the surface to be polished. Best results are obtained at 3,000
RPM or less. Continue polishing as needed, reapplying more compound if necessary. For best
results use a different buff for each polishing compound. Repeat the process with the next finer
polishing compound as shown on the chart. Continue polishing until visible scratches are removed
and the desired luster is achieved.

Finish with Fine Compound

To finish your project and achieve a mirror like finish, use the finest applicable compound with
the loose single stitched buff. Again use very light pressure and let the buff do the work for you.

Wash and Coat

Once work is completed, wash the material with warm soapy water to remove any excess buffing
compound or residue. Dry your work piece with a soft cloth or chamois. Depending on the material
you may want to protect your restored finish with a clear coat.

Safety

Always wear protective gear when polishing including safety goggles or face shield, dust mask,
shop apron and gloves. You may also want to protect surfaces and tools with tape or padding to
prevent accidental gouging.

4.12.4 Learning Activities

1 Selection of polishing (emery cloth, polishing and burnishing machine, filing) material
2 Cleanse finished work
3 Polishing of finished work to specification
4.12.5 Self-Assessment
1. One of the following abrasive is used for lapping hardened steel parts.
a) Silicon Carbide
b) Powdered garnet

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 c) Diamond
d) Aluminum Oxide
2. The operation of running two mating parts or shapes together with an abrasive between.
a) Equalizing Lapping
b) Form Lapping
c) Hand Lapping
3. What is the difference between finishing and polishing?
4. Which cleaning methods are applied to a surface before polishing?
5. What are the most commonly applied polishing methods
6. Why should cleaning agents not be mixed?

4.12.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe
● scribers
● calipers
● Dies and taps

4.12.7 References
Greese, R. (2017). Introduction to Manufacturing process and material. CRC press.

S.K Gare (2005) Workshop Technology ( manufacturing process)New Delhi.Larmi

Publications.

Signh, R. (2006) Introduction To Basic manufacturing process &Workshop Technology.

New Age International.

4.12.8 Model answers

1. One of the following abrasive is used for lapping hardened steel parts.
a) Silicon Carbide
b) Powdered garnet
c) Diamond

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 d) Aluminum Oxide
2. The operation of running two mating parts or shapes together with an abrasive between.
a) Equalizing Lapping
b) Form Lapping
c) Hand Lapping
3. What is the difference between finishing and polishing?
- Finishing – Process of removing surface defects or scratches created during the contouring
process through the use of cutting or grinding instruments or both.

- Polishing – Process of providing luster or gloss on a material surface.

4. Which cleaning methods are applied to a surface before polishing?
● barrel grinding.
● underwater grinding.
● hydro abrasive treatment.
● iron sanding.
● processing with emery powder.
● ultrasonic processing.chemical and electric etching
5. What are the most commonly applied polishing methods
● Mechanical
● chemical
● Electrochemical
● Electrolyte- plasma
8. Why should cleaning agents not be mixed?
- Mixing cleaning products can lead to irritated airways, respiratory problems, or burns to
skin, eyes, throat, nose, and lungs. Some gases created from combined cleaning products
could cause damage of the nervous system, eyes, lungs, skin, liver, kidneys, and even death.

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 4.13 Learning Outcome 9: Perform housekeeping

4.13.1 Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers segregation and disposition of waste as per disposal guidelines,
carrying out housekeeping as per workplace requirement and cleaning and organizing of work area

4.13.2 Performance standards

1. Waste is segregated and disposed as per disposal guidelines.
2. Housekeeping is carried out as per workplace requirement

4.13.3 Information Sheet

4.13.3.1 Definition of terms
Waste: Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is
discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use

Segregate: This is the dividing of waste into dry and wet waste.

Procedures/Methods/Illustrations

Segregation and disposition of waste

There are eight major groups of waste management methods, each of them divided into numerous
categories. Those groups include:

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 ● Source reduction and reuse.
● Animal feeding.
● Recycling.
● Composting.
● Fermentation.
● Landfills.
● Incineration.
● Land application.
● Waste Management
Workshop users should make an effort to keep waste to a minimum. The best way to do so is by
reducing the scale of operation, which minimizes the quantity of waste generated. Whenever
possible, chemicals used should be substituted with less hazardous chemicals. Chemical quantities
should be kept to a minimum. Store only what will be used in the near term. Besides preventing
or minimizing waste generation, chemicals should be recycled or recovered for reuse. When waste
is generated, it must be disposed of properly. Sink disposal may not always be appropriate and
may end contaminating drinking water. Alternative methods of disposal should be considered
including incineration, treatment, and land disposal. The institute's EHS office should be consulted
to determine the proper disposal method for different waste types.

Waste Collection and Storage

● When generating or managing any chemical waste, appropriate personal protective

equipment (PPE) must be worn, and engineering controls should be implemented as
necessary.
● Collect and store chemical waste at or near the point of generation in a designated satellite
accumulation area. This accumulation area should be well marked for easy identification.
● Chemical waste must be stored in compatible containers with closed and properly fitted
caps.
● Waste containers must be labeled mentioning chemical compositions, the accumulation
start date, and hazard warnings as appropriate. The institute's EHS office typically provides
these required labels.
● Incompatible waste types should not be mixed and should be kept separate in order to avoid
any reaction, heat generation, and/or gas evolution.

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 ● Waste containers should be stored in secondary containers in a ventilated, cool, and dry
area.
● In the central accumulation area, waste containers should be grounded to avoid fire and
explosion hazards.
Carrying out of housekeeping

Effective housekeeping can help control or eliminate workplace hazards. Poor housekeeping
practices frequently contribute to hazardous incidents. If the sight of paper, debris, clutter and
spills is accepted as normal, then other more serious hazards may be taken for granted.
Housekeeping is not just cleanliness. It includes keeping work areas neat and orderly, maintaining
halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards, and removing of waste materials (e.g., paper,
cardboard) and other fire hazards from work areas. It also requires paying attention to important
details such as the layout of the whole workplace, aisle marking, the adequacy of storage facilities,
and maintenance.

Elements of proper housekeeping

Maintenance: The maintenance of buildings and equipment may be the most important element
of good housekeeping. Maintenance involves keeping buildings, equipment and machinery in safe,
efficient working order and in good repair.

Dust and Dirt Removal: Enclosures and exhaust ventilation systems may fail to collect dust, dirt
and chips adequately. Vacuum cleaners are suitable for removing light dust and dirt that is not
otherwise hazardous. Industrial models have special fittings for cleaning walls, ceilings, ledges,
machinery, and other hard-to-reach places where dust and dirt may accumulate.

Employee Facilities: Employee facilities need to be adequate, clean and well maintained. Lockers
may be necessary for storing employees' personal belongings. Washroom facilities require
cleaning once or more each shift. They also need to have a good supply of soap, towels plus
disinfectants, if needed.

Floors: Poor floor conditions are a leading cause of accidents so cleaning up spilled oil and other
liquids at once is important. Allowing chips, shavings and dust to accumulate can also cause

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accidents. Trapping chips, shavings and dust before they reach the floor or cleaning them up
regularly can prevent their accumulation.

Maintain Light Fixtures: Dirty light fixtures reduce essential light levels. Clean light fixtures can
improve lighting efficiency significantly.

Aisles and Stairways: Aisles should be wide enough to accommodate people and vehicles
comfortably and safely. Aisle space allows for the movement of people, products and materials.
Warning signs and mirrors can improve sight-lines in blind corners. Arranging aisles properly
encourages people to use them so that they do not take shortcuts through hazardous areas.

Spill Control: The best way to control spills is to stop them before they happen. Regularly
cleaning and maintaining machines and equipment is one way. Another is to use drip pans and
guards where possible spills might occur. When spills do occur, it is important to clean them up
immediately. Absorbent materials are useful for wiping up greasy, oily or other liquid spills. Used
absorbents must be disposed of properly and safely.

Tools and Equipment: Tool housekeeping is very important, whether in the tool room, on the
rack, in the yard, or on the bench. Tools require suitable fixtures with marked locations to provide
an orderly arrangement. Returning tools promptly after use reduces the chance of it being
misplaced or lost. Workers should regularly inspect, clean and repair all tools and take any
damaged or worn tools out of service.

Waste Disposal: The regular collection, grading and sorting of scrap contribute to good
housekeeping practices. It also makes it possible to separate materials that can be recycled from
those going to waste disposal facilities. Allowing material to build up on the floor wastes time and
energy since additional time is required for cleaning it up. Placing scrap containers near where the
waste is produced encourages orderly waste disposal and makes collection easier. All waste
receptacles should be clearly labelled (e.g., recyclable glass, plastic, scrap metal, etc.).

Storage: Good organization of stored materials is essential for overcoming material storage
problems whether on a temporary or permanent basis. There will also be fewer strain injuries if
the amount of handling is reduced, especially if less manual material handling is required. The
location of the stockpiles should not interfere with work but they should still be readily available
when required.

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 4.13.4 Learning Activities
Practical Assessment
Prepare bins for use in the institute workshops and compound for waste disposal.
Project
Plan a program for the institute waste disposal and present a report.
4.13.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials
● Welding
● Drilling machines
● Vices
● Burnishing machine
● Cutting tools
● Combination square
● Centre punch
● Centre lathe
● Scribers
● Calipers
4.13.6 Self-Assessment
1. Give the reason why burning waste is not an acceptable practice of solid waste
management?
a) Because it is very costly
b) Because it requires modern technologies
c) Because it causes several environmental issues
d) Because it requires lot of space
2. What plan should we make to the disposal of solid waste?
a) Integrated waste management plan
b) Recycling of waste management plan
c) Reducing of waste management plan
d) Use of waste management plan
3. Which of the integrated waste management is reduced on an individual level?
a) Source reduction
b) Recycling
c) Disposal
d) Burning
4. Why is it important to maintain proper housekeeping?

4.13.7 References
Greese , R .(2017).Introduction to Manufacturing process and material.CRCpress.
S.K Gare (2005) Workshop Technology (manufacturing process)New Delhi.Larmi
Publications.
387
 Signh, R.(2006).Introduction To Basic manufacturing process &Workshop
Technology.New Age International.
Mechanical experiment and workshop practice by C.S Sawhney
Importance of effective housekeeping and on the incidents that result in poor
housekeepingMechanical experiment and workshop practice by C.S Sawhney
Importance of effective housekeeping and on the incidents that result in poor housekeeping
4.13.8 Model answers
1. Give the reason why burning waste is not an acceptable practice of solid waste
management?
a) Because it is very costly
b) Because it requires modern technologies
c) Because it causes several environmental issues
d) Because it requires lot of space
2. What plan should we make to the disposal of solid waste?
a) Integrated waste management plan
b) Recycling of waste management plan
c) Reducing of waste management plan
d) Use of waste management plan
3. Which of the integrated waste management is reduced on an individual level?
a) Source reduction
b) Recycling
c) Disposal
d) Burning
4. Why is it important to maintain proper housekeeping?
Effective housekeeping can help control or eliminate workplace hazards. Poor
housekeeping practices frequently contribute to incidents.

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 CHAPTER 5: VEHICLE BASIC MAINTENANCE
Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CR/1/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Perform vehicle basic maintenance
5.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies the competencies required to perform vehicle basic maintenance. It involves
assessing vehicle mechanical and operational condition, carrying out diagnosis tests, replacing
service parts, replenishing fluids ,service wheels and tyres, service vehicle lubricant system and
complete the procedure.
5.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes
1. Assess vehicle mechanical and operational condition
2. Carry out diagnostic tests
3. Service vehicle lubrication system
4. Replenish fluids and lubricants
5. Replace/service vehicle serviceable parts
6. Carry out vehicle component and system adjustments
7. Service Vehicle Wheels and Tyres
8. Finalize service and repair procedures.
5.3 Learning Outcome 1 - Assess vehicle mechanical and operational condition.

5.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform the
maintenance and repair. It includes identifying various parts of a vehicle, assessing its
condition on its mechanical and operational aspect in reference to the required standards.

5.3.2 Performance Standard

1. Assessment is undertaken in accordance with manufacturers’ routine and periodic
maintenance schedule
2. Defects are identified using prescribed assessment methods as per service manual
3. Mechanical and operational job card is prepared as per organizations approved format

5.3.3 Information Sheet

5.3.3.1 Definition of terms
Periodical maintenance – service performed on the vehicle based on a set time interval based on
the vehicle manufacturers specifications.
ATF – Automatic transmission fluid
Filter – cleans air (air filter) and oil (oil filter) and protect engine system from particles in air
and water

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Seal - They are devices that are used to join parts together. It also prevents leakage, exclude
contaminants, and contain pressure.
PVC - Positive Crankcase Ventilation.
Basic inspection in automobile maintenance
Through the inspection of the fluids, lights, sprays, brakes, steering, horns, body bolts and nuts,
shock absorbers and ball joints when the vehicle is in the jack position 1, trainees are required to
meet the following requirements.
Reasons for automobile maintenance
Carrying out periodical maintenance makes the vehicle attain ideal performance. Besides
improving customer satisfaction and ease, benefits of carrying out periodical maintenance
include:
1. Avoiding quite a number of serious faults that could otherwise occur.
2. Keeping the vehicle at the law-specified state.
3. Prolonging service life of the vehicle.
4. Helping the customer gain both economic and safe driving experience.

Figure 1: maintenance period.

Periodical maintenance cycle
(1) Maintenance interval is expressed as a distance the vehicle has travelled, or a period of
time that has elapsed since the completion of the last time of maintenance. For example, if
the maintenance interval of a certain part is specified to be 40,000km or 24 months in the
maintenance schedule, the part shall receive periodical maintenance with either of the two
conditions satisfied.
(2) The maintenance shall be carried out more frequently if:

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 ① The vehicle usually travels on roads rugged, extremely muddy, covered with thawing
snow, or dusty;
The vehicle is equipped with roof racks carrying goods, or is used for towing other
vehicles such as camp trailers.
③ The vehicle is frequently used for trips shorter than 8km, or with ambient temperature
below 0oC;
④ The vehicle is used as a police car, a taxi, or a van delivering goods from door to door.
The application features long-time or long- distance , low-speed travel;
⑤ The vehicle has travelled at a high speed (at least 80% the permissible highest speed)
for more than 2 hours.

In periodical maintenance, the technicians mainly checks to ensure that vehicle has the
functions nec essary for safe operation. Check the following contents.
(1) Operation checking: Lamps, engine, wipers, steering mechanism, etc.;
(2) Visual inspection: Tyres, vehicle appearance, etc.
(3) Periodical replacement: Engine oil, engine oil filter, etc.;
(4) Fixation checking: Suspensions, exhaust pipe, etc.;
(5) Oil and fluid level checking: Engine oil, power steering fluid, antifreeze, coolant,
brake fluid, etc.

Figure 2: Basic maintenance operation.

Work efficiency can be improved by reducing walk distance, walk frequency, number of
unreasonable workstations, hoisting frequency, and idle time.
(1) As more tasks as possible shall be completed successively at the same place.
(2) The work route of periodical maintenance shall be around the vehicle, starting
from and ending at the driver seat, as shown in the Figure.

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 (3) Tools, instruments, and replacement parts needed in the maintenance shall be
place at a readily accessible place in advance.
(4) As more operations as possible shall be performed requiring your standing.
Reduce the operations that require you to squat or stoop to perform.
(5) Reduce idle time by carrying out two or more tasks concurrently, for example,
draining brake fluid and warming up engine.
(6) The maintenance tasks shall be classified into several types according to location
and strenuousness. And the same task shall be completed at the same place if
possible.

Figure 3: Jacking positions.

① Jacking position 1: (The vehicle is not yet raised off the ground);
Checks
Lamp (Driver’s seat)
Windscreen wiper
Windshield wiper
Horn
Parking brake
Brake pedal

Steering wheel
Door control lamp switch
Body nuts and bolts
Fuel filler cap
Suspension
Lamp
Spare tyre

② Jacking position 2 (the lifting jack rises to the lower position); (this position needs a
service creeper)

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Checks.
Ball joint
③ Jacking position 3 (lifting jack rises to the upper position);
Checks.
Engine oil (emission)
A/T fluid
Drive shaft gaiter
Steering linkage
Power steering fluid
Brake pipeline
fuel pipeline
Check if there is damage of exhaust pipe

Nut and bolt (under the vehicle)

Suspension
Engine oil filter.
Engine oil discharge plug
Engine coolant discharge plug
Grease replacement (reference)
④ Jacking position 4 (The vehicle is raised to the low position);
Checks.
Wheel bearing
Remove the wheel
Tyre
Disc brakes
Drum brake

⑤ Jacking position 5 (The vehicle is raised to the low position);

Checks.

Brake dragging
Refill the brake fluid

⑥ Jacking position 6 (The vehicle is raised to the low position);

Replacement of brake fluid

Installation of wheel
⑦ Jacking position 7 (The vehicle is raised to the low position with the tyres still in
contact with the ground);

Checks
Engine oil (filling)

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Engine coolant
Radiator cover
Driving belt
Spark Plug
Battery
Brake Fluid
Brake pipeline

Air filter
Canister
Upper bracket of front damper

Spraying solution
Retighten hub nuts
PCV system
Engine coolant
A/T fluid
Air conditioner
Power steering fluid
Engine oil
Valve clearance
Fuel filter
⑧ Jacking position 8 (lifting jack rises to the upper position);

Checks.

Re-examination check

⑨ Jacking position 9 (The vehicle is not yet raised off the ground).
Checks

Clean each part

Vehicle maintenance

Overview
In periodical maintenance, the technicians mainly checks to ensure that vehicle has the
functions necessary for safe operation. Maintenance work is classified into the following
types:
1. Operation checking: Lamps, engine, wipers, steering mechanism, etc.
2. Visual inspection: Tyres, vehicle appearance, etc.
3. Periodical replacement: Engine oil, engine oil filter, etc.
4. Fixation checking: Suspensions, exhaust pipe, etc.

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 5. Oil and fluid level checking: Engine oil, power steering fluid, antifreeze, coolant, brake
fluid, etc.

For inspection items, for example, standard values, tightening torque, and lubricant
volumes, refer to the repair manual.

Figure 4: Periodic inspection.

Figure 5: check the chassis.

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Figure 6: discharge the engine oil.
Manual transmission bridge oil
1. Engine oil leakage
Check whether the oil of following areas of Transmission bridge is leaked:
·Shell contact surface
·The extended area of the shaft and cable
·Oil seal
·Discharge plug and oil fill plug

2. Oil level
Dismantle the oil fill plug from transmission bridge. Insert the finger into the plug hole,
and check the contact position of finger and oil.

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Figure 7: oil level check.

Automatic transmission bridge oil

1. Fluid leakage
Make sure no fluid leaks from any part of the drive bridge.
·Shell contact surface
·The extended area of the shaft and cable
·Oil seal
·Discharge plug and oil fill plug
·Pipe and hose joint

2. Check whether the oil cooling hose is cracked, bulged or damaged.

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Figure 8: automatic bridge oil.
Drive shaft gaiter
1. Crack and other damage
·Turn tires manually so that they are completely turned to one side. Then, check whether
the whole periphery of the drive shaft sheath have any cracks or other damage.
·Check the sheath hoop to ensure that it is properly installed and not damaged.

2. Oil leakage
Check whether the sheath has any grease leakage.

Figure 8: drive shaft gaiter.

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 Steering linkage
1. Looseness and swaying
Shaking steering linkage by hand to check whether it is loose or swing.

2. Bent and damage

·Check whether steering linkage is bent or damaged.
·Check whether dust cover is cracked or damaged.

Figure 9: steering linkage.

Manual steering
Leakage of engine oil and grease
Check whether gearbox has grease leakage or engine oil leakage (or immersed).
If it is rack and pinion, turn the tire so that the steering wheel will turn left and right. Check
whether the rack sheath is cracked or damaged
Power steering fluid (the type of gear rack and pinion)
(1) Fluid leakage
- Check whether the power steering fluid is leaked.
- Gear box
- PS impeller pump
- Fluid line and connection point

(2) Crack and other damage

Check whether the PS hose has cracks and other damage.

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Figure 10: power steering linkage.

Brake pipeline
(1) Fluid leakage
Check whether there is fluid leakage in the connection part of braking line.

(2) Damage
- Check whether there are dents or other damage on braking line.
- Check whether the hose of braking line is distorted, worn, cracked and bulged.

Prompt:
If there are traces of flying stone on protective cover, braking line may have the same damage.

400
Figure 11: brake pipeline.

Installation condition
Check the brake pipe and hose to ensure that when the vehicle is moving or the steering wheel is
completely turned to any side, the brake pipe and hose will not contact with the wheel or car
body due to vibration.

Prompt:
Turn the tires manually until the steering wheel is completely turned to one side

Figure 12: installation condition.

401
Fuel pipeline
1. Fuel leakage
Check whether there is fuel oil leakage.

2. Damage
Check whether the fuel oil line is damaged.

Prompt:
If there are traces of flying stone on protective cover, the fuel line may have lasting damage.

Figure 13: fuel pipeline.

Exhaust pipe and installation parts
(1) Damage and installation conditions
- Check whether the exhaust pipe is damaged.
- Check whether the silencer is damaged.
- Check whether the O-ring of exhaust pipe stand is damaged or removed.
- Check whether the gasket is damaged.

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(2) Exhaust pipe leakage
Check whether there is leakage of exhaust gas in the exhaust pipe joint through observing
any carbon black around the joint.

Figure 14: exhaust pipeline.

Nuts and bolts (under the vehicle)

Loose
Check whether the bolts and nuts connected to the following chassis are loose:

403
Figure 15: nuts and bolts (under the vehicle).

Figure 16: nuts and bolts.

Suspension
(1) Damage
Check whether the following suspension components are damaged:

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Figure 17: suspension.

(2) The damper is damaged

Check whether there are dents on the damper. In addition, check whether there are cracks or
other damage on the dust cover.
(3) Oil leakage in the damper
There may not be oil leakage in the damper.
(4) Connect the swing
Check whether the bushing is worn or cracked through shaking the connection part on the
suspension joint by hand, and check whether the bushing is swinging. At the same time check
whether the connection is damaged.

405
Figure 18: damper

Oil filter
Replacement
(1) Dismantle engine oil filter with SST (special service tools).
(2) Check and clean the mounting surface of engine oil filter.
(3) Smear clean engine oil on the new oil filter gasket.
(4) Gently unscrew the oil filter in position and then tighten the oil filter until the gasket
contacts the base.
(5) Tighten the oil filter for 3/4 circle with special service tools.

Prompt:
The oil filter is replaced from engine house on some types of engine.

406
Figure 19: oil filter

Figure 20: oil discharge plug.

Power steering fluid

Complex recirculating ball type power steering

407
 (1) Fluid leakage
Check whether the power steering fluid is leaked.
- Gear box
- PS impeller pump
- Fluid line and connection point
(2) Crack and other damage
Check whether the PS hose has cracks and other damage.

Figure 21: power steering fluid.

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Figure 22: Transmission shaft/rear drive shaft (Vehicle of front engine rear
wheel drive)
Suspension
Plate spring and torque bar spring are damaged
Check whether the spring is damaged.

Prompt:
Check the protruded silent pad of plate spring.
The plate spring is worn
Check whether the plate spring connection is worn and loose through shaking it by hand.
And check the gap between plate spring.

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Figure 23: plate spring

Figure 24: basic inspection checklist.

5.3.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities

410
 Carry out vehicle assessment of mechanical and operational condition on the vehicle
provided in accordance to manufacturer’s manual and periodic maintenance schedule and
prepare a job card as per the organization format.

Field/visit to a Garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To assess vehicle Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
mechanical and vehicle mechanical and correctly used.
operational condition operational assessment as Safety observed
per the manufacturer
manual.
Safety precautions
observed.
To prepare a job card Correctly filled details Signed job card by
supervisor
Periodic maintenance
schedule updated

5.3.5 Self-Assessment
1. Using the OBD test machine to detect the faults in the power train lines, what can fault
code: PO135, PO141 and P0171 mean?
2. What can cause excessive play or vibration through steering?
3. Failure of lighting systems/components can be caused by?
4. What are the aspects that can lead to a failure in fuel flow
5. When can we fail to achieve ignition?
6. Slow response or excessive pedal travel when braking is a possible fault, what could be
the causes
7. What factors would lead to unusual engine noises or vibration in a vehicle?
5.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Spanners
Filler gauge
Screw drivers
Oil can
Grease can
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Ramp
Complete functional vehicle
Wheel balancing machine.
Air leakage tester
OBD testing machine

411
 Car lift machine.
Battery testing machine.
Valve spring compressor
Axle stands
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Brake fluid
Engine oil
Emery cloth
Service parts (brake pads, shoes)
Grease can
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

5.3.7 References
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge
5.3.8 Model Answers.
1. What can cause excessive steering play or vibration?
- loose shock mounts, damaged or detached springs
- leaking shocks or struts.
2. Failure of lighting systems/components can be caused by?
- A loose socket connections
- a bad bulb
- corrosion in terminals
- a loose wire
- poor earthing

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 - an electrical open or short
- a failed switch or relay
3. What can cause lack of fuel flow
- Fuel pipes or filters partially blocked by debris, kinks, or being pinched.
- Use of pipes, fittings of inadequate internal bore size.
- Fuel cocks that are partially closed when the knob indicates fully open.
- Blocked fuel tank vents.
4. When can we fail to achieve ignition?
When we have…
- Low battery voltage
- Open circuit
- Faulty starter motor
- Faulty relay
- corrosion on the electrical circuit directly related to the ignition system that is
preventing the proper amount of electricity to flow.
- Ignition key failure
5. Slow response or excessive brake pedal travel when braking is a possible fault, what
could be the causes?
- Air in the Brake Lines
- Brake Line/pipe damage leading to loose of hydraulic fluid in the system
- Low Brake Fluid viscosity, or deteriorated brake fluid
- Worn Wheel cylinder wear
- Excessive worn brake pads/shoes
- Damaged Disc Brake Caliper

6. What factors would cause unusual engine noises or vibration in a vehicle?

- Worn Out Spark Plugs
- Loose or Disconnected air Hoses
- Broken starter Motor Mounts
- Faulty or Poorly Adjusted Fuel Intake System
- Faulty Timing Belt
- Worn out engine mounts

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5.4 Learning Outcome 2: Carry out diagnostic tests.

5.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This involves the diagnosis of vehicle condition and performance using the correct
diagnostic equipment and tools. It also entails a preparation of a diagnosis job card for the
purpose of the client’s awareness and records purposes. A car diagnostic test can
determine if your vehicle has issues with its engine, exhaust, transmission, ignition coils,
oil tank, throttle, and more.
5.4.2 Performance Standard
1. Service technical information is sourced as per service manual
2. Condition and performance of the vehicle system is assessed using diagnostic
equipment and tools as prescribed by the manufactures’ specifications
3. Diagnostic job card is prepared and shared per the organization policy

5.4.3 Information Sheet

5.4.3.1 Definition of terms
Actuator - a component or device that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system
Sensor – electronic device that measures physical input from its environment and
converts it into data that can be interpreted by the ECU.
ECU (electronic control unit ) - is an embedded electronic device, basically a digital
computer, that reads signals coming from sensors placed at various parts and in different
components of the car and depending on this information controls various important units
DTC (Diagnostic Trouble Code.) - It represents a type of code your vehicle's onboard
diagnostics (OBD) system uses to alert you to a specific problem with some aspect of the
vehicle.
OBD-II provides access to data from the engine control unit (ECU) and offers a valuable
source of information when troubleshooting problems inside a vehicle.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHILE USING THE DIAGNOSTIC SCAN TOOLS

Risk of airbag deployment
- Do not place diagnostic tools or any other object between the airbag and a
person. An object near the expanding airbag may be propelled at high speed and
become a projectile capable of causing serious injury, death, or damage

Risk of entanglement.
- Do not allow cables to hang in a manner that will entangle operators or driving
controls.
- Arrange cords so that they will not be tripped over or pulled.
- Be sure that cables attached to your tools, equipment, and other accessories are
routed so as not to interfere with walk paths.

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 Risk of electric shock.
- Prior to recycling batteries, protect exposed terminals with heavy insulating tape
to prevent shorting.
- Disconnect all test leads and turn diagnostic tools off before removing end grips.
- Do not operate diagnostic tools without properly installed end grips.
- Do not attempt to disassemble any battery or remove any component projecting
from or protecting the battery terminals.
- Electric shock can cause injury.

Risk of injury.
- Use care when testing or controlling actuators and other vehicle components. Be
sure activating does not create an unsafe condition.
- User control of actuator and/or functional tests could create unsafe condition.

Risk of unexpected vehicle movement.

- Block drive wheels with chocks before performing an engine running test.
- Unless instructed otherwise, set parking brake, and put gear selector in neutral or
park.
- Firmly set the parking brake.
- Do not allow bystanders to stand in front of or behind the vehicle while testing.
- Do not leave a running engine unattended.
- A moving vehicle can cause death or serious injury.

Risk of explosion.
- The Lithium battery used in some tools is factory replaceable only, incorrect
replacement may cause an explosion.
- Some tools contain an internal 250V, 8A Fuse (F6) that is factory replaceable
only, incorrect replacement may cause an explosion.
- Do not use scan tools in environments where explosive vapor may collect, such as
in below-ground pits, confined areas, or areas that are less than 18 inches (45 cm)
above the floor.
- Do not expose tester to rain, snow, or wet conditions.
- Do not allow battery gases or acid to contact tester housing.
- Be sure all test leads are connected as instructed before proceeding with a test.
- Explosion can cause death or serious injury.
USING THE DIAGNOSTIC SCAN TOOL
Connecting to a Test Vehicle
Certain component tests require the use of specific leads that connect your scan tool to the
vehicle. To connect to a test vehicle follow the on-screen connection instructions
Component Tests

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Component tests vary according to vehicle and system. Before you can perform a test, a list of
available component tests, you must identify a specific vehicle system.
Two options are available for identifying a vehicle:
 New Vehicle ID
- From the main menu, select Component Tests > Component Testing > New
Vehicle ID
- Select the region.
- Select a manufacturer.
- Continue to select from the menus to complete the vehicle identification.
 Previous Vehicles
- To load a previously-identified vehicle:
- Select Component Tests > Component Testing> Previous Vehicles.
The following is an outline of basic component testing operations.
1 Identify the vehicle—identify the test vehicle or select from a list of previously-identified
vehicles.
2 Select a component test—Select a vehicle-specific component for testing.
3 Perform the test—Follow the on-screen instructions to set up, test, and evaluate test results.

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Figure 25: OBD – II Codes

EXAMPLES OF DIAGNOSTIC TROUBLE CODES AND THEIR CAUSES

The following are some of the more common generic OBD-II diagnostic trouble codes
and their possible causes.

After reading any stored DTC, but before replacing any parts always check for
manufacturer
technical service bulletins, (TSBs).

P0505: Idle control system malfunction—A DTC P0505 can be set for several reasons:
the actual engine idle speed varies from the PCM’s target idle speed, or the PCM can’t
control idle speed properly. Symptoms could include the following: too high, or too low
an idle speed,
stalling at idle, fluctuating idle speed, difficulty starting, and hesitation on acceleration.
Some of the causes of lack of idle control are intake manifold vacuum leaks, dirty throttle
body, dirty passages, bad idle air control (IAC) valve, faulty drive-by-wire throttle, or
issues with

P0171 (Bank 1) & P0174 (Bank 2): System too lean—A “too lean” DTC for only one
bank of
cylinders can be caused by an intake port or fuel injector vacuum leak on one side of the
engine. Also, a large vacuum leak may cause the PCM to set both codes (P0171 and
P0174). Incorrect MAP or MAF sensor readings can also cause “lean” DTCs to be set.
Low fuel pressure from an electric fuel pump circuit with high resistance, or one with a
weak or tired fuel pump, will also cause overly lean fuel mixtures that may result in these
types of “lean” DTCs.

P0172 (Bank 1) & P0175 (Bank 2): System too rich—Causes for a rich condition DTC
from only one bank of cylinders include: poor fuel-injector spray pattern (bad injector),
malfunctioning oxygen sensor for that bank of cylinders, and incorrect air metering from
MAF or MAP sensors. A leak in the fuel pressure regulator diaphragm could cause both
codes to be set because this condition allows all the engine’s cylinders to be too rich. In
addition, malfunctioning oxygen sensors can cause too much fuel to be added to the engine,
and thus set these diagnostic trouble codes.

P0106: Manifold absolute pressure/barometric pressure circuit range/performance—

A manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor malfunction can send a false signal to the PCM
that is out of range of what the PCM expects. This can be caused by a cracked, leaking, or
loose MAP vacuum hose (some MAP sensors are connected directly to the engine’s intake
manifold and don’t use a vacuum hose, but could leak nevertheless). Other possible causes:
a bad electrical
connection at the MAP sensor, and an “open” or short in the wiring harness between the
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 MAP and the PCM. Any of the preceding may trigger this and other related MAP sensor
codes, including: P0105, MAP circuit; P0107, MAP circuit low; P0108, MAP circuit high;
and P0109, MAP circuit intermittent. When testing a MAP sensor and comparing its values
with a mechanical vacuum gauge, or reading a scan tool display, make sure that the scanner
and gauge are using the same units of measurement. MAP vacuum levels can be read in
inches of mercury (In.Hg.), kilopascals (kPa), or pounds per square inch (psi).

Figure 26: OBD diagnostic machine.

5.4.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Carry out vehicle diagnostic assessment of the operational and mechanical condition.

5.4.5 Self-Assessment
1) Using the OBD test machine to detect the faults in the power train lines, what can
fault code:
P0135: O2 Sensor Heater Circuit Malfunction (Bank 1, Sensor 1)
P0141: O2 Sensor Heater Circuit Malfunction (Bank 1, Sensor 2)
P0171: System Too Lean (Bank 1)
2) What are the components to be inspected on the vehicle underneath?
3) What are the checks done on ATF fluid?
4) What are the checks done on power steering fluid?
5) How is the oil filter replaced?
6) What are the checks done on the vehicles suspension?

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5.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Spanners
Filler gauge
Screw drivers
Oil can
Grease can
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Complete functional vehicle
Wheel balancing machine.
Air leakage tester
OBD testing machine
Car lift machine.
Battery testing machine.
Valve spring compressor
Axle stands
Filter wrench
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Brake fluid
Engine oil
Emery cloth
Service parts (brake pads, shoes)
Grease can
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

5.4.7 References
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes

419
 James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.4.8 Model Answers.

1. What are the components to be inspected on the vehicle?
 Engine oil leaks
 Power steering fluid
 Brake fluid.
 Washer fluids
 Belts and hoses
2. What are the checks done on ATF fluid?
 oil level
3. What are the checks done on power steering fluid?
 Fluid leakage
 Hose Cracks and other damage
4. How is the oil filter replaced?
 Dismantle engine oil filter with SST (special service tools).
 Check and clean the mounting surface of engine oil filter.
 Smear clean engine oil on the new oil filter gasket.
 Gently unscrew the oil filter in position and then tighten the oil filter until the
gasket contacts the base.
 Tighten the oil filter for 3/4 circle with special service tools.
5. What are the checks done on a vehicles suspension?
 The damper is damaged
 Oil leakage in the damper
 Check whether the bushing is worn or cracked

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 5.5 Learning Outcome 3: Service vehicle lubrication system
5.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
Lubrication is an essential and important aspect in the vehicle, it aids in reducing friction of the
moving parts. It is important to check the lubrication system during servicing of the vehicle.
5.5.2 Performance Standard
1. Vehicle lubrication system is diagnosed according to manufacturer’ manual
2. Engine transmission and hydraulic filters are replaced according to assessment
results
3. Vehicle components are greased according to manufacturer’s specifications
4. Lubrication system pressure is tested according to workshop procedures
5.5.3 Information Sheet
5.5.3.1 Definition of terms
Viscosity - the degree of fluidity (thickness) at a certain temperature. A thick oil has a
high viscosity. A thin oil has a low viscosity.
Emulsifiability - indication of the degree to which the oil will mix with water.
Lubricants - a class of oils used to reduce the friction, heat, and wear between mechanical
components that are in contact with each other
Pressure relief valve prevents the pressure within the lubricating system from becoming
too high.
Functions of the Lubrication System
- Reduce friction
- Cooling
- Sealing
- Cleaning
- Dampening of sound
Lubricating Systems Diagnostics

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 There may be complaints concerning the operation of the lubricating system.
Complaints can be grouped into four categories:
- the engine is leaking oil
- high oil consumption
- oil pressure too high or too low
- oil pressure control light stays on or does not come on
Oil leaks
Oil leaks may involve external or internal leaks. External leaks can occur along packing and
oil seals. When there are external leaks, traces of oil are visible on the outside of the engine.
In case of internal leaks, the oil is leaking into the inside of the engine. In that case the oil
usually comes into contact with the cooling fluid.

Internal leakage may occur near:

head gaskets; between oil lubricating channels and cooling fluid channels or between oil
lubricating channels and the combustion chamber. oil coolers; positioned between the oil
space and the cooling fluid space

Figure 27: checking wear of engine oil

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Figure 28: engine oil consumption.

Oil filter Replacement

(1)Dismantle engine oil filter with SST (special service tools).
(2) Check and clean the mounting surface of engine oil filter.
(3) Smear clean engine oil on the new oil filter gasket.
(4) Gently unscrew the oil filter in position and then tighten the oil filter until the gasket contacts
the base.
(5) Tighten the oil filter for 3/4 circle with special service tools.

Prompt:
The oil filter is replaced from engine house on some types of engine.

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Figure 29: replace fuel filter.

The fuel filter

Paper element type fuel filter for diesel engine
Replacement
(1)Fuel filter assembly
(2) Remove the centering bolt and fuel filter lower body assembly.
(3) Remove the gasket from the upper body of the fuel filter.
(4) Remove 2 gaskets, a filter element, a leaf spring, and a spring from the lower body.
(5) Remove the O-ring from the centering bolt.
(6) Clean the lower body and centering bolts.
(7) Take a new O-ring, gasket, and filter element and reassemble them in the reverse order of
steps (1) to (5).
Make sure to apply fuel to O-rings and gaskets.
8)Remove the air from the fuel filter by operating the priming pump.
(9)Start the engine and check for fuel leaks.

Figure 30: engine compartment: lubrication

Fill the engine oil

Inject the specified amount of oil through the fill hole

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Figure 31: engine oil.
 Measurement of oil pressure
When engine is repaired, it is required to frequently detect the oil pressure of lubricating
system, to determine whether the oil pressure is normal or not.
Generally, there is no special oil pressure measuring hole on the engine. When oil
pressure is detected, the oil pressure switch screw hole on the engine cylinder block is
used generally. The method is as follows.
① In the engine flameout state, dismantle the oil pressure switch.
② Screw the special adapter into the screw hole of oil pressure switch, and connect the
oil pressure gauge (as shown in Figure 13-8).
③ Run the engine and make it reach the normal operating temperature, and inspect the
reading of oil pressure gauge respectively under idle speed and high speed.

425
Figure 32: oil pressure measurement.
Generally, the oil pressure of engine shall be 0.2～0.5MPa; the minimum oil pressure
under idle speed shall be not below 0.15MPa; and the maximum oil pressure under high
speed shall be not above 0.60MPa.

Figure 33: engine oil refill.

426
Figure 34: instrument panel, oil pressure.

Figure 35: grease gun.

Changing the oil/replacing the oil filter

427
The oil and oil filter’s replacement intervals are specified by the manufacturer. The oil level
must be regularly inspected between oil changes.
A few points for attention:
- use oil that meets the specifications prescribed by the manufacturer
- always remove
- the oil when the engine is warm
- install a new seal ring at the site of the draining plug
- lubricate the seal ring of the oil filter with a thin layer of clean motor oil
- fill the crankcase with the prescribed quantity of oil
- once the crankcase has been filled, verify the oil level
- Use the right tools for removing the oil filter.
Manual Transmission
Manual transmission oil, differential oil and distributor oil (front engine rear wheel drive
and four-wheel drive car)
(1) Oil leakage
Check whether there is oil leakage in the following areas of the manual transmission,
differential and distributor:
·Shell contact surface
·The extended area of the shaft and cable
·Oil seal
·Discharge plug and oil fill plug
(2) Oil level
Dismantle oil fill plug from manual transmission, differential and distributor. Insert the
finger to each plug hole and check the contact position of oil and finger.

428
Figure 36: manual transmission oil.
Automatic transmission fluid
(1) Fluid seepage
Check whether the following areas of the transmission have fluid leakage:
- Shell contact surface
- The extended area of the shaft and cable
- Oil seal
- Discharge plug
- The connection of pipeline and hose
(2) The hose of the engine oil coolant is damaged - Check whether the oil cooling hose is
cracked, bulged or damaged.

429
Figure 37: automatic transmission.
5.5.4 Learning Activities
Practical activities
Carry out performance check of the lubrication system of the vehicle according to prescriptive
steps and analyze the detection results.

Objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction

To check the lubrication Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
system components for during lubrication correctly used.
functionality system components
checks
Obtained vehicle
technical information
Safety precautions
observed.
Tested lubrication
system pressure

Case study
Take a field trip and assess a live vehicles lubrication system operation.

5.5.5 Self-Assessment
1) The tools for lubrication system include all except
a) A compression tester
b) An oil filter wrench
c) A sensor substitution box

430
 d) A pressure gauge.
2) Which of this is the best guide to know when to change the oil?
a) Dipstick
b) Oil-life monitor
c) Oil level sensor
d) Pressure gauge
3) Technician A says that when draining the engine oil the engine should be fully cold for the
best results. Technician B says that the engine should be running when checking the engine
oil level. Who is correct?
a) Tech A
b) Tech B
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B
4) Excessive oil results in all of the following except?
a) Low oil pressure
b) High oil pressure.
c) Drag
d) Foaming
5) Technician A says that many oil pressure sensors are variable resistors that change resistance
based on pressure changes. Technician B says that a sensor substitution box can be used in
place of the sensor while observing the reaction of the oil pressure gauge on the dash. Who is
correct?
a) Tech A
b) Tech B
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B
6) If oil pressure is higher than the specification
a) There may be excessive clearance in the engine bearings.
b) The oil pump may be worn
c) The engine is noisy
d) The oil pressure regulator might be sticking
7) Technician A says that when changing the spin-on oil filter, you need to verify that the old
O-ring was removed with the filter. Technician B says that the O-ring on the new filter
should be dry when the filter is screwed on. Who is correct?
a) Tech A
b) Tech B
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B
8) During replacement, when compared with spin on in a cartridge filter
a) All parts get replaced.
b) It’s easier to properly dispose of the oil.
c) A greater amount of waste is generated
d) Reuse is minimal.

431
9) What’s the purpose of a fluorescent dye and an ultraviolet lights in diagnosing the lubrication
system?
10) How useful is the aspect of oil analysis in relation to lubrication service?

5.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Appropriate Spanners
Oil can
Grease can
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Complete functional vehicle
Air leakage tester
OBD testing machine
Car lift machine.
Axle stands
Oil pressure gauge
Filter wrench
Air compressor with a gauge
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Engine oil
Transmission fluid
Emery cloth
Service parts (brake pads, shoes)
Grease can
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

5.5.7 References
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes

432
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.5.8 Model Answers.

1) The tools for lubrication system include all except
a) A compression tester
b) An oil filter wrench
c) A sensor substitution box
d) A pressure gauge.
2) Which of this is the best guide to know when to change the oil?
a) Dipstick
b) Oil-life monitor
c) Oil level sensor
d) Pressure gauge
3) Tech A says that when draining the engine oil the engine should be fully cold for the
best results. Tech B says that the engine should be running when checking the engine oil
level. Who is correct? (a)
a) Tech A
b) Tech B
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B
4) Excessive oil results in all of the following except? (a)
a) Low oil pressure
b) High oil pressure.
c) Drag
d) Foaming
5) Tech A says that many oil pressure sensors are variable resistors that change resistance
based on pressure changes. Tech B says that a sensor substitution box can be used in
place of the sensor while observing the reaction of the oil pressure gauge on the dash.
Who is correct?
a) Tech A
b) Tech B
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B
6) If oil pressure is higher than the specification
a) There may be excessive clearance in the engine bearings.
b) The oil pump may be worn
c) The engine is noisy
d) The oil pressure regulator might be sticking

433
7) Tech A says that when changing the spin-on oil filter, you need to verify that the old
O-ring was removed with the filter. Tech B says that the O-ring on the new filter should
be dry when the filter is screwed on. Who is correct?
a) Tech A
b) Tech B
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B
8) During replacement, when compared with spin on in a cartridge filter
a) All parts get replaced.
b) It’s easier to properly dispose of the oil.
c) A greater amount of waste is generated
d) Reuse is minimal.
9) What’s the purpose of a fluorescent dye and an ultraviolet lights in diagnosing the
lubrication system?
10) How useful is the aspect of oil analysis in relation to lubrication service?

434
 5.6 Learning Outcome 4: Replenish fluids and lubricants

5.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

There are various fluids to be replenished and replaced on a vehicle. This involves all the
fluid checks and replacements. Lubricants are checked too for service; replacement.
5.6.2 Performance Standard
1. Lubricants for engines and transmissions are identified according to manufacturer’s
specifications
2. Lubricants for engines and transmissions are obtained using vehicle manufacturers’
specifications
3. Grades of fluids for brakes and clutch operation, power assisted steering, cooling
system, wind screen washers are identified and obtained as per Manufactures’
technical information
4. Protective measures on lubricants and fluids are applied as per OSHA 2007 and the
workplace rules
5. Lubricants and fluids are replenished as prescribed by vehicle manufacturers’
specifications.
6. Waste oil and fluids are disposed in compliance with OSHA 2007 and workplace
policy/rules

5.6.3 Information Sheet

Lubricants
The process of reducing friction between moving/sliding surfaces, by the introduction of lubricants
in between them, is called lubrication.

Function of Lubricants:
(1) It reduces wear and tear of the surfaces by avoiding direct metal to metal contact between the
rubbing surfaces, i.e. by introducing lubricants between the two surfaces
(2) It reduces expansion of metal due to frictional heat and destruction of material
(3) It acts as coolant of metal due to heat transfer media
(4) It avoids unsmooth relative motion
(5) It reduces maintenance cost
(6) It also reduces power loss in internal combustion engines

Classification of Lubricants:
Lubricants are classified on the basis of their physical state, as follows;
a) Liquid lubricants or Lubricating Oils,
- Lubricating oils also known as liquid lubricants and further classified into three
categories;
(i) Animal and Vegetables oils,
(ii) Mineral or Petroleum oils and
(iii) blended oils.

435
 Characteristic of good lubricating oils:
(i) high boiling point,
(ii) low freezing point,
(iii) adequate viscosity for proper functioning in service,
(iv) high resistance to oxidation and heat,
(v) non-corrosive properties and
(vi) stability to decomposition at the operating temperatures.
b) Semi-solid lubricants or Greases
- Obtained by combining lubricating oil with thickening agents is termed as grease.
Lubricating oil is the principal component and it can be either petroleum oil or a
synthetic hydrocarbon of low to high viscosity. The thickeners consist primarily of
special soaps of Li, Na, Ca, Ba, Al, etc
c) Solid lubricants.
- They are used either in the dry powder form or with binders to make them stick
firmly to the metal surfaces while in use. They are available as dispersions in
nonvolatile carriers like soaps, fats, waxes, etc and as soft metal films.
- They are preferred where the operating conditions are such that a lubricating film
cannot be secured by the use of lubricating oils or grease contamination (by the
entry of dust particles) of lubricating oils or grease is unacceptable the operating
temperature or load is too high, even for grease to remain in position and
combustible lubricants must be avoided.
Properties of Lubricants:
- Viscosity
- Flash Point and Fire Point
- Cloud Point and Pour Point
- Aniline Point and
- Corrosion Stability
Essential requirements or characteristics of a good lubricant are as follows:
1. It should have a high viscosity index.
2. It should have flash and fire points higher than the operating temperature of the
machine.
3. It should have high oiliness.
4. The cloud and pour points of a good lubricant should always be lower than the
operating temperature of the machine.
5. The volatility of the lubricating oil should be low.
6. It should deposit least amount of carbon during use.
7. It should have higher aniline point.
8. It should possess a higher resistance towards oxidation and corrosion.
9. It should have good detergent quality.
Additives

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The additive content in lubricating oils ranges from just a few parts per million to several
percentage points and, depending on the function that these products have to carry out, they may
be classed as:
- Substances intended to improve the intrinsic characteristics of the base oils (viscosity index
modifiers and pour point improvers).
- Lubricant protective substances (antioxidants).
- Substances giving new properties and protecting the metal surfaces of engines (detergents,
dispersants, friction modifiers, anti-wear/Extreme Pressure (EP) additives, rust and
corrosion inhibitors).
The additives added to improve lubricating oils include;
- Viscosity index modifiers
- Pour point improvers
- Antioxidants
- Detergents and dispersants
- Friction modifiers
- Anti-wear/EP additives
- Anti-corrosives/rust-inhibitors
Check the levels of oil and fluids.
 Coolant - Check that there is coolant in the radiator reservoir.
 Engine oil - Using the dipstick, check the engine oil level.
 Brake fluid - Check that there is brake fluid in the brake fluid reservoir.
 Washer fluid - Check the washer fluid level using a fluid level gauge.
The purpose of checking the levels of oil and fluids is to decide whether the oil and fluids are
sufficient for the periodical maintenance.

The coolant leaks

437
Figure 38: coolant leaks.

Radiator cover.
1 Function
- Use a radiator cover tester to measure the valve opening pressure and check that it is
within the specified range.
- Check that the vacuum valve operates smoothly
2 Damage
Check whether the rack sheath is cracked or damaged
Importance of checking the radiator cap
The radiator cap acts as a release valve set to open at the maximum pressure point. When the
valve opens, it allows coolant to flow into the coolant reservoir. On the other hand, the
vacuum valve opens in the case of low pressure, sucking coolant into the reservoir.
Importance of checking the radiator cap: If the radiator cap malfunctions, it will lead to
overheating.

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Figure 39: checking radiator cover.

Replace the coolant

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Figure 40: coolant replacement.
Coolant replacement
1.Drain the engine coolant.
Discharge engine coolant through radiators and engine and fluid reservoir discharge plugs.
Prompt:
Collect coolant and clean water and treat them as industrial wastewater to protect the
environment.
Caution:
Do not do this immediately after the car is running because the coolant will be very hot (the
radiator cover will be too hot to touch).
Check the coolant level
1) After the engine warms up, let the engine cool down. Then remove the radiator cover and
check that the coolant level is appropriate.

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 It is not necessary to remove the radiator cover when checking the coolant level
normally.

Caution:
If you want to remove the radiator cover while the engine is still hot, put a cloth on the cover
and loosen it 45 degrees to release the pressure. Then remove the radiator cover. Do not
remove the radiator cover immediately, otherwise the coolant will spill.

2) Check whether coolant in fluid storage tank is within the stipulated range.

Replace the brake fluid

The brake fluid can naturally absorb the moisture under normal conditions. The moisture
content may reach 3% or so about two years later. The moisture in the brake is very harmful,
because it: 1. reduces the boiling point of the brake fluid and causes degradation of braking
performance and loss of braking force; 2. causes corrosion of components of the braking
system. Replace it every 40,000 km or 2 years

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Figure 41: Brake fluid checks

Clutch fluid
Caution:
If the clutch fluid splashes on the paint surface, rinse immediately with water. Otherwise, the
clutch fluid will damage the paint surface.
1) Liquid level
- Check that the liquid level in the master cylinder reservoir is between the highest and
lowest scales.
Prompt:
- The clutch fluid level does not drop due to clutch wear. That is to say, a low level
indicates possible fluid leakage.
- ·Some cars have a clutch joint and a master cylinder reservoir.

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2) Fluid leakage
Check all parts of the clutch for fluid leakage.

Figure 42: clutch fluid.

Replace ATF oil

The ATF oil may deteriorate as it is used. If the ATF oil is not timely changed, the impact of
gear shifting will increase, the fuel economy will become worse and the transmission will make
abnormal noise.

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Figure 43 : ATF checks
Power steering fluid
1.Liquid level
(1)When the engine is idling, turn the steering wheel several times while keeping the car in place
so that the steering fluid temperature rises between 40 C和80 C（104 Fand176 F）. Then,
return the steering wheel to the middle position.
(2)Stop the engine
(3) Check whether coolant in fluid storage tank is within the stipulated range .
(4) Check whether the level deviation when the engine is running and stopped is within 5mm. At
this point, check whether the liquid is foamed or emulsified.
Caution:
Do not leave the steering wheel completely on either side for more than 10 seconds.
2.Fluid leakage
Check the hose connected to the fluid reservoir for leaks.

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Figure 44: power steering fluid.

Oil level
Warm up the engine and stop the engine. After five or more minutes, check the dipstick
to ensure that the oil level is within the specified range.
Prompt:
· Check the oil level when the car is parked on a flat surface.
·Check oil level after engine stops for five minutes or more so as to make engine oil in all
areas of engine completely deposit in oil catcher.
· Items to check when engine oil is not changed:
-Oil level
- Appropriate viscosity
- No dirt
- No pollution (fuel or coolant)
Power-assisted steering fluid
Check it every 10,000 km, if the fluid turns white or bubbles or there is liquid level gap,
the liquid is mixed with air. Possible cause for the air ingress is the cracked or damaged
pipeline of the steering system.
OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer).

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 The engine needs to be started to check the free stroke of the steering wheel.

Figure 45 : Engine Fluids Location

A.) Engine coolant reservoir. B.) Brake and clutch fluid reservoir C.) Engine oil filler cap. D.) Engine
compartment fuse box. E.) Brake and clutch fluid reservoir. F.) Battery. G.) Windscreen and rear window
washer fluid reservoir. H.) Air cleaner. I.) Engine oil dipstick. J.) Power steering fluid reservoir.

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Figure 46 : A comparison of power steering fluid quality.

Figure 47 : Comparing the quality of your coolant.

5.6.4 Learning Activities
Practical activity
Identify, store, replenish and dispose fluids and lubricants used in the brakes, power assisted
steering, cooling system, transmission and wind screen washer.

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Objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To check identify and Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
replenish fluids and lubricants when checking and correctly used.
used in vehicle systems replenishing lubricants
and fluids
Obtained vehicle
technical information
Safety precautions
observed.
Demonstrate how to
dispose various kinds of
vehicle fluids

5.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the fluids to be replenished in a car?
2. Any three types of engine oil?
3. What are the engine oil grades available?
4. What is lubricating grease?
 a mixture of a lubricating base fluid, a thickening agent, and additives.
The thickening agent is a material that, in combination with the base fluid,
produces the solid to semifluid structure. The primary type of thickeners
typically used in grease are metallic soaps.
5. How can lubricants be classified?
 Liquid lubricants
 Semi-solid lubricants or Greases
 Solid lubricants.
6. Explain each of the property of lubricants:
(a) Viscosity,
 the property of liquid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its own flow
(the resistance to flow of liquid is known as viscosity
(b) Flash point,
 lowest temperature at which the lubricant oil gives off enough vapours
that ignite for a moment, when a tiny flame is brought near it;
(c) Fire point,
 the lowest temperature at which the vapours of the lubricant oil burn
continuously for at least five seconds, when a tiny flame is brought near it.
(d) Pour point,
 the temperature at which the lubricant oil cease to flow or pour
(e) Cloud point,
 the temperature at which it becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance
(f) Aniline point
 the minimum equilibrium solution temperature for equal volumes of
aniline and lubricant oil samples

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 7. What are the characteristics of a good lubrication oil?
 high boiling point,
 low freezing point,
 adequate viscosity for proper functioning in service,
 high resistance to oxidation and heat,
 non-corrosive properties and
 stability to decomposition at the operating temperatures.
8. What are the various additives added to improve lubrication oils
 Viscosity index modifiers,
 Pour point improvers,
 Anti-oxidant,
 Detergent and dispersant,
 Friction modifiers,
 Anti-wear/EP additives
 Anti-corrosive/rust inhibitors.

5.6.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Appropriate Spanners

Oil can
Grease can
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Complete functional vehicle
Car lift machine.
Axle stands
Oil pressure gauge
Filter wrench
Air compressor with a gauge
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Engine oil
Transmission fluid
Emery cloth
Service parts (brake pads, shoes)
Grease can
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles

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 Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

5.6.7 References
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.6.8 Model Answer

1) What are the fluids to be replenished in a car?
- Engine Oil:
- Transmission Fluid
- Brake Fluid
- Power Steering Fluid
- Windshield Wiper Fluid
2) What is lubricating grease?
 a mixture of a lubricating base fluid, a thickening agent, and additives.
The thickening agent is a material that, in combination with the base fluid,
produces the solid to semifluid structure. The primary type of thickeners
typically used in grease are metallic soaps.
3) How can lubricants be classified?
 Liquid lubricants
 Semi-solid lubricants or Greases
 Solid lubricants.
4) Explain each of the property of lubricants:
(a) Viscosity,

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  the property of liquid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its own flow
(the resistance to flow of liquid is known as viscosity
(b) Flash point,
 lowest temperature at which the lubricant oil gives off enough vapours
that ignite for a moment, when a tiny flame is brought near it;
(c) Fire point,
 the lowest temperature at which the vapours of the lubricant oil burn
continuously for at least five seconds, when a tiny flame is brought near it.
(d) Pour point,
 the temperature at which the lubricant oil cease to flow or pour
(e) Cloud point,
 the temperature at which it becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance
(f) Aniline point
 the minimum equilibrium solution temperature for equal volumes of
aniline and lubricant oil samples
5) What are the characteristics of a good lubrication oil?
 high boiling point,
 low freezing point,
 adequate viscosity for proper functioning in service,
 high resistance to oxidation and heat,
 non-corrosive properties and
 stability to decomposition at the operating temperatures.
6) What are the various additives added to improve lubrication oils
 Viscosity index modifiers,
 Pour point improvers,
 Anti-oxidant,
 Detergent and dispersant,
 Friction modifiers,
 Anti-wear/EP additives
 Anti-corrosive/rust inhibitors.
7) Any three types of engine oil?
- Full Synthetic motor Oil
- Synthetic Blend Motor Oil.
- Conventional Motor Oil. ...
- High Mileage Motor Oil.
8) 5) What are the engine oil grades available?
The 11 viscosity grades are 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, 25W, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. ...
The lower the viscosity grade, the lower the temperature the oil can pass. For example, if
an oil passes at the specifications for 10W and 5W, but fails for 0W, then that oil must be
labeled as an SAE 5W.
0W-20 The 0W-20 oil is engineered to behave as a 0 weight oil at the starting
temperature and a 20 weight oil when the engine will reach its normal operating
temperature.

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 0W-30 The 0W-30 oil is engineered to behave as a 0 weight oil at the starting
temperature and a 30 weight oil when the engine will reach its normal operating
temperature.
0W-40 The 0W-40 oil is engineered to behave as a 0 weight oil at the starting
temperature and a 20 weight oil when the engine will reach its normal operating
temperature.
5W-30 5W-30 is the most commonly available end most extensively used engine oil in
the Indian market. Most of the Indian car manufacturers recommend this.
5W-40 5W-40 is the fully synthetic engine oil which performs like a 5 weight engine
oil when experiencing a cold start and 40 weight oil once the engine reaches normal
operating temperature.
10W-40 10W-40 is the engine oil which offers a 10Weight performance in the cold
starting temperature and 40 weight performance at the normal operating temperature of
the engine.

5.7 Learning Outcome 5: Replace/service vehicle serviceable parts

5.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

Damaged parts and components are replaced in accordance to the manufacturer’s
specification. The worn out components are disposed in accordance to the environmental
protocols.
5.7.2 Performance Standard
1. Tools and equipment for use are selected, obtained and assembled based on
service manual
2. Vehicle service parts are identified, verified, replaced and adjusted as per
manufacturer’s part numbers.
3. Worn out/damage parts are disposed as per the workplace policy and OSHA 2007
4. Replace/service activities are completed within agreed time frame as per
organization policy

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 5.7.3 Information Sheet

Basic maintenance operations in car maintenance

In periodical maintenance, the technicians mainly checks to ensure that vehicle has the functions
necessary for safe operation. Check the following contents.
(1) Operation checking: Lamps, engine, wipers, steering mechanism, etc.;
(2) Visual inspection: Tyres, vehicle appearance, etc.;
Work efficiency can be improved by reducing walk distance, walk frequency, number of
unreasonable workstations, hoisting frequency, and idle time.
(1) As more tasks as possible shall be completed successively at the same place.
(2) The work route of periodical maintenance shall be around the vehicle, starting from
and ending at the driver seat, as shown in the Figure.
(3) Tools, instruments, and replacement parts needed in the maintenance shall be place
at a readily accessible place in advance.
Inspection of drive belts
The drive belts are used to drive the auxiliary mechanical devices, for example, alternating
current generator, power steering gear, and water pump. If the drive belts were damaged, the
generator will stop running, and the battery will run down gradually. the water pump will stop
running, resulting in faults (for example, overheating) Inspection is required upon travel of
20,000 km or 2 years.

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Figure 48: drive belt inspection.

Change the air filter (charging factor and volumetric efficiency)

454
Figure 49: air filter replacement.

Drive belt
Automatic tensioner
The automatic tensioner uses a spring force to apply tension to the belt. Therefore, there
is no need to adjust the tension.

·Checking method
Check that the tensioner indicator is within range (A).

Prompt:
When installing a new belt, the automatic tensioner indicator should be within range (B).
· Serpentine belt
A serpentine belt drives all the engine's auxiliary mechanisms.
Drive belt tension adjustment

There are several ways to adjust the belt tension.

(1) No idler type (with adjusting bolts)

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 (2) No idler type (without adjusting bolts)
(3) Idler type

Replacing the timing belt

What is the purpose of the timing belt?
The timing belt is what connects the spinning on the crankshaft with the spinning on the
camshaft. The timing belt is for the normal operation of the valves.

The importance of replacing the timing belt The timing belt is made of plastic. It can
become hard due to engine heat. This could cause cracks. It could be sheared too.

If the timing belt is cracked the opening or closing of the valves is no longer in
synchronization, and the engine will stop running. The pistons will collide with the
valves. Valve stems will be bent.

Figure 50: timing belt replacement.

Spark plug.
The function of the spark plug is to ignite the combustible mixture in the engine cylinder.
The key factor to reach the best and most cost-optimal engine performance is accurate
ignition and complete combustion
Replace the spark plug

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Figure 51: spark plug replacement.

Check the battery

(1) Electrolyte level
Check whether the liquid level of each cell of the battery is between the upper line and
the lower line.

Prompt:
- If it is difficult to determine the electrolyte level, check by gently shaking the car.
At the same time, the electrolyte level can be checked by removing a vent plug
and looking through the opening.
- Use distilled water when water is needed.
- Some types of batteries can see the liquid level and the battery condition through
the battery indicator.

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Figure 52: battery check.

(2) Damage
Check the battery cover for cracks or leaks.

(3) Corrosion
Check the battery terminals for corrosion.

(4) Loose
Check for loose battery terminal wires.

(5) Vent plug

Check whether the battery vent plug is damaged or whether the vent is clogged

Specific gravity inspection

When using a hydrometer to check the battery electrolyte temperature at 200C（680F, the
specific gravity of all cells is between 1.250 and 1.280. Make sure that the difference in
specific gravity between battery cells is less than 0.025.

If the temperature of the battery electrolyte at the time of measurement is not20 C，the
specific gravity at this temperature is converted into the specific gravity at a temperature
of 200C（680F.
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Figure 53: fuel cap.

If the gasket is damaged, fuel vapor will escape from the tank into the atmosphere. If the
vacuum valve is damaged, external air will fail to enter the fuel tank and substitute the
fuel. In that way, vacuum will be formed partially in the tank. Check upon travel of
every (on Corolla in most countries) 40,000 km (24,000 miles) or 2 years.

Checking the PCV valve

If the PCV valve is clogged, the blow-by gases are not taken into the intake manifold, and
is released into the atmosphere.
The blow-by gases is also mixed with engine oil to degrade the latter.
Check it every 20,000 km or 2 years.
PCV system
(1) PVC valve installation
When the engine is idling, check the working noise by clamping your PVC valve
hose with your fingers.
(2) Damage
Check whether the hose is cracked or damaged.

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Figure 54: PVC valve.
Checking charcoal canister
Canister
(1) Damage
Check whether the canister is damaged.
(2) Check valve operation
Check the operation of the check valve of the canister shown in the illustration

Inspection of car lamp

Lamp
Installation
Manually check whether the lamps come loose.

Damage/dirt
Check the lens and reflectors of the lamps for discoloration or damage.

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 At the same time, check if there is any dirt or water in the lamp.

Sequence of light detection.

Position lamp→ low beam lamp→high beam lamp→flash→Turn signal lamp LH, turn
signal return→Turn signal lamp RH, turn signal return→hazard warning lamp→Front
fog lamps→Rear fog lamps→Break lamp→Roof mounted lamp
(Make a flicker: Return to the state of lamps after switching from the high-beam
headlight to dipped headlight)

Figure 55: light control switch.

Inspection items of the lift position 1

Pre-inspection work

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Place the protective coverings on the fenders, engine hood, seats, and steering wheel.
Place the mat on the floor.
Check levels of oil and fluids. Put wood wedges under the wheels.
Check
1. Diver seat ·Car lamp ·Spray washer of windshield ·Wiper of the windshield ·Horn
·Parking brake ·Brake ·Clutch ·Steering wheel ·External testing equipment
2. Driver door (LH front door)
·Courtesy lamp switch
·Bolts and nuts of vehicle body (seats, seats, and seat belts)
3. LH rear door
·Jamb switch· Bolts and nuts of vehicle body (seats, seats, and seat belts)
4. Fuel tank cap
5. Rear
·Suspension ·Car lamp· Bolts and nuts of the vehicle body (trunk lid)
·Spare tyre
6. RH rear door
·Courtesy lamp switch
·Bolts and nuts of vehicle body (seats, seats, and seat belts)
7. RH front door
·Courtesy lamp switch
·Bolts and nuts of vehicle body (seats, seats, and seat belts)
8. Front
·Suspension ·Car lamp· Bolts and nuts of vehicle body (engine hood)

Check the lamps (you sit in the driver seat)

1. Operation
Turn the ignition switch to ON. Check whether the lamps can come on or flash normally.
Using a mirror, check whether the exterior lamps operate normally.
Prompt:
The dimmer switch assembly consists of two switches. One switch controls the turn
signals, turning them on or off; the other controls the headlamps, switching them between
high beam and low beam.

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(1) Turn the lighting control switch to position 1, to check whether the following lamps
come on.
·Width lamp
·License plate lamp
·Tail light
·Instrument Panel lamp
(2) Turn the lighting control switch past two positions, to check whether the headlamps
(low beam) come on. Then operate the dimmer switch, to check whether the headlamps
(high beam) come on.
·Headlamp (Low-beam lamp)
(3) Operate the corresponding switches, the following switches shall come on or flash
normally.
·Headlamp flashers and indicator lamp
(4) Check whether the following lamps come on or flash normally with their respective
switches operated.
·Hazard warning lamp and indicator lamp
·The daytime running lamps if equipped shall be inspected using a different method.
2. Operation of the dimmer switch
With the vehicle straight ahead, turn upward (downward) the dimmer switch, then
turning the steering wheel clockwise (counterclockwise) by approximately 90 degrees.
(2) Turn the steering wheel to the initial position. Turn the dimmer switch to the middle
position.
3. Warning lamps on the instrument cluster
Turn the ignition switch to ON, to check whether all the warning lamps come on.
·Discharge warning lamp
·Fault indicator lamp
·Low oil pressure warning lamp, etc.
(2) Check whether all the warning lamps come off with the engine starting. The manners
of going off may be different for the warning lamps, depending on vehicle model. For
details, refer to the general instructions for vehicle owner.

463
 Windscreen washer
Start the engine, then check the windscreen washer operation. If the engine is off, the
battery electricity is not strong enough to drive the washer motor.
Operation
Start the engine.
(2) Check whether the washer fluid spray pressure is enough.
If the vehicle is equipped with the washer-wiper linkage function, check whether the
wipers also work in concert.
(3) Check whether the fluid spray area is covered by the wiper sweep. If necessary, adjust
the washer.

Caution:
If no fluid is sprayed with the wiper turned on, possible cause is the washer motor
breakdown.

Figure 56: windscreen washers.

Operation
·While turning the steering wheel 360o, press the horn switch, to check whether it sounds
normally.
·Check whether the volume of tone of the horn are stable.
Prompt:

464
 ·It is unnecessary to the whole steering wheel that is equipped with an airbag.
·Some vehicle models is equipped with only one horn. Other vehicle models are equipped
with two horns (high-tone and low-tone).

Figure 57: horn test.

Air conditioner
1.Refrigerant amount
Observe the flow of refrigerant through the observation window and check the amount of
refrigerant.

[check conditions]
·Engine speed is 1500 rpm
·Blower speed control switch is in "High" position
·A/C switch ON
·Temperature control is set to "Coolest"
·Open all doors fully.

Prompt:
Observation window appearance

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Figure 58: Air conditioning observation window.

2. Leakage of refrigerant
After turning off the ignition switch, use a gas leak tester to check for refrigerant leaks.

Prompt:
When the engine is running for leak check:
· Leaked refrigerant is diluted with air from a fan or blower, making it impossible to
check for leaks.
· At the same time, refrigerant pressure in the cooler unit will drop, making the
refrigerant less likely to leak.
·The gas leak tester responds to sudden changes in humidity, which is caused by the
moist air from the discharge hose, leading to misinterpretation.

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Figure 59: replacement parts.

5.7.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
To replace/service vehicle serviceable parts of the vehicle according to manufacturer’s
specification and the company policies

5.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. How often should I change my air filter?
2. What are the components to be checked for service when changing the ATF fluid?
3. After how long should one replace the coolant on his vehicle?
4. How often should I check my fluid levels?
5. What are the importance of checking a radiator cap?

5.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Appropriate Spanners
Oil can
Grease can

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 Equipment Vehicle Jack
Complete functional vehicle
Air leakage tester
OBD testing machine
Car lift machine.
Axle stands
Oil pressure gauge
Filter wrench
Air compressor with a gauge
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Engine oil
Transmission fluid
Emery cloth
Service parts (brake pads, shoes, oil filter, air filter,)
Grease can
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

5.7.7 References
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.7.8 Model Answers.

1. How often should I change my air filter?

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 - 12,000 to 15,000 miles
Check your owner's manual; it should tell you when your air filter should be replaced. This is
generally every 12,000 to 15,000 miles, depending on your vehicle. If you have driven more than
that since the last time you replaced the air filter, it's probably time to get it changed.
2. What are the components to be checked for service when changing the ATF fluid?
In automatic transmissions/transaxles, the recommended service interval is about every 30,000
miles or 30 months. (Check your owner's manual or service manual for your car's specifics.) The
automatic transmission fluid (ATF) should be changed sooner if its dipstick reveals dark or
burnt-smelling fluid.
An automatic transmission fluid service will replace the pan gasket, filter, and transmission fluid.
Some vehicles do not have a serviceable transmission filter and some transmissions are designed
to be “sealed for life,” meaning that they do not require any service or maintenance. Check your
owner’s manual for information on whether you have a sealed system or not.
Unlike an automatic transmission, a manual transmission does not contain a filter, which means
that as components wear, the transmission fluid picks up particles of metal and is unable to filter
them. This is why it is very important to perform a transmission fluid service as per manufacturer
recommendations.
3. After how long should one replace the coolant on his vehicle?
A typical mechanic will recommend changing coolant every 30,000 miles. But many will tell
you, changing the coolant is not even on their radar. An owner's manual might recommend
changing the coolant/antifreeze after the first 60,000 miles, then every 30,000 miles.
4. How often should I check my fluid levels?
It is recommended inspecting your car's fluids levels regularly. This is a maintenance check you
can easily do yourself at home, but topping off any fluids that are low may require a trip to the
store.
5. What are the importance of checking a radiator cap?
Radiator caps serve as pressure relief valves. They prevent excessive pressure. Unchecked high
pressure could cause damage to the radiator, heater core, hoses or water pump seal. The pressure
cap also prevents radiator hoses and tanks from collapsing. As the engine cools it causes a
vacuum in the cooling system. This vacuum draws the coolant back in the system instead of air.

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 5.8 Learning Outcome 6: Carry out vehicle component and system adjustments
5.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
After a service process especially involving replacement of parts, performance test should be
conducted to ascertain the function ability of the replaced parts and components.
5.8.2 Performance standard
1.1 Operating specification and tolerance are identify as per Manufacturers technical information
as per
1.2 Tools and equipment foe checking and carrying out adjustments are identified as per
activities
1.3 Components and systems are identified as per job task

5.8.3 Information sheet

5.8.3.1 Definition of terms
Electrode wear - Check that the spark plug electrode edge is not completely worn or rounded.
Spark plug gap - Use a spark plug gap gauge to check whether the gap between the central
electrode and grounding electrode is within the specified value.
If not within the specified value, adjust spark plug gap.
3. Condition
Check whether the insulator is tightly installed.
4.Damage
Check the insulator for cracks, terminal corrosion, and damaged threads.
5. Clean
If the electrode has wet carbon traces, allow it to dry. Then use a spark plug cleanser to clean.
Prompt:
If there are traces of engine oil, use gasoline to remove them before using the spark plug cleaner.
Caution:
Do not adjust the gap or use a spark plug cleaner to clean a platinum-plated or iridium-plated
spark plug.
However, if the spark plug is pitch-black, you can clean the spark plug for a short time (less than
20 seconds).

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Figure 60: spark plug.
Spark plug gap adjustment
Using a spark plug gap gauge, place the ground electrode of the spark plug into the notch portion
of the spark plug gap gauge and bend the ground electrode to adjust the gap.
Caution:
· When bending the grounding pole, do not allow the spark plug gap gauge to contact the
insulator to ensure that the insulator will not break.
· As long as it is not new, there is no need to adjust the iridium electrode type spark plug or the
platinum electrode type spark

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Figure 61: spark plug adjustment.

Clutch fluid
Sequential manual transmission system fluid
1.Liquid level
When the engine is idling, check that the fluid level in the hydraulic power unit (HPU) reservoir
is within the specified range.
2. Leakage
Check the sequential manual transmission system for leaks.
3.Broken hose
Check the hose for damage.
Caution:
The sequential manual transmission system requires a specially designed transmission fluid for
it.
Air filter element
Purpose of the air filter element
1. Clean
Use compressed air to remove dirt before check.
· First, blow compressed air from the engine side of the air cleaner element.
· Simultaneously remove dirt from the air filter cover.
2.Dust and accumulated particles
Check the air filter element for dirt, accumulated particles, or cracks.
3.Install
Check that the rubber seal on the air filter element is good and that it is free of cracks or other
damage.
Washable air filter inspection
Soil or clogging
Check the air filter element for dirt, clogging or cracks.
Clean
1.Use compressed air to completely blow out the dust inside the element.

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2.Immerse the element in water and move it up and down for ten minutes or more.
3.Repeat this process until the water is clean.
4.Excessive water is removed by shaking the element or by blowing compressed air over it.
Caution:
Do not strike or drop the filter element.
2.Wipe up the dust inside the air filter housing.
Installation conditions
Check that the gasket is securely installed in the air filter element and the gasket is cracked or
damaged
Refill of air-conditioning refrigerant
Recycling refrigerant (HFC-134a(R134a))
1.Install manifold gauges.
2.Use a recycling machine to recover the refrigerant

Figure 62: refrigerant refill.

1. Evacuation
(1)Use a vacuum pump to evacuate the refrigeration system.
Stop evacuating the system and wait five minutes or more. Then, make sure that the refrigeration
system is not leaking (by checking the indication on the manifold gauge for changes).

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2.Leakage of refrigerant
(1) Fill the refrigerant in the system until the manifold gauge shows approximately 98 kPa (1
kgf/cm2, 14 psi).
(2) Use a gas leak detector to check for refrigerant leaks.
1. Add refrigerant to the system
Caution
Don’t dispose the coolant in the closed area or near the fire and spark.
Practice how to avoid coolant touching your eyes and skin when working.
Don’t heat the container or put it over the fire.
Don’t put the container on the ground or have it strong impacted.
Don’t run the compressor in case of insufficient of coolant in the system.
Don’t open the high pressure manifold valve when the compressor is working.
Don’t add too more coolant in the system.

Figure 63: refrigerant refill.

Replacement of disc brake friction

Replacement of disc brake friction
Disassemble the disc brake friction
Disassemble the brake caliper
Prompt:
Do not disconnect the flexible hose from the brake caliper.
Remove the two brake friction pads with anti-squeal shims.
Assemble new disc brake friction
Caution:
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 When changing the worn brake friction pad, the anti-squeal shim and wear indicator plate
must be replaced together with the brake friction pad.
6 Apply lubricating grease for disc brake on the anti-squeal shim and install the anti-
squeal shim on the brake friction pad.
7. Install the two brake friction pads with anti-squeal shims.

Figure 64: disc brake replacement.

Caution:
Make sure that the friction surface of the brake friction pad or friction disc is free of
engine oil or lubricating grease.
In order to prevent the brake liquid from overflowing from the brake fluid reservoir, fill
a small amount of brake liquid.
Use a hammer handle or a similar tool to push the piston in.
If it’s difficult to push the piston in, release the air relief plug while pushing the piston, to
drain some brake liquid.
Assemble the brake caliper
Depress the brake pedal for several times and check if the brake liquid level is at the
“full” scale.

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 Check of thickness and run out of disc-type rotor
If the disc-type rotor has any segmentation,
unevenness or abnormal wear, crack
or other damage, remove the brake caliper and
check the following contents:
1. Thickness of the disc-type rotor
Use a micrometer to measure the thickness of the friction
disc.

2. The brake disc is run-out

Use a dial indicator to measure the run out of the friction disc.
Prompt:
·Use the wheel hub nut to fix the friction disc temporarily.
·Before measuring the runout of friction disc, check if the clearance of the front hub
bearing is within the specified scope.

Figure 65: disc thickness.

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 If the brake drum fits very tights
·If the brake drum is stuck in the flange of rea axle due to rusting, insert the bolts with a
diameter of 8 mm into two access holes. Tighten the bolts evenly and gradually to prop
up the brake drum. Do not apply excessive force, so as not to damage the brake drum.
Instead, apply some lubricant on the flange. Once the brake drum is slightly propped up,
loosen the bolts and push the brake drum in. Repeat this process until the brake drum can
be removed.
·If the clearance between the brake shoe and the brake drum is too small, or if the brake
drum already has segmentation or striped wear, in order to loosen the adjusting bar, it is
needed to insert a screwdriver into the access hole behind the back plate. At the same
time, use another screwdriver to rotate the adjusting bolt of the adjuster to shrink the
brake shoe.

Figure 66: brake adjustment.

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Figure 67: shoe adjustment.
Drum brakes
Check the operation of the automatic adjuster

Separate the pull rod of the parking brake shoe by manually moving the pull rod of the parking
brake shoe forwards and check the rotation and expansion of the adjuster.Relieve the locking of
the adjust after the check. Rotate the adjuster in a reverse direction and ensure the number of
notches adjusted is same with the number of notches moved forward, so that it can get back to its
original position easily.

478
Figure 68: automatic adjuster.
Use and apply the automatic adjustment type of brake pedal
(1) Assemble brake drum
(2) Temporarily install the wheel hub screw cap.
(3) Remove the hole plug.
(4)Use a screwdriver to rotate the adjuster and expand the brake shoe until the brake
drum is locked.
(5) Use another flat screwdriver to push the automatic adjusting bar and reverse 8 notches
of the adjuster.
(6) Install the hole plug.

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Prompt:
Depress the brake pedal 。 If there is no clatter in the rear brake, the clearance of the
brake shoe will be automatically adjusted
The parking brake shall be the automatic adjuster type.
(1) Inner diameter of brake drum
(2)Rotate the adjuster to adjust the outer diameter of the brake shoe to the size about 1
mm (0.03 inch) less than the inner diameter of the brake drum.
(3) Assemble brake drum

Prompt:
If there is no clatter in the rear brake when the parking pull rod is used, the clearance of
the brake shoe will be automatically adjusted.

480
Figure 69: drum brake adjustments.

Manual adjustment type

Drum brakes
Assemble brake drum
Manual adjustment type
(1) Inner diameter of brake drum
(2)Rotate the adjuster to adjust the outer diameter of the brake shoe to the size about 1
mm (0.03 inch) less than the inner diameter of the brake drum.
(3) Assemble brake drum
(4) Remove the hole plug.
(5)Use a screwdriver to rotate the adjuster and expand the brake shoe until the brake
drum is locked.
(6) Rotate the adjusting nut back by the specified number of notches. Please refer to the
maintenance manual for the number of gaps specified.
(7) Install the hole plug.
Adjusting the clutch pedal
1. Adjusting clutch pedal height
(1) Loosen the locking nut of the limit bolt

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(2) Turn the limit bolt until the pedal height is correct.
(3) Tighten the locking nut of the limit bolt.

2. Adjusting the free play of the pedal

(1) Loosen the push rod locking nut.
(2) Rotate the push rod until the free play of the pedal is correct.
(3) Tighten the push rod locking nut.
(4) Then check the pedal height.

Figure 70: clutch adjustment.

Clutch
1. Clutch master cylinder fluid leakage
Check the clutch master cylinder for fluid leakage.
2. Depress the clutch pedal.
When depressing the clutch pedal, check for
·Spongy return
·Abnormal noise
·Excessive looseness

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·“Stiff” pedal

Adjusting brake pedal height

Loosen the locking nut.
Rotate the brake pedal push rod until the pedal height is correct.
Tighten the locking nut.
Then check the free play of the pedal.
3. Clutch pedal height
Using a ruler, measure the clutch pedal height, to see whether it is in the specified range.
If it is outside the range, adjust the clutch pedal height.
Prompt:
Distance from the floor to the top surface of the clutch pedal. If the measurement must be from
the surface of the mat, the thickness of the mat must be deducted from the specified range.

4. Pedal free play;

Press the pedal with your finger, meanwhile measure the free play of the pedal with a ruler.
Check whether the free play is in the specified range.
If it is outside the range, adjust the clutch pedal height.
Prompt:

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Press the pedal with your finger, to feel how it gradually becomes “stiff”:
Step 1: Press the brake pedal until the push rod of the pedal contacts the piston of the master
cylinder.
Step 2: Press the brake pedal until the master cylinder is pressurized.
Before the clutch release bearing pushes the diaphragm, the free play of the pedal is determined
with the pedal moving over a certain distance.
. Clutch disengagement
With the engine idling, and without depressing the clutch pedal, slowly shift to the reverse gear.
Gradually depress the clutch pedal, measure the travel from the free play end point to the point
where the gear noise disappears.

6. Clutch wear, clutch noise, and stiff clutch

With the engine idling, depress the clutch pedal, then shift the transmission to the first or reserve
gear, to check for abnormal noise and whether the gear shift is smooth. Meanwhile, check
whether the pedal becomes stiff.
Adjusting the parking brake lever travel
Hints: Before adjusting the parking brake lever travel (or the parking brake pedal travel), ensure
that the clearance between the parking brake shoe and the brake drum has been adjusted.
Loosen the locking nut.
Rotate the adjusting nut or the adjusting hex bolt until the parking brake lever travel (or the
parking brake pedal travel) is correct.
Tighten the locking nut

Windscreen wipers
Caution:
To prevent scratches on the windscreen, spray washer fluid on it before using the wipers.
Operation
Turn on the wiper switch, to check each wiper can operate normally.
Prompt:
Wiper performance
·Low
·High
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·Intermittent function
·Slow intermittent mode For some models of wipers, the intermittent interval is adjustable.
·Defogging function
·Turn the switch to the position of “fog”. The wiper begins to work.
2. Rest position
Turn the wiper switch to OFF, the wipers shall automatically move to their rest position.
3. Wipe effect
Spray washer fluid. Check that the wipers operate normally without the following problems：
Operation
·While turning the steering wheel 360o, press the horn switch, to check whether it sounds
normally.
·Check whether the volume of tone of the horn are stable
Prompt:
·It is unnecessary to the whole steering wheel that is equipped with an airbag.
·Some vehicle models is equipped with only one horn. Other vehicle models are equipped with
two horns (high-tone and low-tone).
Windscreen washer
Start the engine, then check the windscreen washer operation. If the engine is off, the battery
electricity is not strong enough to drive the washer motor.
Operation
Start the engine.
(2) Check whether the washer fluid spray pressure is enough.
If the vehicle is equipped with the washer-wiper linkage function, check whether the wipers also
work in concert.
(3) Check whether the fluid spray area is covered by the wiper sweep. If necessary, adjust the
washer.
Caution:
If no fluid is sprayed with the wiper turned on, possible cause is the washer motor
breakdown.
Adjusting windscreen washer spray area

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Insert a steel wire in the washer nozzle to adjust the spray direction. Be sure the steer wire size is
proper to the nozzle. Position the nozzle so that the fluid approximately is sprayed to the middle
of the wiper sweep area.
Steering
Free play
The vehicles are equipped with a power steering system; start the engine so that the vehicle can
go straight forward. Slightly turn the steering wheel. When the wheels are about to move, using a
ruler measure the movement of the steering wheel (free play).

2. Looseness and swaying

Hold the steering wheel with both hands. Move it axially, vertically, or laterally, to check
whether it comes loose or sways.

Figure 71: steering check.

Hints: For the steering system that has a tillable or telescoping steering column, turn the steering
wheel in its entire movement range for looseness.
2. Turn the ignition switch to ACC. Check that that the steering wheel is not locked and can
be turned freely.

486
  https://www.enginesengineering.com/en/services/vehicle-test-on-road/
 https://www.atesteo.com/en/testing/vehicle-testing-road-tests/
 https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/articles/practical-test-cars

5.8.4 Learning activities

Carry out replaced/serviced vehicle components and system adjustment as per vehicle
manufacturer’s specifications
5.8.5 Self-Assessment
1) How can you adjust the parking brake travel?
2) How can you check clutch pedal for free play?
3) How do you adjust the windscreen wipers?
4) How do you compensate for wear in disc brakes?
5) How do you adjust drum brakes?
6) How is spark plug adjustment done?

5.8.6 Tools and equipment

Tools Appropriate Spanners
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Complete functional vehicle
Air leakage tester
OBD testing machine

487
 Car lift machine.
Axle stands
Oil pressure gauge
Filter wrench
Air compressor with a gauge
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Engine oil
Transmission fluid
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

5.8.7 References.
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.8.8 Model Answers

1) How can you adjust the parking brake travel?
- Pull or step on the parking brake lever to engage the brake shoes. The lever
should stop firmly about halfway through its travel. If the lever goes all the way to
the floor, or pulls up really high in the case of a hand-actuated lever, you should
turn the cable adjuster nut more.
Note: Before adjusting the parking brake lever travel (or the parking brake pedal
travel), ensure that the clearance between the parking brake shoe and the brake
drum has been adjusted.
Loosen the locking nut.

488
 Rotate the adjusting nut or the adjusting hex bolt until the parking brake lever
travel (or the parking brake pedal travel) is correct.
Tighten the locking nut

2) How can you check clutch pedal for free play?

- Anything less than the correct amount of free play (or clearance) will result in
clutch slip, because the pressure plate will be unable to exert its full pressure on
the friction plate. Failure to cure this fault will quickly lead to a burned-out
friction plate, and possibly a ruined pressure plate.
Depress clutch pedal several times and check the pedal free-play (measurement
B). If measurement is not 0.67-0.87 in. (17-22mm), adjustment is required. To
adjust, turn the outer cable adjusting nut, located at the firewall, until free-play is
within range.
(1) Loosen the push rod locking nut.
(2) Rotate the push rod until the free play of the pedal is correct.
(3) Tighten the push rod locking nut.
(4) Then check the pedal height.

3) How do you adjust the windscreen wipers?

- Before you test your wipers, make sure that your windscreen washer fluid is
topped up with water or mixed with a glass cleaning concentrate. Then start by
using your windscreen washer fluid spray function on the car. Take note of the
water coming out and the pattern of the jet, make sure this is spread across the
windscreen to ensure good coverage of the glass. If this is uneven, consider
getting the jets repaired or replaced.
Wiper Pattern Check
- As the wipers move across the glass with the fluid, your wipers should glide
across moving all the water and dirt along with it. Uneven streaking, splitting,
scratching or skipping across the windscreen may indicate that your wipers are
due for replacement.
- If you are unsure how to replace your wipers or need further advice, ask your
local Supercheap Auto Team Member to fit them for you. A new set of wipers is
one of those little things that can make a big difference as we all need to see
where we're going at all times.
4) How do you compensate for wear in disc brakes?
- Disc brakes automatically adjust to compensate for the wear of the brake pads,
they do require physical adjustment by a technician.
5) How do you adjust drum brakes?
- Manually adjust the adjuster on the drum brake assembly using the appropriate
tools
- Test the brake efficiency and adjust accordingly
6) How is spark plug adjustment done?
- Learn your vehicle's gap specifications. Whether you're shopping for new plugs,
you just bought new plugs that you want to check before installing, or you want to

489
 check the function of your current set of spark plugs, you need to learn the
appropriate gap between the two electrodes on the end of each plug.
- Select an appropriate gap tool. There are several varieties of tools used to measure
the gaps of spark plugs, some of which are more appropriate for more modern
plugs, which sometimes feature delicate precious metals. Most measuring tools
will also feature a flat edge typically used for bending the bottom electrode on the
spark plug to adjust the gap slightly.
- Clean the spark plug. If you've just pulled it out of the box, it should be in pretty
good shape, but if you're checking a plug that you've been using in your car it's a
good idea to clean it off a little with a clean cloth. Spark plugs can build up some
whitish soot on the contact points, so you'll want to make sure they're somewhat
clean to get the most accurate reading.

490
 5.9 Learning outcome 7: Service Vehicle Wheels and Tyres
5.9.1 Introduction of the learning outcome.
Wheels and tyres are an essential part of a vehicle. It should be serviced for various diagnosis
including the wheel balancing, tyre pressures and the general checks.
5.9.2 Performance standard.
1. Identify and repair tyre punctures according to vehicles fault
2. Perform wheel balancing according to standard operating procedures
3. Perform tyre fitting on the rim according to SOP
4. Straighten bent wheel rims according to SOP
5. Replace tyre pressure nozzles according to SOP
6. Maintain tyre pressure according to manufacturer’s specifications.

5.9.3 Information sheet

5.9.3.1 Definition of terms
Adhesive force: Limit value of tangential reactive force from the ground against the tire

Inspect the tire tread and rim

Structure of cover tire

491
Figure 72: tyre cover structure.

Aluminum alloy wheel scientific name: Rim

A. Rim made of pressed steel plate B. Rim made of casted light alloy1. Rim width2. Bead shape
of the wheel3. Offset4. Rim diameter5. Rim center6. P.C.D (pitch circle diameter)7. Mounting
surface of the hub

492
Figure 73: rim

Aluminum alloy wheel

A. Rim made of pressed steel plate This wheel disc is made of pressed steel plate. It’s very
heavy but has high strength.
B. Rim made of casted light alloy
493
This wheel disc is made of aluminum. It’s light but has excellent design performance.
Compared with wheels made of steel, its impact strength is lower.
Tyre rotation

Figure 74: tyre rotation

Inspection of tyre

494
Figure 75: tyre inspection
Tyre wear

495
Figure 76: tyre wear.

496
Vehicle periodical maintenance interval and basic operation
1. Tread (crown, shoulder and sidewall); 2. buffer layer; 3. carcass (cord fabric layer);
4. inner tube (non in radial-ply tire); 5. bead wire; A. radial-ply tire; B. bias-ply tire.

497
Figure 77: tyre construction
Vehicle periodical maintenance interval and basic operation
W: width of tire section; H: height of tire section; D1: rim diameter; D2: outer
diameter of tire

Height-width ratio=H / W
Tire with higher height-width ratio has slightly worse turning performance. It will
provide comfortable riding and is suitable for family cars.
Tire with lower height-width ratio provides slightly worse riding performance. It is
more suitable for sports cars due to good turning performance.

498
Figure 78:tyre width

Fault Diagnosis

Figure 79: fault diagnosis

If the tire pressure is too low, the middle of the tire will become concave, thus
transferring the load to the shoulder, so the shoulder is worn faster than the tread middle.
If the tire pressure is too high, the middle of the tire will become convex and bear larger
load, so the tire middle is worn faster than the shoulder.
Troubleshooting steps
Check if there is overload
Inspect the inflation pressure. If the inflation is excessive or insufficient, the inflation
pressure shall be adjusted.
Exchange the positions of the tires.

499
Turning at an excessively high speed will cause wear from turning. Tire slip at turning
will cause slanted wear.
The deformation of suspension components or excessive clearance will affect the
alignment of front wheels, causing abnormal tire wear.
If one side of the tread is worn faster than the other side, the main reason may be the
incorrect camber angle. Excessive camber angle will cause excessive wear of the external
tread. Otherwise, the internal tread will be worn faster.
Troubleshooting steps
Ask if the vehicle needs to turn at a high speed and avoid that if it does.
Check the suspension parts. If it is loose, fasten it; if it is deformed or worn, repair or
replace it.
Check the chamber angle. If it is abnormal, correct it.
Exchange the positions of the tires.

dragged outwards on the road, resulting in toe-out wear.

Troubleshooting steps:
Check the tow-in and toe-out. Excessive toe-in or toe-out shall be adjusted. Pinnate wear
of the tread is mainly because of improper adjustment of toe-in. Excessive toe-in may
force the tire to slip outwards and cause the contact surface of the tread to be dragged
inwards on the road, resulting in toe-in wear. The tread shows obvious pinnate form. On
the other hand, excessive toe-out will pull the tire inwards and cause the contact surface
of the tread to be
Exchange the positions of the tires.

500
Front-end and rear-end wear is local wear, which often occurs on tires with transverse
patterns and sectional patterns. The sections on the tread will have slanted wear (the wear
mode is same as that of a shoe heel), which finally becomes jagged wear. For tread with
longitudinal fold line patterns, its wear will result in wavy patterns.
The tire of a non-drive wheel is only influenced by the braking force, and not influenced
by the driving force, thus often causing front- and rear-end wear. If the brake is used and
released repeatedly, the tire will be worn every time a short-distance slip occurs. The
front- and rear-end wear is similar to such wear.

Troubleshooting steps
Inspect the inflation pressure. If the tire is under inflated, inflate it to the specified value.
Check wheel bearing. If it is worn or loose, it should be changed or adjusted.
Check the chamber angle and toe-in. Adjust it if it is incorrect.
Check the axle journal or suspension components. If damaged, repair or replace it.
Exchange the positions of the tires.

Unit of air pressure

1 kg pressure =1 Bar=1 atmosphere =1 kg/cm2
=0.1MPa=100 KPa=105Pa
=10-4GPa=14.5psi

1psi =6.895KPa
psi refers to pounds per square inch

Wheel bearing
swing
Put one hand on the top of the tire while the other hand is placed under the tire, and push
the tire tightly
to check whether there is any swing.

Prompt:
If any swinging occurs, the pressure brake pedal will check its stroke again.

501
· No greater swing occurs: wheel bearings shall be the cause.
· Swinging continues: the ball joint, kingpin or suspension shall be the cause.

2. Rotation and noise

Turn the tire by hand to check whether it can rotate smoothly without any noise.

Wheel Balancing
Imbalance is an uneven distribution of mass about the tyre/wheel centre-line. Balancing
is an essential process when fitting new tyres to wheels or after the tyre has been removed
and then refitted to the rim. Most standard production tyres and wheels will, when built,
have slight imbalances in their construction due to the nature of the manufacturing
process. Balancing allows the technician to determine where these “heavy” spots are
located and counteract the effect with balance weights.
An imbalance in a tyre/wheel assembly can usually be noticed as one of two things.
Firstly an imbalanced front wheel will give a vibration that can be felt through the vehicle
steering wheel. Secondly, an imbalance in the rear wheels will result in a vibration that
can be “felt” through the vehicle body. As well as being uncomfortable this imbalance
can have a detrimental effect on the vehicles handling and the wear of tyre thread,
suspension linkage and shock absorbers. Wheel balancers will check two kinds of
balance, “static” (A) and “dynamic” (B). Static imbalance causes a wheel to shake up and
down (wheel hop) as it spins, so static balance is achieved when both halves of the tyre
wheel assembly weigh exactly the same. Dynamic imbalance causes a tyre and wheel to
shake back and forth or sideways as it spins (wheel shimming). Dynamic balance is
achieved when the inner and outer sides of the wheel and tyre weigh the same.

502
Figure 80: wheel balancing.
5.9.4 Learning activities

Practical activity.
Carry out puncture repair, replace tyre nozzles, carry out wheel balancing and inflate tyre
according to vehicle manufacturer’s specification.

5.9.5 Self-Assessment
1. Tyre information is molded onto?
a) The rim
b) The bead diameter
c) The tread
d) The sidewall
2. Wheel rims are sized according to?
a) Diameter
b) Flange height
c) Width
d) All of these
3. An “onboard” vehicle tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is normally mandatory
for all RFT applications.
a) True
b) False

503
 4. Excessive wear in the middle of a tyre tread could indicate
a) Under-inflation
b) Over-inflation
c) Wheels not running parallel
d) Excess negative camber
5. The main function of grooves in the tread pattern is to?
a) Reduce road noise intrusion
b) Indicate when the tyre is worn out
c) Increase traction on dry surfaces
6. Clear water from the contact patch: An aspect ratio of 75% indicates that
a) The width of the tyre is 75% of its height
b) The height of the tyre is 25% less than its width
c) The height of the tyre is 25% greater than its width
7. Tubeless tyres have no inner tubes because they have
a) A soft-rubber inner-casing liner
b) High-tensile steel beads
c) An increased number of casing plies
d) A special outer-casing compound
8. When checking tyre pressures you must make sure that the gauge is accurate. If the gauge
is reading high it could lead to the tyre being
a) Under-inflated
b) Over-inflated
9. Radial ply tyres have:
a) Larger sidewalls than bias ply tyres
b) Softer sidewalls than bias ply tyres
c) Smaller sidewalls than bias ply tyres
d) Stiffer sidewalls than bias ply tyres
10. A tyre with an aspect ratio of 45% is:
a) A low profile tyre
b) A high profile tyre
c) A small bead tyre
d) A cross-ply tyre
11. Q11: When a tyre is marked as ‘Temporary Use Only’, this means:
a) It can only be used for a short term
b) It is only suitable to use as a spare tyre to move the vehicle to a safe place while the
original tyre is repaired
c) It is not recommended for high speed driving
d) It does not have an inner tub

5.9.6 Tools and equipment

Tools Appropriate Spanners

504
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Complete functional vehicle
Car lift machine.
Axle stands
Air compressor with a gauge
Wheel balancing machine
Materials Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Assorted puncture repair kits
Tyres nozzles
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

5.9.7 References.
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.9.8 Model Answers

1. Tyre information is molded onto?
a) The rim
b) The bead diameter
c) The tread
d) The sidewall
2. Wheel rims are sized according to?
a) Diameter
b) Flange height
c) Width
d) All of these
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3. An “onboard” vehicle tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is normally mandatory
for all RFT applications.
a) True
b) False
4. Excessive wear in the middle of a tyre tread could indicate
a) Under-inflation
b) Over-inflation
c) Wheels not running parallel
d) Excess negative camber
5. The main function of grooves in the tread pattern is to?
a) Reduce road noise intrusion
b) Indicate when the tyre is worn out
c) Increase traction on dry surfaces
6. Clear water from the contact patch: An aspect ratio of 75% indicates that
a) The width of the tyre is 75% of its height
b) The height of the tyre is 25% less than its width
c) The height of the tyre is 25% greater than its width
7. Tubeless tyres have no inner tubes because they have
a) A soft-rubber inner-casing liner
b) High-tensile steel beads
c) An increased number of casing plies
d) A special outer-casing compound
8. When checking tyre pressures you must make sure that the gauge is accurate. If the gauge
is reading high it could lead to the tyre being
a) Under-inflated
b) Over-inflated
9. Radial ply tyres have:
a) Larger sidewalls than bias ply tyres
b) Softer sidewalls than bias ply tyres
c) Smaller sidewalls than bias ply tyres
d) Stiffer sidewalls than bias ply tyres
10. A tyre with an aspect ratio of 45% is:
a) A low profile tyre
b) A high profile tyre
c) A small bead tyre
d) A cross-ply tyre
11. When a tyre is marked as ‘Temporary Use Only’, this means:
a) It can only be used for a short term
b) It is only suitable to use as a spare tyre to move the vehicle to a safe place while the
original tyre is repaired
c) It is not recommended for high speed driving
d) It does not have an inner tub

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 5.10 Learning outcome 8: Finalize service and repair procedures.
5.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.
Vehicle interior and exterior is cleaned and made presentable in compliance with company policy.
Vehicle service and repair job card is prepared and shared as per the organizations requirement.
Service and repair records are maintained as per organization policy.
5.10.2 Performance standard
1 Vehicle interior and exterior is cleaned and made presentable in compliance with
company policy
2 Vehicle service and repair job card is prepared and shared as per the organizations
requirement
3 Service and repair records are maintained as per organization policy.

5.10.3 Information sheet.

Table 3: practical worksheet 1
Practice worksheet 1 for vehicle system recognition
Practical Practical training Recognition and operation of engine
Unit I
training unit program and vehicle components
Training group Date

Name Class
1． Open and close the engine hood and write down the operation steps:

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2． Find the following parts in the engine compartment (or engine bench). Mark √ for
those found and × for those not found.

Description of parts Already Not Description of parts and Already Not

SN. SN.
and components known found components known found
Sup ort rod of
1 21
engine hood. Cylinder block
2 Battery 22 Filter cleaner
Positive cable of
3
battery 23 Oil pan
Negative cable of
4
battery 24 Alternator
Power-assisted steering
5
Fuse box 25 pump
6 Air filter 26 A/C Compressor
7 Intake pipe 27 Crankshaft pulley
8 Intake manifold 28 Belt tensioner
9 Exhaust manifold 29 Brake fluid reservoir.
Reservoir of steering
10
Exhaust pipe. 30 hydraulic oil
Reservoir of windshield
11
Radiator 31 cleaner
12 Radiator cover 32 Throttle
Reservoir of engine
coolant
13 33 Fuel inlet pipe
(compensation
reservoir)
Water inlet hose of
14
radiator 34 Fuel return pipe
Water outlet hose
15
radiator 35 distributor
16 Radiator fan 36 High voltage cable
17 Valve chamber cover 37 Ignition coil
18 Oil filler cap 38 Starting motor
Dip stick of machine
19
oil 39 Throttle cable
Dip stick of automatic
20
Cylinder cover 40 gearbox

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Table 4: practical worksheet 2.
Practice worksheet 2 for vehicle system recognition
Practical Practical training Recognition and operation of
Unit II
training unit program engine and vehicle components
Training group Date

Name Class

Practice appraisal form 1 for vehicle system recognition

Practical Practical training Recognition and operation of
Unit I
training unit program engine and vehicle components
Training group Date

Name Class

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Identify parts in the engine compartment labeled in English and fill the label in correct position
in the list below:
Description of parts and Mark Mark
Switch name
components numbers numbers
Negative cable of battery Release lever of fuel tank cap

Radiator cover Release lever of trunk lid

Headlight and turn signal lamp
Valve chamber cover
switch
Dip stick of machine oil Locking switch of electric door

Reservoir of windshield cleaner Pull rod of parking brake

Brake fluid reservoir. Transmission joystick

Reservoir of steering hydraulic oil

distributor

High voltage cable

Ignition Coil

Throttle

Water inlet pipe of radiator

Water outlet pipe radiator

Intake pipe

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Table 5: practical worksheet 3
Practice worksheet 3 for vehicle system recognition
Practical Practical training Recognition and operation of the
Unit III
training unit program driving cab
Training group Date
Name Class

5. Install seat cover, steering wheel cover and gear lever cover (three objects)

6. Recognize the dashboard layout and its main indication marks and write down
names of the following marks.

Mark Item Mark Item

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Table 6: practical worksheet 4
Practice worksheet 4 for vehicle system recognition
Practical Practical training Recognition and operation of engine
Unit IV
training unit program and vehicle components
Training group Date

Name Class
7. Find the following switch and do the operation:

SN. Operated
1 Release lever of trunk
2 Release lever of fuel tank cap
3 Power window switch
4 Locking switch of electric door
5 Locking switch of windows
6 Child lock of rear door
7 Seat position adjusting rod
8 Seat backrest angle adjusting rod
9 Headlight and turn signal lamp switch
10 Fog lamp switch
11 Switch of emergency flashlight
12 Parking brake
13 Transmission joystick
Switch of windshield wiper (inching, OFF,
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intermittent, low speed, high speed)
15 Air conditioner switch

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7. Operate ignition switch and explain the role of each position:
①
② LOCK:

③ ACC:

④ ON:

⑤ START：

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Table 7: practical worksheet 5
Practice worksheet 5 for underpan system recognition
Practical Practical training Recognition and operation of
Unit V
training unit program underpan and vehicle components
Training group Date
Name Class
1． Lift the vehicle and write down operation steps and notes:

2． Find the following components at the bottom of the vehicle after lifting the vehicle.
Mark √ for those found and × for those not found.

Description of parts and Already Not Description of parts and Already Not
SN. SN.
components known found components known found
1 Drive Shaft 22 Brake hose
Inner sheath of the drive
2 23 Brake pipe
shaft
Outer sheath of the drive
3 24 Fuel pipe
shaft
Oil pipe of the carbon
4 Lower arm 25
tank
Dust cover of ball joints
5 26 Speed sensor
in the lower arm
6 Stabilizer bar 27 Drive shaft nut
Connecting rod of the Adjusting nut of the
7 28
stabilizer bar steering tie rod
Castle nut of the
8 Steering knuckle 29
steering tie rod ball
Castle nut pin of the
9 Damper 30
steering tie rod ball
Oil pipe of the steering
10 Damping spring 31
wheel
Power-assisted steering
11 Steering track rod 32
pump
12 Steering ball 33 Arm of the rear axle
Dust cover of the
13 34 Rear Stabilizer Bar
steering ball

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 14 Cross member 35 Backboard
15 Steering wheel 36 Braking deflation valve
16 Filter cleaner 37 Brake disc
Drain plug of the
17 38 Brake drum
machine oil
18 Engine oil sump 39 Bake caliper
19 Transmission oil sump 40 Braking lining
Drain plug of the
20 41 Silencer
gearbox
21 Transmission cooler pipe 42 Three-way catalyst

Table 8: practical worksheet 6

Worksheet 6 of engine maintenance practice
Practical Practical training
Unit VI Common engine maintenance 1
training unit program
Class Date
Category Member’s name

1. Complete the following tasks. Mark √ for those completed and × for those not
completed.

SN. Item Completed

1 Recognize drain plug of the engine

2 Recognize fuel filter of the engine

3 Recognize drain plug of the engine coolant

4 Check liquid level of the engine oil

5 Disassembly filter element of the air filter in the engine

6 Clean air filter element

7 Check the engine coolant level

8 Check engine radiator cover

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Mission Check oil in the engine compartment
1． Training content
（1） Recognize oil in the engine compartment (figure 2-1)
（2） Check the amount of engine lubricating oil, coolant, brake fluid and cleaning liquid.
（3） Complete and fill in the relevant items of work cards;
（4） Learn about vehicle operational consumption materials
2． Training goal
（1） Be familiar with the position of various components and oil in the engine compartment.
（2） Master detection methods of engine lubricating oil, coolant, brake fluid and cleaning
liquid.

3． Training equipment
TOYOTA Corolla, common tools, fender cloth, front grille cloth.
4． Training steps
（1） Open engine hood and it must be firmly supported.
（2） Install fender cloth and front grille cloth.
（3） When checking the oil level, pull out the oil scale and clean it with clean cloth. Then
insert it back into the oil pan again. Pull it out and read it. Do not raise the oil scale.
（4） Inspect the reservoir visually for liquid level of engine coolant and brake fluid. Do not
shake it by hand. Pull the scale out to the mark in checking the liquid level of spraying liquid.

2. Observe the machine oil barrel to verify the oil make.

3. Please write down the steps of discharging machine oil.

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 4. Find the vehicle manual and confirm:

Oil change period of the engine:

Specified grade of machine oil:

Table 9: practical worksheet 7

Worksheet 7 of basic underpan maintenance practice

Practical Practical training

Unit VII Common engine maintenance 1
training unit program
Class Date
Category Member’s name
Project description
Through recognition, disassembly and inspection of tires and brakes, students shall meet the
following requirements:
（1） Master the idea of standard operation.
（2） Laying stress on labor protection and safe operation;
（3） Able to correctly identify tires and detect tire wear.
（4） Able to master the method of disassembling and assembling brake and detecting the
wear of brake parts.
Project implementation
Mission Recognition and check of tires
1． Training content
（1） Recognition of tire structure, symbol and rim.
（2） Detection of spare tires
（3） Complete and fill in the relevant items of work cards;
（4） Learn about tires
2． Training goal

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（1） Master the structure of tire and the meaning of tire symbols.
（2） Master correct method of tire detection.
3． Training equipment
TOYOTA Corolla, common tools, tire depth gage, barometer, tire rack and suds.
4． Training steps
（1） Open the trunk cover, remove the spare tire and place it on the tire rack.
（2） Check surface and wall of the tire for crack, cut and other damage.
（3） Measure groove depth on the tire surface by tire depth gage.
（4） Measure pressure of the spare tire by barometer.
（5） Check air leak and the steel rim for damage or corrosion.

Figure 2-2 Structure of tyre

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 Figure 2-3 The meaning of tire symbols

Mission 2 Disassembly and assembly of rear wheel brake

1. Please write down the steps of disassembling the rear wheel brake lining.

2. Record the following data by detection:

Item Data Item Data

Thickness of the front pad

Thickness of the rear pad

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 Thickness of the brake disc

inner diameter of brake drum

3. Why are marks required in disassembling rear drum brake?

4. Disk and drum brakes, which one has the lining wear warning device?

Table 10: practical worksheet 8

Worksheet 8 of basic electrical appliance maintenance practice

Practical Practical training Basic electrical appliance

Unit VIII
training unit program maintenance
Class Date
Category Member’s name
1. If the dynamo belt is too loose, what will happen to the power system?

2. Fill in the following forms by check and observation:

Item Data Item Normal

or not

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Belt tension Lighting, signal light

Headlamp (Low-beam lamp) filament Power windows

Dipped headlight filament Power-operated rear-view mirror

Voltage drop of dipped headlight filament Electric door lock

Voltage drop of beam light filament ABS indicator lamp

Coil resistance of headlight relay SRS indicator lamp

Electrolyte density Door warning lamp

Battery voltage(static) Warning light for low oil pressure

Battery voltage (when starting) Warning light for discharging

Battery voltage (after starting) Engine fault indicator light

Air conditioner

3. How to judge whether fuse or relay is good or bad?

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Figure 81: cleaning components.
5.10.4 Learning activities
Clean exterior and interior of the vehicle and prepare service records as per the
organization policy
5.10.5 self-evaluation
1) What should be noted when lifting or lowering the vehicle?
2) What systems do vehicles basically consist of?
3) Find the vehicle manufacturer label and VIN. Copy down the vehicle manufacturer label
and explain its meaning:
5.10.6 Tools, Materials and equipment
 Chemical Guys Snow Foam Car Wash. Amazon.
 Chemical Guys Microfiber Wash Mitt. Amazon.
 303 Touchless Sealant (wax alternative)

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  Super Clean Degreaser.
 Brush Hero
 Turtle Wax Microfiber Towels. .
 Zymöl Cleaner Wax.
5.10.7 References.
Bob Henderson and Steve Rendle., (1995). Automotive Brake Manual, Hayness,
California
Jin-Ein Jeong and Jib Choi., (1996), Automotive manual, Automobile Maintenance,
Daewoo Vocational Training Centre
Tracy Martin., (2015)Diagnostic Scanners, Quarto Publishing Group USA
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering
and maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed.
Routledge

5.10.8 Model Answers.

1) What should be noted when lifting or lowering the vehicle?
- Inspect your lift daily and make any repairs with original equipment (OE) parts.
- Don't block open or override controls.
- Never load your lift beyond the manufacturer's rated capacity.
- Positioning of the vehicle and operation of the lift should be done only by trained
and authorized personnel.
- Never raise vehicle with anyone inside it. Customers or bystanders should not be
in the lift area during operation.
- Always keep lift area free of debris.
- Do not hit or run over lift arms, adapters or axle supports.
- Position lift supports to contact the vehicle manufacturer's recommended lifting
points and raise the lift until supports contact the vehicle. If you are working
under the vehicle, the lift should be raised high enough for locking device to be
engaged.
- Note that with some vehicles, the removal or installation of components may
cause a critical shift in the vehicle's center of gravity. Use high-reach,
supplementary stands to prevent instability.
- Before lowering the lift, be sure materials are removed from under vehicle.

2) What systems do vehicles basically consist of?

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 - Braking system
- Steering system
- Suspension system
- Intake and exhaust system
- Transmission system

3) Find the vehicle manufacturer label and VIN. Copy down the vehicle
manufacturer label and explain its meaning:

- VIN stands for Vehicle Identification Number. This is a unique number made
up of 17 characters used to describe a vehicle. You can decode a VIN to find
out more about your car or truck.

- Even though the N represents the word number, a lot of people still refer to it
as the VIN Number.

How to decode a VIN/ WMI?

- Digits 1 through 3 combined is the WMI, (World Manufacturer Identifier).

- The first digit of the VIN number is the country of origin or final processing
plant. For example, numbers, 1, 4 and 5 represent the U.S. 2 is Canada and the
number 3 represents Mexico. The Society of Automotive Engineers are the
ones who assign WMI’s to countries and manufacturers. Next is the digit that
represents the manufacturer, for example, ‘G’ is for General Motors, ‘C’ can
be Chrysler and ‘B’ for BMW.
- The third digit combined with the first two may identify the type of vehicle,
such as whether it is a truck, SUV or car. For example, a Chevrolet truck VIN
would start as ‘1GC’. 1 for the US as the country of origin, G for General
Motors and C for Truck.
Vehicle Descriptor
- Digits 4 through 8 represent the vehicle descriptor section.
- This is information such as model type, restraint types, body type, engine, and
transmission.

Check Digit
- Digit 9 is a check digit.
- The 9th digit is like a security code, called a check digit. It is a code
number/letter the manufacturer generates to verify authenticity of the whole
number.

CHAPTER 6 SERVICE AND REPAIR VEHICLE ENGINE COMPONENTS

Unit of learning code; ENG/AUT/CR/2/5

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Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard; service and repair vehicle engine
parts
6.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit describes the competencies required in service and repair vehicle engine components. It
involves troubleshooting and servicing vehicle engine components, performing vehicle engine
overhaul, servicing vehicle engine cooling system, servicing vehicle engine exhaust system and
lubricating vehicle engine system
6.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes
1. Troubleshoot and service vehicle engine components
2. perform vehicle engine overhaul
3. Service vehicle engine cooling system
4. Service vehicle engine exhaust system
5. Service vehicle engine lubrication system
6.3 Learning Outcome 1 - Troubleshoot and service vehicle engine components
6.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the concepts of the engine components service. On your rightful
PPEs, tools and equipment, the engine is removed from the vehicle as per the manufacture’s
manual, it’s then dismantled, the damaged parts replaced, the engine parts serviced, reassembled
and fitted back to the vehicle as per the manufacture’s manual.
6.3.2 Performance Standard
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE) are used as per OSHA 2007
2. Health, safety environment and quality regulations are observed as per OSH Act 2007
3. Engine is removed according to manufacturer’s manual
4. Engine parts are dismantled according to manufacturer’s manual
5. Engine defective parts are replaced according to manufacturer’s manual
6. Engine parts are serviced according to manufacturer’s manual
7. Vehicle engine parts are reassembled according to manufacturer’s manual
8. Engine is fit back into the vehicle according to manufacturer’s manual
9. Re-installation checks are performed according to manufacturer’s specification

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6.3.3 Information Sheet
6.3.3.1 Definition of terms
 TDC (top dead center): the position of the piston where the piston is farthest away from
the centerline of crankshaft rotation, usually its highest position as well.
 BDC (below dead center): the position of the piston where the piston is farthest away
from the centerline of crankshaft rotation, usually its highest position as well.
 Stroke: the distance between BDC and TDC, expressed by S.
 Crank radius: the distance from the centerline of the crank pin that is connected to the big
end of the connecting rod to the centerline of crankshaft rotation, expressed by R.
Obviously, S=2R.
When the crankshaft rotates for one revolution, the piston will complete two strokes.
 Swept volume of the cylinder: The volume between TDC and BDC, also known as the
cylinder displacement, expressed by Vh.
 The swept volume of engine: The swept volume of engine is the sum of those of all
cylinders. It is also called engine displacement, expressed byVL.
 Volume of combustion chamber: The combustion chamber is the space above the piston
top with the piston at TDC. The volume of combustion chamber is expressed byVc.
 Total volume of cylinder: Total volume of a cylinder is the volume above the piston top
with the piston at BDC, expressed byVa.
It is the sum of the swept volume and the volume of combustion chamber, i.e.Va=Vh+Vc
 Compression ratio: The ratio of the total volume of cylinder to the volume of combustion
chamber is called compression ratio, which indicates the compression extent of the gases
in the cylinder when the piston moves from BDC to TDC.
=Va/Vc=1+Vh/Vc
 Working cycle: When the engine is running, each period of energy transformation in the
cylinders contains four strokes, namely intake, compression, power, and exhaust. It is
also called as a working cycle of the engine.
 Load rate: Ratio of the effective power actually provided by the engine at a certain speed
to the maximum effective power that can be provided by the engine at that speed (%).
Load rate is often called load for short.

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  Operating condition: Operating conditions of the engine at a certain moment usually refer
to the effective power provided by the engine and the crankshaft speed (i.e. engine speed)
at that moment.

1- Cylinder, 2 – Piston, 3 – Connecting rod, 4-Crankshaft

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of basic engine construction and common terms

6.3.1.1.1 Working principle of the four-stroke engines

(i) Gasoline Engine
Intake stroke
During the intake stroke, the piston is driven by the crankshaft to move from TDC to BDC.
During the intake stroke, the exhaust valve remains tightly closed. The intake valve is opened.
(Figure 2(a)).

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Figure 2: Four stroke gasoline engine working cycles

Compression stroke
When the intake stroke is over, the crankshaft continues to rotate, driving the piston to move
from BDC to TDC (Figure 2(b)).
Both the intake valve and the exhaust valve are closed, thus the cylinder becomes a closed
container. With the piston moving upward, the combustible mixture in the cylinder is
compressed.
Power stroke
When the piston almost reaches top dead center in the compression stroke, the spark plug
produces an electric spark igniting the combustible air-fuel mixture. Combustion of the air-fuel
mixture results in sharp rise in both temperature and pressure in the cylinder. Driven by the high-
temperature, high-pressure gases, the piston moves from top dead center towards bottom dead
center. Mechanical energy is hence delivered via the connecting rod to the crankshaft.
Exhaust stroke
The exhaust valve is opened, and the intake valve closed.
Driven by the crankshaft, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Due to their remaining pressure
and the piston push, the waste gases are expelled out of the cylinder via the exhaust valve. When
the piston arrives at TDC, the exhaust stroke ends, and the exhaust valve is closed (Figure 2(d)).
At the end of exhaust stroke, the intake valve opens again, and the next working cycle starts.

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In summary, a working cycle of a four-stroke gasoline engine contains four strokes: intake,
compression, power, and exhaust. During the cycle, the piston reciprocates between TDC and
BDC, and the crankshaft rotates accordingly.
(ii) Diesel Engine
Like a four-stroke gasoline engine, a four-stroke diesel engine also has four strokes in each
working cycle: intake, compression, power and exhaust.
Both the opening and closing of intake and exhaust valves and operating of crank and connecting
rod mechanism of the diesel engine, comply with the same rule as that in the case of a four-
stroke gasoline engine. Main differences between the two kinds of engines are the fuel type,
mixture formation method, and mixture firing method. During the intake stroke, air other than
combustible mixture is drawn into the cylinder for a diesel engine.

Figure 3: Four stroke diesel working cycles diagram

For a diesel engine, the diesel fuel is ignited by the heat of compressed air. To create
advantageous conditions for spontaneous combustion of diesel fuel, a diesel engine is usually
designed to have a great compression ratio, typically 18 to 23.
6.3.1.1.2 Working Principle of the Two-stroke Engines
(i) Gasoline Engine

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 1- Exhaust Port, 2 – Exhaust Port, 3 – Purging Port

Figure 4: Two stroke gasoline engine working cycles diagram

The first stroke
Driven by the crankshaft, the piston moves from bottom dead center towards top dead center.
When the piston moves closing both the purging port and the exhaust port. It compresses the fresh
air-fuel mixture already in the cylinder Figure 4(a). The compression process terminates with the
piston reaching top dead center. On the other hand, with the piston moving up, vacuum is formed
in the crankcase below. When the piston moves up to a certain location, the intake port opens,
drawing fresh air-fuel mixture into the crankcase Figure 4(b).
Second stroke
When the piston almost reaches top dead center, the spark plug produces an electric spark igniting
the compressed air-fuel mixture. Driven by the high-temperature, high-pressure gases resulting
from combustion, the piston moves down to do mechanical work (see Figure 4(c)).
When the piston moves down to close the intake port, it pre-compresses the air-fuel mixture in the
crankcase. When the piston moves down further to open the exhaust port (see Figure 4(d)), exhaust
gases resulting from combustion under their own pressures escape via the exhaust port.
Then, the purging port opens, and the pre-compressed air-fuel mixture enters from the crankcase
into the cylinder, expelling residual exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
This process is called purging process. It lasts until the piston in the next stroke moves up to
close both the purging port and the exhaust port.
(ii) Diesel engines
Figure 5 is the basic construction of a two-stroke diesel engine equipped with a purging pump.

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Purpose of the purging pump is to pressurize fresh air to 0.12~0.14MPa. The pressurized air
enters the cylinder, via the air chamber outside the cylinder and the intake ports around the
cylinder wall. Exhaust gases escape via the exhaust valve in the cylinder head.

Figure 5: Two stroke diesel engine working cycle diagram.

6.3.1.1.3 Engine Construction
(i) Engine body and crank and connecting rod mechanism
Engine body is the basic frame of the engine. All other engine parts either fit inside it or fasten to
it.
The crank and connecting rod mechanism is the main mechanism of a reciprocating engine for
transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy. It transforms the reciprocating linear
motion of the piston under action of pressure into the circular motion of the crankshaft to deliver
power to the external components.

The engine body and crank and connecting rod mechanism consists of the engine body group,
the piston and connecting rod group, and the crankshaft and flywheel group Figure 6.
The engine body group includes mainly the cylinder head, cylinder head gasket, cylinder block,
and oil pan.

The piston and connecting rod group includes mainly the piston, piston rings, piston pin, and
connecting rod. The crankshaft and flywheel group includes mainly the crankshaft, flywheel,
pulley, and timing gear.

531
Figure 6: Engine body and crank and connecting rod mechanism.
(ii) Valve mechanism
The valve mechanism closes and opens the intake valves and exhaust valves according to the
firing order of the cylinders, so that fresh air-fuel mixture (in the case of a gasoline engine) or air
(in the case of a diesel engine) can timely enter the cylinders, and waste gases resulting from
combustion can timely go out of the cylinders.
The valve mechanism consists of the valve group and the valve train group, figure 7.
The valve group includes mainly the valves (intake valves and exhaust valves), valve springs,
valve seats, and valve guides. The valve train group include mainly the camshafts, timing pulleys
(or gear, or sprocket), timing belt (or timing chain), and valve tappets.

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Figure 7: Valve mechanism.
6.3.1.1.4 Fuel system
According to different requirements under various working conditions of the engine, the fuel
system delivers a certain amount of fuel into the intake pipe or cylinders to form the fuel-air
mixture of a proper concentration.
According to different requirements under various working conditions of the engine, the fuel
system delivers a certain amount of fuel into the intake pipe or cylinders to form the fuel-air
mixture of a proper concentration.

Figure 8: Carburetor-type fuel system

Electronically-controlled fuel systems

Main components of the electronically-controlled fuel system were a electric gasoline pump,
injector, and fuel filter Figure 9.

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The electric gasoline pump pumps gasoline from the fuel tank to the fuel pipe, creating a fuel
pressure.
Operation of the fuel injectors is under the control of the engine computer. A proper amount of
fuel is injected into the intake manifold, and mix with air there. The resulting combustible
mixture then enters the cylinder and burns there.

Figure 9: Electronically-controlled fuel system

6.3.1.1.5 Ignition system of gasoline engine
Gasoline engines are positive ignition engines. The purpose of the ignition system is to have the
spark plug produce an electric spark at the right moment, to ignite the combustible mixture in the
cylinder. The ignition system consists mainly of the battery, ignition switch, ignition coil,
distributor, spark plugs, ignition controller, and high-voltage cables.

6.3.1.1.6 Cooling system

The function of the cooling system is using coolant to cool hot parts, and emitting heat into the
atmosphere via the radiator, to ensure the engine is operating at a normal temperature.
The cooling system consists mainly of the water pump, thermostat, radiator, cooling fan, and
cooling hoses Figure 10.

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Figure 10: Cooling system
6.3.1.1.7 Lubrication system
The lubrication system is used for sending lubricating oil to the friction surfaces of the parts of
engine, to clean and lubricate these surface hence extend the service life of the engine.
The lubrication system consists mainly of the suction filter, oil pump, filter cleaner and oil
gallery Figure 11.

Figure 11: lubrication system

6.3.1.1.8 Starting system
The starting system is providing an external power to start the engine.

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The starting system consists mainly of the starting switch, starter, battery, and starting relay
Figure 12.
To start the engine, the driver turns on the starter with the starting switch. The starter then drives
the flywheel to rotate and then the flywheel drives the crankshaft to rotate. With the crankshaft
rotating, the engine successfully proceeds with its working cycle.

Figure 12: Starting system

6.3.1.1.9 Disassembling and assembling of engine mechanical assembly
1. Remove intake and exhaust pipes, generator and other peripheral components from the
engine, and disassemble the engine mechanical assembly in order.
2. Place each component of the disassembled engine correctly, recognize and explain
each component’s name and function.
3. Assemble the engine in order, confirm that each component has been installed
correctly, and adjust the valve timing.

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Figure 13- exploded Engine components

6.3.4 Learning Activities

Dismantle, troubleshoot and service the engine components on the provided vehicle engine.
6.3.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the main types of engines? What are the characteristics of each?
2. What is the working cycle of the engine?
3. What are commonly used terms used in engine construction and function? Can you recite
their definitions?
4. How is the compression ratio of gasoline engines different from diesel engines’ and why?

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 5. Describe the working principle of a four-stroke gasoline engine.
6. What are the differences between diesel and gasoline engines in terms of general
construction, combustible mixture formation style, and firing style?
7. What are the main mechanisms and systems of an engine? What are the functions of
these mechanisms and systems?
6.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Spanners
 Filler gauge
 Screw drivers
 Car lift machine.
 A complete vehicle.
 Valve spring compressor
 Oil can
 Grease can
 Axle stands
6.3.7 References
Arnold E., (1969), Technology for Motor Mechanics. Bk, 1,2,3,4 S.C Mudd

Bosch Automotive Electrics Automotive Electronics: Systems and Components (4th Edition).
Robert Bosch. ISBN 0837610508

Tom Denton (2004), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (3rd Edition)

Tom Denton (2000), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (2nd Edition)

Hillier. V A W (2004) Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 5th Edition Book 1

William H. Crouse and Donald L (1993). Automotive Mechanics (10th Edition).. Anglin. ISBN
0028009436
6.3.8 Model answers
1. What are the main types of engines? What are the characteristics of each?
 Two stroke
 Four stroke
 Main differences between the two kinds of engines are the fuel type, mixture
formation method, and mixture firing method.

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2. What is the working cycle of the engine?
 a working cycle of a four-stroke gasoline engine contains four strokes: intake,
compression, power, and exhaust. During the cycle, the piston reciprocates between
TDC and BDC, and the crankshaft rotates accordingly.
3. What are commonly used terms used in engine construction and function? Can you recite
their definitions?
 TDC (top dead center
 BDC (below dead center)
 Stroke
 Crankshaft.
 Swept volume
 Volume of combustion chamber:
 Compression ratio
 Engine Working cycle
4. How is the compression ratio of gasoline engines different from diesel engines?
 During the intake stroke, air other than combustible mixture is drawn into the
cylinder for a diesel engine.
 For a diesel engine, the diesel fuel is ignited by the heat of compressed air. To
create advantageous conditions for spontaneous combustion of diesel fuel, a
diesel engine is usually designed to have a great compression ratio, typically 18 to
23.
5. Describe the working principle of a four-stroke gasoline engine.
Intake stroke - the piston is driven by the crankshaft to move from TDC to BDC. The
exhaust valve remains tightly closed. The intake valve is opened.
Compression stroke - both the intake valve and the exhaust valve are closed, piston
moving upward, the combustible mixture in the cylinder is compressed.
Power stroke the piston almost reaches top dead center in the compression stroke, the
spark plug produces an electric spark igniting the combustible air-fuel mixture.
Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is opened, and the intake valve closed, the piston
moves from BDC to TDC. Due to their remaining pressure and the piston push, the waste
gases are expelled out of the cylinder via the exhaust valve.

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6. What are the differences between diesel and gasoline engines in terms of general
construction, combustible mixture formation style, and firing style?
 Both diesel engines and gasoline engines convert fuel into energy through a series
of small explosions or combustions.
 In a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed by pistons and ignited by
sparks from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed first,
and then the fuel is injected. Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel
ignites.
 Both engines use internal combustion and a series of rapid explosions within the
engine to turn fuel into mechanical energy and propel a vehicle forward.
 In a gasoline engine, the fuel mixes with air compressed by pistons. The spark
plugs ignite this mixture to move the vehicle. On the other hand, in a diesel
engine, the air is first compressed. This makes the air hot. The fuel then ignites
when it hits the hot air.
 Gasoline and diesel engines inject fuel in different ways. In a gasoline engine,
fuel injection can occur two ways: a port injection system or a carburetor. The
port injection system injects air into the fuel right before the intake stroke. In
contrast, a carburetor mixes the fuel and air together before sending it into the
cylinder to compress. In a diesel engine, the fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder. Since this process is a crucial part of how diesel engines work, the diesel
injectors can become a complicated part of the process. In order to deliver the fine
mist of fuel necessary for the process to work, the injectors must be able to
withstand high temperatures and a large amount of pressure.

6.4 Learning Outcome 2: perform vehicle engine overhaul .

6.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
On this learning outcome, the engine components are overhauled and replaced as per the
service manual. The engine provided is dismantled and the parts replaced with their
replica spare parts.
6.4.2 Performance Standard
1. Engine oil seals are replaced according to manufacturer’s manual

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 2. Engine oil rings/ piston gudgeon pin are replaced according to manufacturer’s manual
3. Timing belts/chains are replaced according to manufacturer’s manual
4. Engine bearings are replaced according to manufacturer’s manual
5. Engine pulleys are replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
6. Engine V-belts are replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
7. Engine gaskets are replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
8. Engine blocks are serviced according to manufacturer’s specification
9. Water/oil pump is replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
10. Tappet clearance is adjusted according to manufacturer’s specification
11. Engine camshaft is replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
12. Valve seats are grinded according to manufacturer’s specification
13. Valve guides are replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
14. Oil sump/strainer/PCV is replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
15. Engine mountings are replaced according to manufacturer’s manual
16. Engine tune up is performed according to manufacturer’s specification
6.4.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Valve clearances- the small gaps between the tops of the valve stems and the part of the
mechanism which presses on them to open the valves.
Valve guides-the parts that support the valve on the cylinder head.
Tappet clearance-this is the space between the top of the valve stem and the rockerarm.it
purposes to allow some mechanical expansion and lengthening of the valve stems and pushrods
as the engine warms up.
Spark plug gaps-the gap between the center and side electrodes
Drive belt tensioner- a pulley mounted on a spring mechanism or adjustable pivot point that is
used to keep tension on the engine belts.
Engine idling speed- the rotational speed at which the engine rotates at at idling.
End gap- also called open clearance, is the clearance on the opening after piston ring is installed
in the cylinder.
Side-shake: also call side clearance, refers to the clearance between side and piston ring groove
after the piston ring is installed in the piston.

541
Backlash: the clearance between cylindrical surface within piston ring and bottom of piston ring
groove after piston and piston ring are installed in cylinder, generally 0.5~1mm.
6.3.1.1.10 Overview of Engine Body and Crank and Connecting Rod Mechanism
The force stressed on the crank-link mechanism while working mainly includes gas force,
reciprocating inertia force of reciprocating parts, rotating inertia force of rotating parts (also
called as centrifugal force) as well as the frictional force of contact surface of relative motion
parts.
(i) Function and Composition of Engine Block
Engine body group mainly consists of cylinder block, cylinder head, cylinder gasket, oil pan, and
cylinder head cover as well as other components

1- Cylinder head cover

2- Cylinder head
3- Cylinder Head gasket
4- Cylinder block
5- Oil pan

Figure 14: Engine Block Composition

(ii) Cylinder block
The cylinder block is assembly base of all mechanisms and systems of engine.
There are several cylinders in the upper part of cylinder block.
Lower half of the cylinder block is the crankcase which is used to support crankshaft.
Crank case is provided with main bearing block hole.

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 1- Upper plane of Cylinder
block
2- Cylinder
3- Water jacket
4- Main oil gallery
5- Lower plane of cylinder
block
6- Main bearing seat of
crankshaft
7- Water block
8- Reinforcing rib
9- Cylinder head bolt hole
10- Coolant gallery
11- Lubricating oil passage

Figure 15: cylinder block of water-cooled engine

(iii) Cylinder and cylinder liner
The cylinder includes integral type and bushing type. The cylinder liner is divided into two
types, dry cylinder liner and wet cylinder liner based on the case whether its outer surface comes
into contact with cooling water.
Dry linear and block seat of cast iron cylinder block
The hole is generally of interference fit.
(iv) Cylinder cover
Main function of the cylinder head is to seal upper part of cylinder, and form a combustion
chamber with top of piston and cylinder wall.
Inlet valve seat, exhaust valve seat, valve pipe hole, inlet duct and exhaust duct are processed on
the cylinder head of engine.
Spark plug seat hole is provided on the cylinder head of gasoline engine while the seat hole with
fuel injector installed is provided for diesel engine.
A camshaft bearing seat is processed on the cylinder head of overhead camshaft engine for
camshaft installation, figure 16.

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Figure 16: cylinder head and cylinder gasket
(v) Cylinder gasket
A cylinder gasket is installed between the cylinder head and the cylinder block to ensure sealing
between the cylinder head and the cylinder block and avoid leakage of gas, water and oil.
(vi) Oil pan
Oil pan, also called oil disc, is mainly used to store engine oil and seal crankcase.
(vii) Piston
Piston and connecting rod set is composed of piston, piston ring, piston pin and connection rod
as well as other machine elements, figure 17.

1- Connecting rod bolt

2- Connecting rod cap
3- Connecting rod
4- Connecting rod bearing
5- Piston ring
6- Piston pin
7- piston

Figure 17: piston and connecting rod set

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The piston can be divided into 3 parts, namely top, head and skirt from the structure
A valve groove is usually processed on the top of piston of gasoline engine for modern cars to
avoid that piston crashes with valve when moving to top dead center. Piston head is the part
above the piston ring groove.
Several ring grooves are processed on the head of piston to install piston rings. Skirt part of
piston refers to the part below lower end of oil ring groove, and is used to provide orientation for
piston motion and bear lateral pressure.
(viii) Piston ring
Piston ring is an elastic split ring, and divided into gaseous ring and oil ring based on its function

Figure 18: type and structure of piston ring

The gaseous ring, is used to ensure sealing between piston and cylinder wall and avoid gas in
cylinder moving to crankcase; deliver the heat on the head of piston to cylinder wall, then take it
away through cooling water or air; in addition, it plays a subsidiary role in scraping and
distributing oil.
(ix) Connecting rod
The connecting rod consists of the connecting rod body, the connecting rod cap, the connecting
rod bolt and the connecting rod bearing etc.

545
The function of the connecting rod is to pass the force on the piston to the crankshaft and push
the crankshaft to turn, so that the reciprocating motion of the piston is transformed into the
rotating motion of the crankshaft.
6.3.1.1.11 Measure main engine components
(i) Inspection cylinder head
Measure the planeness of the cylinder cover lower plane, record and analyze the measurement
results.
① Measurement value of the planeness of the cylinder cover lower plane is ___ mm.
② Limit value of the planeness of the cylinder cover lower plane in the maintenance manual
is ___ mm.
③ If the planeness of the cylinder cover lower plane exceeds the limit value, how to handle
it.
Detect the valve guide pipe clearance: find the part for detecting the valve guide pipe clearance in
the maintenance manual, measure the valve guide pipe clearance of all intake and exhaust valves
of a cylinder.
Table 3: Valve guide clearance measurement
The ___ cylinder Air intake valve 1 Air intake valve 2 Exhaust valve 1 Exhaust valve 2

Measured value
mm

Limit value mm

Judgement Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/

Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified

546
Figure 19: measurement of the valve guide clearance.
(ii) Camshaft inspection
①Find the part for detecting the camshaft in the maintenance manual, measure the camshaft
radial run-out of the engine maintained, according to the maintenance manual. Determine
whether they are qualified according to the standard in the maintenance manual.

Figure 20: measurement of the camshaft radial run-out

Measure the height of all cams of a camshaft, which shall be specified by the teacher in the
engine maintained (intake or exhaust camshaft) according to the maintenance manual. Determine
whether they are qualified according to the standard in the maintenance manual.
Table 4: Camshaft radial run-out measurement

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Cam height of
intake/exhaust 1# Cam 2# Cam 3# Cam 4# Cam 5# Cam 6# Cam 7# Cam 8# Cam
camshaft
Measured
value(mm)
Standard
value(mm)
Limit value(mm)
Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/ Qualified/
Conclusion Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified Unqualified

Figure 21: measurement of the cam height

(iii) Inspection of cylinder
①Find the provisions on the measurement locations in detecting the cylinder in the maintenance
manual.

548
Figure 22: measurement of cylinder.
Measure the diameter of each engine cylinder maintained according to the maintenance manual,
record the measurement results
(iv) Check the piston
Measure the piston diameter of the engine, maintained according to the maintenance manual, and
calculate the fit clearance between the piston and cylinder.

Figure 23: measurement of piston

5. Check the piston ring

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Figure 24: measurement of end clearance of piston ring
Measure the end clearances of all piston rings of each cylinder of the engine maintained, record
the measurement results and determine whether they are normal according to the standard in the
maintenance manual.
(v) Inspection crankshaft
① Refer to the maintenance manual or teaching material and write the measurement positions
and directions of crank main shaft diameter and connecting rod shaft diameter.
② According to the methods and steps in the maintenance manual, measure the crank main shaft
diameter and connecting rod shaft diameter of the engine maintained with a micrometer
③ According to the methods and steps in the maintenance manual or teaching material, measure
the crank radial run-out of the engine maintained, record and analyze the measurement results.

550
Figure 25: measurement of crank radial run-out
Measure the diameter of the crank main bearing hole of the engine maintained, record the
measurement results in , calculate the fit clearance between the crank main journal and main
bearing hole, and analyze the results.

Figure 26: measurement of the diameter of the crank main bearing hole

6.3.1.1.12 Assemble and adjust the engine

i. Installation of crankshaft

551
 Refer to the maintenance manual, write the methods and order to tighten the crank main
bearing cover bolts.
Install the crank according to prescriptive methods and order, tighten the crank main
bearing cover bolts, measure the crank axial clearance
ii. Installation of the piston connecting rod set
Assemble the piston connecting rod linkage. For the engine maintained, please explain
how to keep a consistent direction between the piston and connecting rod.
Install piston ring. Mark the correct positions of each piston ring opening according to the
maintenance manual.
Assemble the piston connecting rod linkage in the engine with special tools.
Tighten the connecting rod big end bolts according to prescriptive methods, measure the
installed connecting rod big end axial clearance with a feeler gauge and analyze the
measurement results.
iii. Install the cylinder cover and camshaft
Refer to the maintenance manual, and write the steps to install the cylinder cover and
camshaft.
Explain the tightening method of cylinder cover bolts according to the maintenance
manual.
Explain the installation method of camshaft according to the maintenance manual.
Install the cylinder cover and camshaft according to prescriptive methods and steps in the
maintenance manual. Please explain which position the first cylinder piston shall be at
when installing the cylinder cover assembly with camshaft installed on the cylinder block
(or installing the camshaft on the cylinder cover with cylinder block installed).Why?
iv. Install the timing toothed belt (chain)
Write how to align the timing mark when installing the timing toothed belt (chain)
according to the maintenance manual.
v. Check adjust valve clearance
Measure the clearance of each valve according to prescriptive methods and steps in the
maintenance manual and analyze the measurement results.
vi. Completion inspection
Install all engine accessories according to the steps in the maintenance manual.
Connect all pipes and electrical lines of the engine.

552
 Make a prestart check of the engine according to Table 10-13, and record the check
results.
Start the engine, and make a post-start check of the engine according to Table 10-13.
After warming up the engine, turn off the engine, and check the engine after flameout
according to the items in Table 10-13.
Measure the compression pressure of each cylinder of the engine maintained, record and
analyze the measurement results.
Table 5: Prestart Engine Check Measurement results.

SN. Inspection items Judgement

I Prestart check of the engine
1 Check and make sure all bolts and nuts are not loose Normal Abnormal
Check and make sure the parts are not left on the tray or table
2 Normal Abnormal
or around
3 Check that all clamps are properly installed Normal Abnormal
Check that the coolant or oil is not leaking from the hose or
4 Normal Abnormal
pipe joint
Check and ensure that the engine oil has been filled to the
5 Normal Abnormal
correct position on the oil gauge
6 Check that the drive belt is installed in the correct position Normal Abnormal
7 Check whether the drive belt is properly tensioned Normal Abnormal
When the engine is driven only by the starter (not starting),
8 Normal Abnormal
check whether there is any abnormal noise (knock, scraping).
Connect the fuel pump adapter, and operate the fuel pump
9 with a smart tester, to check whether there is any leakage in Normal Abnormal
the fuel.
II Post-start check of the engine (start the engine, and make the following checks)
1 Check whether the engine starts easily Normal Abnormal
Check that there is no abnormal sound (such as knock or
2 Normal Abnormal
scratch, etc.) after starting the engine.
3 Check whether there is leakage of fuel. Normal Abnormal
4 Check whether there is leakage of oil or coolant. Normal Abnormal
5 Check whether there is air leakage. Normal Abnormal

553
 6 Check the engine for no abnormal vibration Normal Abnormal
III Flameout check of the engine (turn off the engine, and make the following checks)
1 Check the coolant level in the radiator and storage tank Normal Abnormal
2 Oil quantity and leakage Normal Abnormal
3 Fuel leakage Normal Abnormal
4 Cooling fluid volume and leakage Normal Abnormal
IV Measurement of cylinder compression pressure
1 Compression pressure of the first cylinder: ______________ Normal Abnormal
2 Compression pressure of the first cylinder: ______________ Normal Abnormal
3 Compression pressure of the first cylinder: ______________ Normal Abnormal
4 Compression pressure of the first cylinder: ______________ Normal Abnormal

6.4.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity
Observe the engine provided for this practical activity, refer to the manufacturer’s manual for the
vehicle. Disassemble the engine mechanical components, inspect and replace faulty components
where necessary.

6.4.5 Self-Assessment
7) What parts are the crank and connecting rod mechanism made up of? What is its
function?
8) What are the characteristics of the integral type cylinder block?
9) What are the various internal combustion engines? What are the characteristics of
each?
10) Why should the connecting rod and crankshaft bearings have high output?
11) What is the ignition sequence of the engine?
12) What is the function of the crankshaft torsional damper?
13) Why do some engines use the balance shaft? What should be paid attention to when
the balance shaft is installed?
14) Why the aluminum alloy piston is made into oval shape or cone shape ahead of time?

554
6.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
 Spanners
 Filler gauge
 Screw drivers
 Car lift machine.
 A complete vehicle.
 Valve spring compressor
 Oil can
 Axle stands

6.4.7 References
Arnold E., (1969), Technology for Motor Mechanics. Bk, 1,2,3,4 S.C Mudd

Bosch Automotive Electrics Automotive Electronics: Systems and Components (4th Edition).
Robert Bosch. ISBN 0837610508

Tom Denton (2004), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (3rd Edition)

Tom Denton (2000), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (2nd Edition)

Hillier. V A W (2004), Hilliers Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 5th Edition Book 1

William H. Crouse and Donald L (1993). Automotive Mechanics (10th Edition).. Anglin. ISBN
0028009436
6.7.8 Model Answers
1) What parts are the crank and connecting rod mechanism made up of? What is its
function?
 The piston, piston rings, piston pin, and connecting rod.
 Crankshaft, flywheel, pulley, and timing gear.
2) What are the characteristics of the integral type cylinder block?
 The cylinder which is directly bored on the cylinder block is called integral-type
cylinder. Strength and stiffness of integral-type cylinder are great enough to bear
heavy load
3) What are the various internal combustion engines? What are the characteristics of each?

555
  Spark-ignition engines, Compression-ignition engines, Gas turbine, Steam
engines.
4) Why should the connecting rod and crankshaft bearings have high output?
 High stress applications - the bearings carry large cyclic loads at high rotational
speeds
5) What is the ignition sequence of the engine?
 The firing order of an internal combustion engine is the sequence of ignition for
the cylinders. In a spark ignition (e.g. gasoline/petrol) engine, the firing order
corresponds to the order in which the spark plugs are operated. In a Diesel engine,
the firing order corresponds to the order in which fuel is injected into each
cylinder.
6) What is the function of the crankshaft torsional damper?
 to counter torsional and resonance vibrations from the crankshaft, must be
interference fit to the crankshaft in order to operate in an effective manner.
7) Why do some engines use the balance shaft? What should be paid attention to when the
balance shaft is installed?
 Balance shafts are used in piston engines to reduce vibration by cancelling out
unbalanced dynamic forces.
8) Why the aluminum alloy piston is made into oval shape or cone shape ahead of time?
 Pistons are designed with features which perform specific functions during engine
operation. The piston head or crown receives the majority of the initial pressure
and force caused by the combustion process. The piston pin area is exposed to a
significant amount of force due to rapid directional changes. It is also subjected to
thermal expansion caused by the transfer of heat from the head to the body of the
piston. The piston pin area is subject to more thermal expansion than other areas
of the piston. This occurs from the thermal expansion properties of cast aluminum
alloy and the mass in the piston pin area.

556
 6.5 Learning Outcome 3: Service vehicle engine cooling system.
6.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome desires on the training and understanding of the engine cooling system.
It involves checking and servicing the engine cooling components; radiator cap, thermostat,
water pump, fan and the coolant replenishment. The conditions of these components are checked
and analyzed for service.
6.5.2 Performance Standard
1. Radiator cap is checked and tested according to manufacturer’s specification
2. cooling radiator is checked and tested according to manufacturer’s specification
3. cooling system hoses are checked and tested according to manufacturer’s manual
4. thermostat operations are checked and tested according to manufacturer’s
5. specification thermistor switches/ sensors are checked and tested according to
manufacturer’s specification
6. water pump is checked and tested according to manufacturer’s specification
7. cooling fan operation is checked and tested according to manufacturer’s manual
8. cooling system is pressure tested according to manufacturer’s specification
9. cooling system is bled according to manufacturer’s specification
10. vehicle engine coolant is “read” according to manufacturer’s specification
11. coolant is replenished/ drained and replaced according to manufacturer’s specification
6.5.3 Information Sheet
Cooling system
The function of the cooling system is to make the engine get normal working temperature as
quickly as possible and stay at the best working temperature in the whole working process.
Types of cooling system
(i) Air-cooled cooling system
The air-cooled system uses the air as the coolant and is made up of fan, air deflector, cooling fin,
and cylinder deflector and splitter plate. In this system, a great number of fans are utilized to
make the air current of high speed flow directly to the external surface of the cylinder cover and
body to dissipate the parts heat into the air.
(ii) Water-cooled cooling system
The water-cooled cooling system uses water (or cooling liquid) as the coolant. The heat from the
heated engine parts is transferred to the coolant first and then dissipates to the air through the
radiator.

557
Both the cylinder cover and the cylinder body of the water-cooled engine have inside the casted
water jacket mutually connected.

Figure 27: water-cooled cooling system

With the pump function, the cooling water in the radiator is pressed and flows through the inlet
on the cylinder body into the engine, and then through the cooling jacket in the cylinder body
and cover to absorb heat and returns afterwards from the outlet on the cylinder cover to the
radiator along the water channel
The water after cooling flows to the bottom of radiator and then is pumped out by water pump,
and sent under pressure to the engine jacket.

Figure 28: the circulation of the cooling liquid.

6.5.1.1.1 Main parts in the cooling system
(i) Radiator

558
The radiator is primarily composed of water intake chamber, water outlet chamber, radiator core,
radiator cover, water outlet switch, inlet pipe, and outlet pipe etc.
The radiator is generally of longitudinal-flow type, i.e., the cooling water flows to the bottom
from the top.
To reduce the height of automobile engine hood profile, some cars adopt a cross-flow radiator,
i.e., cooling water enters into the water tank from the water inlet on one side, and then runs
horizontally to the water outlet on the other side.
At present, the water-cooled cooling system in the auto engine is a kind of closed water cooling
system, where radiator cover has the air valve and the steam valve to adjust the inner pressure of
the cooling system automatically to improve the cooling effect.

Figure 29: radiator cover

(ii) Compensation reservoir
Modern auto engine usually adopts the structure of radiator + compensation reservoir (expansion
vessel)
When the steam pressure in the radiator is too high during the engine operation, the steam valve
in the radiator cover opens, and the steam discharged and part of the cooling liquid flow through
the overflow pipe to the compensation reservoir; when the engine shuts down, decreasing the
temperature of the cooling liquid and a certain degree of vacuum is produced in the radiator, the
air valve in the radiator cover opens and absorbs in the cooling liquid from the compensation
reservoir to ensure adequate cooling liquid in the cooling system.
(iii) Cooling fan
The cooling fan, installed behind the radiator, is used to accelerate the velocity of the air flowing
through the radiator core so as to improve the cooling effect, cool down the cooling liquid faster.

559
The cooling fan in the vertically positioned engine is normally mounted at the front of the engine
and is coaxial with the water pump and driven by the pulley of the engine.
As the radiator of the transverse engine is arranged at the side of the engine, its cooling fan
cannot be driven by the crankshaft pulley and only the electrical fan powered by the batteries can
be applied. The motor running is controlled by the water temperature switch on the radiator.
When coolant temperature is too high, the contact of water temperature switch will be closed, to
drive the fan to work.

(iv) Fan clutch

The cooling fan of longitudinal engine adopts fan clutch.
It can control the fan speed through the engine temperature, to automatically adjust the cooling
intensity.
Silicon oil fan clutch is installed between the fan pulley and fan blade, and it passes the power of
pulley to the fan blade by use of the high viscosity characteristic of silicon oil.
There is a pair of metal coil springs at the front end cover of silicon oil fan clutch, which can
produce torsion according to the change of air temperature at the back of radiator, to rotate the
valve block in the clutch through valve shaft, to control the quantity of silicon oil entering into the
working chamber, so as to control the connection and separation of clutch. When the engine
temperature is relatively low, double metal coil springs will drive the valve block to close the oil
inlet hole, and the fan clutch will be in semi-separated state, at this time, the fan will idle and slip
on the driving shaft together with the clutch, at a very slow speed. After the engine temperature
rises, double metal coil springs will drive the valve shaft to rotate, to open the oil inlet hole, and
the silicon oil will flow into the working chamber between the driving plate and the driven plate,
to make the clutch coupling force increase gradually with the rise of temperature, and the fan blade
slipping degree reduce gradually, and rotating speed will be increased to adapt to the need of
enhanced engine cooling.
(v) Water pump
The water pump is installed at the fore end of the engine. The water pump of the vertical engine
and the fan are usually coaxial and driven together by the crankshaft pulley.
The water pump is used to press the cooling water to speed up its circulation to ensure reliable
cooling effect.

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Centrifugal water pump is mostly adopted in the automobile engine, and this pump is mainly
composed of water pump housing, impeller, water pump shaft, water seal, and water pump
bearing, When impeller rotates, the water in the water pump is driven by the impeller to rotate,
and under the effect of centrifugal force, the water is thrown to the impeller edge, and then sent
under pressure to engine jacket via the water outlet pipe on the impeller and in tangential
direction with the impeller.
At the same time, the pressure in the center of impeller reduces, and the water in the radiator will
be absorbed into the impeller center part via the water inlet pipe.
(vi) Thermostat
The thermostat is generally installed outside the water outlet on the engine cylinder cover, or
beside the inlet on the water pump.
The function of it is to control the flow of the cooling liquid passing through the radiator and
adjust the cooling intensity to make sure that the engine always works at the most proper
temperature.

Figure 30: thermostat

When coolant temperature reaches the normal operating temperature of engine (generally 85℃
～95℃), main valve is opened completely, and at this time, the auxiliary valve is closed
completely.
The cooling water from the outlet on the cylinder cover flows to the radiator and then returns to
the water pump after heat dissipation. This is called big cycle. When coolant temperature is

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85℃～105℃,both main valve and auxiliary valve of thermostat are both in semi-open state, one
part of engine coolant enters into the water pump via by-pass pipe for small cycle, and the other
part flow back to the water pump via radiator for big cycle, and this is called as combination
cycle.
6.5.1.1.2 Basic check and maintenance of the cooling system
Refer to the maintenance manual, and write the main contents for the maintenance and basic
check of the cooling system of the engine.
Check the cooling liquid level and quality on the engine for practical training.
Check whether there is any leakage in the cooling liquid by using the radiator cap tester
according to the method in Figure 31.

Figure 31: Testing the radiator cap

(i) Check the cooling fan
Observe and confirm the driving and control ways of the engine cooling fan for practical
training.
The driving way of the cooling fan is: engine drives it through belt/motor/other ways.
The rotational speed control of the cooling fan is: silicon oil fan clutch control/control
circuit control/others.
Refer to the maintenance manual or teaching material, and write the steps to check
whether the cooling fan works normally.
Check whether the cooling fan works normally on the engine for practical training.
(ii) Check the radiator cover
Fill the component names of the radiator cap in Table 6 which are marked with numbers
in Figure 32, and write their functions.

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Figure 32: radiator cover.
Table 6: Radiator Component
Mark
numbers Item Function Cognition Evaluation
1
2
3
4
5
6

Disassemble the engine radiator cap from the practical training stage, observe its structure, find
the specified positions by comparing Figure 32 with Table 6, put tick(√) in column “recognition”
for the parts found, and put cross(×) for the parts not found.
Observe Figure 32, the diagram (A/B) herein indicates the working condition of the radiator cap
under too high temperature and too large pressure of the cooling system: the diagram (A/B)
indicates the working condition of the radiator cap under too low temperature and vacuum of the
cooling system:
Check the performance of the radiator cap with special tools (radiator cap tester) according to the
method in Figure 33, record in Table 7, and analyze the detection results.

Figure 33: inspection for performance of each radiator.

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Table 7: inspection of radiator performance
Inspection
Inspection items results Standard value Conclusion
Opening pressure of air valve (main valve) Normal/
Abnormal
Opening pressure of steam valve (auxiliary Normal/
valve) Abnormal

(iii) Check the thermostat

Refer to the maintenance manual, and write the steps to remove the thermostat from the engine.
Fill the component names of the thermostat in Table 8 which are marked with numbers by
comparing with Figure 34, and write their functions.
Fill the component numbers of the thermostat in Table 8 which are listed with names by comparing
with Figure 34.
Observe the real thermostat, find the components listed in Table 8, put tick(√) in column
“recognition” for the components found, and put cross(×) for components not found.

Figure 34: thermostat.

Table 8: Thermostat Component checklist
Mark
number Name Function Cognition Evaluation
1
2
Ventilation holes
Spring
Inductor (wax package)
Central rod

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Check the work of the thermostat according to the method in Figure 35, record in Table 9, and
analyze the detection results.

Figure 35: inspection on thermostat performance.

Table 9: Thermostat performance Inspection

Inspection Standard
Inspection items results value Conclusion
Temperature at which the valve begins to Normal/ Abnormal
open (ºC)
Maximum valve lift Normal/ Abnormal
Temperature at which the valve reaches the Normal/ Abnormal
maximum lift (ºC)
Maximum temperature at which the valve Normal/ Abnormal
closes completely (ºC)
(iv) Check water pump
Refer to the maintenance manual, and write the steps to remove the water pump from the engine.
Fill the component names of the water pump in Table 10 which are marked with numbers by
comparing with Figure 36, and write their functions.
Fill the component numbers of the water pump in Table 10 which are listed with names by
comparing with Figure 36.
Observe the real water pump, find the components listed in Table 10, put tick(√) in column
“recognition” for the components found, and put cross(×) for components not found.

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Figure 36: water pump

Table 10: Water pump performance checklist

Mark Item Cognition Evaluation
numbers
1
2
Bearing
Water seal
Water discharging
hole
Housing

6.5.4 Learning Activities

Inspect, service and test components of the engine cooling system on the vehicle
provided
6.5.5 Self-Assessment
1. Why does the engine have to cool down?
2. What is the best water temperature range generally?
3. How does the cooling liquid flow in the engine.
4. Why is the anti-freeze solution added in the engine cooling liquid?

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 5. How is the radiator cover constructed? What is the functions of the steam valve and air
valve?
6. Why does the engine cooling intensity need to be adjusted? What are the adjusting
methods?
6.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
• Spanners
• Filler gauge
• Air leakage tester
• Screw drivers.
• A complete vehicle.
• Oil can
• Grease can
• Good quality light
• digital voltmeter
6.5.7 References
Arnold E., (1969), Technology for Motor Mechanics. Bk, 1,2,3,4 S.C Mudd

Bosch Automotive Electrics Automotive Electronics: Systems and Components (4th Edition).
Robert Bosch. ISBN 0837610508

Tom Denton (2004), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (3rd Edition)

Tom Denton (2000), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (2nd Edition)

Hillier. V A W (2004), Hilliers Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 5th Edition Book 1

William H. Crouse and Donald L (1993). Automotive Mechanics (10th Edition).. Anglin. ISBN
0028009436
6.5.8 Model Answers
1. Why does the engine have to cool down?
The function of the cooling system is to make the engine get normal working temperature as
quickly as possible and stay at the best working temperature in the whole working process
2. What is the best water temperature range generally?
.
80-85 DEGREES CELCIUS

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3. How does the cooling liquid flow in the engine.
 The water-cooled cooling system uses water (or cooling liquid) as the coolant. The heat
from the heated engine parts is transferred to the coolant first and then dissipates to the
air through the radiator.
 With the pump function, the cooling water in the radiator is pressed and flows through
the inlet on the cylinder body into the engine, and then through the cooling jacket in the
cylinder body and cover to absorb heat and returns afterwards from the outlet on the
cylinder cover to the radiator along the water channel.
 The water after cooling flows to the bottom of radiator and then is pumped out by water
pump, and sent under pressure to the engine jacket.
4. Why is the anti-freeze solution added in the engine cooling liquid?
 Antifreeze is a tinted liquid that you put (along with water) in your radiator to help
regulate engine temperature. Its key ingredient is ethylene glycol, which lowers water's
freezing point and raises its boiling point. This helps prevent the water in your radiator
from freezing, boiling, or evaporating.
5. How is the radiator cover constructed? What is the functions of the steam valve and air
valve?
 The radiator is primarily composed of water intake chamber, water outlet chamber,
radiator core, radiator cover, water outlet switch, inlet pipe, and outlet pipe etc. The
radiator is generally of longitudinal-flow type, i.e., the cooling water flows to the bottom
from the top.
 To reduce the height of automobile engine hood profile, some cars adopt a cross-flow
radiator, i.e., cooling water enters into the water tank from the water inlet on one side,
and then runs horizontally to the water outlet on the other side .
 At present, the water-cooled cooling system in the auto engine is a kind of closed water
cooling system, where radiator cover has the air valve and the steam valve to adjust the
inner pressure of the cooling system automatically to improve the cooling effect.
6. Why does the engine cooling intensity need to be adjusted? What are the adjusting methods?
 Internal combustion engines remove waste heat through cool intake air, hot exhaust
gases, and explicit engine cooling. ... Thus, all heat engines need cooling to operate.

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 Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and
lubricants and becomes even more important in hot climates.
6.6 Learning Outcome 4: Service vehicle engine exhaust system
6.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This involves the service of the exhaust system. The components of the exhaust system is
serviced and repaired as per the service manual. This includes checking on the leakage and
blockage on the system, service and repair of the catalytic converter and the oxygen sensor.

6.6.2 Performance Standard

1. leakages is checked according to workplace procedures
2. blockages is checked according to workplace procedures
3. catalytic converter/ particulate filters is checked and tested according to workplace
procedures
4. exhaust system leaks are repaired according to manufacturer’s manual
5. exhaust system is installed and mounted according to manufacturer’s specification
6. oxygen sensor is checked and tested according to manufacturer’s specification

6.6.3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms
Exhaust system - Exhaust system is used for collecting the high-temperature exhaust gas
discharged from each cylinder after combustion, and sending it to the back of car for emission.
Exhaust system is composed of exhaust manifold, catalytic converter, muffler and exhaust duct,
etc.
Exhaust manifold - Exhaust manifold is connected to the engine cylinder cover, and the exhaust
gas is discharged from the exhaust valve to directly enter into the exhaust manifold.
Exhaust manifold shall be able to bear the high temperature of exhaust, and also resistant to the
thermal stress caused by a very big temperature difference.
The shape of exhaust manifold is very important.
To avoid the exhaust of each cylinder from mutual interference and avoid the exhaust back flow,
and exhaust by use of inertia as much as possible, the exhaust manifold shall be as long as possible,
and also the exhaust manifold of each cylinder shall be independent and have the equal length.
Figure 37 shows several common structural types of exhaust manifold are shown.
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Figure 37: various types of exhaust manifolds.

Exhaust muffler - The purpose of muffler is to reduce the exhaust pulse, reduce the exhaust
noise as much as possible, and also reduce the exhaust temperature.
Muffler can be classified into reflection and absorption, two types, in principle.
Absorption and reflection also may be applied in the same muffler, to form an absorption-
reflection muffler.
6.5.1.1.3 Intake pressurization system
(i) Function and type of intake pressurization system
Intake pressurization refers to that: one supercharger is set in the air inlet, to pre-compress the air
or combustible mixture and then send it to the engine cylinder. After pressurization system is
adopted, under the circumstance that cylinder displacement is not changed, as there is an
increasing air intake to the cylinder in each cycle, and more fuel may be provided to the cylinder,
to obtain a sufficient burning, therefore, improving the output power of engine.
Engine pressurization system has many types, like mechanically driving supercharging and
exhaust turbocharging, as shown in Figure 38.

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Figure 38: form of intake pressurization system.
(ii) Mechanical supercharging system
The driving force of mechanical supercharger is from engine crankshaft, and, generally,
crankshaft pulley is used for drive through driving belt.
Mechanical supercharger has many types, and the common ones are Vane type and Roots type.
Roots supercharge has two-blade rotor and three-blade rotor, two types.
As mechanical supercharger is directly driven by crankshaft, it can get supercharging under a
low speed.
The supercharged power output is also in a certain proportion to the crankshaft speed, i.e., the
power output of mechanically supercharged engine will increase with the increase of speed, with
linear output characteristics.
Mechanical supercharger has the advantages: small volume, simple structure, no need of engine
body repair, and easy installation.
(iii) Exhaust turbocharging system
Exhaust turbocharging system is composed of turbocharger and pressure limiting device figure
39.
Engine exhaust manifold is connected with turbine inlet.

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Figure 39: exhaust turbocharging system.
The discharged exhaust gas enters into the exhaust pipe via turbine; the pressure of exhaust gas
drives the turbine to rotate, and compressor impeller and turbine rotate coaxially; the air coming
from air filter is measured by air flow meter and then enters into the compressor, and then to
intake manifold after compression, to charge the cylinder with a higher density. For a majority of
turbocharger systems, the supercharged air is cooled before delivered into the cylinder. This
further increases the air density in the cylinder hence the output of the engine.
Turbocharger, figure 40, is composed of turbocharger and pressure machine, two main parts, as
well as the devices of supporting, sealing, cooling, and lubricating.
The turbine speed is generally 80～100kr/min while it is working, with the maximum value up to
200kr/min, and also it can work under a high temperature of about 909℃.

Figure 40: turbocharger

To reduce the running resistance, the supporting device is a special floating bearing.

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Lubricating oil is provided by engine lubricating system, and some lubricating oil injects to
turbine room wall face via oil duct, to play the role of cooling.
Sealing device is composed of the oil seas at two ends of rotor, to prevent the engine oil leaking
to the engine intake or exhaust pipe from the two ends of rotor.
Pressure limiting device is composed of exhaust by-pass valve and actuator, and its function is to
control the boost pressure.
When the pressure of intake manifold reaches the stipulated value, the diaphragm chamber of
pressure limiting device actuates the by-pass valve to open, and some exhaust gas directly enters
into the exhaust pipe via by-pass valve to discharge, to reduce the turbine speed, and prevent too
high intake pressure, to avoid rough running of engine and over speed of supercharger.

Muffler and Exhaust System Repair

Your vehicle's exhaust system is more than just a tailpipe and a muffler. In fact, it is one of the
most complex systems in your vehicle.

The manifold is attached to the vehicle engine. It collects exhaust from the cylinders and directs
it into the exhaust pipe. Gaskets seal the connection of the manifold to the engine and to other
joints. A cracked or loose manifold or a leaking or damaged gasket can allow dangerous gases to
enter the passenger compartment of a vehicle. One of these gases is carbon monoxide, which is
colorless, odorless and deadly. For this reason, it is important drivers keep their exhaust system
in good repair.
The pipes that connect the various parts of the exhaust system can rust or be damaged by rocks
or other road debris. Such damage can cause dangerous gases to leak into the air.

The catalytic converter is the next component of your vehicle exhaust system. It sort of looks
like a muffler. Its job is to change dangerous gases into harmless carbon dioxide and water. The
catalytic converter doesn't require any regular maintenance, but it can wear out. If it fails, in
some areas, you will need a new catalytic converter to pass an emissions test in Wisconsin.

Oxygen sensors in the exhaust pipe monitor the oxygen content of the exhaust. This helps the
vehicle engine's computer keep the fuel-to-air mixture at optimal levels.

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The muffler is also part of your vehicle exhaust system, but it deals with a different kind of
emission. It keeps your vehicle from emitting bad sounds. Mufflers act like finely tuned musical
instruments. They create feedback of sound waves to absorb or decrease the noises made by your
engine. Different mufflers can create different sound waves, so you can actually "tune" your car
to produce a particular sound, anything from whisper to rumble.

The entire exhaust system is attached to your vehicle by hangers and clamps. These fasteners can
rust, come loose or break. The components of the exhaust system can get very hot, so when the
hangers or clamps fail, these hot components can come into contact with other parts such as
wires and hoses. These can melt, causing serious and damage to your vehicle. Good car care
requires that you have your exhaust system inspected regularly.

Caring for your vehicle exhaust system at Auto Select yields cosmetic benefits like quieting your
engine sounds, but also may impact your health and safety.
6.6.4 Learning Activities
Practical activity.
Remove, disassembly service and refit the exhaust system components of the vehicle provided
according to the manufacturers manual
Case study
A visit to a local garage and analyze on the work done on the exhaust system, its operation and
the processes involved.

6.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. What is the function of intake system? What are its main components?
2. What is a variable inertia inflating system?
3. What’s the function of intake pressurization system? Which are its common types?
4. How does a turbo charged exhaust system work?
6.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
 Wrench and socket set
 digital voltmeter
 SST.

574
  Feeler gauge and vernier caliper.
 Set of outside micrometer, surface plate, dial gauge, V-blocks.
 brush, gasoline, engine oil, and cleaning disk
 Practical training stage for maintaining the engine exhaust system assembly.
 Appropriate hand tools.

Arnold E., (1969), Technology for Motor Mechanics. Bk, 1,2,3,4 S.C Mudd

Bosch Automotive Electrics Automotive Electronics: Systems and Components (4th Edition).
Robert Bosch. ISBN 0837610508

Tom Denton (2004), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (3rd Edition)

Tom Denton (2000), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (2nd Edition)

Hillier. V A W (2004), Hilliers Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 5th Edition Book 1

William H. Crouse and Donald L (1993). Automotive Mechanics (10th Edition).. Anglin. ISBN
0028009436

6.6.7 Model Answers.

1. What is the function of intake system? What are its main components?
 The intake system is mainly composed of air filter, air inlet, throttle, and intake manifold.
2. What is a variable inertia inflating system?
 As for a variable inertia inflating system, one or one group of change-over valves is set in
the power cavity, and such valve can divide the power cavity into two parts.
 When the valve is opened or closed, the two parts of power cavity will be connected or
separated, so as to change the shape of power cavity or the length of intake manifold, and
make the intake manifold have two different aerodynamic effects.
3. What is the function of intake pressurization system? Which are its common types?
 Intake pressurization refers to that: one supercharger is set in the air inlet, to pre-
compress the air or combustible mixture and then send it to the engine cylinder. After
pressurization system is adopted, under the circumstance that cylinder displacement is not
changed, as there is an increasing air intake to the cylinder in each cycle, and more fuel

575
 may be provided to the cylinder, to obtain a sufficient burning, therefore, improving the
output power of engine.
 Engine pressurization system has many types, like mechanically driving supercharging
and exhaust turbocharging.
4. How does a turbo charged exhaust system work?
 Exhaust turbocharging system is composed of turbocharger and pressure limiting device.
 Engine exhaust manifold is connected with turbine inlet.
 The discharged exhaust gas enters into the exhaust pipe via turbine; the pressure of
exhaust gas drives the turbine to rotate, and compressor impeller and turbine rotate
coaxially; the air coming from air filter is measured by air flow meter and then enters into
the compressor, and then to intake manifold after compression, to charge the cylinder
with a higher density.
 For a majority of turbo charger systems, the supercharged air is cooled before delivered
into the cylinder. This further increases the air density in the cylinder hence the output of
the engine.

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 6.7 Learning Outcome 5: lubricate vehicle engine system
6.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
Lubrication is an important aspect on all the moving parts in a vehicle. Various parts of a vehicle
needs to be up to date on the lubrication service. After a given mileage the engine oil is to be
changed. The oil and all the hydraulic filters are also part of the components to be checked for
service. An interpretation on the lubricants labeling is also a key aspect.

6.7.2 Performance Standard

1. engine oil is drained and replaced according to manufacturer’s manual
2. engine transmission and hydraulic filters are replaced according to manufacturer’s
specification
3. Heavy commercial/light vehicle components are greased according to manufacturer’s
specification
4. Lubricants are “read” according to manufacturer’s specification
6.7.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Function of lubrication system the function of the lubrication system is to continuously deliver
adequate clean oil in right temperature to the friction surfaces of all moving parts so as to reduce
the friction resistance, power consumption and parts wear to improve the engine’s reliability and
durability.
Lubrication mode of the engine Pressure lubrication: with the oil pump, the lubricating oil
under certain pressure is delivered to the friction surface continuously. For example, crankshaft
main bearing, connecting rod bearing, and camshaft bearing.
 Splash lubrication: the lubrication that the oil drop splashed by the moving parts during
engine working is used to lubricate the friction surface. Like pis
 Grease lubrication: some parts in the engine auxiliary system require only periodical
lubricating by adding grease (butter), such as the water pump and the engine bearing. ton
pin, cam surface of valve mechanism, and tappet, etc.
Engine oil
The functions of the engine oil

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① Lubricating: the oil forms the continuous oil film between all the friction surfaces of the
moving parts to reduce the friction resistance and parts wear and decrease the engine power
consumption.
② Cooling: in circulation, the oil flows on the parts’ working surfaces to reduce the parts
temperature for cooling effect.
③ Cleaning: the oil circulating constantly in the lubrication system can remove the metal
crumbles from the friction surface and wash away the carbon deposition from the air cylinder,
piston, piston ring and other parts.
④ Sealing: the oil film on the cylinder wall, piston and piston ring can work as seals to prevent
air leakage.
⑤ Rust-preventing: the oil can prevent rust of parts.
Lubrication system of the gasoline engine
The lubrication system of gasoline engine is normally composed of oil pump, suction filter, filter
cleaner, pressure-limiting valve, by-pass valve and oil pipeline etc. and some have oil cooler too.

Figure 41: the schematic diagram of the lubricating oil passage of the gasoline engine.

When the engine works, the oil pump sucks in the engine oil from the oil pan through the suction
filter.
The engine oil pumped out flows through the filter cleaner into the main oil passage of the
cylinder and then through the transverse oil passage in the crankcase into the main journal of the

578
crankshaft. Then it flows from the main journal, passes through the slanting oil passage in the
crankshaft.
And some of the engine oil flows to the oil passage on the cylinder cover through the oil passage
on the cylinder body and then enters the camshaft bearing to lubricate the journal of the camshaft
bearing.
Furthermore, the lubricating oil flows also through relevant oil passage or orifice to the timing
chain and its automatic tensioner (when the engine with time chain distribution mechanism is
used), cam surface of the camshaft, hydraulic tappet (when the engine with hydraulic tappet is
used ) and so on to lubricate or work as the service fluid for the hydraulic parts.

Lubrication system of the diesel engine

The lubrication system of diesel engine includes not only the oil pump, suction filter, filter
cleaner, pressure-limiting valve, by-pass valve and oil piping but also the oil cooler, and an oil
nozzle at the lower edge of the cylinder wall to spray the pressed oil from the lubrication system
to the piston inner wall to cool it down.

1. Oil pan 5. Oil sump 11. Gear pump

2. Suction filter 6. Secondary oil filter 12. Nozzle
3. Oil temperature gauge 7. Pressure limiting valve 13. Valve rocker
4. Oil filling port 8. By pass valve 14. Cylinder head
9. Primary oil filter 15 Valve tappet

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 10. Air compressor 16 Fuel pressure gauge

Figure 42: the schematic diagram of the lubrication system of a diesel engine.
Main parts of the lubricating system
(i) Oil pump
The function of the oil pump is to ensure the circulation of the oil in the lubrication system and
deliver the oil with sufficient high pressure to the lubricating point at whatever rotation speed of
the engine.
The common types of the oil pump include the external gear pump, internal gear pump and rotor
gear pump
(ii) External gear pump
Inside the external gear pump housing are a driving gear and a driven gear.
When the engine works, the gear rotates in the direction marked with arrow in the figure. The
volume of the inlet chamber 1 expands as the gear moves away from the gearing and vacuum is
generated inside to suck in the oil through the inlet to fill in the chamber. The rotating gear takes
the oil from the in-between of gears to the outlet chamber 2.
As the gear at one side of the outlet chamber enters into gearing, the volume of the outlet
chamber reduces and the oil pressure rises, then the oil is delivered to the engine oil passage
through the outlet.
(iii) Internal gear pump
Internal gear pump mainly consists of driving gear, driven gear ring, pump housing, and pump
cover.
When the engine rotates, the crankshaft drives both the driving gear and the driven gear ring to
revolve counterclockwise as indicated in the figure.
Meanwhile, in the suction oil chamber, as the driving gear and the driven gear ring withdraw
from gearing continuously, the volume of the chamber keeps expanding and partial vacuum is
formed inside to suck the oil in through the oil inlet, and with the gear rotation, the oil between
gears is taken to the pressure oil chamber where the volume keeps reducing due to the increasing
engaging of the driving gear and the driven gear ring, and the oil is exhausted through the outlet.
(iv) Rotor oil pump

580
The internal rotor of the rotor oil pump is fixed onto the driving shaft while the outer rotor
rotates freely inside the pump housing. There is certain eccentric distance between the two
rotors.
When the internal rotor rotates, the outer rotor is driven to rotate.
The tooth profile design of the rotor ensures that no matter to what angle the rotor rotates, the
contacts on the gear contour of every tooth of the inner and outer rotors are always point
contacts.
In this way, four working chambers are built between the inner and outer rotors.
The volume of one working chamber increases as they pass the oil inlet, and vacuum is formed
to suck in the oil through the oil inlet.
The rotor keeps rotating and when the working chamber connects to the outlet, the chamber
volume decreases and the oil pressure rises to press the oil out.
(v) Safety valve
In order to prevent too high pressure, the safety valve or pressure limiting valve is arranged in
the lubrication circuit.
When the oil pressure rises up to the specified value, the safety valve opens to let the extra oil
return to the inlet of the pump, or flow directly to the oil pan.
(vi) Types of Oil filters
Suction filter
Generally, strainer is used in the suction filter mounted on the fore end of the oil pump to prevent
the entry of large-sized particles to the pump.
Full-flow oil filter
Full-flow oil filter cleaner is connected in series between the oil pump and the main oil passage,
so all the oil is filtered through it.
Currently, full-flow oil filter is generally applied in car engine.
The filter element of the full-flow oil filter cleaner is various and paper filter element is currently
used in most of the auto engines.
The filter cleaner with paper filter element has two types of structures. One is the disposable type
, where only the paper filter element is needed to be replaced for changing; the other type is the
integral type , for which the whole filter cleaner must be replaced for changing.
By-pass oil filter

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By-pass oil filter, also known as fine filter, is used for filtering the fine impurities with particle
diameter of above 0.001mm, and also it only filters 5%～10% oil of oil supply of engine oil
pump.
By-pass fine filter is classified into filter type and centrifugal type.
Currently, centrifugal fine filter is widely applied. There is a rotor in this filter, and it is
supported on a shaft via rolling bearing
Oil cooler
On the supercharged engine with high performance and high power, oil cooler must be installed
due to the high thermal load. Oil cooler is arranged in the lubricating oil way, and it has the same
operating principle as the radiator.
The oil cooler is consisting of air-cooled type and water-cooled type.
(vii) The Compulsory Ventilation of the Crankcase.
The compulsory ventilation of the crankcase is also called PCV device, the effect of which is to
absorb some of the combustible mixed gas, coming from the engine cylinder, and the combustion
products of it out of the oil pan into the cylinder to join in the combustion to prevent the gas from
leaking to pollute the air, or accumulating in the oil pan to accelerate the oil deterioration to
corrode or rust the parts.
PCV device is made up of PCV valve and related pipes.
In this device, the air enters through the rear end of the throttle valve during the engine
operation. The vacuum in the pipe sucks in the clean air filtered by the filter cleaner into the
valve-chamber cover. Then the air enters through the orifice and passage on the cylinder cover
and engine body into the crankcase to mix with the air inside, and then enters through the PCV
valve on the valve-chamber cover and hose to the air intake pipe and finally into the combustion
room to burn. The PCV valve can adjust the crankcase air entering the intake pipe automatically
based on the vacuum degree in the intake pipe.
Its operating feature is: the larger the vacuum is, the smaller the valve opens.
Therefore, PCV valve may help the ventilation gas to increase with the increase of throttle
percentage, and reduce with the reduction of throttle percentage.
In this way, it prevents too much air intake due to too large vacuum in the intake pipe when the
engine is at idle speed which may affect the forming and burning of the mixed air.
Training worksheet

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Refer to the maintenance manual and teaching material, fill the component names in Table 11
which are marked with numbers in the lubrication system block diagram in Figure 45

Figure 43: lubrication system block diagram of the engine.

Table 11: Lubricating systems components checklist
SN. Item SN. Item
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5

Explain the tools used to detect the oil pressure: names of special tools: ___________________.
Overhaul oil pump.
① write down the types of the oil pumps in Figure 46: A：____ B：_____ C：_________

583
Figure 44: common types of oil pump.
Performance check of the crankcase ventilation device.
①Observe the engine for practical training, and find the installation positions for each
pipeline and PVC valve of the engine crankcase ventilation device.

Figure 45: ventilation of the crankcase.

(i) Inspection and repair of the oil pump
The inspection method of each part of gear type oil pump is shown as below (as shown in Figure
13-6).
① Inspect the distance from gear end face to pump cover end face with straight rule and
feeler gauge, i.e., inspect the end clearance (as shown in Figure 48(a)), and it is generally
is 0.05～0.15mm.
② Inspect the flatness of pump cover end face with straight rule and feeler gauge; when
the flatness error is greater than 0.05mm, plane grinding is needed.

584
 ③ Inspect the gap between tooth crest and pump body with feeler gauge (as shown in
Figure 48 (b)), and the gap value is generally 0.05～0.15mm.
④ Measure the gear meshing clearance with feeler gauge (as shown in Figure 48(c)), and
also, measure at the three points with an interval of 120°; the clearance value is generally
0.05～0.20mm, and the backlash difference of three points shall not exceed 0.1mm.

Figure 46: detection of gear type oil pump.

A rotor type oil pump shall be detected for end clearance, meshing clearance, and the
clearance between outer rotor and pump casing; the inspection method is ditto (as shown
in Figure 49).

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 (a) Straight edge (b) Feeler gauge

Figure 47: detection of rotor oil pump.

(ii) Measurement of oil pressure
When engine is repaired, it is required to frequently detect the oil pressure of lubricating system,
to determine whether the oil pressure is normal or not.
Generally, there is no special oil pressure measuring hole on the engine. When oil pressure is
detected, the oil pressure switch screw hole on the engine cylinder block is used generally. The
method is as follows.
① In the engine flameout state, dismantle the oil pressure switch.
② Screw the special adapter into the screw hole of oil pressure switch, and connect the
oil pressure gauge figure 48.
③ Run the engine and make it reach the normal operating temperature, and inspect the
reading of oil pressure gauge respectively under idle speed and high speed.

Figure 48
Generally, the oil pressure of engine shall be 0.2～0.5MPa; the minimum oil pressure
under idle speed shall be not below 0.15MPa; and the maximum oil pressure under high
speed shall be not above 0.60MPa.
6.7.4 Learning Activities
Practical activity.

586
 Disassemble, clean, inspect and service the lubrication system components of the vehicle
provided.
6.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the functions of the engine oil?
2. What is the functions of the bypass valve of the oil filter?
3. What are the types of oil filters in lubrication system?
4. What will happen if no pressure-limiting valve is installed in the lubricating circuit?

6.7.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Wrench and socket set
 digital voltmeter
 SST.
 Feeler gauge and vernier caliper.
 Set of outside micrometer, surface plate, dial gauge, V-blocks.
 brush, gasoline, engine oil, and cleaning disk
 A complete vehicle.
 Cleaning materials
 Appropriate hand tools.
6.7.7 References
Arnold E., (1969), Technology for Motor Mechanics. Bk, 1,2,3,4 S.C Mudd

Bosch Automotive Electrics Automotive Electronics: Systems and Components (4th Edition).
Robert Bosch. ISBN 0837610508

Tom Denton (2004), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (3rd Edition)

Tom Denton (2000), Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (2nd Edition)

Hillier. V A W (2004), Hilliers Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 5th Edition Book 1

William H. Crouse and Donald L (1993). Automotive Mechanics (10th Edition).. Anglin. ISBN
0028009436
6.7.8 Model Answers
1. What are the functions of the engine oil?

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  Lubricating: the oil forms the continuous oil film between all the friction surfaces of
the moving parts to reduce the friction resistance and parts wear and decrease the
engine power consumption
 Cooling: in circulation, the oil flows on the parts’ working surfaces to reduce the
parts temperature for cooling effect.
 Cleaning: the oil circulating constantly in the lubrication system can remove the metal
crumbles from the friction surface and wash away the carbon deposition from the air
cylinder, piston, piston ring and other parts.
 Sealing: the oil film on the cylinder wall, piston and piston ring can work as seals to
prevent air leakage.
 Rust-preventing: the oil can prevent rust of parts.
2. What is the functions of the bypass valve of the oil filter?
 By-pass oil filter, also known as fine filter, is used for filtering the fine impurities
with particle diameter of above 0.001mm, and also it only filters 5%～10% oil of oil
supply of engine oil pump.
 By-pass fine filter is classified into filter type and centrifugal type.
 Currently, centrifugal fine filter is widely applied. There is a rotor in this filter, and it
is supported on a shaft via rolling bearing.
3. What are the types of oil filters in general lubricating oil way? Should they be connected in
series or in parallel? Why?
 Suction filter strainer is used in the suction filter mounted on the fore end of the oil
pump to prevent the entry of large-sized particles to the pump.
 Full-flow oil filter cleaner is connected in series between the oil pump and the main
oil passage, so all the oil is filtered through it. Currently, full-flow oil filter is
generally applied in car engine.
4. What will happen if no pressure-limiting valve is installed in the lubricating circuit?
 In order to prevent too high pressure, the safety valve or pressure limiting valve is
arranged in the lubrication circuit.
 When the oil pressure rises up to the specified value, the safety valve opens to let the
extra oil return to the inlet of the pump, or flow directly to the oil pan.

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 CHAPTER 7: SERVICE VEHICLE FUEL SYSTEM
Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/AUT/CR/3/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Service Vehicle Fuel System.
7.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies the competencies required to service vehicle fuel system. It involves servicing
of fuel components, replacing petrol fuel pump and diesel injector pump, performing injector
timing and testing injectors for pressure and voltage.
7.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes
1. Service fuel components e.g. injectors, tank
2. Replace petrol fuel pump.
3. Replace diesel injector pump, rail, pipes and nozzles.
4. Perform injector pump timing.
5. Test fuel injectors for injection pressure and voltage.
7.3 Learning Outcome one: Service fuel components.
7.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify the components to be
serviced, proper use of tools and equipment, remove faulty component, service faulty component
and assemble back the serviced components.
7.3.2 Performance Standard
Identify the component to e serviced according to vehicle’s performance.
Tools and equipment are used according to the manufacturer’s manual.
Remove faulty component according to manufacturer’s manual.
Service the faulty component according to manufacturer’s manual.
Assemble back serviced components as per manufacturer’s manual.
7.3.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
 Atomization- is the breaking up of liquid fuel into very minute liquid droplets.
 Butterfly valve – a disc that spins on its axis across the diameter of the diameter of a
pipe to regulate flow through the pipes.
 Compression ratio -this is the ratio of the volume of the cylinder and its head space
(including pre-combustion chamber if present) when the piston is at BDC to the

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 volume of the head space when the piston is at TDC. It is the difference in cylinder
volume when the piston is at the bottom of the stroke to the volume in the cylinder
above the piston when the piston is at the top of the stroke.
 Carburetor- the function of the carburetor is to meter the quantity of petrol into the air
stream entering the engine cylinder. Nowadays carburetor is not common in most
engines, though they are still being used in some engines and even motor-cycles.
 Combustion- is the burning of air fuel mixed at the right proportion within the engine.
Both gasoline (petrol) and diesel engines derive their power from the burning of fuel.
 Common rail – arrangement in the diesel engine that uses a single pressurized fuel rail
to supply fuel to the diesel injectors.
 Electronic fuel injection (EFI) - This is the system of injection where metered fuel is
delivered to the cylinder combustion chamber by means of electronic controls
through Engine Management System. This system replaced the need of a carburetor.
 Fuel pump- A pump that supply/transfer fuel to the engine. In petrol vehicles, they are
fitted in the fuel tank. Mechanical lift pump operated by the camshaft is fitted to
carbureted engines
 Fuel filter- remove any dirt/ foreign bodies in the fuel so that fuel can be supplied and
injected through the small fuel passages without any blockage.
 Fuel pressure regulator- controls the operating pressure of the system and is set to
maintain a constant pressure difference.
 Fuel injectors- are the component part within fuel system which are responsible for
delivering finely atomized fuel under high pressure directly into the cylinder
combustion chamber or in the intake manifold.
 Fuel tank- this is where fuel being used in the vehicle is stored. The tanks are filled with
baffles (partitions) to prevent the fuel from surging from side to side.
 Intake manifold – this is the compartment/ part in a multi-cylinder engine where air and
fuel are distributed/supplied to the individual cylinders.
 Multi-port fuel injection- is where individual injectors is used for each cylinder.
 Direct injection- This is when fuel is delivered directly into the engine cylinder for
combustion.

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  Indirect injection- Is where fuel is either delivered indirectly before it reaches the engine
cylinder.
 Single- point injection (SPI)/ Throttle Body Injection (TBI)- here, one injector discharges
fuel into the air stream before the throttle butterfly (previously used by the
carburetor)
 Air fuel ratio- is the ratio of mass of air to that of fuel in a combustion process.
 Vapor lock – is a problem caused by the liquid fuel changing state to gas while still in
the fuel delivery system of a gasoline-fueled internal combustion engines.
Purpose of a vehicle fuel system
A fuel system should produce the mixture at just the right ratio to run the engine under all
operating conditions.
Layout of fuel system of a petrol engine (EFI)
The fuel system consists of a fuel tank, and electric fuel pump (located in the fuel pump), an
EFI/ fuel pump relay, fuel injectors, a fuel pressure regulator, and air filter assembly and
throttle body unit.

Figure 49: Alternative position of fuel tanks in a petrol engine.

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 Figure 50: Fuel injection Layout; single-point injection (left) and multi-point injection (right)
Fuel Lines
Fuel and vapor lines are made of steel, nylon tubing or fuel-resistant rubber hoses connected
to the fuel system. Depending of the function, fuel lines can be rigid or flexible. They must
remain as cool as possible. In case any part is located near too much heat, the gasoline passing
through it vaporizes and vapor lock occurs.
Carburetor fuel system
Carburetors were the traditional method of mixing petrol with air as it enters the engine. A
simple carburetor is only capable of providing a correct air and fuel mixture ratio within a
small engine speed. A more complex carburetors were used to respond to wide engine load.
Carburetor were fitted to perform the following function:
 Atomize the liquid fuel as finely as possible so as to get the most complete mixing of
fuel and air.
 Provide the correct mass of mixture to suit each and every condition of the engine
speed and load.
 Provide easy starting when engine is cold.
 Enable engine to idle or run steadily at low speed.
 Provide maximum acceleration, without flat spots, when the throttled is opened.
 Provide maximum fuel economy possible under all operating conditions.
 Be capable of adjusting to meet different atmospheric temperature and pressure
conditions.

592
 Figure 51: Fuel system of a carburetor-type petrol engine.

Figure 52: Location of fuel System components in a carburetor vehicle

593
 Figure 53: Sample carburetors
7.3.4.2 Layout of a diesel engine (CI) fuel system
The compression ratio of diesel engine is much higher than that of a petrol engine. Diesel
engines requires a compression ratio of 16:1 and above. Therefore, the fuel injection systems
must be designed to accommodate this high pressure.
The major components of diesel fuel system are: fuel tank (s), fuel feed pump, fuel filter(s),
high-and low-pressure supply lines, injector pump, injectors, a timing device and a governor.

Figure 54: A typical injector pump type for a diesel fuel injection system.

594
 Figure 55: Different types of air filters

Figure 56: Fuel atomization (left) and manifold fuel injector (right)

Figure 57: Fuel filter mounted under the vehicle (left) and assortment of fuel filters (right)

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Fuel system fault diagnosis
Diagnosis of fuel system vary from the type of engine ignition. Petrol engines are spark
ignited engines (SI) while diesel engines are compression ignition engines (CI).
Table 13: Petrol engines fuel diagnosis table (1)
Symptom Possible faults Suggested actions
No fuel at Empty tank Refill tank
carburetor or
injection fuel rail Blocked filter or line Replace filter/repair line

Defected fuel pump Renew/ check it is being driven

No electrical supply to Check fuses/trace faults

pump
Engine will not or Choke or enrichment Check linkages or automatic
difficult to start device not working actuator
Engine stalls or Idle speed incorrectly set Look up correct setting and adjust
will not idle Mixture setting wrong Look up correct setting and adjust
smoothly Ignition problem Check ignition system
Poor acceleration Blockage in carburetor Strip down and clean out or try out
accelerator pump a carburetor cleaner first
Partially block filter Renew
Injection electrical faults Refer to specialist information
Black smoke from Excessive rich mixture Look up correct setting and adjust
exhaust
Flooding Check and adjust carburetor float
settings and operation
Table 14: Petrol engines fuel diagnosis table (I1)
Symptom Possible cause
Excessive fuel consumption  Blocked air filter  Incorrect CO
adjustment
 Fuel injection  Temperature faults
leaking
 Load sensor fault  Low tyre pressure
 Driving style 
Fuel leakage  Damaged pipes or unions
 Fuel tank damaged
 Fuel tank breathers blocked
Fuel smell  Fuel leak  Breather incorrectly
fitted
 Fuel cap loose  Engine flooding
Incorrect emissions  Incorrect adjustments  Fuel system faults
 Air leaks into inlet  Blocked fuel filter

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  Blocked air filter  Ignition system
faults
Table 15: Diesel Injection fault diagnosis
Symptom Possible Cause
Engine rotates but does  No fuel in the tank  Cam belt broken
not start  Fuel pump drive  Open circuit supply to
broken stop solenoid
 Filter blocked
Lack of power  Timing incorrect  Governor set too low
 Injector nozzle worn  Injector operating
pressure incorrect
Difficult to start  Timing incorrect  Glow plug not
working
Fuel smell in the car  Fuel lines leaking  Leak off pipes broken
Diesel knock  Timing incorrect
(particularly when cold)  Glow plug hold on for idle circuit not working
Engine oil contaminated  Broken piston
with fuel  Working piston rings
 Excess fuel injected

Procedure of checking fuel system (gasoline engine)

1. Disconnect the cable from the negative terminal of the battery.
2. Relieve the fuel system pressure and drain the fuel tank.
3. Raise the vehicle on a hoist or lift the vehicle with a floor jack stands.
4. Use compressed air to blow dirt from the fuel lines fittings and wiring connectors.
5. Remove the fuel tank wiring harness connector from the body harness connector.
6. Remove the ground wire retain screw from the chassis if used.
7. Disconnect the fuel lines from the fuel tank. If these lines have quick-disconnect
fittings, follow the manufacturer’s recommended removal procedures in the service
manual. Some quick-disconnect fittings are hand releasable, and others require the
use of special tool.
8. Wipe the filler pipe and vent hose connections with a shop towel, and then
disconnect the hoses from the filler pipe and vent pipe to the fuel tank.
9. Unfasten the filler from the tank.
10. Loosen the bolts holding the fuel tank straps to the vehicle until they are about two
threads from the end.

597
 11. Holding the tank securely against the under-chassis with one hand, remove the strap
bolts and lower the tank to the ground. When lowering the tank, make sure all wires
and tubes are unhooked. Be careful as small amount of fuel might still be in the
tank.
12. Check and rectify any faults in the tank and reinstall in the reverse order.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 58: Selected steps of fuel tank service procedures (a) Disconnecting negative cable of the
battery, (b) connecting the fuel pressure gauge (c) disconnecting fuel inlet connector and (d)
Loosen the fuel tank filler cap to relieve any fuel tank vapor pressure.

Procedure of removing a fuel pump for service (gasoline engine)

1. Disconnect the cable from the negative terminal of the battery.
2. Relieve the fuel system pressure
3. Remove the rear seat from inside the passenger compartment.
4. Remove the fuel pump/ sending unit access cover.
5. Unplug the electrical connectors, then disconnect the fuel lines.

598
 6. Remove fuel pump/ sending screws and remove the mounting flange (confirm from
the user manual)
7. Carefully withdraw the fuel pump/fuel level sending unit assembly from the tank
8. The components of the fuel pump assembly are modular and all attached to the
main housing.
9. Remove the plastic support on the bottom of the pump by releasing the clips with a
screwdriver, the pull off the rubber isolator, the fuel sock filter clip, then the
electrical connector.
10. Withdraw the pump from the housing
11. Inspect the strainer for contamination. If it is dirty, replace it.
12. Reassemble the fuel pump and sending unit in the reverse order of disassembly.

Figure 59: Combination of electric petrol fuel pump and sending unit
7.3.4 Learning Activities
Identify, remove and service faulty fuel components of an SI engine of a vehicle
7.3.5 Self-Assessment
1. What safety precaution should be observed while servicing fuel system?
2. Why are carburetor not used in modern vehicle engines?

599
 3. What are the differences between single-point and multi-point fuel injection
systems?
4. Why are fuel tank fitted with baffles?
5. How does clogged fuel filter affect fuel injectors?

7.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets,
torque wrench, hammers etc.).
Equipment Complete functional vehicle with an SI engine
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Flash light
Fuel system pressure gauge
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Petrol
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

7.3.7 References.
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering and
maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Nunney M.J (2007). Light and Heavy Technology: Elsevier.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed. Routledge

600
7.3.8 Model Answers
1. What safety precaution should be observed while servicing fuel system?
- Gasoline in particular is very flammable and should be handled with caution.
- Ensure the negative terminal of the battery is disconnected before servicing the
fuel lines.
2. Why are carburetor not used in modern vehicle engines?
- Strict emission laws banned the use of carburetor cars in most countries since
carbureted engines had difficulty in metering the fuel and matching it with the
engine load at all engine operating conditions.
- Modern cars use sensors and actuators which the carburetor does not support
3. What are the differences between single-point and multi-point fuel injection
systems?
- Single uses a single injector where injection is to the manifold, the cylinders
draw the fuel from the manifold when the inlet valve open for injection
- Multi point inject each cylinder is provided with an injector, injection is to each
cylinder
4. Why are fuel tank fitted with baffles?
- Reduces fuel surge
- Prevents foaming of fuel
5. How does clogged fuel filter affect fuel injectors?
- Less/No fuel deliver to the injectors.
- Low injection pressure

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 7.4 Learning Outcome 2 - Replace petrol fuel pump.
7.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify the location of the
petrol fuel pump, assemble the necessary tools and equipment needed to remove and refit
petrol fuel component, remove petrol pump, replacing/fitting the petrol pump, conduct fuel
system test and disposing the faulty fuel pump by observing company policy, health, safety,
environmental and quality.
7.4.2 Performance Standard
Petrol fuel pump location is identified as per manufacturer’s manual
Tools and equipment are used to remove and refit petrol fuel components as per
manufacturers manual.
Petrol fuel pump is removed as per manufacturers manual.
Petrol fuel pump is replaced/fitted as per manufacturers manual.
Fuel system operation test is conducted as per manufacturers manual.
Faulty fuel pump is disposed as per company and health, safety, environmental and
quality.
7.4.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
 Faulty fuel pump- fuel pump is considered faulty if it unable to delivery fuel from fuel
tank to engine cylinder through the fuel injectors. There are many caused to the
malfunction of a fuel pump.
 Fuel system operation test – This is the test carried out to a fuel system to ascertain
proper operation as per the manufacturers set up.
Function of fuel petrol pump - The function of a petrol fuel pump is to transfer fuel from the
tank to the carburetor or fuel injection unit. A fuel pump is fitted into or near the tank on

602
petrol injection vehicles. On carburetor vehicles, a mechanical lift pump is fitted to the
engine and is operated by a cam on the camshaft or crankshaft.
7.3.6.1.1 Principle of operation of petrol fuel pump.
(a) Construction and operation of Mechanical fuel pump
Mechanical fuel pump is driven by the camshaft or by a special shaft driven by the
crankshaft. As the shaft turns, a cam passes under a pivoted lever and forces it up at one
end. The other end of the lever is, which is linked loosely to a rubber diaphragm forming the
floor of a chamber in the pump, goes down and pulls the diaphragm with it.

When the lever pulls the diaphragm down, it creates suction that draws fuel along the fuel
pipe into the pump through a one- way valve. As the revolving cam turn further, so that it
no longer presses on the lever, the lever is moved back by a return spring, relaxing its pull
on the diaphragm. The loosely linked lever does not push the diaphragm up, but there is a
spring that pushes against it. The diaphragm can move up only by expelling petrol from the
chamber. The carburetor admits petrol only as it needs it through the needle valve in its
float chamber.

When the carburetor is full and the needle valve closed, no petrol leaves the pump. The
diaphragm stays down and the lever idles up and down. When the carburetor accepts more
petrol, the return spring pushes the diaphragm up and, by taking up the slack in the loose
linkage, brings it back into contact with the lever, which again pulls it down to refill the
pump chamber.

603
 Figure 60: Construction of a mechanical petrol pump
(b) Electric operated fuel pump
An electric fuel pump has a similar diaphragm and a valve arrangement, but instead of a
camshaft, a solenoid (an electromagnetic switch) provides the pull on the diaphragm. The
solenoid attracts an iron rod that pulls the diaphragm down, drawing petrol into the
chamber. At the end of its travel, the iron rod forces apart a set of contacts, breaking the
current to the electromagnet and relaxing the pull on the diaphragm. When the diaphragm
return spring raises the diaphragm, it pulls the rod away from the contacts; then close so
that the solenoid pulls the rod and diaphragm down again.

604
 Figure 61: Construction of Electric petrol pump
Common petrol pump trouble and checks
Faulty petrol pump may have the following troubles:
a) Inefficient fuel delivery
b) Excessive pump pressure
c) Fuel pump leak
d) Fuel pump noise etc.
Procedure of removing faulty petrol fuel pump for service
Caution: Gasoline is extremely flammable, so extra care should be taken when working on any
part of the fuel system. Put on proper personal and protective equipment (PPEs)such as gloves
and mask. Any spill or exposure of petrol to the skin should be mopped up with soap and
water.
Steps:
These steps apply for the fuel pumps installed inside the fuel tank.
1. Remove the fuel tank
2. Remove any dirt that has accumulated where the fuel pump is attached to the tank.
3. Turn the lock ring counterclockwise with lock ring wrench until it is loose. Remove
the lock ring.
4. Carefully pull the fuel pump assembly from the fuel tank.

605
 5. Remove the old lock ring seal and discard it.
6. Clean the fuel pump mounting flange, the tank mount surface and seal ring grove.
7. Replace the faulty fuel pump with a new pump as per the service manual. The
factories specification of the new pump should be considered.
8. Installation of the new fuel pump is the reverse of the removal procedures.
9. Apply a thin coat of heavy grease to the new lock ring seal to hold it is in place
during the assembly.
Disposing faulty petrol fuel pump.
Solid waste disposal measures prescribed within the company/ organization should be
adhered when disposing the faulty fuel pump. Such measures must take into consideration
safety, health, environmental and quality.
7.3.6.2 Learning Activities
Identify, remove, service and test a fuel pump for an SI engine of a vehicle
7.3.6.3 Self-Assessment
1. Which are the main parts of a mechanical petrol fuel pump?
2. What are the possible causes of faults in a fuel pump?
3. What safety precaution should be taken into consideration when replacing a petrol
fuel pump?
4. Why is it important to adhere to health, safety, environmental and quality
measures/standard when disposing faulty petrol fuel pump
7.3.6.4 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets,
torque wrench, hammers etc.).
Fuel pump lock ring tool
Equipment Complete functional vehicle with an SI engine
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Vehicle lifts/hoist,
Flash light
Fuel system pressure gauge
Fire extinguisher (proper class of fire extinguisher)
Fume extraction equipment
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Petrol
Cleaning materials

606
 New petrol fuel pump
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

7.3.6.5 References.
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering and
maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Nunney M.J (2007). Light and Heavy Technology: Elsevier.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed. Routledge
7.3.6.6 Model Answers
1. Which are the main parts of a mechanical petrol fuel pump?
- Diaphragm
- Chamber
- Actuator lever
- Return spring
- Inlet and exit valve etc.
2. What are the possible causes of faults in a fuel pump?
- Fuel pump leak
- Excessive pressure
- Fuel pump noise etc.
3. What safety precaution should be taken into consideration when replacing a petrol
fuel pump?
- Petrol is highly inflammable; any possible source of fire should be avoided.
- The negative battery terminal should be disconnected first.
- Avoid smoking in the area of repair.

607
 - Wear proper PPEs
4. Why is it important to adhere to health, safety, environmental and quality
measures/standard when disposing faulty petrol fuel pump
- Prevent environmental pollution
- Can cause respiratory problems
- Fuel fumes can cause fire

7.5 Learning Outcome 3: Replace diesel injector pump, rail, pipes and nozzles.
7.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify diesel injector pump,
rail, pipes and nozzles, remove injector pump, rail, pipes and nozzle, install new pump, pipes,
rail and nozzle, bleed diesel fuel system and conduct operational test to the system.

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7.5.2 Performance Standard
3.1. Diesel injector pump, rail, pipes and nozzles location is identified as per
manufacturers manual.
3.2. Pump, rail, pipes and nozzles are fitted as per manufacturers manual.
3.3. New pump, rail, pipes and nozzles are fitted as per manufacturers manual.
3.4. Air bubbles from the fuel system are removed by bleeding the system in accordance
with the manufacturers specification.
Diesel system operational test is conducted as per manufacturers manual.
7.5.3 Information Sheet
7.3.6.6.1 Definition of terms
 Bleeding fuel system – is the removing all the air from the pipes, lift pumps, filters,
injection pump and injectors.
 Fuel injector pump- this is the of pump that is responsible for delivering the correct
amount of fuel at the right time and pressure to enable the injector to atomize the fuel
(break up into fine droplets) to ensure complete combustion.
 Fuel rail- is the fuel gallery where fuel is maintained at high pressure.
 Fuel pipes (piping)- are the tubing through where fuel flows from the tank to the
cylinder. In diesel, we have high-pressure side pipe and low-pressure side.
 Injector – is an automatic valve that atomize and inject the correct amount of fuel
spray for better combustion. Can be classified into single hole, multi-hole, pintle and
pintaux.
 Low pressure side – this ensure the diesel fuel is cleaned and delivered the fuel to the
high -pressure side.
 High-pressure side – This side of the diesel fuel system raises the pressure from the
low-pressure side to the injection stage.
 Lift pump- takes the fuel from the tank and keeps the injection pump fuel with fuel.
 Leak-off pipes – takes excess fuel of back to the tank.
Functions of diesel fuel injection system
 To deliver the correct amount of fuel under all conditions of the engine load and
speed
 To deliver the correct amount of fuel at correct time

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  To raise the pressure of the fuel so that the injectors can break up (atomize) the fuel
into fine mist/droplets.
7.3.6.6.2 Layout of a diesel fuel injection system
A conventional diesel fuel injection system comprises of the following main components:
 Fuel tank
 Fuel injection pump (injector pump)
 Fuel feed pump (lift pump)
 Fuel filter
 High pressure fuel line
 Fuel injectors
 Leak off pipe

Figure 62: A typical layout of a conventional diesel fuel injection system

Injection pumps
The function of an injection pump/injector pump is to deliver fuel to the injectors at high
pressure to the combustion chamber. The injection pressure must exceed the cylinder

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compression pressure otherwise a reverse back flow can occur. Together with the injector
nozzle, the pump helps in breaking up fuel into fine droplets.
Traditional inline injection pump has pumping element for each engine cylinder. It
comprised of a camshaft which causes linear movement of plungers, plungers which pushes
the fuel in the direction of the injector, gear rack which causes rotation movement of the
plunger and the pumping element (already mentioned).
Distributor-pump/rotary is another type of conventional diesel fuel injection pump.
Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)
 The main objective of coming up with EDC was to reduce air pollution caused by
diesel combustion.
 Highly controlled fuel injection (controlled by ECU). Here, mechanical governor is
replaced by a fuel electromagnetic control device controlled by ECU.
Common Rail (CR) technology
The fuel is pressurized in a distribution pipe (rail) which is common to all cylinders. Fuel
injection is made with electromagnetic valves which can deliver a very high pressure (up to
1400bar)
Fuel Governor
The functions of a fuel governor are:
 To ensure that an engine does not exceed its safe maximum RPM settings.
 To control the engine’s speed within defined limits.
 To ensure that the correct amount of fuel is injected into the combustion chamber
under all engine speed and load conditions.

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Figure 63: Illustration of location of fuel injector lines and fuel filter in diesel engine

Figure 64: Diesel fuel injectors for (Electronic Diesel Injection)

Figure 65: Bosch Multi-cylinder inline diesel pump

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 Figure 66: Rotary type diesel pump

Figure 67: Common Rail type diesel fuel pump

Figure 68: Location of a common rail and fuel injectors in a diesel engine
7.3.6.6.3 Common diesel injection faults
Faults in diesel injection can be manifest in many different ways. Some of these are given in
the following table shown below.

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 Table 16: Diesel injection fault diagnosis
Symptom Possible fault
Engine rotate but does not  No fuel in the tank  Cam belt broken
start  Fuel pump drive  Open circuit supply to
broken stop solenoid
 Fuel filter blocked
Lack of power  Timing incorrect  Governor set too low
 Injector nozzle worn  Injector operating
pressure incorrect

Difficult to start  Timing incorrect  Glow plug not working

Fuel smell in the car  Fuel lines leaking  Leak off pipes broken
Diesel knock (particularly  Timing incorrect  Glow plug hold on for
when cold) idle circuit not working
Engine contaminated with  Piston broken  Excessive fuel injected
fuel  Worn piston rings
(oil rings)

Replacing diesel fuel filter

The role of a fuel filter is to collect any dirt or foreign bodies in the fuel line so that they do
not block the fuel injector nozzles. After sometimes the fuel filter become clogged with dirt
and therefore must be replaced to ensure normal fuel delivery to the cylinder is maintained.
Diesel fuel filters can either be disposable cartridge-type or permanent canister type fitted
with a disposable element.
When the fuel filter become partially clogged, the following may occur:
 There will be low power at higher engine speeds. The vehicle will not go faster past a
certain speed.
 The engine will cut out or miss on acceleration, especially when climbing hills or
during heavy-load acceleration.
Procedure of replacing a diesel fuel filter
1. Remove the old filter cartridge from the filter base pad using filter wrench.
2. Drain the fuel to an oil disposal container.

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 3. Ensure that the old filter cartridge gasket(s) has been removed. Wipe the filter pad
gasket face clean with a line-free wiper.
4. Remove the new filter from cartridge from the shipping wrapping. Fill the filter
cartridge with clean, filtered fuel poured carefully into the inlet section (the inlet
section is usually located in the outer ring of the cartridge)
5. The fuel oil itself should provide the gasket and/ or O-ring and the mounting
threads with adequate lubricant. It is neither necessary nor good to use grease or
white lube on filter gaskets.
6. Screw the filter cartridge clockwise (right-hand threads are used) onto the mounting
pad; after the gasket contact the face, a further rotation of the cartridge is usually
required. In most cases, right hand tightening is sufficient
Calibrating and Phasing of Mechanical Diesel Pumps
1. Calibration
This the term used to describe the procedure of adjusting the quantity of fuel that
each pump element delivers to each particular injector.
2. Phasing
This is the term used to describe the timing interval, measured in degrees, between
each successive injection of fuel from the injection pump.
Bleeding diesel fuel system
In the process of fuel delivery from lift pump to injector supply lines or fuel gallery, and
excess fuel being returned through spill off pipe, air bubbles are introduced into the supply
system. The air must be bled out (purged) from the system.
Procedure of bleeding out diesel fuel system
1. Ensure that the fuel filters are installed properly and not clogged. Check the fuel
leaks that may indicate an air leak at all fuel line connections from the tank to the
lift pump to the fuel filters.
2. Gain access to the injector tops and fuel lines. Some engines have their injectors
exposed while others mount the injectors under the valve cover. Remove the valve
cover if applicable.
3. Ensure that the fuel cutoff valve is open. Break the torque with a wrench on the fuel
bolt of the last injector in the series to get fuel. On most models, this will be the

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 forward-most injector on the engine. Check with the manufacture’s specification for
your engine details.
4. Place the engine control in the No-fuel position. Actuate the starter and run the
engine over. Observer the fuel leaking from the loosened fuel bolt. Allow all the air
to be forced out and tighten the fuel bolt fully with a wrench once the fuel is seen to
be pure, with no air bubbles evident.
5. Clean up all spilled fuel with shop rags. Replace the valve cover if applicable.
Test and run the engine.
7.5.4 Learning Activities
Identify, remove and service faulty fuel components of a CI engine of a vehicle
7.5.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the major component of a diesel fuel system
2. Why is bleeding necessary for a fuel system after a diesel engine has run for some
mileage?
3. What is the function of a leak off pipe in a diesel fuel system?
4. What are the common faults in a diesel fuel system?
5. What are the two types of a conventional diesel fuel injection pump?
6. What does EDC stand for?
7.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets,
torque wrench, hammers etc.).
Fuel pump lock ring tool
Digital Multimeter
Equipment Complete functional vehicle with an CI engine
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Vehicle lifts/hoist,
Flash light
Fuel system pressure gauge
Fire extinguisher (proper class of fire extinguisher)
Fume extraction equipment
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Diesel
Cleaning materials

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 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals

7.5.7 References.
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering and
maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns. 5th Edition.
Hillier V.A.W. (2012). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson Thorns. 6th
Edition.
Nunney M.J (2007). Light and Heavy Technology: Elsevier.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Read J. and V.C Read (2000). Motor Vehicle Technology for Mechanics. Macmillan.
Erjavec J. (2010). Automotive Technology; A system Approach. Delmar. 5th Edition.
Check the link below for more:
(https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.howacarworks.com)
Check the link below for more on petrol fuel pumps
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=U2C_ _4NzVLw&t=3s
7.5.8 Model Answers
1. What are the major component of a diesel fuel system?
- Fuel pump
- Fuel filter
- Injection pump
- Injector
2. Why is bleeding necessary for a fuel system after a diesel engine has run for some
mileage?
- Remove air bubbles from the fuel system
3. What is the function of a leak off pipe in a diesel fuel system?
- Return the excess fuel not used during combustion into the fuel tank.
4. What are the common faults in a diesel fuel system?
- Difficult to start
- Lack of power

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 5. What are the two types of a conventional diesel fuel injection pump?
- In-line-type injection pump
- Distributor/rotary pump.
6. What does EDC stand for?
- Electronic Diesel Control.
7.6 Learning Outcome 4 - Perform injector pump timing.
7.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to remove fan and timing
chain/belt, identify timing marks, align timing mark as per the manufacturer’s manual,
adjust timing belt tensioner, fit back timing belt cover and fan belt and testing operation of
diesel system.
7.6.2 Performance Standard
4.1. Fan belt and timing belt/chain cover are removed in accordance with
manufacturers manual.
4.2. Timing marks are identified in accordance with manufacturers manual.
4.3. Timing marks are aligned and timing belt fitted in accordance as per
manufacturers manual.
4.4. Timing belt tensioner is adjusted and timing marks reconfirmed as per
manufacturers manual.
4.5. Timing cover and fan belt are fitted back as per manufacturers manual.
4.6. Diesel system operation test is performed as per manufacturers manual.
7.6.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Injection pump timing-is the moment when the diesel fuel enters the cylinder during the
combustion phase. It may also be called spill timing
Timing marks – is the mark showing the correct injection point. It is usually marked on
both engine crankshaft and injector pump. These two marks should always align for the
right injection timing to occur.
7.6.1.1.1 Injector pump timing
The following problem will arise when there if incorrect timing of injection pump (pump
out of time):
 Hard starting

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  Rough running and heavy smoke during startup.
 Black smoke during acceleration.
 Engine running hotter than normal.
 Poor fuel economy.

An injection pump (any mechanical pump) is driven indirectly from the engine crankshaft
by chains, gears or a timing belt that also moves the camshaft. The timing of the pumps
determines when it will inject fuel into the cylinder as the piston reached the BTDC point.
Every manufacturer recommends specific injection according to the make and model of the
car.
Procedure of carrying out injector pump timing (Mechanical Injector pump)
Before beginning the injector pump timing, check the engine (and OEM chassis) manual for
positioning of the fuel control lever, stop fuel lever, brake valve and gear shift position.
1. Set the engine to 280 BTDC with number one cylinder on the compression stroke.
2. Remove the delivery valve from the number one-cylinder pump element.
3. Replace the delivery valve body and fit the spill pipe.
4. Loosen the pump coupling and fully retard the pump.
5. Ensure that the stop control is in the run position.
6. Operate the lift pump; fuel will now flow from the spill pipe.
7. While maintaining pressure on the lift pump, slowly advance the injection pump
when a reduction in the flow of fuel from the spill pipe will be noticed as the plunger
approaches the spill-cut off point. Continue advancement until approximately one
drop every ten to fifteen seconds issues from the spill pipe.
8. Tighten the coupling bolts, remove the spill pipe and refit the delivery valve. The
pump is now correctly timed in relation to the engine.
7.6.4 Learning Activities
Perform diesel engine injector pump timing
7.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. Which problems are likely to arise with a wrongly timed diesel injection pump?
2. What factors should you take into consideration before commencing injection pump
timing?

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7.6.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets,
torque wrench, hammers etc.).
Digital Multimeter
Equipment Complete functional vehicle with an CI engine
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Vehicle lifts/hoist,
Flash light
Fuel system pressure gauge
Fire extinguisher (proper class of fire extinguisher)
Fume extraction equipment
Diesel fuel pump calibration equipment
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Diesel
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

7.6.7 References.
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering and
maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Nunney M.J (2007). Light and Heavy Technology: Elsevier. Check the links below for
more clarity:
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=q8vvtS8SGto
https://youtu.be/A3NYl1X6NjY
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
7.6.8 Model Answers
1. Which problems are likely to arise with a wrongly timed diesel injection pump?
- Poor fuel economy
- Black smoke during acceleration.
- Engine running hotter than normal.

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 2. What factors should be take into consideration before commencing injection pump
timing?
- Engine horse power
- Fuel injector operating pressure
- Injection dwell angle

7.7 Learning Outcome 5 - Test fuel injectors for injection pressure and voltage.
7.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify diagnostic testing
equipment, identify necessary tools and equipment, connect gauges correctly, take fuel
pressure and voltage measurements and record and file results.

A fuel injector is nothing more than a solenoid-actuated fuel valve. As long as it is held open
and the fuel pressure is remains steady, it delivers fuel until it is told to stop. Fuel injectors
exhibits the same failure characteristics since they operate in similar manner. A faulty
injector will cause erratic operation of the injection system such as hard start, no start among
others

7.7.2 Performance Standard

5.1. Identify the diagnostic equipment for testing according to manufacturer’s manual.
5.2. Tools and equipment are identified according to manufacturer’s manual.
5.3. Connect the gauges according to manufacturer’s manual.
5.4. Take measurements according to manufacturer’s manual.
5.5. Record and file results according to standard operating procedures (SOP)
7.7.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Resistance – is a measure of opposition to the flow of current in an electric circuit.
Voltage- electromotive force or potential difference. Is expressed in volts.
Procedure for testing voltage for fuel injectors
Voltage test is carried out when an injector is suspected to be the cause of lean mixture (more
amount of air mixing with fuel).

621
 1. The following steps should be followed:
2. Turn the key to the ON position, the battery power should flow, but the engine should
not run.
3. Set up the digital multimeter to read DC voltage. Use the lowest range possible in case
the meter does not have auto range.
4. Connect the negative (-) lead of the digital multimeter to the ground source.
5. Place the positive on the wiring terminal harness. The wiring harness will have two
terminals, one connected to the ground and will read 0volts and the other will read
around 12volts.
6. Repeat with all injector wiring harnesses.
7. A lower reading imply resistance in the wire somewhere.

Figure 69: Injector voltage measurements

Procedure for testing injectors for injection pressure.
Always refers to the service manual before conducting injection pressure test for injectors.
The following are general steps used in a gasoline engine: Note that gasoline is extremely
flammable and caution must always be taken when handling it.
1. Check if there is adequate fuel in the fuel tank.

622
 2. Verify the fuel pump actually runs. With the help of an assistant, turn ON the engine
ignition switch listen if you can hear whirring noise of fuel pump from the filler neck.
3. Relieve the fuel system pressure. Remove the fuel line from the fuel rail and where
this line attaches to the steel line near the master cylinder. The fuel pressure test
temporarily replaces this factory hose. Make sure the clamps are tight.
4. Turn all the accessories off and switch ON the ignition key. The fuel pump should run
for about two seconds, note the reading of the gauge. After the pump stops running,
the pressure should hold steady. The reading should not drop after five minutes.
5. Start the engine and let it idle at normal operating temperature. The pressure should
remain the same. The fuel system is operating normally is the pressure is within the
limit specified in the manufacturer’s manual.
6. If the fuel pressure is higher than specified, the fuel regulator should be replaced.
7. For lower fuel pressure, the fuel filter could be clogged, fuel line from the fuel rail to
the fuel tank could be restricted, fuel injector could be leaking or fuel pressure
regulator could be defective or the fuel pump itself could be defective.
8. After testing, relieve the fuel pressure and remove the fuel pressure gauge.

Figure 70: Fuel pressure gauge connected to the Schrader valve on the fuel rail.
Pressure-drop balance test
The pressure-drop balance test involves using an electrical timing device to pulse the fuel
injectors on for a given amount of time (500ms or 0.5seconds), and observing the drop in

623
pressure that accompanies the pulse. If the fuel flow through each injector is equal, the drop
in pressure in the system will be equal. The purpose of running this injector balance test is
to determine which injector is restricted, inoperative or delivering fuel differently from other
injectors. This test is important since replacing a complete set of injectors can be expensive.

Procedure of carrying out pressure-drop balance test

1. Attach the pressure gauge to the fuel delivery rail on the supply side. Make sure the
connections are safe and leak proof.
2. Attach the injector pulser to the first injector to be tested.
3. Turn the ignition key to the ON position to prime the fuel rail. Note the static fuel
pressure reading.
4. Activate the pulser for the timed firing pulses.
5. Note and record the new static rail pressure after the injector has been pulsed.
6. Re-energize the fuel pump and repeat this procedure for all of the engine injectors.
7. Compare the two pressure readings and compute the pressure drop for each injector.
Compare the pressure drops of the injectors to each other. Any variation in the
pressure drops will indicate an uneven fuel delivery rate between the injectors.

Figure 71: Pressure-drop balance test using pressure gauge

Table 17: Sample pressure-drop balance test table
Injector 1 2 2 4
Initial pressure 40 40 40 40

624
 Second pressure 30 30 35 30
Pressure drop 10 10 15 10
Possible problem Ok Ok Restriction Ok

7.7.4 Learning Activities

Test fuel injectors for injection pressure and voltage.
7.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the possible cause of pressure-drop in an injector?
2. What are the possible causes of lower fuel pressure during injection pressure test?
3. What is the purpose for carrying out injector voltage drop test?
4. What is the possible cause of low injector voltage?
7.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets,
torque wrench, hammers etc.).
Digital Multimeter
Equipment Complete functional vehicle with an SI engine
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Vehicle lifts/hoist,
Fuel system pressure gauge
Fire extinguisher (proper class of fire extinguisher)
Fume extraction equipment
Pressure gauge with pressure relief.
Injector pulser with time control.
Injector connection adapter.
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Petrol
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

625
7.7.7 References.
Bonnick, A. & Newbold, D. (2011). A practical approach to motor vehicle engineering and
maintenance: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson
Thorns.
Nunney M.J (2007). Light and Heavy Technology: Elsevier.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed.
Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed. Routledge
7.7.8 Model Answers
1. What are the possible cause of low injector voltage?
- Resistance in the wire connection.
2. What are the possible causes of lower fuel pressure during injection pressure test?
- Fuel tank could be restricted
- Fuel injector could be leaking
- Defective fuel pressure regulator.
- Defective fuel pump.
3. What is the purpose for carrying out injector voltage drop test?
- Helps to locate high resistance in the fuel pump circuit
4. What are the possible tests performed on a fuel injector nozzle?
- Injection opening pressure
- injector spray pattern
- leakage

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CHAPTER 8: SERVICE MOTOR VEHICLES TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/AUT/CR/4/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Service Vehicle Transmission
Systems.
8.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies the competencies required to service vehicle transmission systems. It involves
preparing to service vehicle transmission systems, overhaul manual gearbox units, overhaul
semi/automatic gearbox and carryout hydraulic/ Tiptronic tests and measurement.

8.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1.1. Organize to service vehicle.
1.2. Troubleshoot vehicle transmission system.
1.3. Overhaul gearbox (Manual).
1.4. Overhaul gearbox (semi/automatic).
1.5. Carryout hydraulic/Tiptronic system tests and measurement.
8.3 Learning Outcome 1: Organize to service a vehicle transmission system.
8.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to organize work area before use as per
the workshop regulations/OSHA. It entails cleaning the work area, parking the vehicle on a hoist,
interpreting the job card and organizing tools, equipment and materials required to undertake the
service as per the organization approved format.
8.3.2 Performance Standard
1. Work area is cleaned and safety measures undertaken before use as per the workshop
regulations/OSHA.
2. Vehicle is parked on a workshop hoist as per workshop regulations.
3. Interpret the job card
4. Tools and equipment and materials are availed as per manufacturer’s recommendations.
8.3.3 Information Sheet
8.3.3.1 Definition of terms

 Transmission – This term is remotely used to refer to gearbox.

627
  Vehicle transmission system: These are interconnected component parts in a vehicle
which ensures that power generated from the combustion of fuel and/or other power
sources flows to the vehicle road wheel with minimal wastage.
 Vehicle service – Is a routine maintenance procedure carried out to motor vehicle at set
interval after the vehicle has covered a certain mileage/distance.
 Work area -area set for carrying out an assessment. Should be within the workshop.
 Job card- Is a card that gives the details of type of job to be done, time taken to do the job,
materials required for the job. Job card are also used to allocate labour and material cost.
 Vehicle hoist – Is an equipment used to raise the whole vehicle off the ground to a required
height.
8.3.3.2 Procedure for organizing and hoisting a vehicle for service.
1. Interpret the job card.
2. Select all the personal protective equipment and clothing necessary for accomplishing the
task (PPEs).
3. Prepare the tools, equipment and materials required to perform the task as per the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
4. Prepare clean and safe work area as per the workshop regulations/ OSHA.
5. Wear suitable personal protective equipment (PPE) e.g. goggles or face shield for
protection from leaking liquids, hard hat to prevent injuries from bumps or falling objects.
6. Select the manufacturer’s repair/service manual for the vehicle to be serviced.
7. Park the vehicle on a workshop ramp/hoist as per the workshop regulations.
8. Confirm the load limit of the equipment for hoisting the vehicle to avoid overload.
9. Check overhead clearance before lifting taking caution of any obstruction such as radio
aerials/ antennas.
10. Make sure no one is in the vehicle before raising the vehicle. Objects that hang low while
walking under the supported vehicle should be watched.
11. Position the vehicle at the centre of the hoist so as to balance the C.O.G. For hoist with
contact pads/adaptors, make sure the adaptors are placed position at the recommended
contact points. Ensure the vehicle is well choked.
12. Put the transmission in neutral position, turn off ignition, close the vehicle doors, hood
(bonnet) and trunk.

628
 13. Raise the lift until the vehicle wheels are just off the floor. Again, check that the vehicle is
well secured on the hoist. In case the vehicle is not well parked on the hoist or the contact
with the vehicle not even, lower and reposition the vehicle on the lift. Make sure the lift is
not bang or moved quickly.

Figure 72:Hoisted vehicle undergoing service.

8.3.3.2 Details of vehicle service job card

 COMPANY NAME HERE

 COMPANY ADDRESS HERE
 COMPANY PHONE NUMBER HERE
 VEHICLE MAINTENANCE JOB CARD
 MAINTENANCE RQUEST NO__________________________JOB
NO_________________
 To be completed by Service Manager
Plate No. Model. Make Km In__________ Km Out _________

Date In______________ Time In______________ Date Time

Out______________ Out______________

Mechanic___________________________________ Checked
By___________________________________

To be completed by the Mechanic

Description of work carried out Start Time Finish Time Hours Per Job Mechanic Signature

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 Total Hours:

Hourly Rate: Total

Labour
Cost:

Figure 73: Sample Job card

8.3.4 Learning Activities

Clean work area, assemble tools and equipment and park the vehicle on a workshop hoist as per
workshop regulation
8.3.5 Self – Assessment
1. What are the benefits of working in a clean area within the workshop?
2. Why is interpreting the job card important while organizing the vehicle for service?
3. What kind of equipment is required when organizing to service a vehicle transmission
system?
4. Why is interpreting the job card important while organizing the vehicle for service?

630
8.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
 A fully equipped motor vehicle maintenance workshop
 Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets, torque wrench, hammers etc.).
 Fully functional vehicle
 Vehicle lifts/hoist,
 Manufacturer’s manuals.
 Access to online vehicle manufacturer’s information
 Cleaning materials

8.3.7 References.
Roy B. et al., D. (2011). Vehicle maintenance and Repair Series: Routledge.
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson Thorns.
Nunney M.J (2007). Light and Heavy Technology: Elsevier.
Halderman D.J. (2015). Automotive Engines Theory and Servicing: Pearson
Jorgensen E. (2005) et al. Haynes Repair Manual; Ford Ranger and Mazda B. Series. Haynes.
Check more on the procedure of lifting the vehicle on the link below.
 https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/garage s/hydraulic_operation.html
 https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=QpHuSjYIkn0
8.3.8 Model Answers
1. What are the safety measures to be observed when preparing to work under vehicle under
lift?
 The mechanic must always put on personal protective equipment such as googles and
hard hat to protect you spilling fluid or being hit by the falling or low-lying objects.
2. Why is it advisable to work in a clean environment?
 Working in a clean environment minimizes chances the of accidents in the workshop.
Working in a clean environment also reduces time wastage by the technician as he/she
able to access most of the tools and materials with much ease.
3. Why is it advisable not to overload the hoist/ramp?
 The hoist may collapse with the load and harm the technician working under it.
4. Why is interpreting the job card important while organizing the vehicle for service?
 Helps the mechanics to use the right tools, equipment, material and time etc. needed for
the task.
 Helps in costing the job as well as assigning the right technician for the task.

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 8.4 Learning Outcome 2: Troubleshoot Vehicle Transmission System
8.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome stipulates the competencies required to carry out technical inspection of the
transmission system components for damage, wear or fracture. The inspection is carried out while
the engine is running according to the manufacturer’s specification. The vehicle is inspected
underneath as per the workshop setup.
8.4.2 Performance Standard
2.1. Visual inspection of the vehicle is done.
2.2. Technical inspection is done while engine is running according to the manufacturer’s
manual.
2.3. Vehicle is inspected underneath according to the workshop setup.
2.4. Faulty components are established according to the inspection done.
8.4.3 Information Sheet
8.4.3.1 Definition of terms
 Automatic Transmission (Automatic gearbox) -This is a type of transmission where the
drive from the engine is transmitted to the gearbox using torque converter (fluid clutch)
 Clutch- is a device used to engage smoothly two shafts in relative motion; one of which
may be stationary. In motor vehicle, the clutch if fitted between the engine and the gearbox.
The main purpose of the clutch is: connect a running engine smoothly and gradually to the
remainder of the transmission, to permit gear changing while the vehicle is in motion and
to allow the engine to continue running when the vehicle is temporarily stopped.
 Constant Velocity Joint-is a joint more or less the same as universal joint which is mainly
used in front wheel drive to allow smooth, constant velocity drive to be passed to through
regardless of the transmission movement.
 Differential- is a transmission unit with special combination of gears which allows the
wheels to be rotated at different speeds. It enables two driveshaft to be driven at different
speed, but with equal torque.
 Differential lock- is a mechanical device fitted to the differential and prevent the driving
wheel from rotating at different speeds.
 Drive Shafts- are used to pass the drive from the output of the final drive to the two wheels.

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  Final drive- is the part of the transmission system that provides a final reduction of gears
and even distribution of engine torque to the flywheel.
 Flex plate- Is a light metal disk connecting the output of the engine to the input of a torque
converter in an automatic transmission.
 Flywheel – is a large metal disk/balanced weight that provides inertia to the crankshaft
helping to keep the crankshaft rotating between the power strokes.
 Gearbox- Is a transmission unit that allows the vehicle to be operated through suitable
range of speed and torque.
 Manual transmission (manual gearbox)- this is a type of gearbox where a clutch is used
to disconnect the engine crankshaft from the gearbox while changing gears.
 Overdrive -is a gear ratio in which the speed of the output is greater than that of the input
 Propeller/ Transmission shaft-is the transmission component used on the rear wheel
drive to connect the gearbox output to the final drive and differential. It is a hollow tube
with universal joints at each end.
 Semi-Automatic Transmission-
 Torque Converter-is a fluid coupling used to transfer rotating power from the engine to
the transmission. Used in automatic gearbox
 Torque -in engine, torques is used to refer to the twisting force available at the crankshaft.
 Transaxle – short form of ‘transmission and axle’. In this unit, the transmission and axle
are mounted in one unit. It is a combined gearbox and differential units attached to the
engines mostly in front-wheel drive vehicle.
 Transfer box- gear systems that apportions drive between the front and rear axle.
 Universal Joint- is the part of the transmission which allow the drive to be transmitted at
an angle so as to accommodate the suspension movement.
Manual transmission clutch
Vehicle manual transmission clutch is made up of two main parts: driven plate/clutch disc and
driving plate. When the clutch is engaged, the pressure plate presses the driven plate against the
engine flywheel allowing the drive to be passed to the gearbox.

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 (a) (b)

Figure 74: (a)Diaphragm-type clutch and (b) Clutch linkage operate clutch fork
Table 18: Clutch faults and possible causes
Symptom Possible Causes
No pedal resistance  Broken cable  Air in hydraulic system
 Hydraulic seals worn  Release bearing or fork
 Diaphragm spring broken broken

Clutch does not  As above  Disc sticking in flywheel

disengage  Disc sticking in gearbox  Faulty pressure plates
splines
Clutch slip  Incorrect adjustment  Contaminated linings (oil or
 Worn disc linings grease)
 Faulty pressure plate
Judder when engaging  Contaminated linings (oil  Distorted or worn pressure
or grease) plate
 Worn disc linings  Engine mounting worn, is
 Clutch disc hub splines loose or broken
worn
Noisy operation  Broken components  Release bearing seized
 Disc cushioning springs
broken
Snatching  Disc cushioning springs  Operating mechanism
broken sticking
(lubrication may be required)

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 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 75:Sample manual clutch faults (a) Heavy chatter marks on pressure plates indicates oil or
grease fouling, (b) worn frictional facing, (c) hot spot on the pressure plate indicating the slipping
clutch, (d) destroyed torsional damper, (e) frictional material (facing) only make contact with the
flywheel on inner and outer edge, (f) worn and broken diaphragm, (g) broken cushion segment due
to movement between the engine and the transmission, (h) rusting hub splines may cause the clutch
not to engage properly and (i) corroded clutch slave cylinder.

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Common transmission system faults (Manual gearbox)
Table 19: Common Manual Transmission faults
Faults Possible Causes
Transmission noisy in  Transmission  Excessive end play of
neutral misaligned with the countershaft
engine  Countershaft worn or
 Bearing worn or dry bent
 Gear worn
Transmission noisy in gear  Clutch friction disk  Gear teeth worn
defective  Speedometer gear worn
 Engine torsional  Gear loose on main
vibration damper shaft
defective  Main rear bearing of
transmission worn or
dry
Gear clash in shifting  Clutch not releasing  Gear sticky on main
 Synchronizer shaft
defective
Oil leaks  Improper lubrication  Oil seals damaged or
 Lubrication level missing or improperly
too high installed
 Gasket broken or  Drain plug loose
missing  Transmission case
cracked
No power through  Gear teeth stripped  Gear or shaft broken
transmission  Shifter fork or other
linkages broken
Transmission slips out of  Gear loose on main  Excessive end play of
first or reverse gear shaft gear
 Gear teeth worn

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Common transmission system faults (Automatic gearbox)
Table 20: Common faults in an automatic transmission (I)
Faults Possible Causes
Fluid leaks  Gasket loose or damaged
 High fluid level
 Seal damaged or improperly installed
 Fluid pressure too high
 Case leaking or damaged
Rough gear changes  Contaminated transmission oil
 Poor fluid quality
Some gear not being  Incorrect selector fork adjustment
selected
General diagnosis steps

 Gather more information about the problem. Where possible check for the service history
 Gather more information on the specific part of the transmission involved.
 Carry out a variety of tests using test equipment.
 Analyze the information and test results and reach a diagnosis.
 Decide on the repair.
 Confirm the causes of the problem.
Components of transmission system

Figure 76: Sample RWD manual Transmission (gearbox)

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Figure 77: Automatic Transmission: 1. Transmission input from the engine, 2. Torque converter
lockup clutch, 3. Turbine, 4. Converter/Pump/impeller, 5. Multiplate clutch, 6. Module for
transmission control, 7. Planetary gears, 8. Transmission output.

Figure 78: Single- plate diaphragm spring-clutch assembly (left) and hydraulic clutch linkage
using master cylinder and slave cylinder (right).
Other vehicle transmission components
Other the clutch body and the gearbox, other systems within the transmission includes, propeller
shaft (RWD or FWD), final drive and the differential units, driveshafts, constant velocity joint
(CV). This content is majorly on service of both manual and automatic transmission/ transaxle

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due to the complexity involved. Useful references are given for further study regarding service of
any of other part of the transmission.
Diagnosing a manual transmission
The following steps can be followed when carrying out a manual transmission diagnostic test:
1. Road test to confirm when the faults occur.
2. Look for oil leaking from the bellhousing or general areas of the clutch. Check
adjustment if possible.
3. If adjustment is correct, then the clutch must be examined.
4. The class assembly should be removed for visual examination.
5. Replace parts as necessary; this is often done as a kit comprising the clutch plate and
cover as well as a bearing in some cases

Figure 79: Diagnosing Transmission faults on a running engine using a scan tool.
8.4.4 Learning Activities
Inspect the vehicle transmission system and identify faulty transmission system components
8.4.5 Self – Assessment
1. What are some of the faults one is likely to encounter in a manual transmission?
2. Why is it advisable to carry out troubleshooting on the transmission system before any
overhaul is done?
3. What are the tools required to perform transmission troubleshooting?

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4. What is the required lubricant level in a manual transmission?
8.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Safety stands

Appropriate hand tools
Equipment Transmission Jack
Hydraulic hoist/Inspection pit
Complete functional vehicle
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Transmission pressure gauge
Flash light
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Transmission fluid
Oil drain container
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.4.7 References
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson Thorns.
Konrad Reif (2014). Fundamental of Automotive and Engine Technology. Springer.
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed. Pearson

8.4.8 Response to self-assessment questions

1. What are some of the faults one is likely to encounter in a manual transmission?
- Oil leaks, noisy transmission, transmission overheating, slipping gears, delayed or
erratic shifting
2. Why is it advisable to carry out troubleshooting on the transmission system before any
overhaul is done?
- Enable to trace faulty parts so that one can service/repair
- Compare information on identified fault with clients complain
3. What are the tools required to perform transmission troubleshooting?

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 - Diagnostic scan tool
- Transmission pressure gauge
4. What is the required lubricant level in a manual transmission?
- The right level should be within the dipstick range of high and low. Normally the
level is set to the level of layshaft/counter-shaft.

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 8.5 Learning Outcome 3: Overhaul gearbox unit (Manual).
8.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to overhaul a manual gearbox unit. It
entails draining gearbox oil, removing faulty gearbox from the vehicle, cleaning external housing
of the gearbox, dismantling faulty gearbox, cleaning internal components of the manual gearbox,
servicing and replacing worn out gearbox components, assembling serviced/new components of
the gearbox, fitting new gearbox mounting and refitting serviced gearbox to the vehicle.

8.5.2 Performance Standard

3.1. Drain gearbox from the vehicle according to the manufacturer’s manual.
3.2. Remove faulty gearbox from the vehicle according to the manufacturer’s manual.
3.3. Clean external housing of the gearbox according to the workshop procedures.
3.4. Dismantle faulty gearbox according to the manufacturer’s manual.
3.5. Clean internal manual gearbox components according to the manufacturer’s manual.
3.6. Service and replace worn out gearbox components according to the manufacturer’s
specifications.
3.7. Assemble serviced/new components of the gearbox according to manufacturer’s manual
3.8. Fit new gearbox mounting according to the workshop procedures
3.9. Refit serviced gearbox to the vehicle according to the manufacturer’s manual.
3.10. Refill gearbox oil to the recommended level according to manufacturer’s specification
3.11. Test serviced gearbox according to workshop procedures
8.5.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
 Baulk ring- is the ring in the synchronizer units that prevents gears from engaging before
they reach the correct speed (before the gears synchronized)
 Input shaft- This is the shaft that transmit the drive from the clutch to the gearbox. It is
also called the primary shaft.
 Detent mechanism -is used to hold the selected gear in mesh.
 Layshaft/countershaft- Is the shaft normally fixed to the gearbox casing and supports
various-sized driving pinions of the layshaft group of gear.
 Output shaft- It is also called the main shaft. It takes the torque from the gearbox to the
rest of the transmission.

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  Synchronizer units- A synchromesh/ synchronizer unit is needed because the teeth of the
dog clutches would clash if they met at different speed.
 Selector fork- this is the gear lever that transfer the input from the driver to the selector
mechanism. It slides the gearwheel along the main shaft so that the gear can engage and
disengage with the matching pinion.
 Sliding mesh gearbox- is the type of manual gearbox where gear engagement was by
simply sliding. It no longer used in modern vehicle engine. It was characterized by severe
noise during gear engagement
 Constant mesh gearbox- this type of gearbox, the gearwheels are in contact mesh with
each. It is where gear operation is obtained by locking the respective gear to the main shaft
gear by means of a dog clutch. Noise during gear changing was reduced compared to the
sliding gear. However, there were still noise during gear engagement.
 Synchromesh gearbox- In this gearbox, there is a unit incorporated i.e. The synchromesh
unit which help in smooth engagement during gear change. It is the most common gearbox
in today vehicles.
8.5.3.1 Arrangements of different component parts of a manual gearbox.

Figure 80: Illustration of main shafts and parts of a four-speed constant mesh manual gearbox.

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Figure 81: Exploded view of a four-speed manual gearbox assembly.

Figure 82: Synchromesh unit

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 Figure 83: Power flow in a standard five-speed manual gearbox.

8.5.3.2 Procedure for removing manual gearbox from the vehicle.

1. Disconnect the negative cable from the battery.
2. Shift the transmission into neutral.
3. Drain the transmission lubricant.
4. Raise the vehicle and support it securely on jack stands.
5. Remove the driveshafts/propeller shaft (RWD).
6. Disconnect the hydraulic fluid line from the clutch release cylinder.
7. Disconnect the speedometer cable from the transfer case or transmission.
8. Remove the starter motor.
9. Disconnect the electrical connections from the backup lamp, shift indicator switch, speed
sensor, heated oxygen sensors or any other nearby electrical connections.

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 10. Place a jak under the engine and protect the oil pan with a wood block. Apply a slight
amount of jack pressure to support the rear of the engine.
11. On FWD models, remove the transfer case.
12. On V6 engines, remove the exhaust systems.
13. Place a transmission jack under the transmission. Apply a slight amount of jack pressure
to support the transmission. Remove the bolts, lock washers and plain washers that secure
the transmission to the engine.
14. Remove the nuts securing the frame cross member to the frame side rails. If the mount is
not removed from the transmission, it will be necessary to raise the transmission enough to
clear the mount bolts, then slide the cross member towards the rear. Pull the transmission
straight back until the input shaft clears the clutch assembly.
15. Lower the transmission jack and remove the transmission.

a b c

d e f

Figure 84: Illustration of few steps in removing the gearbox from the vehicle. (a) Disconnecting
the battery, (b) removing shifter (selector) mechanism inside the vehicle, (c) drive shaft is marked
then removed, (d) removing exhaust pipe if needed. (e) transmission mounts (brakets) are
removed, (f) supporting the transmission using a transmission jack ready for lowering.
8.5.3.3 General information about overhauling a manual gearbox.
Assembly the right tools necessary for the overhaul. Take note of how each piece comes off, where
it fits in relation to other pieces and what holds it in place. Identify the areas of faults or malfunction
of the transmission since certain faults are tied to specific areas in the transmission.

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8.5.3.2.1 Procedure of dismantling a five-speed gear manual transmission
1. Wash the gearbox and place it on the bench.
2. Drain oil and remove the bottom cover with the lining.
3. Remove the cluch release fork, and the coupling in assembly with bearing and the spring
from the guide sleeve in the gearbox front cover.
4. Remove clutch bellhousing with the lining and the front cover together with the oil seal
and spring washer.
5. Turn out 3rd and 4th gearshift fork fastening bolt. To prevent turning the input and
intermediate shaft (lay shaft) with output, lock the input shaft using special too or
simultenously engage both gears.
6. Remove circlip from the gearbox output shaft end.
7. Unbend the lock washer, loosen the nut by several turns to move the coupling centering
ring, and again turn in the nut.
8. Using a puller, remove the flexible coupling centering ring from the output shaft end.
9. Remove the couping centering ring seal with a spring from the output shaft end and
remove the flexible coupling flange.
10. Before removing the rear cover, place the gearshift lever in neutral position, undo the
gear selector mechanism fastening nuts and remove the gearshift lever in assembly with
the selector mechanism.
11. After removing the output shaft rear inner ring, loosen the cover fastening bolts. Loosen
the bolts that are securing the top (fifth)/reverse gear unit. Remove oil deflector washer,
then bush from the fifth speed gear. Remove the gear unit from the intermediate splines.
12. Remove the reverse idler gear from the shaft.
13. Using a spcial tool (e.g. screw driver) remove the 5th synchromesh unit hub together with
reverse driven gear.
14. Remove out front and rear bearings of the immediate shaft from the tranmission casing.
15. Take out the intermediate shaft (lay shaft) from the transmission casing.
16. Take out from the transmission casing, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th selector rods one by one
after loosening and removing the securing bolts
17. Remove the output shaft idler bearing lock plate.
18. Loosen the fastening nut of the reverse idler gear shaft and remove it.

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 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 85: Selected steps of dismantling a manual transmission: (a) Removing circlip, (b)
removing the coupling centering ring from the propeller shaft, (c) removing the selector
mechanism, (d) removing the 5th gear bush (show by no. 1 in the figure), (e) withdrawing the
intermediate (lay) shaft from the transmission.

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Inspection of manual transmission for faults
Before any inspection can be done, the gearbox should be carefully cleaned by brushing or
scrapping all deposits or residues. All bores and splines should be cleaned; then washed to
remove all traces of oil. Parts should be blown using compressed air then wiped.

a) Gearbox casing and covers

 Should be checked for cracks, wear or any damaged on the bearing housing.
 Check the condition of the front cover and ensure that the input shaft does not
touch it when rotating. In case of any misalignment between the cover and the
shaft, replace the damaged part.
 Oil drain aperture should not be fouled.
b) Seals
 Oils seals should be inspected and ensure there is no damage, severe wear or
roughness on the working edges.
c) Shafts
 Check for damages or excessive wear on the working surfaces and on the splines
of the output shaft.
d) Gears
 There should be no damages or excessive wear of teeth. The condition of teeth
end faces on the synchromesh unit crown should be checked.
 Check teeth meshing clearance.
e) Bearings
 All bearings should be in perfect condition otherwise should be replaced.
f) Rods and forks
 No deformation of gear shift fork is acceptable. The rods should be freely slid in
the borings without significant gaps.
g) Hubs, sleeves and baulk rings
 Ensure the hubs have no damage, in particular on the sleeve sliding surface.
 Sleeve spline face should be checked.

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 Figure 86: Three-piece synchronizer assembly.

Figure 87: It takes several hands to assemble synchromesh unit

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 Figure 88:Damaged gears (broken teeth)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 89:Dissembling transmission: (a) location of a snap ring, (b) using a snap-ring pliers to
remove snap ring, (c) lifting gears components after removing the snap ring.
Procedure of removing a manual transaxle from vehicle
1. Place protective device on fenders and cowl and remove the hood (bonnet)
2. Relieve the fuel system pressure
3. Disconnect the negative cable from the battery and drain the transaxle lubricant.
4. If the vehicle is equipped with cruise control, unplug the electrical connector for the
actuator and remove the actuator.
5. Remove the battery and the battery tray.
6. Remove the air intake duct and the air cleaner housing.

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7. Release the residual fuel pressure in the tank by removing the gas cap, then disconnect
the fuel lines connecting the engine and the chassis. Plug or cap all open fittings.
8. Remove the starter motor.
9. Disconnect the clutch release cylinder mounting bolts from the transaxle but do NOT
disconnect the hydraulic line. Remove two mounting bolts from the clutch line bracket.
10. Clearly label, then disconnect the vacuum lines, coolant and emissions hoses, wiring
harness connectors and ground straps.
11. Take instant photos or sketch the locations of components and brackets. You can use
masking tape or touch up paints for marking items.
12. Disconnect the shift and select cables.
13. Remove the exhaust manifold brace.
14. Loosen but do NOT remove the front wheel lug nuts. Also loosen the drive axle/hub nuts.
15. Raise the vehicle and support it securely on jack stands. Secure the engine using engine
support fixture that is installed above the engine compartment. If the engine compartment
fixture is not available, install an engine lift and a lifting chain assembly. This will keep
the engine stable during the axle removal procedures. Remove the front wheel.
16. Detach the exhaust pipe from the manifold and separate the front exhaust pipe from the
underside of the vehicle. Remove the floor pan brace to allow the exhaust to allow the
exhaust to drop out of the way.
17. Remove the splash shields.
18. Remove the drive axles.
19. Disconnect the two power steering fluid lines from the steering gear. Also detach the tie-
rod ends from the steering knuckles.
20. Disconnect the stabilizer bar from the links.
21. Remove the mounting bolts from the engine/transaxle mounts to the subframe.
22. Remove the subframe mounting bolts from the chassis, using a floor jack to lower the
subframe. Be sure to note exactly the size and location of each nut and bolts to insure
correct reassembly. Note: The transaxle should be supported by floor jack immediately
after the subframe is removed from the vehicle. The transaxle will tilt slightly, but should
remain steady if the engine is properly secured with the engine support fixture.
23. Support the transaxle with a floor jack with a transmission adapter head. Safety chains
will help steady the transaxle on the jack.

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24. Remove the transaxle to engine bolts.
25. Recheck to be sure nothing is connecting the engine to the vehicle or to the transaxle.
Disconnect and label anything still remaining.
26. Slowly lower the transaxle assembly out of the vehicle. Keep the transaxle level as you
are separating it from the engine to prevent damage to the input shaft. It may be
necessary to pry the mounts away from the frame brackets.
Caution:
Do not depress the clutch pedal while the transaxle is removed from the vehicle.
Warning:
Do not place any part of your body under the transaxle as it is being removed.
27. Move the transaxle assembly away from the vehicle and carefully place the transaxle
assembly on the floor onto the wood blocks. Leave enough room for a floor jack
underneath the transaxle.
28. The clutch components can now be inspected. In most cases, a new clutch component
should be routinely be installed whenever the transaxle is removed.
29. Check the engine and transaxle mounts and transaxle shock absorber, if any of these
components are worn or damaged, replace them.

inpu

to to

Figure 90: Five-speed front wheel drive (Transaxle)

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 Figure 91: Cut-away of a typical manual transaxle assembly.

Figure 92: Using hydraulic press to remove gears from the gear shaft.
8.5.3.2.2 Installing manual gearbox and road testing.
Following checks and replacing of the faulty component parts of a manual transmission, the
gearbox should be reassembled and installed back to the vehicle. In most service manual, the

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process of reassembling and re installing the gearbox is usually the reverse of that of dismantling
and removing it from the vehicle respective. However, the repair manual should be consulted at
all time for verification. Transmission oil should the added to the right level to the serviced
gearbox.

8.5.3.2.3 Road testing

Carry out road test to confirm whether all the complains/faults earlier identified have been
rectified. Check for any source of oil leak from the bell housing of general area of the clutch and
gearbox. The transmission should operate normally after the service.

8.5.3.3 Learning Activities

Remove, dismantle, clean, inspect and service the manual gearbox of a vehicle.
8.5.3.3.1 Field/visit to a Garage

Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction

Manual gearbox service Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
and repair removal, dismantling and correctly used.
servicing manual gearbox.
Procedure for testing the
serviced manual gearbox

8.5.3.4 Self – Assessment

1. Why should you disconnect the negative terminal of the battery before removing the gearbox
from the vehicle?
2. What are some of the possible cause of noise when changing gear?
3. What are the dangers likely to occur when there is excessive leak of the transmission
lubricant?
4. Why is it advisable to mark or take instant photos or sketch the location of components when
removing the transaxle from the vehicle?

8.5.3.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets, torque
wrench, hammers, bearing pullers, snap ring pliers etc.).
Equipment Transmission Jack
Hydraulic hoist/Inspection pit
Complete functional vehicle
Compressor

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 Diagnostic/scan tool
Transmission pressure gauge
Bearing splitter
Hydraulic press
Stethoscope
Flash light
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Transmission fluid
Oil drain container
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.5.3.6 Reference
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson Thorns.
Konrad Reif (2014). Fundamental of Automotive and Engine Technology. Springer
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed. Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed. Routledge

8.5.3.7 Response to self-assessment questions

1. Why should you disconnect the negative terminal of the battery before removing the gearbox
from the vehicle?
- Battery negative terminal is connected to the body of the vehicle (earthed). Thus, there
is flow of current through the vehicle electrical component when both battery terminals
are connected. When working on a vehicle, failure to disconnect the negative terminal
has the potential danger not only to the technician due to shock as a result of short
circuiting, but also to the vehicle electrical component.
2. What are some of the possible cause of noise when changing gear?
- Worn synchromesh unit

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3. What are the dangers likely to occur when there is excessive leak of the transmission
lubricant?
- Overheating since oil is used both as a lubricant as well as coolant. This will lead to
damage of gears.
4. Why is it advisable to mark or take instant photos or sketch the location of components when
removing the transaxle from the vehicle?
- Enable to return the parts in the correct position
- Minimizes loss of parts dismantled
- Aligns part back to the respective initial positions

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8.5.4 Learning Outcome 4. Overhaul gearbox unit (semi/automatic)

8.5.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to overhaul a semi/automatic gearbox.
It entails draining automatic transmission fluid (ATF), removing faulty gearbox from the vehicle,
cleaning external housing of the gearbox, dismantling faulty gearbox, cleaning internal
semi/automatic gearbox components, servicing and replacing worn out gearbox components,
assembling serviced/new components of the gearbox, fitting gearbox mounting and refitting
serviced gearbox to the vehicle and refilling ATF to the recommended level.

8.5.4.2 Performance Standard

4.1. Drain automatic transmission fluid (ATF) according to the workshop procedures.
4.2. Remove faulty gearbox from the vehicle according to the manufacturer’s manual.
4.3. Clean external housing of the gearbox according to workshop procedures.
4.4. Dismantle faulty gearbox according to the manufacturer’s manual.
4.5. Clean internal semi/automatic gearbox components according to manufacturer’s manual.
4.6. Service and replace worn out gearbox according to manufacturer’s manual.
4.7. Assemble serviced/new components of the gearbox according to manufacturer’s manual.
4.8. Fit new gearbox mountings according to workshop procedures.
4.9. Refit serviced gearbox to the vehicle according to manufacturer’s manual.
4.10. Refill ATF to the recommended level according to manufacturer’s manual.

8.5.4.3 Information Sheet

8.5.4.3.1 Definition of terms

 Annulus – is an internal gear or an internal ring gear which surrounds the planet gears and
meshes with them in an epicyclic gear train.
 Brake band- are flexible steel plates lined with organic(cellulose) or semi-metallic friction
material which absorbs transmission fluid to aid in heat dissipation. As the band tightens
around the drums, the fluid is squeezed on into grooves cut into the band’s surface thus,
the band brings the drum to a stop and holds it there.
 Carrier gear- is the part of an epicyclic gears that holds the planet gears.
 Cavitation- bubbles in a liquid. These bubbles can cause noise if they occur in a torque
converter fluid.

658
  Clutch park- a series of clutches used in an automatic transmission.
 Fluid flywheel- is a device for transmitting rotation between shafts by means of
acceleration and deceleration of a hydraulic fluid. It consists of an impeller/pump on the
input or driving shaft and a runner/turbine on the output or driven shaft. Impeller and runner
are bladed rotors. There is no direct contact between the members of the fluid flywheel.
 Impeller/pump- is the driving member of the torque converter and it rotates with the
engine. It is located on the transmission side.
 Output shaft- is the automatic gearbox input shaft that receives and transmits the torque
from the turbine of the torque converter.
 Planetary gears- these are set of gears which revolve around the run gear.
 Shift valve- is a mechanism (or solenoid) in an automatic transmission which controls the
flow of fluid through the transmission to engage a specific gear. The fluid is directed to the
hydraulic line that either activates or controls the appropriate clutch and/ or brake.
 Stator – a component which redirects fluid when it returns from the turbines in a torque
converter. Also called reactor in other texts.
 Sun wheel gears- is the central gear located at the centre of an epicyclic gear train.
 Torque converter- is a fluid coupling located between engine flex plate and the
transmission which transfer power from the engine to the rest of the transmission.
 Turbine/ runner- is the driven member of the torque converter located on the engine side.
8.5.4.3.2 Illustration of some selected component parts of an automatic gearbox.
i. Torque Converter

659
 (a) (b)

Figure 93: Cutaway of automatic transmission (a) and exploded view of a torque converter (b)
ii. Epicyclic gear train
By driving one member, holding another member and making one member to be an out,
different gear ratios can be achieved by an epicyclic gear train.
Any part of the planetary gear can be held or locked to other parts to attain the desired
output. Locking any two members results in an output gear ratio of 1:1. On the other hand,
if there is no member held (locked), then there is no output hence a neutral gear is achieved.

660
 Figure 94: Operation of an epicyclic gear
iii. Valve body

Figure 95: Electrohydraulic valve body

661
 iv. Clutch pack

Figure 96: Typical clutch pack assembly

8.5.4.3.3 Critical areas to be checked in an automatic transmission

 Line pressure
 Governor pressure
 Clutch pressure
 Fluid type
 Transmission fluid filter and seal
 Fluid capacity etc.

662
8.5.4.3.4 Common automatic gearbox faults and diagnostic table
Table 9: Automatic gearbox faults and diagnostic (II)
Symptom Possible causes
Slip, rough shift, noisy Numerous causes can cause these symptoms. Check
operation or no drive fluid levels and condition. Carry out stall test.
Fluid leaks Gaskets or seals broken or worn dip stick tube seal.
Oil cooler or pipe leaking.
Discolored and/ or burnt smell Low fluid level.
to fluid Slipping clutches and/ or brake bands in the gearbox.
Fluid requires changing.
Gear selection faults Incorrect selector adjustment
Low fluid level
Incorrect kick down cable adjustment
Load sensor fault (may be vacuum pipe, etc.)
No kick down Incorrect kick down cable adjustment
Kick down cable broken
Low fluid level
Engine will not start or starts in Inhibitor switch adjustment incorrect
gear Faulty inhibitor switch
Incorrect selector adjustment

8.5.4.3.5 Procedure for removing an automatic transmission for service

The following general steps are preferred applied for removing an automatic transmission or
transaxle ready for service.
Steps:
1. Disconnect the negative (-) battery cable from the battery. This prevents the possibility of
accident as a result of short circuit which can be of great damaged to the technician and
vehicle electrical components.
2. Safely hoist the vehicle and drain the fluid from the unit.
3. Disconnect the drive shaft or drive axle shafts.
4. Disconnect all cooler lines, linkages and electrical connections. Be sure to label each to
ensure proper reinstallation. All the electrical connectors should also be labeled.
5. Disconnect the torque converter from the flex plate of the engine.
6. Support the engine before disconnecting the automatic transmission/ transaxle.
7. Remove the transmission/transaxle mounting fasteners.

663
 8. Support the transmission/ transaxles on a jack and remove the attaching bolts at the bell
housing of the engine.
9. Remove the transmission/ transaxle from the vehicle.

Figure 97: Automatic Transmission cooler lines is routed to the radiator where most of the heat is
cooled.
8.5.4.3.6 Procedure for checking automatic transmission fluid level
Below are the steps to follow:
1. Start the engine (unless otherwise specified on the service manual that the ATF be
checked when the engine is off)
2. Be sure that the ATF is at normal operating/ working temperature.
3. Park the vehicle on a level surface. Start the engine and shift the transmission through
each gear, allowing engagement in each gear.
4. Clean the area around the dipstick to hep prevent dirt from falling into the filler tube
when the dipstick is removed.
5. Remove the dipstick and wipe it off with a shop cloth.
6. Reinsert the dipstick and then remove it again. Check the level. The ‘add’ mark indicates
the level is a half litter low.
7. Rub the fluid between your fingers. It should feel slick. If it feels gritty, then it is
contaminated with friction material or other solid particles.

664
 (a) (b)
Figure 98: Typical automatic dipstick (a); the 'ADD' mark (b) indicates the level is down and the
fluid should be added.

(a) (b)

Figure 99: Draining fluid from an automatic transmission/ transaxle (a); checking wear material
(sludge) from the bottom of an automatic transmission pan (b)
Note: It is messy, but you should remove the transmission pan and replace the filter at every
fluid change. The pan should be cleaned and before reinstalling it.

665
 Figure 100: Changing the transmission fluid filter.

Figure 101: Checking the end play of a stator inside a torque converter using a special tool.
Torque converter should also be checked for:
 Wetness that could indicate a leak such as at the welded seam.
 Damages to the pump drive tags.

666
  Hub seal for wear.
 The proper working of the one-way clutch of the stator.
During the service the flex plate is checked for:
 Cracks
 Warpage
 Stripped starter ring gear teeth.
8.5.4.3.7 Procedure of dismantling the valve body of an automatic transmission.
Steps:
1. Disconnect the manual valve linkage and “rooster comb”
2. Carefully loosen the valve body bolts starting from the outside and working towards the
centre to prevent distortion.
3. Remove the lower part of the valve body.
4. Remove the separator plate
5. Check the location of all balls in the upper part valve body.
6. Carefully check the operations of all shift valves by using plastic tool or compressed air
to move the valve in their bores. All valves should return to the home position of spring
pressure.

Figure 102: Valve body (left) and different design of rooster combs (right)

667
 Figure 103: Typical separator plate (left), valve body (right)
8.5.4.3.8 Flushing automatic transmission fluid (ATF)
For cases where flushing of the transmission is recommended, the following steps should be
followed to flush the ATF before refilling a new ATF.
1. Connect the cooler lines to the machine that exchanges the old fluid and the new fluid.
2. Use the machine to draw out old fluid through the filter tube and the refill it with clean
fluid.
3. Use machine that attaches to the pump inlet after the pan and filter have been removed.
The machine uses its own pump to force all of the old fluid from the transmission or
transaxle.
4. Drain and refill.

Figure 104: A fluid exchange machine uses the engine and the transmission pump to force the
fluid into the machine.

668
8.5.4.3.9 Reinstalling automatic transmission to the vehicle
Steps:
1. Install the torque converter on the transaxle input shaft. Make sure the converter hub splines
are properly engaged with input shaft splines.
2. With the transaxle secured to the jack as on removal, and with an assistant holding the
torque converter in place, raise transaxle into position and turn the converter to align the
holes in the converter with the bolt holes in the drive plate. Install the converter-to-drive
plate.
3. Install the transaxle to engine bolts. Tighten the bolts to the right torque in the manual.
4. Install the right engine mount, the front engine mount, the left transaxle mount and the rear
engine mount. Tighten all mounting bolts and nuts securely.
5. Reinstall the remaining components in the reverse order of removal.
6. Remove the jack and support fixtures and lower the vehicle. Tighten the wheel nuts to the
right torque.
7. Add a specified amount of new transmission/transaxle fluid.
8. Connect the negative battery cable. Road test the vehicle to check proper transmission
operation and check for leakage.
9. Recheck the fluid level

Figure 105: Refilling fresh ATF into the dipstick tube with a funnel.
8.5.4.4 Learning Activities
Remove, dismantle, clean, inspect, service and assemble semi/automatic gearbox of a
vehicle.
8.5.4.4.1 Field/visit to a Garage

Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction

semi/automatic gearbox Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
service and repair removal, dismantling and correctly used.
servicing semi/automatic
gearbox.
Procedure for testing the
serviced semi/automatic
gearbox

8.5.4.5 Self – Assessment

1. What are some of the common faults in an automatic transmission gearbox?
2. What are the areas that one likely to check for faults in a torque converter during automatic/
transmission routine check?
3. Where the flex plate is found to be warped, what measure should be taken during servicing of
the transmission?
4. During road test after the service, the technician noticed that the ATF leaks, what is the likely
cause of this?

8.5.4.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets, torque
wrench, hammers, bearing pullers, snap ring pliers etc.).
Equipment Transmission Jack
Hydraulic hoist/Inspection pit
Complete functional vehicle
Compressor
Diagnostic/scan tool
Transmission pressure gauge
Bearing splitter
Hydraulic press
Stethoscope
Flash light
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) of right grade
Oil drain container
Cleaning materials

ii
 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.5.4.7 Reference
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson Thorns.
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed. Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed. Routledge
Check the links below for more:
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=NaBwDTz-C68&t=1s
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=cn-ryXUYSek
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1zbE21Pzl0
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=DlgwXCtpDZA
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=L6EPGYEXMoA

8.5.4.8 Response to self-assessment questions

1. What are some of the common faults in an automatic transmission gearbox?
- Fluid leaks
- Transmission slip
- Noisy operation
2. What are the areas that one likely to check for faults in a torque converter during automatic/
transmission routine check?
- Wetness
- Hub seal wear etc.
3. Where the flex plate is found to be warped, what measure should be taken during servicing of
the transmission?
- Replace
4. During road test after the service, the technician noticed that the ATF leaks, what is the likely
cause of this?
- Worn out seals
- Worn out transmission sump gasket

iii
 - Cracks on the transmission housing

8.5.5 Learning Outcome 5 : Carry out hydraulic/Tiptronic tests and measurements

8.5.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to carry out hydraulic/Tiptronic tests
and measurement. It entails identifying necessary tools and equipment, performing stall test,
performing pressure test, performing shift test, performing Tiptronic test using fault diagnostic
gadget and recording and filing results to standard operational procedures.

8.5.5.2 Performance Standard

5.1. Identify tools and equipment according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
5.2. Perform stall test according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
5.3. Perform pressure test according to manufacturer’s specifications.
5.4. Perform shift test according to manufacturer’s specifications
5.5. Perform Tiptronic diagnostic test using fault diagnostic gadget according to
manufacturer’s manual.
5.6. Record and file results according to standards operation procedures.

8.5.5.3 Information Sheet

8.5.5.3.1 Definition of terms
Stall test- Is the test performed on an automatic transmission to determine the correct operation
of the torque converter and that there is no transmission clutch slip.
Stall speed- The maximum engine speed during stall test.
Tiptronic transmission- is a transmission that allows both fully automatic and clutch less-
manual gear shifting. It can operate just like the common type transmission, but it can also allow
the driver to override the automatic mode by moving the shift lever gate equipped with spring
loaded positions.
Tiptronic test- is the test carried out to ascertain whether the Tiptronic transmission is operating
normally.

iv
Vacuum modulator- is an engine load sensing device that converts engine vacuum into a
transmission valve body input. It tells the transmission what kind of load is being put on, allowing
the transmission to react with the proper line pressures and shift points. Most vacuum modulator
operates with manifold vacuum that offers more vacuum at idle, and proportionately changes with
engine load as opposed to operating on engine speed.

8.5.5.3.2 Types of post vehicle transmission service tests

These are tests carried out to ascertain proper working condition of components parts after an
automatic transmission has been serviced as per the manufacturer’s specification. These tests
include:
 Visual inspection
 Dye testing
 Stall test
 Pressure test
 Shift test etc.
8.5.5.3.3 Carrying out Visual Inspection.
This is performed mainly to check if fluid is of the right level or any leakage in the transmission.
Overfilled transmission could lead to fluid loss through vents opening located at the top of the
unit.
Low fluid level on the other hand should be avoided to prevent damage, wear or harm on the
transmission part.
Steps:
1. Using trouble light, start visual inspection under the hood and look for signs of fluid
leakage on the top of the unit. Any signs of leakage should be checked from underneath
the vehicle.
2. Hoist the vehicle safely and look for the highest and most forward place where fluid is
seen.

v
 Figure 106: Fluid leakage in the transmission
8.5.5.3.4 Carrying out Dye Testing
In the event that the location of leak is difficult to locate, Dye testing should be carried.
Steps:
1. Add a small of dye designed for use in ATF into the dipstick tube using transmission
funnel.
2. Drive the vehicle until the fluid has reached normal operating temperature.
3. Safely hoist the vehicle
4. Using a black light, look for the highest and most forward place where a greenish stain
appears. This is the source of the leak.

Figure 107: Using light to locate the source of fluid leakage in an automatic transmission
8.5.5.3.5 Procedure for carrying out stall test.
Steps:
1. Drive the vehicle until normal operating temperature is achieved.

vi
 2. Check the stall speed specifications for the vehicle being serviced and connect a tachometer
to the engine.
3. With your left foot firmly applied to the brake pedal, move the shift selector in the drive
position and depress the accelerator pedal to the floor. Observe the maximum engine speed.
4. Release the accelerator as soon as possible to avoid the possibility of overheating the
automatic transmission fluid. Repeat the test with the gear selector in reverse.
5. Compare the results with the specifications.
 If the engine speed is higher than the specifications, then a holding or band is
slipping.
 If the engine is lower than the specifications, the torque converter is defective
(either one-way clutch or stator is slipping) or the engine is not producing normal
power output.
Note: Both conditions can result in reduced vehicle performance and slow
acceleration.

Figure 108: A Stall speed of about 2350RPM with gear selector in drive and the speedometer
reading zero.

8.5.5.3.6 Pressure testing

 Connect the pressure gauge to the pressure taps located on the outside of the automatic
transmission/ transaxle.

vii
  Start the engine and select the gear being monitored. Check the service information for
the specified pressures.
 If the pressure is not within the specifications, then the fault is internal usually involving
either removing the valve body or in many cases removing the automatic transmission
from the vehicle.

Figure 109: Location of taps for connecting pressure gauges in an automatic transmission
8.5.5.3.7 Causes of automatic transmission failure to upshift

 A defective governor (if the transmission is equipped with one)

 A defective vacuum modulator (if so equipped)
 A fault in powertrain control module (PCM), transmission control module (TCM)
or speed sensor on electronically controlled automatic transmission.
8.5.5.3.8 Checking the operation of vacuum modulator
Steps:
1. Hoist the vehicle safely and locate the vacuum modulator (if equipped)
2. Remove the vacuum hose from the vacuum modulator. If automatic transmission fluid
drips out when the hose is removed, the vacuum modulator is defective and must be
replaced.
3. Use a hand-operated vacuum modulator pump to apply vacuum to the vacuum modulator.
 If the modulator is okay, the vacuum will hold steady and not drop.

viii
  If the vacuum modulator will not hold vacuum, the vacuum modulator should be
replaced.
4. Connect a vacuum gauge to the vacuum line from the intake manifold and have an assistant
to start the engine. The reading of the vacuum modulator should be within the range with
the service manual.

(a) (b)
Figure 110: (a) Vacuum modulator with a hose (b) the modulator installed on the transmission

8.5.5.4 Learning Activities

Identify tools and equipment required to carryout hydraulic/tiptornic tests in an semi/automatic
gearbox of a vehicle

8.5.5.5 Self – Assessment

1. Why is important not to carry out stall test at any other temperature other than the normal
operating temperature of an automatic transmission?
2. What are the safety precaution to be taken into account when carrying out stall test?
3. Which two factors would cause an automatic transmission upshift problems?
4. What cautionary measures should be taken into account while carrying out dye testing?

8.5.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Safety stands
Comprehensive set of hand tools (e.g. spanners, sockets, torque
wrench, hammers, bearing pullers, snap ring pliers etc.).
Equipment Transmission Jack
Hydraulic hoist/Inspection pit
Complete functional vehicle
Compressor

ix
 Diagnostic/scan tool
Transmission pressure gauge
Vehicle whose automatic transmission had been serviced.
Bearing splitter
Hydraulic press
Stethoscope
Inspection light
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) of right grade
Oil drain container
Cleaning materials
Dye designed for ATF
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.5.5.7 Reference
Hillier V.A.W, & Peter C. (2004). Fundamental of Motor vehicle Technology: Nelson Thorns.
Jay S. and Jaynes (2010). Toyota Corolla Automotive Repair Manual. Haynes
James D.H (2012). Automotive Technology: Principle Diagnostic and Service. 4th Ed. Pearson
Tom D. (2017). Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. 4th Ed. Routledge

8.5.5.8 Response to self-assessment questions

1. Why is important not to carry out stall test at any other temperature other than the normal
operating temperature of an automatic transmission?
- Carrying out stall test at the right temperature will give the correct information about
the condition/status of a torque converter. Performing stall test for any other
temperature other than the normal working temperature will give a misleading
condition of the transmission.
2. What are the safety precaution to be taken into account when carrying out stall test?
- Check the manufacturer’s data to make sure an acceptable procedure is followed
when carrying out stall test. This will remedy any chance of transmission being
overheated.
3. Which two factors would cause an automatic transmission upshift problems?

x
 - Fault in powertrain control module (PCM)
- Fault in vacuum modulator for transmission equipped with it.
4. What cautionary measures should be taken into account while carrying out dye testing
- Do not use dye designed for coolant or air conditioners else severe harm may occur to
the transmission/ transaxle.

CHAPTER 5: SERVICE VEHICLE BRAKING SYSTEMS

Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CR/5/5

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Service vehicle braking systems.
8.6 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies competencies required to service motor vehicle braking system. It involves,
assessing, servicing, replacing or repairing and maintaining vehicle braking units and components.
It includes final testing to ensure satisfactory operation to the customer’s specification.
8.7 Summary of Learning Outcomes
1. Assess vehicle braking system
2. Dismantle wheel brake assembly parts
3. Assess braking components
4. Replace wheel brake assembly parts
5. Replace brake cylinders
6. Service brake system
8.7.3 Learning outcome 1: Assess vehicle braking system

8.7.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

The trainee is expected use tools and equipment to test the vehicle braking system, verify braking
system performance and fill the braking system observation checklist.

8.7.3.2 Performance Standard

1. Tools and equipment are used as per service manual
2. Personal protective clothing and equipment PPE is used as per workshop regulations
3. Vehicle braking system is tested in accordance with service manual
4. Braking system performance is verified according to the service manual
5. Braking system observation checklist is filled as per company policy.

xi
8.7.3.3 Information Sheet

8.7.3.4 Definition of terms.

Brake system: vehicle system that is used to retard or stop the vehicle in motion and
prevent accidents.
ABS- Anti Lock braking systems prevents lock up of any of the tyres under braking force
Control valves: Components that balance the braking force at each wheel and ensure that
the rear brakes are always activated before the front brakes.
Asbestos – frictional materials used to on brake linings/pads
Brake shoe - part of a drum brake which carries the brake lining.
Disc - rotating part of a disc brake, which is mechanically attached to the axle
Dynamometer - a machine used to test for performance, wear, noise, rotor aggressiveness
of braking system
Fade - Loss of braking torque due to a reduction in friction caused by excessive heat build-
up.
Functions of the brake system - The function of the brake system is to stop the vehicle
within the shortest possible distance.
Braking system components
Master Cylinder
Primary brake system component that holds brake fluid and sends hydraulic pressure to each
wheel through brake lines each time the operator depresses the brake pedal.

Figure 1: Master cylinder

The master cylinder is the heart of the hydraulic brake system. It consists of two chambers:
 The reservoir.
 Compression chamber, in which piston reciprocates.

21
The piston is connected to the brake pedal through the piston rod. From the reservoir, fluid enters
the compression chamber through the parts as shown.
The master cylinder is connected to the wheel cylinder through the pipe.
The check valve is provided in order to give passage for entering fluid from the wheel cylinder to
the master cylinder when the pedal is released.
Brake Booster.
The brake booster uses the vacuum from the engine intake to boost the force applied by the pedal
on to the master cylinder. Without the brake booster the brake pedal feels very hard and
ineffective.

Figure 2: Master cylinder components

Slave cylinder (wheel cylinder)
Cylinders in which movable pistons convert hydraulic brake fluid pressure into mechanical
force, causing hydraulic pressure against the piston(s) within the wheel cylinder to force the
brake shoes or pads against the drum or disc.

Figure 3: Wheel cylinder

Adopted from: alibaba.com
Brake Lines and Hoses
22
Hydraulic brake lines connect the brake master cylinder to the calipers and/or wheel cylinders.
When you depress the brake pedal the brake fluid gets forced to the calipers and/or wheel cylinders
to stop the vehicle. Flexible brake lines are connected from the vehicle body to the disc caliper or
wheel cylinder. The flexible brake lines follow the bounce of the vehicle suspension.

Figure 4: Brake lines and horses

Adopted from: studentlesson.com
Brake pads: Components used specifically with disc brake systems that fit inside the calipers
and create friction and stopping power when pressed against the brake disc.

Figure 5: Brake pads

Adopted from: orielkenya.com
Brake lining

23
 Figure 6: Brake lining
Adopted from: jimsautoparts.com
Brake shoes: Curved pieces of metal used specifically with drum brake systems that fit inside the
brake drum, and are pressed against the drum by a wheel cylinder when the brakes are applied,
thus slowing or stopping the car.
Caliper: A c-shaped device used with disc brakes. When a driver presses on the brake pedal, the
caliper piston squeezes the brake pads against the disc and causes the car to slow down or stop.

Figure 7: Brake calipers

Adopted from: temeculasubaru.com
Disc brakes: Type of braking system that uses a disc (also called disc) that is directly connected
to the wheel, which is straddled by a caliper that holds the disc pads. When a driver steps on the
brakes, hydraulic pressure is delivered to the caliper which presses the brake pads against both
sides of the disc to slow or stop the vehicle.

Figure 8: Brake discs

Adopted from: carparts.com

24
 Figure 9: Disc brake parts
Adopted from: samarins.com
Drum brakes: Type of braking system that uses a drum-shaped (cylinder) housing that is directly
connected to the wheel. When a driver steps on the brake pedal, curved brake shoes inside the
drum press against the drum, creating friction to slow or stop motion of the wheel.

Figure 10: Brake drums

Adopted from: haynes.com
Brake fluid: A special type of hydraulic fluid, designed specifically for brakes that transfers the
motion of a driver stepping on a brake pedal directly to operate a brake caliper or wheel cylinder.

Figure 1111: Brake fluid reservoir

25
 Adopted from: cashcarbuyer.com

Brake pedal
The brake pedal is the pedal that you press with your foot in order to make a vehicle go slower or
stop. When the driver puts his foot on the brake pedal, the system automatically applies the
optimum pressure required to avoid hitting the car in front.

Figure 12: Vehicle brake pedal

Adopted from: safetybrakeandclutch.co.za
Parking brake cable
Parking brake cable system including connector clip and associated method of tensioning.

Figure 13: Parking brake cable

Adopted from: amazon.co.uk
Brake adjusters
For the drum brakes to function correctly, the brake shoes must remain close to the drum without
touching it. If they get too far away from the drum (as the shoes wear down, for instance), the

26
piston will require more fluid to travel that distance, and your brake pedal will sink closer to the
floor when you apply the brakes. This is why most drum brakes have an automatic adjuster.

Figure 14: Vehicle brake adjusters

Adopted from: auto.howstuffworks.com
Brake sensors and actuators
A sensor is a device in charge of detecting and transforming physical and chemical magnitudes
into electronic signals or pulses. We can find hundreds of automotive sensors that measure all sorts
of magnitudes. Some of these may be: temperatures, engine air flow intake, distance from an
obstacle, motion, etc.
Actuators are tasked with supplying a force to move or “actuate” another mechanical device. Their
job is to convert electrical signals from the control unit into a controlled action. In short, they are
the end items that allow for the modification of variables to be controlled within an automated
installation.
Actuators are an essential part of vehicle electro mechanics, and for the most part, they are electric
motors and gear motors, or electromagnetic valves that govern, for example, braking and steering
systems.

Figure 15: Brake sensors and actuators

27
 Adopted from: carbiketech.com
Types of brake system
The brake system in an automobile can be classified into these following categories:
 Mechanical Brakes
 Hydraulic Brakes
 Power-assisted Brakes
 Pneumatic or Air Brakes
 ABS brakes
Mechanical Brakes
The mechanical brakes are mounted at the ends of the axles and they consist of a non-rotating back
plate and shoe assembly which is enclosed by the drum. The back plate is rigidly bolted to the stub
axle at the end of the axle casing. The drum rotates with the road wheels. Two shoes are mounted
on each back plate and each carries a frictional lining of asbestos material. The shoes are fitted
between an expanded unit, which is free to move slightly on the back plate and an adjuster unit
which is riveted to the back plate. Both the expander and adjuster tappets have slots machined
where the shoe end are fitted. The shoes are forced towards each other by two strong springs. The
braking torque is transmitted to the axle by a rigid adjuster and back plate

Figure 16: Mechanical brakes

(SC Mudd Technology for Motor Mechanics: 2)
As the brake pedal is pressed, the cam on the rigid adjuster rotates, which pushes the brake shoes
outwards and hence brake lining provided on the outer surface of the shoes rub against rotating the

28
drum and hence slow down or stops the vehicles because the drum is connected to the wheels. As
the pedal is released, due to retracting spring force shoes return to its original position.
Hydraulic Brakes
Layout:
The system consists of a fluid tank or reservoir, master cylinder, a system of rigid and flexible
pipes, pipe junctions, and wheel cylinder assemblies. The reservoir may be combined with
master cylinder. Wheel cylinder operate shoes and lining or disc pads.

Figure 17: Hydraulic brakes

(SC Mudd Technology for Motor Mechanics: 2)
Operation of Hydraulic Brake systems
When the brake pedal is pressed, the fluid in the master cylinder is pressurized and flows through
the pipes to the front and rear wheel cylinders. The pressure in the wheel cylinder expands the
pistons to move the shoes/pads to contact the drum/disc. This causes the drum/disc to stop
rotating hence stopping the vehicle.
Brake fluid:
The fluid used in hydraulic brake system is of vegetable oil with certain additives.
It must:
i. have low freezing point
ii. Have a high boiling point
iii. Have low viscosity under a wi9de range of temperatures
iv. Not attack the rubber and metal parts of the system
v. Not deteriorate4 except over a long period of service

Brake lining material:

i. The lining material must have the following properties:
ii. A low coefficient of friction when used with iron or steel.
iii. A coefficient of friction which does not reduce as the temperature is increased.

29
 iv. The ability to resist wear.
v. Comprehensive and tensile strengths enough to resist the highest stress imposed during
sever braking.
vi. The ability to be molded into shape.
Air Brakes

The air system includes the following units

- an air cleaner and silencer which may incorporate a de icer

-An air compressor which may be a single or double piston type or rotary vane type

-Control or non-return valves and a non-loader or diverter valve

-A pressure tank or reservoir with a safety valve

-A brake valve connected to the pedal

-A system of steel and flexible pipes which connect the various units

-air operated brake cylinders for each brake assembly

-An air pressure gauge mounted in the driver’s cabin

Figure 18: Air brake system

Anti-locking braking systems (ABS)

30
Type of braking system that uses individually controlled valves in each brake line and speed
sensors located at each wheel to achieve maximum braking force, which prevent the wheels from
stopping completely during a sudden stop.

Figure 19: ABS brake system

8.7.4 Learning Activities
Practical activities
Carry out vehicle braking system inspection, verify braking system performance and fill the
braking system observation checklist.
Field/visit to a Garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish vehicle Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
braking system assessment vehicle assessment and correctly used.
and inspection works inspection. The relevant regulative Act
Safety precautions observed. indicated e.g. OSHA 2007.
To access a sample Correctly filled details Signed by the workshop
inspection sheet manager.

8.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. What is the function of brakes on a vehicle?
2. What are the types of vehicle brake systems commonly in use?
3. Why are vehicles installed with hand brakes?
4. How does the brake booster assist a vehicle driver?
5. What components must be checked during vehicle braking system service?
6. What vehicle brake performance testing parameters are considered during testing of
brakes?

8.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Digital micrometer
Needle nose pliers

31
 Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Safety stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Vehicle Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Complete functional vehicle
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle manufacturers Manual
Vehicle Manufacturers’ online information
Brake fluid
Emery cloth
Service parts (brake pads, shoes)
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.7.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004).Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199).SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

Rowe, J. (Ed.). (2012). Advanced materials in automotive engineering.Elsevier.

James, D. (Ed.) (2016). Automotive brake system.

Jack, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive brakes.

Clifton, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive braking system.

Thomas, W. (Ed.) (1988).Automotive braking systems

8.7.8 Model Answers

1. What is the function of brakes on vehicles?
To stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance by converting the kinetic
energy of the vehicle into the heat energy which is dissipated into the atmosphere.
2. What are the types of vehicle brake systems commonly in use?
o Mechanical Brakes
o Hydraulic Brakes
o Power-assisted Brakes
o Pneumatic or Air Brakes
32
 o Hand brake System
o Antilock brakes
3. Why are vehicles installed with a hand brake?
The hand brake is used for parking on slopes or while waiting at traffic lights,
where the handbrake function is mainly to minimize accidents.
4. How does the brake booster assist a vehicle driver?
The brake booster uses the vacuum from the engine intake to boost the force applied
by the pedal on to the master cylinder. Without the brake booster the brake pedal
feels very hard and ineffective.
5. What components must be checked during vehicle braking system inspection.
The brake pedal, brake fluid, brake lines and hoses, the brake assemblies and
parking brakes.
6. What vehicle brake performance testing parameters are considered during testing of
brakes?
Stopping Time: The time elapsed between the moment the brake force is applied to
the pedal and when the vehicle stops.
Stopping Distance: The distance covered by vehicle from the moment when driver
begins to actuate the brake control until the moment the vehicle stops.

33
8.8 Learning Outcome 2: Dismantle wheel brake assembly parts

8.8.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

The trainee is expected to park and prepare the given vehicle, dismantle brake
components and drain and dispose lubricants and fluids.

8.8.4 Performance Standard

1. Vehicle is parked and prepared in accordance with workshop procedures

2. Sources of technical information are used as per service manual
3. Brake components are dismantled as per service manual and checklist
4. Lubricants and fluids are drained and disposed in accordance with Occupational Safety
and Health regulations OSHA 2007.

8.8.5 Information Sheet

8.8.5.1 Definition of terms

Leading shoe - the shoe that moves in the direction of rotation when it is being pressed against
the drum, provides about three quarters of the total retarding force.
Trailing shoe - moving against the direction of rotation, is thrown away from the friction surface
of the drum and is far less effective
Construction of Drum Brakes
The shoes and their operating and adjustment mechanism are enclosed by the drum which rotates
with the wheel. The shoes are mounted upon a circular back-plate bolted rigidly to either a front
stub axle or the rear axle case. Where the expander forces a shoe outwards in the same direction
of the drum the resulting friction causes the shoe to force itself harder against the drum. i.e the
shoe has a self-applying or servo action. Such a shoe is called a leading shoe.
In a leading and trailing shoe assembly the leading shoe provides about three quarters of the total
retarding force. Where the expander forces a shoe outwards in the opposite direction from the
rotation of the drum, the resulting friction forces the shoe away from the drum. Such a shoe is
called a trailing shoe.

The trailing shoe provides only about one-quarter of the retarding force of the leading and
trailing shoe assembly.

Two different shoe assemblies are:

a) The leading-and-trailing shoe assembly (L & T)
b) The two leading shoe assembly (2LS)

34
a) Leading-and-trailing shoe assembly (L & T)
Both shoe pivot about the same point and a single expander unit forces the other end of the shoe
outwards in the opposite direction. The shoes are held in position by a slotted and rigidly
mounted anchor plate which transmits the rotation force from the back-plate and the rear axle
case. A double piston wheel cylinder is fitted between the ends of the shoes diametrically
opposite the anchor plate and slightly below the rear axle. The cylinder is free to slide in a slot
cut in the back-plate.
Figure 20:
Leading
and
Trailing
Shoe
Assembly
(SC Mudd

Technology for Motor Mechanics: 2)

b) The two leading shoe assembly (2LS)
Two different springs are used to hold the shoe to the anchor and to the back-plate, the coil
spring being fitted across the anchored end of the shoe. The cylinder is of aluminum alloy
casting and its one end is sealed. This end is slotted to locate the moving end of the trailing
shoe. The cylinder has a piston, a rubber cup, a plastic cup spreader and a small spring. The
piston is made up of two halves. The inner half having a flat face which is sealed by the rubber
cup. The piston carries a metal dust excluder and is slotted to support a ‘micram adjuster. A
pivot lever, operated by the hand brake is arranged so that its shorter end fits between the two
halves of the piston inner faces being slotted for this purpose.
Advantages:
1) Pedal travel stays fairly constant under severe usage

35
 2) Retardation or stopping power is not greatly reduced by small quantities of oil or
water on the lining.
3) Same stopping power is available in both directions of wheel rotation.
4) Easy to in-corporate both mechanical and fluid methods of operation.

Figure 21: Two Leading Shoe Assembly

(SC Mudd Technology for Motor Mechanics: 2)
Construction of Disc brakes
The disc is made of cast iron and bolted to the wheel hub so that its flat surface is venerated. An
inverted U-shaped caliper of cast iron is fitted over the disc and is bolted to the stub axle
assembly. Each side of the caliper contains a fluid cylinder and a piston, a rubber piston sealing
set in a recess in the cylinder wall, a dust cover, and pad assembly. Cylinders are interconnected
by a bridge pipe or by a drilled hole. The hole nearer the master cylinder being connected to the
system by a flexible hose. Each pad assembly consists of a steel back-plate to which is bonded a
segment shaped pad of special friction material. The pads are located and retained in the caliper
by bolted-on retainer plates or lock pins. They must never be split during normal service but this
may be done during a complete overhaul.

36
 Figure 22: Disc Brake Assembly
(SC Mudd Technology for Motor Mechanics: 2)
Operation:
When the brakes are applied, little or no wear takes place. The slight piston movement is
obtained without relative movement between the piston and its seal. i.e the piston movement
distorts the seal. When the brakes are released the seal regains its shape and retract the piston
maintaining a rubbing contact between the pad and the disc. This is due to the combination of
friction between the seal and the piston, and the static head of brake fluid. i.e this is a hydro-
static brake. As the pads wear, the piston moves slightly through its seal to take up a new
position in the cylinder. i.e automatically compensate for the wear. The hydrostatic effect
automatically ensures correct light rubbing contact when the brakes are released.

Prepare the vehicle for dismantling brake components

Step 1: Loosen the lug nuts of the vehicle.
Before raising the vehicle, loosen the lug nuts of both rear wheels. It will be much easier to
loosen them with the weight of the entire vehicle on the wheels. Remove any wheel hubcaps or
center wheel covers that may be covering the lug nuts
Step 2: Secure the vehicle on jack stands.

Figure 23: Jacking the vehicle

37
 Adopted from: 2carpro.com

Once the lug nuts are loosened, raise the rear of the vehicle and secure it on jack stands.
Since you will be working on the rear of the vehicle, the parking brake cannot be used to secure
the vehicle. Thus, it becomes very important to secure the front wheels, using tire chocks or wood
blocks, to prevent the vehicle from rolling.
Once the wood blocks are in place, slowly lower the vehicle onto the jack stands.

Dismantling Drum Brake

a. Drum removal
It consists of removal, service and inspection of a drum brake. The parts should be inspected
before disassembly, during clean up and reassembly to locate any faulty or damaged
components.
Procedure: To remove a drum, use the following steps:
1. Remove the wheel from the vehicle
2. Release the parking brake
3. Determine the method of drum attachment and remove the drum.

Figure 24: Exploded diagram for vehicle drum brakes

Adopted from: akebono-brake.com
b. Brake shoe removal
Procedure: To remove brake shoes, use the following steps;
1. Carefully check the shoes to note the types of return and hold-down springs and
how they are connected to the shoes and the back plate.
2. If you are not planning to service the wheel cylinder, install a wheel cylinder
clamp to prevent the wheel cylinder pistons from popping out of their bores.
3. Remove the return springs.
38
 4. Remove the hold-down springs and any self-adjuster mechanism that has been
released.
5. If wheel cylinder is to be serviced, remove it.
c. Master cylinder removal
Procedure: To remove the master cylinder, use the following steps;
1. Disconnect any wires connected to the reservoir or master cylinder cover.
2. Take off the reservoir covers and drain the fluid from the reservoir.
3. Disconnect the brake tubes.
4. Remove the nuts or bolts attaching the master cylinder to the power booster.
5. Slide the master cylinder off the booster.

d. Wheel cylinder removal

Procedure: To remove the wheel cylinder, use the following steps;
1. Remove the brake shoes
2. Disconnect the brake line from the wheel cylinder
3. Disconnect the wheel cylinder mounting (If bolts are used, remove the bolts or
nuts and if a spring lock retainer is used remove the retainer. But if a lock plate is
used, tap out the retainer plate using a screwdriver and hammer.

8.8.5.2 Dismantling disc brake

Figure 25 : Exploded diagram for vehicle disc brakes

Adopted from: akebono-brake.com

39
Step 1 – Let the car cool down
Car brakes heat up with use, with the brake pads becoming extremely hot. It is best to check
them after they have cooled down. Give your car a break of an hour or so, before you check the
brakes.

Step 2 – Raise the car

Using a jack stand, raise the car until the tyre is in the air completely and can be removed to
access the brakes. Make sure you loosen the wheel nuts before you raise the car. When working
on the front tyre brakes, make sure the handbrake has been engaged, while there are stones kept
near other tyres to stop the car from rolling. Leave the key in the ignition and the gear in neutral,
so that you can move the wheels freely when working.

Step 3 – Remove the tyre

Figure 1126: Removing car tyre

Adopted from: motorbeam.com
Once you have raised the car, using the wrench remove the wheel nuts and tyre. Make sure you
remove the nuts diagonally and keep them safely with the tyres. Removing the tyre will expose
you completely to the brakes and you can work on them freely.

Step 4 – Open the brake fluid reservoir cap

Figure 27: Brake fluid reservoir cap

40
 Adopted from: shutterstock.com
Open the brake reservoir cap before you start working on replacing the brake pads. The brake
fluid reservoir is located under the bonnet near the engine. Refer to your car’s owner’s manual to
know the exact location. Opening the cap will release the pressure when you pull the pistons
back.
Step 5 – Remove the caliper

Figure 28: Removing vehicle brake calipers

Adopted from: carsiteauto.blogspot.com
The brake caliper houses the brake pads against the disc. You first need to remove the caliper to
access the brake pads inside. The calipers are connected with a set of slider bolts located on the
top and bottom of the caliper. Use a wrench to unscrew the slider bolts and remove the caliper. If
the bolts are rusted or jammed, first spray them with WD-40 to loosen them. Make sure you
remove the lower bolts first and then remove the upper bolt.
With the bolts removed, the caliper will be free and can be removed from the disc. The caliper is
also connected to the brake fluid via a hydraulic line. Do not disconnect that line. Keep the
caliper safely on the back of the suspension, don’t leave it hanging.
Step 6 – Remove the brake pads

Figure 29: Inner and outer brake pads

Adopted from: motorbeam.com

41
The caliper will have 2 pads inside namely the inner and the outer pad. The inner pad is the one
that moves forward, while the outer pad remains stationary for stopping the vehicle.
Step 7 – Tighten the piston

Figure 30: Tightening brake pistons

Adopted from: quora.com
The piston applies pressure on the brake pads and presses the disc to stop the car. Before putting
in the new brake pad, you need to push the piston back so that the new larger brake pad can fall
in place easily. This will take some effort though. You will have to use a C-clamp with a
combination of an old brake pad and push the piston back as hard as possible. Doing so will also
push back the brake fluid into the reservoir. You can also try pushing the piston back using a
piece of wood (in place of the older brake pad) and muscle force if a C-clamp is not available.
Make sure you do it with utmost patience and do not damage the piston in any way.
Step 8 – Remove the disc

Figure 1131: Disc brake disc

Adopted from: motorbeam.com
The disc is located on the hub and the wheel studs; you will have to pull it out with little effort
by unscrewing them from the hub. Over time, the rust may have jammed the disc and could be a

42
tricky task pulling it out. When you do remove it, make sure you apply rust preventer on the hub
and studs, before swapping in the new one.

8.8.6 Learning Activities

Practical activities
TASK: Remove, Dismantle, Assemble and replace a Drum Brake assembly. Remove and
replace a drum brake assembly from a vehicle or brake system (as selected), inspect all
components then write a report on the serviceability and function of all components
1. Disassembling brake component procedure
 Drum removal
 Brake shoe removal
 Master cylinder removal
 Wheel cylinder removal
2. Clean parts appropriately
 Component cleaning and inspection
3. Observe safety.

Field/visit to a Garage
Visit Indicators Special instruction
objective/Aim
To establish Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
vehicle brakes vehicle brakes dismantling, correctly used.
dismantling, replacement of parts and The relevant regulative
replacement of assembly. . Act indicated e.g. OSHA
parts and Safety precautions observed. 2007.
assembly. Tools, materials and
equipment used

8.8.7 Self-Assessment
1. Why is it important to secure the vehicle on jack stands before dismantling brake
components?
2. What procedure is followed while removing vehicle brake drum?
3. Why is it recommended to push the brake pistons back before installing new
brake pads?
4. Why are you supposed to allow the vehicle to cool down after running for a long
distance before you check the brakes?

8.8.8 Tools, Equipment and materials

Tools Digital micrometer
Drum brake adjustment tool
Needle nose pliers
Appropriate spanners

43
 Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Safety stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
C-Clamp
Equipment Jack
Inspection pit
Complete functional Vehicle
Materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Cleaning materials
Emery cloth
Brake shoes
Dust masks
Safety glasses
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.8.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004).Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199).SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

Rowe, J. (Ed.). (2012). Advanced materials in automotive engineering. Elsevier.

James, D. (Ed.) (2016). Automotive brake system.

Jack, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive brakes.

Clifton, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive braking system.

Thomas, W. (Ed.) (1988).Automotive braking systems

8.8.10 Model Answers

1. Why is it important to secure the vehicle on jack stands before dismantling brake
components?

44
 The vehicle is secured on jack stands once the lug nuts are loosened and since you
will be working on the rear of the vehicle, the parking brake cannot be used to
secure the vehicle. Thus, it becomes very important to secure the front wheels, using
tire chocks or wood blocks, to prevent the vehicle from rolling.
Once the wood blocks are in place, slowly lower the vehicle onto the jack stands.
2. What procedure is followed while removing vehicle brake drum?
 Remove the wheel from the vehicle
 Release the parking brake
 Prevent the release of the brake dust by thoroughly wetting down the exterior
of the drum using a low-pressure brake washer.
 Determine the method of drum attachment and remove the drum.
3. Why is it recommended to push the brake pistons back before installing new a brake pad?
The new brake pad is large in size, so pushing back the brake pistons enables the
new large brake pad to fall in place easily.
4. Why are you supposed to allow the vehicle to cool down after running for a long distance
before you check the brakes?
Car brakes heat up with use, with the brake pads becoming extremely hot. It is best
to check them after they have cooled down. Give your car a break of an hour or so,
before you check the brakes.

45
8.9 Learning Outcome 3: Assess braking components

8.9.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

The trainee is expected to clean brake components, assess brake components, identify
worn/damaged components and verify compatibility of replaceable parts.

8.9.4 Performance Standard

1. Brake components are cleaned in accordance with the service manual
2. Brake components are assessed in accordance with manufacture’s specifications
3. Worn/damaged components are identified according to the service manual
4. Compatibility of replaceable parts is verified against manufacturers’ part numbers

8.9.5 Information Sheet

8.9.5.1 Definition of terms
Caliper – houses the brake pads and pistons
Disc - rotating part of a disc brake, which is mechanically attached to the axle
Cleaning brake components
Brake components after dismantling should be cleaned thoroughly to enable visual assessments
and measurement to be accurately done to ascertain the condition of the components.

Figure 32: Cleaning brake components

Adopted from: mechanic.com.au
8.9.5.2 Assessment of the brake components
The brakes are made up of several components, which all serve an important role in helping the
brakes function correctly. Since each part of the brakes works with one another, it is not uncommon
for an issue with one piece to begin to affect the condition of other components, making for more
costly repairs if the problem is not dealt with promptly. Although there are others, the brake pads,
discs and caliper are three of the main parts of the brakes that must be assessed.
Brake pads
46
The brake pads are the part of the brakes that move when the driver pushes the brakes. They are
made of steel material and have a friction component to ensure they are effective in stopping the
discs when pressing the brakes. When brake pads become worn, it makes it more challenging to
stop, and doing so may become more challenging. The brake pads work directly with the discs so
that a damaged brake pad may cause damage to the discs as well over time.

The pads are checked for excessive wear to make sure there isn’t metal rubbing on metal.

Figure 33: Comparison of new and worn out pads

Adopted from: wowwoodys.com

Figure 34: Comparison of broken and worn out papers

Adopted from: knowyourparts.com
Brake disc
The brake pads clamp onto the disc when the driver presses the brakes. Brake disc typically have
a longer life than brake pads, and it is essential to replace them at least every 70,000 miles. If the
discs become damaged, it may cause vibrations when brakes are applied. Discs must be inspected
for excessive wear. Brake pads and discs have matching wear patterns, and if a brake pad needs to
be replaced, the disc will have to be machined smooth. A disc can be machined smooth only so

47
many times before it is worn too much. Each discs must have a certain width, which is inscribed
on it, and if it is too worn, it must be replaced. The disc should also be inspected for any heat
cracks or other damage.

Figure 35 : Comparison of good and bad brake disc

Adopted from: du-craftbrakes.com
Brake Calipers.
Most have heard of the brake pads and disc, but many are unfamiliar with the caliper, which is
also a crucial part of the braking system. The job of the caliper is to squeeze the brake pads when
the brakes are touched, which causes the wheels to rotate slower, and the vehicle slows down.
Signs of a lousy caliper might include sounds when braking, ineffectiveness when coming to a
stop and brake fluid leaks.

A fixed caliper doesn’t move; so, it contains two pistons located on each side of the disc. When
the brakes are applied, brake fluid forces both pistons into each brake pad which press against each
side of the disc to stop the wheel and vehicle. Calipers must be inspected to check for leaks.
The brake drums, like the disc, need to be checked for excessive wear or cracks.

Figure 36: Defects in the vehicle brake drums

Adopted from: truckmechanicbasics.com

48
8.9.6 3.3.3 Learning Activities
Practical Activities
Clean dismantled brake components, assess them to identify worn out parts and verify
compatibility of replaceable parts.
Field/Visit to garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish Cleaning Procedure followed during Manufacturers’
of dismantled brake Cleaning of dismantled manual correctly
components, brake components, used.
assessment and assessment and verification The relevant
verification of of compatibility of regulative Act
compatibility of replaceable parts. indicated e.g.
replaceable parts. Safety precautions OSHA 2007.
observed.
Tools, materials and
equipment used.

8.9.7 Self-Assessment
1. Why is it important to clean brake components after dismantling?
2. During assessment of brakes after dismantling, which components must be
inspected?
3. When is it recommended to replace brake discs?
4. How will you ensure that replaceable parts are compatible with the vehicle?

8.9.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Tire chocks (blocks of wood)

Drum brake tool kit
Safety stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
C-Clamp
Equipment Jack
Inspection pit
Complete functional vehicle
Supplies and materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Cleaning materials
Service Brake shoes
Dust mask
Safety glasses

49
 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

8.9.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004).Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199).SAE
Technical Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

Rowe, J. (Ed.). (2012). Advanced materials in automotive engineering. Elsevier.

James, D. (Ed.) (2016). Automotive brake system.

Jack, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive brakes.

Clifton, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive braking system.

Thomas, W. (Ed.) (1988).Automotive braking systems

8.9.9.1 Model Answers

1. Why is it important to clean brake components after dismantling?
To enable visual assessment and measurements to be accurately made to
ascertain the condition of the component.
2. During assessment of brakes after dismantling, which components must be
inspected due to their exposure to wear and tear?
 Brake pads
 Discs
 Calipers
3. When is it recommended to replace brake discs?
At least after every 70,000 miles
4. How will you ensure that replaceable parts are compatible with the vehicle?
By use of values from the manufactures’ service manual.

50
8.10 Learning Outcome 4: Replace wheel brake assembly parts
8.10.3 1ntroduction to the learning outcome
The trainee is expected to replace brake pads and linings, replace brake calipers and
drum, replace brake flexible pipes, replace brake adjusters/actuators and service and
replace parking brake cables.
8.10.4 Performance Standard
1. Brake pads and linings are replaced in accordance to manufacturer’s specifications
2. Brake calipers and drum are replaced according manufacturer’s specifications
3. Brake flexible pipes are replaced as per the manufacturer’s specifications
4. Brake adjusters/actuators (HCV) are replaced as per the manufacturer’s specifications
5. Parking brake cables are serviced/replaced according to the manufacturer’s manual
8.10.5 Information Sheet

8.10.5.1 Replacing brake flexible pipes

Whether or not a brake hose is worn or damaged, it is recommended that hoses should be
changed every 50,000km or after five years. This is because the rubber from which these
hoses are made is a perishable item and a defined lifetime.
Procedure of replacing brake flexible pipes:
Step 1: Check that the supplied hose is the correct one and read any fitting instructions
supplied. Then disconnect the brake hose from the static fixed brake pipe and cap the
fixed brake pipe to prevent excess fluid loss.
Step 2: Remove the hose from the caliper
Step 3: With the new brake hose, place the end into the caliper first, making sure you
don’t over-tighten.
Step 4: Feed through any mounting brackets and reconnect to the fixed brake pipe, again
ensuring that you don’t over tighten.
Step 5: Clean off all connection areas to ensure no brake fluid remains as this is highly
corrosive.
Replacing brake adjusters
The adjuster is a small cylinder containing the brake fluid, whose extreme surfaces move
under the pressure resulting from pressing the brake pedal. The adjuster pushes the shoes
against the drum. Brake fluid leaking out of the adjuster will cause the pressure in the

51
 system to fall, resulting in the fluid leaking over the friction lining. The cylinder fails
with time or may be damaged as a result of improper fitting of the brake shoes.
Procedure of replacing brake adjusters:
Step 1: Remove the wheels
Step 2: Remove the drums
Step3: Remove the shoes
Step 4: unscrew the brake hoses on the back part of the drums.
Step 5: Replace the adjusters with new ones
Step 6: Reconnect the brake hoses
Step 7: Fit the drum elements
Step 8: Check the braking fluid level.
Servicing parking brake
The parking brake assembly is a mechanical system that is mainly used to lock the rear
wheels in position and keep the vehicle steady while not in use. It can also be used in an
effort to slow the vehicle in the event of a failure of the hydraulic braking system.
Procedure of servicing parking brake:
Step 1: Place a wheel chock
Position a wheel chock behind and in front of at least one of the vehicle’s wheels
preferably the front wheel since you will be working on the rear wheel.
Step 2: Elevate the rear wheels.
Pick a safe solid point on the rear of the vehicle to elevate the rear wheels.
Step 3: Remove the wheel and tyre assembly.
Step 4: Determine the type of system, if it is a disc style brake assembly the brake
caliper, caliper bracket and disc may have to be removed to reveal the parking brake
mechanism behind them
Step 5: Follow your manual guidelines laid out in the service manual regarding the
service of the system the vehicle you are working on is equipped with.
Step 6: Adjust and tighten the wheel and nuts
Step 7: Fasten the lug nuts to proper torque.
Replacing brake components
Step 1 – Lubricate the new pads

52
 Your new brake pads will come with a lubricant that needs to be applied at the back of
the pad. Make sure you cover the outer clips when lubricating the pads. Do not lubricate
the pad material; you will only be wasting the brake pads as they will provide no friction
after lubrication.
Step 2 – Install the new brake pads

Figure 37: New brake pads

Adopted from: motorbeam.com
Once you have lubricated the outer and inner brake pads it is time to fit them inside the
caliper. The outer brake pad has the clip on it which makes the noise to warn you, when
the pad needs a replacement. You will also get a set of new clips to fit on the caliper.
Replace the clips before installing the new pads. Once done, take the new brake pad, place
it in the caliper and push in place. If the piston has been pushed back enough, the new brake
pads will easily slide in their position, otherwise you will have to push the piston further.
Step 3 – Install the new disc

Figure 38: Installing a new brake disc

Adopted from: motorbeam.com
Push the new disc inside the hub by aligning them with the wheel studs.
Step 4 – Bolt the caliper to the disc

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 The caliper should easily fit back on the new disc. It is better to hit it with a mallet to
secure its location on to the disc. The caliper should be aligned with the holes for the
slider bolts. Now screw back the disc to the hub and secure it tightly. The slider bolts will
be screwed back in the reverse of order how you removed them. The top bolt will be
screwed in first followed by the one at the bottom. Your new brake pads and disc have
now been fixed.

Step 5 – Mount the tyre back

Figure39: Mounting the tyre back

Adopted from: carbuyer.com
Now that you have replaced your brakes, it’s time to place the tyre back on and lower the car
down, the same way you raised it. Remember to tighten the wheel nuts completely, after the car
has been removed off the jack stand.
Step 6 – Pump the brake pedal

Figure 40: Brake pedal location

54
 Adopted from: motor.com
You will have to pump the brake pedal at least for 15 – 20 times to get the air out. You will see
the brake pedal gradually tighten. Don’t forget to close brake fluid reservoir cap.

8.10.6 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Replace brake pads and linings, brake calipers and drum, brake flexible pipes, brake adjusters
and service parking brake cables on the vehicle provided.
Field/visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish Procedure followed during Manufacturers’
replacement of vehicle replacement of vehicle manual correctly
brake pads and linings, brake pads and linings, used.
brake calipers and brake calipers and drum, The relevant
drum, brake flexible brake flexible pipes and regulative Act
pipes and brake brake adjusters. indicated e.g.
adjusters. Safety precautions OSHA 2007.
observed.
Tools, materials and
equipment used

8.10.7 Self-Assessment
1. Why are you supposed to lubricate the back of the brake pads and not front?
2. When will you know if brake pads need to be replaced?
3. Why do you tighten the wheel nuts completely after the car has been lowered
down?
4. What do you understand by bleeding of brakes?
5. Why do you need to do a test drive after servicing your brakes?

8.10.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials.

Tools Lug wrench
C-clamp
Wrench (a socket, open end or adjustable wrench)
Turkey baster for drawing out bare fluid
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Screw driver set
Mallet
Brake service retractor set
Torque wrench
Wheel chocks

55
 Equipment Car Jack
Supplies and Grease
materials New Brake pads
Dust musk
Safety glasses
Disposable gloves
Brake fluid

Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles

Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.10.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004).Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199).SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

Rowe, J. (Ed.). (2012). Advanced materials in automotive engineering.Elsevier.

James, D. (Ed.) (2016). Automotive brake system.

Jack, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive brakes.

Clifton, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive braking system.

Thomas, W. (Ed.) (1988).Automotive braking systems

8.10.10 Responses to Self-Assessment

1. Why are you supposed to lubricate the back of the brake pads and not front?
The pads will not provide friction after lubrication.
2. When will you know if brake pads need to be replaced?
The outer brake pad has the clip on it which makes noise to warn you when the pad needs
replacement.
3. Why do you tighten the wheel nuts completely after the car has been lowered
down?
The wheel nuts should be completely tightened when the weight of the car is on to ensure
they are tight.
4. What do you understand by bleeding of brakes?
The process of pumping the brake pedal to squeeze the brake fluid and eliminate air
trapped in the brake lines.
5. Why do you need to do a test drive after servicing your brakes?

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The vehicle should be test driven at different speeds to check the change in the stopping
distance. It also gives opportunity for a re-assessment.

8.11 Learning Outcome 5: Replace brake cylinders

8.11.3 Introduction to the learning outcome
The trainee is expected to replace/service brake master cylinder, replace/service brake wheel
cylinder and service brake booster.
8.11.3.1 Performance Standard
1. Brake master cylinder is replaced/serviced according manufacturer’s manual
2. Brake wheel cylinder is replaced/serviced as per the manufacturer’s specifications
3. Brake booster is serviced as per the manufacturer’s manual.
8.11.3.2 Information Sheet
The Brake Master cylinder
Function
To convert pedal force into pressure that is equally applied at the same time to each of the wheel
cylinders.
Construction
The unit consist of a cast iron (or Aluminum alloy) cylinder. The cylinder has mounting lugs for
attachment to the chassis or scuttle. The bore is accurate in size and fine in finish and contains a
piston with main and secondary rubber cups. A double acting checking check valve controls the
flow of fluid to and from the pipe system

57
 Figure 41 : Single Piston Master Cylinder.
(SC Mudd Technology for Motor Mechanics: 2)

The check valve is held to the rubber seal by a long spring. The other end of the spring is located
by a cup spreader fitted inside the main rubber cup. The pressure face of the piston has a ring of
small drilled holes and the piston operates in fluid at all times. This feature reduces cup wear and
possibility of air entering the cylinder. A large hole, or port supplies fluid to the rear of the piston
while a small, or by-pass port connects the forward position of the cylinder to the reservoir.

Operation
Brakes Applied
When the pedal is depressed, the push rod moves the piston and the main cup. The movement of
the cup causes its edge to make a pressure-tight seal against the wall when the cup passes the by-
pass port. The fluid in the forward position is totally enclosed. Further pedal movement increases
the fluid pressure than that maintained in the pipe line system. This force the check valve rubber
cup away from the body at once high pressure acts in the wheel cylinder forcing the shoes to
press hard against their drums. Further pedal force increase the fluid pressure hence the shoe-
operating pressure. As the shoe rubs against their drum the energy of the vehicle is converted
into heat which is carried away by the cooling air stream. As the energy is absorbed and
dissipated so the motion of the vehicle is reduced or stopped.

58
 Brakes Released
When the pedal is released the push rod is withdrawn by the action of the pedal return spring.
The piston spring force the piston to return very quickly and this create a sudden drop in the
forward part of the cylinder. The shoe pull-off spring force the wheel cylinder piston to move
inwards and fluid returned to the master cylinder forcing the check valve assembly away from
the rubber end seal. The fluid is forced through the by-pass port back to the reservoir. The
displacement of fluid by the returning fluid ensures that the cylinder is always full and ready for
use. The returning action continues until the line pressure is equaled by the loading of the piston
spring. At this point the spring is able to close the check valve down and so isolated the cylinder
from the pipe line maintaining a pressure of 55kN/m2.

The check valve has two functions:

a) To maintain standing pressure in the system and enables the brakes to operate at once.
b) Ensure that any leak will be of fluid from the system and not air being drawn into the
system.
8.11.4 Replacement of the brake master cylinder
When major brake service is being performed, the master cylinder is to be inspected for proper
operation. A faulty master cylinder usually leaks externally out the rear piston or leaks internally.
You are able to detect external brake fluid leaks by checking the master cylinder boot for fluid or
dampness on the firewall. When the leak is internal. The brake pedal will slowly move to the floor.
Inoperative valves in the master cylinder are also a reason for service.
Many shops, however, simply, replace a bad master cylinder with a factory rebuild or a new one.
A replacement master cylinder is normally cheaper than the labor cost and parts for an in-shop
rebuild.
Procedure for replacement of the brake master cylinder:
Part 1: Preparing the old master cylinder for removal.
Step 1: Remove as much fluid as possible from the master cylinder. Use a turkey baster to siphon
the brake fluid out of the reservoir.
Step 2: Remove any components that may be in the way. Removing tubing and connections like
the brake booster vacuum hose can help you access the sides of the master cylinder much more
easily.

59
Step 3: Unplug the fluid level sensor. Locate the fluid level sensor on the plastic reservoir, not the
master cylinder itself, and unplug it.
Step 4: Crack open the brake lines with the line wrench. With the master cylinder still secured to
the brake booster, crack open the lines and lightly tighten them again so fluid doesn’t leak out.
Step 5: Remove the nuts that secure the master cylinder. Loosen and remove each nut securing
the master cylinder to the brake booster.
Part 2: Installing the new master cylinder
You’re now ready to finish removing the old master cylinder and install the new one.
Step 1: Unscrew the brake lines completely. Using a wrench, unscrew each of the brake lines
completely. Brake fluid will start leaking out, so be sure to have some rags ready to soak it up.
Step 2: Remove the master cylinder. With everything disconnected, you can now remove the
master cylinder.
Make sure to remove the rubber seal that is between the master cylinder and the brake booster.
Step 3: Transfer the reservoir to the new master cylinder. If you’re new master cylinder does not
come with its own reservoir, you will want to remove the reservoir from the old master cylinder
and transfer it to the new one.
Typically the reservoir will have a clamp that holds it onto the master cylinder. Be sure to tighten
it down on the new one so fluid doesn’t leak out.
Step 4: Begin to install the new master cylinder. Once the reservoir is in place, you can start to
install the new master cylinder onto the vehicle.
Make sure the rod coming out of the brake booster fits into the piston on the master cylinder. This
rod is what pushes the seal inside the master cylinder to pump fluid into the lines.
Step 5: Start screwing in the brake lines. Before you completely tighten down the master cylinder,
get the brake lines started by hand.
Step 6: Tighten the mounting nuts. Next, tighten the mounting nuts, making sure to use any
washers that were there before. Screw them in with one hand so you don’t overtighten them.
Step 7: Tighten brake the line connections. With the master cylinder bolted in, you can now fully
tighten the brake line connections.
Step 8: Reconnect any hoses or wires. Plug the fluid level sensor back in and reconnect the vacuum
hose for the brake booster if you removed it before.
Get everything back to how it was before you started the job.

60
Step 9: Bleed the system of air. Since all the lines were disconnected, you’ll need to bleed each
one at the caliper.
While you are bleeding the brakes, keep an eye on the brake lines coming out of the master cylinder
for leaks.
Step 10: Take the vehicle for a test drive. If the brake pedal is nice and hard after bleeding the
system of air, it is time for a road test.
8.11.4.1 Replacement of the brake wheel cylinder
8.11.4.2 Servicing of the brake booster.
Procedure: Steps to Servicing a Brake Booster
A brake booster is simply a vacuum booster. It uses the power derived from your car’s vacuum
system to boost the pressure applied to the brakes. The braking system depends on the valve in the
booster. Repairing this device, therefore, requires preliminary checks and replacement of a
malfunctioning vacuum booster valve. It is only after this that you can confirm the status of your
booster.
You can now proceed in replacing the check valve as itemized below:
Step 1: Initial Verification Checks
Carrying out verification checks on your brake booster involves 4 simple steps:
 Switch off the engine.
 Pump the brake pedal until you have completely bled out the all of the fluid in the
system.
 Keep the brake pedal depressed while you start the engine at the same time
 Keep the pedal only slightly compressed after you start the engine. This confirms a
refill of the fluid that is only possible if the vacuum system is intact.
If the refill fails to occur, check your hose and replace if it is faulty. If the brake hose is intact
then, unfortunately, your vacuum system is faulty. This means that your brake booster is out of
order and needs immediate replacement. Before replacing the entire booster, however, first check
the status of your check valve.
Step 2: Check Valve Replacement
 Look for the place where the vacuum line connects to the brake
booster. The check valve is likely to be located here.
 Identify the clamps holding the valve line to the check valve
 Remove the clamps and take out the valve line

61
  Remove the check valve, using either a wrench or an appropriate-sized
screwdriver
 Install the new check valve in the proper location on the booster and
reattach the vacuum hose
 Restart the engine and check for a restoration of brake pressure
If the pressure is right, you are done. If not, your booster is faulty. Proceed to replace the booster
as follows:
Step 3: Brake Booster Replacement
 Locate the break booster behind the firewall of the brake master
cylinder
 Identify the restraining clamps
 Loosen the clamp/s and disconnect the vacuum line
 Separate the master cylinder from the booster by loosening the bolts
using the appropriate wrenches
 Disconnect and remove any brake pedal restraining bolts to completely
free the damaged booster
 Position the new brake booster behind the firewall of the
master cylinder
 Reposition and tighten all nuts previously removed to secure the newly
installed booster
 Slide the rubber hose over the fitting
 Reconnect the vacuum line to the booster
Step 4: Safety and Final Checks
It is possible to damage the brake lines while trying to separate the damaged booster from the
master cylinder. This happens because the brake lines are directly attached to the master
cylinder. To prevent this occurrence, therefore, you must avoid any pressure on the brake line
while attempting to separate the booster from the master cylinder.
Finally, always remember to use appropriate clothing and eye protection.

8.11.5 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Service the brake master cylinder, the brake wheel cylinder and the brake booster on the vehicle
provided.

62
Special instructions: Brake fluid can be harmful if proper protective equipment is not properly
used.

Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish vehicle servicing of Procedure followed during Manufacturers’
vehicle brake master cylinders, brake vehicle brakes assembly, manual correctly
wheel cylinders and brake booster. bleeding, servicing and used.
replenishing of fluids. The relevant
Safety precautions regulative Act
observed. indicated e.g.
Tools, materials and OSHA 2007.
equipment used
To access service and repair records Format and filled Records approval
in use. accurately

8.11.6 Self-Assessment
1. How will you know when the master cylinder is faulty?
2. What procedure is used to replace a faulty master cylinder?
3. Why is it important to remove the rubber seal between the master cylinder and
the brake booster from a new master cylinder before installing?
4. How does the brake booster operate?

8.11.6.1 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Screwdrivers
Supplies and materials Safety glasses
Brake fluid
Brake master cylinder
Gloves

Resource A workshop that is fully equipped

for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems
for recording maintenance records;

8.11.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004).Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199).SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

63
Rowe, J. (Ed.). (2012). Advanced materials in automotive engineering.Elsevier.

James, D. (Ed.) (2016). Automotive brake system.

Jack, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive brakes.

Clifton, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive braking system.

Thomas, W. (Ed.) (1988).Automotive braking systems

8.11.8 Model Answers

1. How will you know when the master cylinder is faulty?
 When the brake pedal slowly moves to the floor
 External brake fluid leaks
2. What procedure is used to replace a faulty master cylinder?
 Prepare the old master cylinder for removal.
 Remove as much fluid as possible from the master cylinder
 Remove the components that may be in the way
 Unplug the fluid level sensor
 Crack open the brake lines
 Remove the nuts that secure the master cylinder.
3. Why is it important to remove the rubber seal between the master cylinder and
the brake booster from a new master cylinder before installing?
It allows brake fluid to move between the master cylinder and the brake
booster
4. How does the brake booster operate?
It uses the brake power derived from car’s vacuum system to boost the
pressure applied to the brakes.

64
8.12 Learning Outcome 6: Service brake system
8.12.3 Introduction to the learning outcome
The trainee is expected to assemble drum/disc brakes, replenish brake fluid and carry out system
bleeding, service brake booster and ABS system, adjust the braking system (Dynamometer test),
service auxiliary brakes, complete service and repair activities within agreed time frame and
complete service and repair records
8.12.4 Performance Standard
1. Drum/disc brakes are assembled according to the manuals
2. Brake fluid is replenished and system bleeding is carried out as per service manual
3. Brake booster and ABS system is serviced according to the manufacturer’s specifications
4. Braking system is adjusted (Dynamometer test) as per the workshop manual
5. Auxiliary brakes are serviced according the manufacturer’s manual
6. Service and repair activities are completed within an agreed time frame
7. Service and repair records are completed in accordance with Standard Operating
Procedures.
8.12.5 Information Sheet

Assembly of Drum Brakes

65
Procedure: To assemble drum brakes follow the steps below.

Step 1: Lubricate parts

Lubricate the contact points, the three raised areas on each side of the backing plate, with brake
grease.
Step 2: Install the secondary brake shoe
Begin installing the new secondary shoe, the longer of the two shoes. It goes on the side of the
assembly closest to the rear of the vehicle. Attach the shoe to the parking brake lever, then attach
it to the backing plate with a hold-down spring.
Step 3: Install the primary brake shoe.
Install the primary shoe to the backing plate with a hold-down spring. Make sure both shoes are
positioned on the contact points of the backing plate and lined up on the anchor pin.
Step 4: Install the parking brake and self-adjuster cable
Install the parking brake spreader bar and self-adjuster cable. The parking brake spreader goes
between the two shoes, at the top, and attaches the primary shoe to the parking brake lever. The
loop on the adjuster cable slips over the anchor pin and is held in place by the return springs.
Step 5: Install self-adjuster return spring
Install the self-adjuster return spring in the lower holes of the shoes, and slip the self-adjuster
into place by spreading the shoes slightly. Install the star wheel side first, then slip the long side
into place on the shoe.
Step 6: Install the drum
Install the drum, and check the brakes for adjustment. Rotate the star wheel until the shoes are
adjusted to fit the drum. There should be a slight drag when you rotate the drum. You've attained
the proper fit when the wheel rotates about one turn before stopping when you spin it.
Step 7: Reinstall the wheel
Reinstall the wheel by tightening the lug nuts in a star pattern and lower the car to the ground.
Check the tightness of the lug nuts.
Step 8: Test-drive the car.

66
 Figure 42 : Drum brake parts diagram
Adopted from: mechanical-engg.com

Figure 43: Exploded diagram for drum brake assembly

Adopted from: howcarworks.com
Assembly of Disc Brakes

67
 Figure 44: Disc brake dismantled parts
Adopted from: pinterest.com
Procedure: To assemble Disk Brakes
Step1: Replace the retaining clips

Figure 45: Disc brake retaining clips

The photo above shows the pad's new retaining clips. New pads come with new clips, which
allow the pads to slide back and forth easily. Use the new ones and chuck the old ones. There are
no retaining screws for the clips. They just snap in place. There are usually left-handed and right-
handed clips, so change one at a time, making sure they match up exactly as you go.
Often, a small packet of graphite-based grease will come with the brake pads. Apply this to the
clips of the new brake pads to keep them from squeaking, as shown in the photo above.
Step 2: Slide in the new brake pads

68
 Figure 46: Installing new pads during assembly
The new pads slide into place as easily as the old ones did when they came out, though
sometimes the new clips will be tighter. The ears of the new pads should slot nicely into place on
the grease you applied.
Step 3: Retract the pistons

Figure 47: Retracting brake piston

In the photo above, the arrows point to the pistons. These pistons press on the brake pads and
squeeze the disc to stop the car. The brake might only have one piston for each wheel, but the
principle is the same. Before you can lower the caliper into place, these pistons need to be
retracted (pushed back) so that they will clear the new, thicker brake pads.
Step 4: Monitor the brake fluid level

69
 Figure 48 : Brake fluid level in the reservoir
When you push the pistons back, the brake fluid level slowly rises. Open the master cylinder
reservoir and check it often. This is more of a concern when you work on the second brake,
because the combined fluid volume of two calipers could cause the brake fluid to overflow. If it
looks like this is going to happen, suck out some of the brake fluid with a turkey baster. There is
more danger of overflowing if someone topped off the fluid level during regular service visits.
The fluid level naturally goes down as the pads wear. And it comes back up when the pads are
replaced. As long as the level doesn't go below "MIN," the arrow shown in the photo above, on
the lower half of the reservoir, everything is cool.

Step 5: Reposition the caliper

Figure 49 : Repositioning the brake caliper

With the pistons retracted, the caliper should slip over the pads with little effort. Sometimes the
fit is tight and the caliper will slide on the newly installed brake pads. If the pistons catch on the
brake pads, you might need to check that you retracted the piston completely.

70
Step 6: Reinstall the slider bolt

Figure 50 : Reinstalling the slider bolt

Reinstall and retighten the slider bolt. Straighten the car's wheels, re-mount the tire and tighten
the lug nuts.
Step 7: Repeat for the other side
Repeat all these steps for the other side of the front brakes. Remember that the brake fluid will be
higher in the reservoir now that new pads are installed on one side, so keep your eye on the fluid
level as you retract the piston on the other side. The fluid will only rise further the second time
around. You don't want it to overflow since the brake fluid is highly corrosive. If it looks as if the
fluid will overflow, suck some out with the turkey baster. If the level is below the "MAX" when
both sides are done, add fresh fluid to top things off to the line.
Step 8: Test-drive under safe conditions
Test-drive the car under safe conditions to make sure everything is working properly, being
especially careful for the first few stops. Be aware that your brake pedal might have a higher
engagement point. You will quickly get used to this change. Enjoy using your new brakes
knowing there are now thick brake pads to stop you safely.
8.12.5.1 Replenish brake fluid
Brake fluid creates pressure in the brake lines to help stop a car when the brake pedal is pressed.
Maintain your brake fluid levels to stay safe. If the brake fluid is still in good condition, you need
to top up the fluid in the reservoir.
Procedure for topping up brake fluid:
Step 1: Locate the brake fluid reservoir.
The brake fluid reservoir is located in the engine compartment and is mounted on the brake
booster against the firewall. The brake fluid reservoir is opaque or white in color.

71
Step 2: Check the brake fluid level.
The fluid reservoir has markings on the side like “FULL” and “LOW”. Use the markings to
identify the fluid level inside the reservoir.
Step 3: Top up the brake fluid.
Add the brake fluid to the reservoir so that the level reaches the “FULL” marking. Don’t overfill
as it could push out past the cap under pressure. Match the brake fluid you need with the fluid
type mentioned on the brake fluid reservoir cap. Always use a new, unopened container of brake
fluid to fill the reservoir.
8.12.5.2 Servicing the brake ABS system
Step 1: Check for ABS warning light.
If the light is really the ABS warning, the first thing to try is turning the ignition key off and back
on. It's like rebooting your computer. Maybe whatever transient issue that confused the ABS
controller has passed and all is well. If the condition repeats, you need to do some further poking
and prodding.
Use an ABS code reader to check the ABS controller for the code stored in the controller
memory. This code will at least give you an idea of where to look.
Step 2: Check for the fuse of the ABS unit.
Let's say you don't have a blinking trouble code and no information to go on other than an
illuminated ABS light. You checked the fuse for the ABS unit, right? This fuse may be in the
fuse panel inside the passenger compartment or under the hood.
Is the fuse okay? Then check the service manual for the voltage and resistance values on ABS-
related pins and sensors.
Step 3: Check the ABS controller

Unplug the main wiring harness to the ABS controller. While it's unplugged, clean the contacts
on the plugs at the ends of these wires with a shot of aerosol contact cleaner. Inspect those
contacts carefully for any signs of corrosion. Remember that the signals traveling down some of
these wires are only millivolts and almost any resistance in those wires is a major impediment for
those wires to work. Check the resistance using your multimeter across the wheel speed sensors.
If the ABS controller looks fine and unplugging and reinserting the main harness didn't help, it's
time to eyeball the wheel speed sensors.
Step 4: Check the Tone ring.

72
The ABS controller needs to know how fast each wheel is rotating. Somewhere on each wheel
bearing assembly or axle is a toothed wheel, and there's a magnetic pickup positioned
immediately next to it. Because this tone ring assembly is often out in the open, it's prone to
damage from foreign objects.
Step 5: Check the wheel speed sensors
Inspect the wheel speed sensor's wiring harness and the sensor itself. Some sensors are integrated
fairly well into the hub and aren't prone to damage. Others are simply bolted to stamped
brackets. If the sensor is loose or missing, or the wires are damaged, you've found your problem.
Check the gap between the sensor and the tone ring if it's adjustable. The service manual will
give you a specific distance the sensor is supposed to be spaced from the tone ring and directions
on how to properly set it.
If the harness to the sensor has a connector in the wheel well, pull it apart and check the sensor
for continuity with your multimeter set to its continuity mode. For wheel speed sensors, this
value is usually between 1,000 and 2,500 ohms. This resistance value can be found in the service
manual.
Step 6: Check for shorts to ground as well.
A ground should be a metal surface that one end of a wire goes to. Stick your multimeter probes
at the end of the wire that touches the metal and the other end the wire goes to. If that reading is
anything besides infinite resistance, you likely have a short. Repair any bad wiring to protect it
from all the mud, snow and salt that flies into the wheel well.
1.2.2.1.1.1 Brake Performance Testing Parameters
The following are the main parameters used to characterize the brake performance.
(a) Stopping Time: The time elapsed between the moment the brake force is applied to
the pedal and the vehicle stops.
(b) Stopping Distance: The distance covered by vehicle from the moment when driver
begins to actuate the brake control(s) until the moment the vehicle stops.
The following are the tests conducted to assess braking performance of a vehicle.
i. Type P Test (Dynamic Performance)
ii. Type F Test (Heat Fade)
iii. Type W Test (Water Fade)
1.2.2.1.2.1.1 Type P Test

73
The test is conducted at initial speeds and load conditions. The vehicle is started and speed is
picked up slightly above the specified initial test speed. As the vehicle nears the test area, vehicle
speed is maintained slightly above the specified initial speed, the throttle is closed fully and the
drive is disengaged where possible by declutching or otherwise. If recording devices of distance,
speed or deceleration are not automatic, the devices are started. When the speed of the vehicle
drops within the allowable range of the initial speed, the brake control is applied rapidly,
continuously and smoothly so as to bring the vehicle to a halt.
The test is repeated as described above, increasing the control force, if wheel(s) have not locked
and reducing the control force, if wheel(s) have locked till the control force is established where
the best performance is achieved during the stop without wheel locking. After establishing the
correct control force, the tests are repeated sufficient number of times such that four (4) valid
readings are available.
1.2.2.1.2.1.2 Type F Test (Heat Fade Test)
This test is performed so as to assess the brake behavior after repetitive use since the effectiveness
of brake decreases with rise in temperature. The initial speed, control force and use of gear and
clutch control are maintained as per the standard. After each stop the vehicle is immediately
accelerated to reach the initial speed and maintained at that speed till the initiation of the next stop.
The distance between successive stops is 1000 m. The throttle shall be fully closed during the
braking. Immediately after the 10 repeated stops, Type P performance test, as mentioned above
using the same control force as per the standard is carried out and the stopping distance/mean fully
developed deceleration is recorded. This test is carried out only once.
1.2.2.1.2.1.3 Type W Test (Water Fade Test)
This test evaluates the braking performance on wet surfaces. While performing this test, the track
is required to be dry, but the brakes to be tested are made wet, preferably by tap water at a
temperature not exceeding 30 °C.
The vehicle is run at initial speed appropriate to the test for a distance not <500 m prior to the point
at which the test is to commence without operation of the brake(s) to be tested. The vehicle is
braked after wetting of the brakes, from the initial speed with control force as has been mentioned
in the standard. The test consists of 15 stoppages, with an interval of 120 s between two stoppages.
During each stoppage, the mean deceleration value is calculated. The deceleration achieved at the
first stoppage shall not be <60 % of the value maintained during the base line check. At the end of
fifteenth stop, at least 90 % of the value of the base line check should be achieved. In case 90 %

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of recovery has been achieved before the fifteenth stop, further recovery stoppages need not be
carried out.

8.12.6 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Assemble disc brakes on the vehicle provided, replenish brake fluid, carry out brake system
bleeding and complete service and repair records.
Special instruction: Make use of manufacturers’ manual while servicing and assembling parts
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special
instruction
To establish vehicle Procedure followed Manufacturers’
drum/disc brakes during vehicle brakes manual correctly
assembly, replenishing of assembly, bleeding, used.
brake fluids, braking servicing and replenishing The relevant
system bleeding, of fluids. regulative Act
servicing of brake Safety precautions indicated e.g.
booster and ABS system, observed. OSHA 2007.
adjustment of brakes and Tools, materials and
servicing of auxiliary equipment used
brakes.
To access service and Format and filled Records approval
repair records in use. accurately

8.12.7 Self-Assessment
1. What steps are followed when assembling drum brakes?
2. What makes the brake fluid level to go down in the master cylinder reservoir?
3. When installing pads on the second wheel in the other side, why is it important to
monitor the brake fluid level in the reservoir?

8.12.7.1 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools
High-impedance multimeter
Wrenches of different sizes
Screwdrivers
Supplies and Rags
materials Safety glasses
Brake fluid
Gloves
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped
for maintaining motor vehicles

75
 Manufacturer’s manuals
Online service data
Customer database and systems
for recording maintenance records

8.12.8 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004).Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199).SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

Rowe, J. (Ed.). (2012). Advanced materials in automotive engineering.Elsevier.

James, D. (Ed.) (2016). Automotive brake system.

Jack, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive brakes.

Clifton, E. (Ed.) (2003). Automotive braking system.

Thomas, W. (Ed.) (1988).Automotive braking systems

8.12.9 Responses to Self-Assessment

1. What steps are followed when assembling drum brakes?
 Lubricate parts
 Install the secondary brake shoe
 Install the primary brake shoe.
 Install the parking brake and self-adjuster cable
 Install self-adjuster return spring
 Install the drum
 Reinstall the wheel
 Test-drive the vehicle
2. What makes the brake fluid level to go down in the master cylinder reservoir?
The fluid level naturally goes down as the pads wear.
3. When installing pads on the second wheel in the other side, why is it important to
monitor the brake fluid level in the reservoir?
The brake fluid will be higher in the reservoir now that new pads are installed
on one side. The fluid will rise further while installing the second pads and
may overflow.

SERVICE VEHICLE SUSPENSION SYSTEM

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Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CR/6/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Service vehicle suspension system.

8.13 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit specifies competencies required to service vehicle suspension system. It involves
assessment, removal, servicing and replacement of vehicle suspension components. It also
involves fitting and testing vehicle suspension components and documenting vehicle
suspension service.

8.14 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Assess vehicle suspension system.
2. Remove vehicle suspension components.
3. Assess vehicle suspension components serviceability.
4. Replace/service vehicle suspension components.
5. Fit and test vehicle suspension components.
6. Vehicle suspension system service documentation
8.15 Learning Outcome 1: Assess vehicle suspension system.

8.15.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to prepare work area and suspension units,
assemble tools and equipment, fill vehicle suspension checklists, use personal protective,
visually inspect suspension systems and identify faulty suspension components.

8.15.4 Performance Standard

1. Work area and suspension units are prepared as per the workshop procedures
2. Tools and equipment are assembled as per job assignment
3. Vehicle suspension checklist is filled according to the workplace requirements
4. Personal protective clothing and equipment (PPE) is used as per OSHA 2007
5. Suspension systems are visually inspected in accordance with service manual
6. Faulty suspension components are identified as per the service manual

8.15.5 Information Sheet

8.15.5.1 Definition of terms.

Suspension system – A mechanical system of springs or shock absorbers connecting the wheels
and axles to the chassis of a wheeled vehicle.
Function of the suspension system The primary functions of the suspension system include
maximizing the contact between the tires and the road surface, providing steering stability and
good handling, evenly supporting the weight of the vehicle (including the frame, engine, and
body), and ensuring the comfort of passengers by absorbing and dampening shock.

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8.15.5.2 Suspension system components

The suspension system consists of tires, the air in the tires, springs, shock absorbers, struts, arms,
bars, linkages, bushings, and joints. The suspension system components are located between the
frame of the vehicle and the road.

Springs

Today's springing systems are based on the following designs:

Coil springs - This is the most common type of spring and is, in essence, a heavy-duty torsion
bar coiled around an axis. Coil springs compress and expand to absorb the motion of the wheels.

Figure 1: Coil springs. Adopted from: shutterstock.com

Leaf springs consist of several layers of metal (called "leaves") bound together to act as a single
unit. Leaf springs were first used on horse-drawn carriages and were found on most American
automobiles until 1985. They are still used today on most trucks and heavy-duty vehicles.

Figure 2: Leaf springs. Adopted from: sciencedirect.com

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Torsion bars use the twisting properties of a steel bar to provide coil-spring-like performance.
This is how they work: One end of a bar is anchored to the vehicle frame. The other end is
attached to a wishbone, which acts like a lever that moves perpendicular to the torsion bar. When
the wheel hits a bump, vertical motion is transferred to the wishbone and then, through the
levering action, to the torsion bar. The torsion bar then twists along its axis to provide the spring
force.

Figure 3: Torsion bar. Adopted from: blogmech.com

Air springs consist of a cylindrical chamber of air positioned between the wheel and the car's
body, which uses the compressive qualities of air to absorb wheel vibrations. The concept is
actually more than a century old and could be found on horse-drawn buggies. Air springs from
this era were made from air-filled, leather diaphragms, much like a bellows; they were replaced
with molded-rubber air springs in the 1930s.

Figure 4: Air springs. Adopted from: dmaxstore.com

Shock absorbers

A device for absorbing jolts and vibrations, especially on a vehicle.

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 Figure 5: Shock Absorber. Adopted from: collinsdictionary.com
Arms

Figure 6: Suspension arms. Adopted from: moogparts.eu

Suspension arms can also work as fulcrums, maximizing the effect of the spring without making
the spring itself too bulky or large. Any movement in the suspension arms beyond their design
will cause a car to feel loose and ratty. In some cases, this excess movement can lead to the car
actually steering itself randomly when the driver would really rather go in a straight line. These
arms and links hold the spring and attach it to the car at various points. The arms pivot off these
points and allow the springs to compress and do their job.

8.15.5.3 Types of suspension system

- Macpherson
- Wishbone
- Solid axle
- Hydra gas
- Rubber suspension

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Macpherson Strut Suspension
A Macpherson strut uses a wishbone, or a substantial compression link stabilized by a secondary
link, which provides a mounting point for the hub carrier or axle of the wheel. This lower arm
system provides both lateral and longitudinal location of the wheel.
The upper part of the hub carrier is rigidly fixed to the bottom of the outer part of the strut
proper; this slides up and down the inner part of it, which extends upwards directly to a mounting
in the body shell of the vehicle. The line from the strut's top mount to the bottom ball joint on the
control arm gives the steering axis inclination.

Figure 7: Macpherson strut. Adopted from : stemtalksnc.com

Wishbone suspension
A forked element in the suspension of a motor vehicle, typically attached to a wheel at one end
with the two arms hinged to the chassis.

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 Figure 8 : Wishbone suspension. Adopted from: moogparts.eu

A double-wishbone is an independent suspension design that can be found at the front, rear, or
all four wheels. In this context, “independent” means that a single wheels movement is not
affected by the other three wheels. In other words, its free to move (somewhat) independently of
the chassis.

This design offers several advantages, specifically in high performance on- and off-road
environments. The key benefit is that, unlike a similar Macpherson strut setup, a double
wishbone design doesn’t significantly affect wheel camber with suspension travel. That means a
consistent tire contact patch with the road, regardless of body roll or road bumps. The setup gets
its “wishbone” nickname thanks to the two control arms (AKA wishbones or A-arms) that hold
the wheel knuckle and spindle.

On modern systems, the upper and lower control arms typically use ball joints to secure the
spindle/hub assembly. The arms are then connected to the vehicle chassis or body, where they
are allowed to pivot. On drive wheels, the axle half-shafts are joined to the differential and hub
flanges via CV or U-joints, permitting each wheel to move up and down. It also allows side-to-
side steering movement in front-wheel-drive applications. A shock absorber (damper) is usually
positioned between the upper and lower control arms to suppress suspension bounce.

Solid axle suspension

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 Figure 9: Solid axle suspension, adopted from: maybach300c.blogspot.com

A solid axle suspension (also called 'live axle' or 'beam axle') houses the vehicle's differential
inside the axle itself, connected to the wheels by rigid half-shafts. The entire axle moves as one,
so if a left wheel drops into a pothole, the right wheel moves upward in response.

Hydra gas
The Hydra gas system of vehicle suspension is similar in structure and operation to the
Hydrolastic system in that it is fluid-operated and has a displacer unit on each wheel. The front
and rear units are linked for each side of the car. The fluid used is water-based. Each unit
consists of an integral spring, using inert gas as the springing medium, and a damper unit. In
theory, the units are designed to last the life of the car, but if faults develop it is possible to
replace the displacer unit.

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 Figure 114: Hydra gas, adopted from: uniquecarsandparts.com.au

Rubber suspension

Figure 115: Rubber suspension, adopted from: what-when-how.com

Rubber spring suspensions are constructed from alternatively bonded layers of rubber blocks and
steel reinforcement plates sandwiched between inclined mounting plates due to which the rubber

84
is subjected to both shear and compressive forces. The rubber springs are installed between the
chassis spring cradle and a wedge shaped load transfer member pivoted centrally. To equalize
the load between the two axles, a box-sectioned balance beam is mounted centrally by a pivot to
the load transfer member. The upper torque arms am linked between the axles and chassis so that
the brake torque reaction is eliminated. If a pair of inclined rubber springs is positioned on both
sides of the chassis, the increase in the loading of the axles produces a progressive rising spring
rate due to the changing of imposed stress into the rubber from shear to compression.
The axles are permitted to take up any variation in road surface unevenness independently of the
deflection of the rubber springs caused by the laden weight of the vehicle. Rubber bushes are
provided at all pivot joints to eliminate lubrication. These rubber spring suspensions are suitable
for non-drive tandem trailers, rigid truck with tandem drive axles and bulk carrier tankers.

8.15.5.4 Suspension system inspection

Automotive suspension belongs to one of those car systems that are constantly exposed to high
loads and thus are prone to wear and tear. Most specialists recommend inspecting suspension
system after every 6,500-7,500 miles or when there are any signs of its breakage. Taking care of
a damaged or worn out suspension component early will prevent it from future mishaps as well
as save you from expensive repairs down the road.

The most common symptoms of car suspension problems are excessive swaying and bouncing,
even at low speeds. Also, the vehicle may not handle properly on the road and may not sit level.
Vehicle Suspension system inspection procedure:
- Check the steering linkage for play
- Check the condition of the struts and shocks (leakage from a shock absorber;
broken, bent, or pitted rod)
- Inspect all four wheel bearings for roughness or play
- Inspect your front and rear control arm bushings and ball joints during the control
arm diagnosis
- Check all the springs for damage
- Check for damaged or leaky CV joint boots
- Inspect the ground clearance of your vehicle (struts, coil springs, or torsion bars).
- The right and left side measurements should be identical.

8.15.6 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Carry out visual inspection on the suspension systems on the vehicle provided and identify faulty
suspension components.
85
Field/visit to a Garage

Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction

To establish vehicle Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
suspension system during vehicle correctly used.
inspection and suspension system The relevant regulative Act
identification of faulty inspection indicated e.g. OSHA 2007.
suspension Safety precautions
components observed.
To access a sample Correctly filled Signed by the workshop
inspection sheet details manager.

8.15.7 Self-Assessment
1. What is the function of a suspension system on a vehicle?
2. What are the main components of a suspension system?
3. How do air springs operate?
4. What are the most common suspension faults?
5. What steps are followed during vehicle suspension system inspection?

8.15.8 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Digital micrometer
Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies Personal protection equipment
and Vehicle technical data
materials Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

86
8.15.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.

Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
8.15.10 Model Answers
1. What is the function of a suspension system on a vehicle?
The primary functions of the suspension system include maximizing the contact
between the tires and the road surface, providing steering stability and good
handling, evenly supporting the weight of the vehicle (including the frame, engine,
and body), and ensuring the comfort of passengers by absorbing and dampening
shock.
2. What are the main components of a suspension system?
Shock absorbers, springs, struts, arms, bars, linkages, bushings and joints.
3. How do air springs operate?
Consists of cylindrical chamber of air positioned between the wheel and the cars
body which uses the compressive qualities of air to absorb wheel vibration.
4. What are the most common suspension faults?
Excessive swaying and bouncing even at low speeds.
5. What steps are followed during vehicle suspension system inspection?
Check the steering linkage for play
Check the condition of the struts and shocks (leakage from a shock absorber;
broken, bent, or pitted rod)
Inspect all four wheel bearings for roughness or play
Inspect your front and rear control arm bushings and ball joints during the control
arm diagnosis
Check all the springs for damage
Check for damaged or leaky CV joint boots
Inspect the ground clearance of your vehicle (struts, coil springs, or torsion bars).

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8.16 Learning Outcome 2: Remove vehicle suspension components.

8.16.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to use technical information, raise the
given vehicle and remove suspension components.

8.16.4 Performance Standard

1. Technical information is used according to the service manual
2. Vehicle is raised in accordance with workshop procedures
3. Suspension components are removed as per service manual

8.16.5 Information Sheet

8.16.5.1 Definition of terms

Anti-roll bar – device which connects the left hand right suspension together and
anchors to the vehicle frame
Shock absorbers – converts kinetic energy into heat by forcing fluid through a series of
valves within its body
Coil spring – provides cushion to absorb road imperfections and returns the vehicle to a
pre0determined ride height

Figure 12 : Suspension components, adopted from: testingautos.com

8.16.5.2 Suspension system components removal

Procedure for removing suspension system:
Step 1: Before removing the strut, mark the position of the strut to the body. Some struts can
only be installed in one way, but others allow for the mount to be in different positions. Mark the
strut to realign the mount to the body.
Step 2: Raise and secure the vehicle on a lift.

88
Step 3: Remove the wheel and tire to access the strut.
Step 4: Locate the strut-to-knuckle attachment and determine the tools needed to remove the
strut.
Step 5: Remove the strut-to-knuckle bolts.
Step 6: Remove the knuckle from the strut. Be careful not to overextend the front axle when
pulling the knuckle out.
Step 7: Following the instructions on the strut compressor, mount the strut in the compressor so
that it is secured properly.
Step 8: Compress the spring and remove the shock piston-to-mount nut. Remove the strut body
and compare the new and old parts. Transfer any covers and insulators to the new strut
and install it into the spring. Hand-tighten the shock piston nut and release the spring
tension.
Removing front stabilizer
Step 1: Remove the front wheel
Step 2: Remove the stabilizer link assembly
Step 3: Remove the stabilizer bracket
Step 4: Remove the stabilizer bar.

Removing front lower arm

Step 1: Remove the front wheel
Step 2: Remove the driveshaft split pin nut and washer
Step 3: Loosen the lower arm ball joint nut but do not remove it.
Step 4: Remove the strut lower mounting bolts.
Step 5: Push the axle hub towards the outside to disconnect the driveshaft from the axle hub.
Step 6: Using the special tool, disconnect the lower arm ball joint from the lower arm.
Step 7: Temporarily install the strut lower mounting bolt.
Step 8: Remove the lower arm bushing and bushing bolts
Step 9: Remove the lower arm assembly.

Figure 116: Front lower arm, adopted from: skedsof.com

89
8.16.6 Learning Activities
Practical Activities
Raise the given vehicle and remove suspension components.
Field/Visit to a garage
Table 1.5: Field visit to establish suspension components removal
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish vehicle Procedure followed Manufacturers’
raising the vehicle and during vehicle raising manual correctly used.
removing suspension and removing The relevant
components suspension components regulative Act
Safety precautions indicated e.g. OSHA
observed. 2007.

8.16.7 Self-Assessment
1. What procedure is followed during vehicle suspension system dismantling?

8.16.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Table 1.6: Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for removing suspension components
Tools Digital micrometer
Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet

Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

90
8.16.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
8.16.10 Model Answer
1. What procedure is followed during vehicle suspension system dismantling?

 Before removing the strut, mark the position of the strut to the body. Some
struts can only be installed in one way, but others allow for the mount to be in
different positions. Mark the strut to realign the mount to the body.
 Raise and secure the vehicle on a lift.
 Remove the wheel and tire to access the strut.
 Locate the strut-to-knuckle attachment and determine the tools needed
to remove the strut.
 Remove the strut-to-knuckle bolts.
 Remove the knuckle from the strut. Be careful not to overextend the
front axle when pulling the knuckle out.
 Following the instructions on the strut compressor, mount the strut in the
compressor so that it is secured properly.
 Compress the spring and remove the shock piston-to-mount nut.
 Remove the strut body and compare the new and old parts.
 Transfer any covers and insulators to the new strut and install it into the
spring.
 Hand-tighten the shock piston nut and release the spring tension.

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8.17 Learning Outcome 3: Assess vehicle suspension components serviceability.

8.17.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to disassemble suspension components,
clean suspension components, assess serviceability of suspension components and
prepare suspension component service job card.

8.17.4 Performance Standard

1 Suspension components are disassembled as per the service manual
2 Suspension components are cleaned in accordance with service manual
3 Serviceability of suspension components is assessed as per the service manual
4 Suspension component service job card is prepared in accordance with workshop
procedure

8.17.5 Information Sheet

8.17.6 Definition of terms

Strut assembly – combination of two main parts, spring and shock absorber
Stabilizer bar – linkages to improve handling and shock absorption to avoid the car from
rolling

Troubleshooting the suspension system

Table 21: Troubleshooting the suspension system
Symptom Possible cause Remedy
Hard steering  Improper front wheel alignment  Correct
 Lower arm ball joint  Replace
 No power assist  Adjust
 Repair
Poor or rough  Malfunctioning shock absorbers  Correct
ride  Broken or worn stabilizer  Repair
 Broken or worn coil spring  Replace
 Worn lower arm bushing
Abnormal tire  Malfunctioning shock absorber  Correct
wear  Improper front wheel alignment  Adjust
 Improper tie pressure  Replace
Wandering  Improper front wheel alignment  Correct
 Poor turning resistance of lower  Repair
arm ball joint  Retighten
 Loose or worn lower bushing.
Bottoming  Broken or worn coil spring  Replace
 Malfunctioning shocker absorber.  Replace

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Cleaning of suspension system components
Suspension system components should be cleaned thoroughly after dismantling to enable
assessment of their condition.

8.17.6.1 Assessing suspension system components

 Inspecting the front strut assembly
1. Check the strut insulator bearing for wear or damage.
2. Check rubber parts for damage or deterioration.
3. Check the coil spring for sagging and weakness.
4. Check the shock absorber for abnormal resistance or unusual sound.
 Inspecting front lower arm
4. Check the bushing for wear and deterioration
5. Check the lower arm for bending or breakage
6. Check the ball joint dust cover for cracks and damage
7. Check all bolts for damage and deformation
8. Check the lower arm ball joint for rotating torque.
 Inspecting the front stabilizer bar.
1. Check the stabilizer bar for deterioration and damage.
2. Check all bolts for damage and deformation.
3. Check the stabilizer link dust cover for cracks or damage.
4. Check the stabilizer link ball joint for rotating torque.

 Inspecting rear strut assembly

 Check the strut insulation for wear and damage
 Check rubber parts for damage or deterioration
 Check the coil spring and strut assembly for sagging and deformation
 Check the shock absorber for abnormal resistance or unusual sound.

8.17.7 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Disassemble suspension components, clean suspension components, assess serviceability
of suspension components and prepare suspension component service job card.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish vehicle Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
suspension system during vehicle correctly used.
components disassembly, suspension system The relevant regulative
cleaning and assessing components disassembly Act indicated e.g. OSHA
suspension system 2007.
serviceability
To access a sample service job Correctly filled details Signed by the workshop
card. manager.

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8.17.8 Self-Assessment
1.2.2.2 Why is it necessary to clean suspension components after
dismantling?
1.2.2.3 While assessing the suspension front strut, what faults will you be
checking?

8.17.9 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Coil spring compressor
Jack
Jack stands
Replacement springs
Ball joint remover
Pry bar
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance records;

8.17.10 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
8.17.11 Model Answers
1. Why is it necessary to clean suspension components after dismantling?
 Suspension system components should be cleaned thoroughly after
dismantling to enable assessment of their condition.
2. While assessing the suspension front strut, what faults will you check?
 Check the strut insulator bearing for wear or damage.
 Check rubber parts for damage or deterioration.
 Check the coil spring for sagging and weakness.
 Check the shock absorber for abnormal resistance or unusual sound.

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8.18 Learning Outcome 4: Replace/service vehicle suspension components.

8.18.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to replace worn out/damaged
components, verify suspension components’ replacement parts, re-assemble suspension
components, replace Hydrolastic suspension components, replace hydro-pneumatic
components and service/replace Macpherson strut suspension components.

8.18.4 Performance Standard

1. Worn/damaged components are replaced as per manufacturer’s manual
2. Suspension components’ replacement parts are verified against
part numbers
3. Suspension components are re-assembled in accordance with manufacturers’
specification
4. Hydrolastic suspension components are replaced according to service manual
5. Hydro-pneumatic components are replaced according to service manual
6. Macpherson strut suspension components are serviced/replace as per the service
manual

8.18.5 Information Sheet

8.18.5.1 Definition of terms

Hydra gas – is a fluid/gas based suspension system which is an alternative to conventional
springs and dampers
Replacing coil spring
Coil springs are more dangerous to replace than leaf springs because of compressed energy in the
coil. When you replace a coil spring on one side, it's best to replace the other spring as well, even
if only one of the current springs has exhibited problem symptoms. Doing so will ensure that
both springs are matched by rating and fitting. When springs are replaced at different times, they
might be ill-matched and cause stability issues in the suspension.
Procedure for replacing a coil spring:
Step 1: Hoist the truck with a jack and secure the suspended vehicle with a jack stand.
Step 2: Unbolt and remove the tire on the side you plan to do first.
Step 3: Complete one side before you start the other.
Step 4: Remove the following parts:
 Brake rotor
 Caliper
 Lower ball joint knuckle

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Step 5: You might need to compress the spring. To do so, turn the thru-bolt to steadily compress,
or decompress, the coil. Take out the old coil spring.
Replacing shock absorbers
Procedure for replacing shock absorbers:
Step 1: Jack your vehicle in an appropriate location.
Park your car on a level surface and loosen the lug nuts on both sides of the front or back end.
Secure your vehicle with ramps and/or jack stands. Check your owner's manual for the correct
jack positioning. When you've got the car up, remove the wheels and locate the shocks.
Step 2: Check the shock mountings and spray them with metal cleaner. The most difficult part
of the job is removing the old shocks, which can have a tendency to be really gunky with both
age and road-grit, making the bushings and bolts somewhat difficult to remove. Check out the
mountings to see if they're loose enough to get off, or if you're likely to crack the rubber
around the bushing.
Step 3: Remove bolts from the shock tower. Lots of cars have the top bolts under the fabric in
the trunk of the car, which means you'll have to lift up the lining to get to the shock bolts and
remove them with a ratchet and socket. To unfasten the bolts, turn the socket and ratchet
counterclockwise, greasing the bolts with penetrating fluid to eliminate any surface rust, if
necessary.
Step 4: Disconnect the shock from the suspension. Use a socket set or a nut splitter to
disengage the nut that connecting the shock to the suspension, and remove it from the bolt.
Step 5: Remove the shock absorber from the bottom and top bolts. Wiggling the shock off the
bolts can be surprisingly difficult, especially if the shocks are mounted on studs with a
retaining bracket and everything's rusty. Wiggle it around a while and it should come off
eventually.
Replacing Hydrolastic suspension components

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 Figure 117: Hydromantic suspension adopted from: bluebird - electric.net

Hydrolastic suspension is a "fluid" system that was used ago. The system used fluid displacer
units fitted to each wheel. The front and rear units were connected so that the front and rear
nearside form one connected pair and the front and rear offside form another connected pair. The
units were made from sheet-steel and rubber. Each unit consisted of an upper and lower chamber
housing containing a diaphragm, reinforced by nylon, and a compressed conical rubber spring.
The units were filled with a mixture of alcohol, water and additives to prevent corrosion. A valve
in the top of the fluid separating chamber replaced the conventional damper of other systems.
When either wheel on one side of the car hit a bump in the road, the fluid was displaced and
caused the unit on the other wheel to react. In this way a bump at the front made the rear of the
car rise to a corresponding height and the car always remained level. If either or both front wings
permanently sit lower than the specified trim height, either the front units themselves or the pipes
connecting the front and rear systems may be blocked.
To remove the front displacer units, first support the car on axle stands and remove the front
wheels. Disconnect the battery. To do this first slacken the bleed screw and drain the hydraulic
fluid from the brake pipe. Then unscrew the metal pipe union nut from where it connects to the
hose. There is a hexagon on the hose; hold this with a spanner and unscrew the attachment nut
and washer. Withdraw the hose from the mounting bracket on the chassis. Unscrew the flexible
hydraulic hose from the brake cylinder and disconnect it. Next disconnect the caliper unit from
the front hub by unbolting it and lifting it away. Wire the caliper up out of the way and take care
not to depress the brake pedal, as this would have the effect of forcing the pistons out of the
caliper.
Replacing hydro-pneumatic components

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Figure 118: Hydro-pneumatic suspension adopted from: researchgate.net
Hydro-pneumatic suspensions systems combine the excellent properties of gas springs with the
favorable damping properties of hydraulic fluids. The advantages of these systems are
particularly appropriate for automotive applications, such as passenger cars, trucks and
agricultural equipment.
In order to achieve comfort it is necessary to have a suspension system that isolates the vehicle’s
chassis, or rather, the driver from the unevenness of the ground. Hydro-pneumatic suspension
systems can be located in various parts of a vehicle. Typically, there are three different
applications – wheel or axle suspension, operator’s cab suspension, and boom suspension or
suspension of payload. There is another important advantage with regard to wheel and/or axle
suspensions – wheel load or ground pressure is equalized, which in turn enhances road-holding
and wheel traction.

8.18.6 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Service Macpherson strut suspension and replace worn out components on the vehicle
provided.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish vehicle suspension Procedure followed Manufacturers’
service, verification of during suspension manual correctly used.
suspension components’ service and replacement

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 replacement parts, re-assembling of worn out parts in the The relevant
of suspension components and mentioned suspension regulative Act
replacement of worn out parts systems indicated e.g. OSHA
for Hydrolastic, hydro- Safety precautions 2007.
pneumatic and Macpherson strut observed.
suspensions’ components

8.18.7 Self-Assessment
1. Why is it recommended to replace both coil springs during suspension system
maintenance instead of only one which may be faulty?
2. What procedure will you follow while replacing a shock absorber?
3. What are the advantages of the Hydro-pneumatic suspension system over other
systems?

8.18.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Digital micrometer
Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.18.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.

99
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment

8.18.10 Model Answers

1. Why is it recommended to replace both coil springs during suspension system
maintenance instead of only one which may be faulty?
 When you replace a coil spring on one side, it's best to replace the other spring
as well, even if only one of the current springs has exhibited problem
symptoms. Doing so will ensure that both springs are matched by rating and
fitting. When springs are replaced at different times, they might be ill-
matched and cause stability issues in the suspension.
2. What procedure will you follow while replacing a shock absorber?
Step 1: Jack your vehicle in an appropriate location.
Park your car on a level surface and loosen the lug nuts on both sides of the front
or back end. Secure your vehicle with ramps and/or jack stands. Check your
owner's manual for the correct jack positioning. When you've got the car up,
remove the wheels and locate the shocks.
Step 2: Check the shock mountings and spray them with metal cleaner. The most
difficult part of the job is removing the old shocks, which can have a tendency to be
really gunky with both age and road-grit, making the bushings and bolts somewhat
difficult to remove. Check out the mountings to see if they're loose enough to get
off, or if you're likely to crack the rubber around the bushing.
Step 3: Remove bolts from the shock tower. Lots of cars have the top bolts under
the fabric in the trunk of the car, which means you'll have to lift up the lining to get
to the shock bolts and remove them with a ratchet and socket. To unfasten the
bolts, turn the socket and ratchet counterclockwise, greasing the bolts with
penetrating fluid to eliminate any surface rust, if necessary.
Step 4: Disconnect the shock from the suspension. Use a socket set or a nut splitter
to disengage the nut that connecting the shock to the suspension, and remove it
from the bolt.
Step 5: Remove the shock absorber from the bottom and top bolts. Wiggling the
shock off the bolts can be surprisingly difficult, especially if the shocks are mounted
on studs with a retaining bracket and everything's rusty. Wiggle it around a while
and it should come off eventually.
3. What are the advantages of the Hydro-pneumatic suspension system over other systems?
 Can be located in various parts of the vehicle.
 Wheel load or ground pressure is equalized which enhances road
holding and wheel traction.

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8.19 Learning Outcome 5: Fit and test vehicle suspension components.

8.19.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to fit back the suspension components,
set suspension alignment and fill the vehicle suspension service checklist.

8.19.4 Performance Standard

1. Suspension components are fitted back as per service manual
2. Suspension alignment is set in accordance with manufacturers’ specifications
3. Vehicle suspension service checklist is filled in accordance with workplace policy

8.19.5 Information Sheet

8.19.5.1 Definition of terms

Toe – The angle at which the tires turn in or out when viewed from above.
Camber –The vertical angle inward or outward of the tires when looking at the vehicle
straight on.
Caster –The forward or backward angle of the steering axis as viewed from the side of
the car.
Thrust –This measurement compares the rear axle direction and the centerline of the car.

Installing front suspension system

Procedure:
Step 1: When installing the front strut, be sure to clear the connecting surface.

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 Step 2: Install the strut assembly so the identification label on the strut insulator faces
toward the inside of vehicle.
Step 3: Tighten the components
Step 4: Install the brake hose and front wheel speed sensor wire on the front strut
assembly.

Figure 119: Macpherson strut suspension adopted from: newkidscar.com

Installing coil spring

Procedure:
Step 1: Install lower spring pad so that the protrusions fit in the holes of the spring lower seat.
Step 2: Install the dust cover on the shock absorber.
Step 3: Using the special tools, compress the coil spring. After the coil spring is fully
compressed, install it on the shock absorber.
Step 4: After fully extending the piston rod, install the spring upper seat and Insulator
assembly.
Step 5: After seating the upper and lower ends of the coil spring in the upper and lower spring
seat grooves correctly, tighten the new-self-locking nut temporarily.
Step 6: Remove the special tool.
Step 7: Tighten the self-locking nut to the specified torque

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Figure 120: Coil springs installation adopted from: multibody.net

Installation of the front lower arm-ball joint and dust cover.

Step 1: Using a flat-tipped screwdriver, remove the dust cover from the lower arm ball joint.
Step 2: Remove the snap ring
Step 3: Using a plastic hammer tap the ball joint out of the lower arm.
Step 4: Using special tool press-fit the ball joint into the lower arm assembly
Step 5: Install the snap ring.
Step 6: Using the special tool, install the dust cover.

Installing lower arm bushing.

Step 1: Install the special tools and lower the arm.
Step 2: Press out the bushing
Step 3: Apply soup solution to the following parts
7. Outer surface of the bushing
8. Inner surface of the lower arm bushing mounting point.
Step 4: Install the new bushing on the lower arm by using special tools.

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Figure 121: Front suspension adopted from: monroe.com.au
Installing front stabilizer bar.
Step 1: Install the bushing on the stabilizer bar.
Step 2: Install the bracket on the bushing.
Step 3: After tightening the bolts of the bushing bracket temporarily, install the bushing
bracket on the opposite side.

8.19.5.2 Setting suspension system geometry

The safety, handling and stability of a vehicle depends to a large extent on the design of the rims,
tires, suspension and steering systems that need to function in harmony.
Suspension geometry is, by definition, an angular dependence between the surface of the
substrate and the elements of the suspension system, steering and wheels of the vehicle. When
adjusting the geometry of the suspension, the angles at which the wheels of the vehicle are
located are measured and adjusted according to the corresponding values defined by the
constructor. Adjustment is made by moving the various elements of the suspension and control
system.
Properly adjusted suspension geometry allows the wheels to be rotated without slipping, locking
and combing on different types of substrates. Proper alignment of the suspension geometry
enables safe driving, good handling, longer tire life, reduced fuel consumption and fewer loads
on the suspension and control system elements. The alignment of the suspension geometry

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should be checked when installing new tires or elements of the suspension and control system. If
excessive tire wear is observed, the geometry of the suspension geometry must also be checked.
Disruption of geometry adjustment occurs when changing the distance of the vehicle from the
ground, due to wear or damage to the elements of the suspension system when striking a solid
obstacle.
There are currently two basic ways to adjust the suspension geometry: adjust two or adjust all
four wheels. When adjusting the geometry, only two adjustment points and measurements are
made only on the front wheels without taking into account the geometric ratio of the front and
rear wheels.

Figure 122: Suspension system geometry adopted from: pintest.dk

When adjusting the geometry of the four-wheel suspension, angle measurements are made, but
the adjustment is made only on the front-wheel suspension unless there is an option to adjust the
rear-wheel geometry. In this case, the geometry of the front wheels is adjusted so that the rear
wheels follow the front ones. If the rear wheel geometry is also adjusted, it is first adjusted and
then the front wheel geometry is adjusted relative to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.

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8.19.5.3 Setting suspension alignment

Figure 123: Suspension alignment adopted from: f1autoceenters.co.ku

An alignment is a procedure performed to get your vehicle’s suspension back into proper form.
By making adjustments to the vehicle’s tires and axles, the wheels are once again aligned with
each other and can make solid contact with the road.
Types of suspension alignments
6. Front-end alignment
7. Thrust alignment
8. Four wheel alignment
The vehicle is hooked up to the alignment machine and adjustments made to the suspension
angles according to the manufacturer’s specifications. There are four main areas that need to be
adjusted: toe, camber, caster and thrust.

8.19.6 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Fit back the suspension components, set suspension alignment on the vehicle provided
and fill the vehicle suspension service checklist.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish fitting back Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
vehicle suspension during fitting back correctly used.
components and setting vehicle suspension The relevant regulative Act
vehicle suspension alignment. components and setting indicated e.g. OSHA 2007.
vehicle suspension
alignment.
Safety precautions
observed.

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 To access a sample suspension Correctly filled details Signed by the workshop
service checklist. manager.

8.19.7 Self-Assessment
1. What procedure is followed during installing of the coil spring?
2. What happens during adjusting the suspension system geometry?
3. What is suspension system alignment?

8.19.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Digital micrometer
Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

8.19.8.1 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.

107
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment

8.19.9 Model answers

1. What procedure is followed during installing of the coil spring?
 Install lower spring pad so that the protrusions fit in the holes of the
spring lower seat.
 Install the dust cover on the shock absorber.
 Using the special tools, compress the coil spring. After the coil spring is
fully compressed, install it on the shock absorber.
 After fully extending the piston rod, install the spring upper seat and
Insulator assembly.
 After seating the upper and lower ends of the coil spring in the upper
and lower spring seat grooves correctly, tighten the new-self-locking nut
temporarily.
 Remove the special tool.
 Tighten the self-locking nut to the specified torque
2. What happens during adjusting the suspension system geometry?
 The angles at which the wheels of the vehicle are located are measured and
adjusted according to the corresponding values defined by the manufacturer.
3. What is suspension system alignment?
 An alignment is a procedure performed to get your vehicles suspension back
into proper form by making adjustments to the vehicles tires and axles. The
wheels are once again aligned with each other.

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8.20 Learning Outcome 6: Vehicle suspension system service documentation

8.20.3 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to complete suspension service and
repair within agreed time frame and generate and share the suspension service and job
card.

8.20.4 Performance Standard

1. Suspension service and repair is completed within workplace policy/customer’s
specification
2. Suspension service and job card is generated and shared in line with company
standard operating procedures

8.20.5 Information Sheet

Suspension system testing
A laboratory test rig was designed and constructed at Hashemite University to study and
analyze the effects of road terrains on automotive suspension systems. It is also used to
study and analyze the nonlinear dynamic behavior of suspension systems. The
experimental suspension setup facilitates testing and validating various identification and
controller designs.

Importance of testing vehicle suspension system

Vehicles are typically equipped with hydraulic dampers and helical springs to isolate the
car body from road irregularities and to ensure sufficient contact between tire and road.
This will guarantee relatively sufficient safety and comfort for the passenger. Normally,
comfort at a high level is desired which can be accomplished through reducing the
vibration levels inside the car and simultaneously increasing the passenger’s safety due to
enhanced handling and ride stability. These performance specifications of a passenger car
are mainly determined by the damping characteristic of the dampers. Passive dampers
have a fixed damping characteristic determined by their design. Depending on the road
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excitation, however, it is desirable to adjust this characteristic to increase performance
specifications.
Types of test done on suspension system
Efforts have been made to make the suspension system to function optimally by
optimizing the parameters of the suspension system, but to limit internal passive
suspension system the improvement is effective only in a certain frequency range.
Compared with passive suspension, the active suspension can improve the performance
suspension system on a comprehensive frequency.
 Experimental determination of static response of suspension system
To determine the characteristic of strength, it was chosen the option to direct
determination of the force of the rod damper developed by conducting an assembly with
four strain gauges type LY5mm/120 Ohm applied rod actuators, approx. 5 mm superior
to the shoulder.
- Force developed in the damper rod (measured with strain gauges mounted on the
rod);
- The damper race (used the transducer W50 positioned parallel with damper rod
through the arch of suspension);
- Acceleration in the vertical direction of the front axis (it was used the
accelerometer mounted on the casing of the damper on vertical direction);
- Horizontal acceleration - longitudinal of the front suspension axle
- Acceleration in the vertical direction of the flexible platform. Moving rod of the
race transducer was caught by the superior platen of the suspension and the body
of the damper.
 Experimental determination of suspension dynamic response.
In order to determine the dynamic response of the suspension and the damper, the front
suspension of a Logan car was equipped with a silencer with strain gauges mark. The
following parameters were noticed: damper race (CRS, measured in mm), the shock
strength (measured in F, N), acceleration in vertical direction, at damper level (measured
in m/s2) acceleration on the direction horizontal - longitudinally at the damper level
(measured m/s2) and acceleration on the direction vertical to the flexible platform
(measured m/s2). After each test, the data acquired were viewed and stored in files of
ASCII data for further processing.

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8.20.6 Learning Activities
Practical Activities
Carry out vehicle suspension system tests and record data on the vehicle provided.

Field/Visit to a garage

Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction

To establish vehicle Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
suspension service vehicle suspension testing. correctly used.
testing. Safety precautions observed. The relevant regulative
Act indicated e.g. OSHA
2007.
To access a sample data Data sheet analysis Approval
sheet

8.20.7 Self-Assessment
6.2.1.5.1.1.1 How important is it to perform
suspension system testing?
6.2.1.5.1.1.2 What types of test are done on a vehicle
suspension system?

8.20.8 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Digital micrometer
Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Spring compressor
Materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data

111
 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

8.20.9 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment

8.20.10 Model Answers

1. How important is it to perform suspension system testing?
Vehicles are typically equipped with hydraulic dampers and helical springs to
isolate the car body from road irregularities and to ensure sufficient contact
between tire and road. This will guarantee relatively sufficient safety and comfort
for the passenger. Normally, comfort at a high level is desired which can be
accomplished through reducing the vibration levels inside the car and
simultaneously increasing the passenger’s safety due to enhanced handling and ride
stability.
2. What types of test are done on a vehicle suspension system?
Testing for stating response of suspension system.
Testing for dynamic response of the suspension system.

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113
CHAPTER 9: SERVICE VEHICLE STEERING SYSTEM
Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/AUT/CR/6/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Service vehicle steering system.
9.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies competencies required to service vehicle steering system. It involves assess
vehicle steering, assess serviceability of vehicle steering components, remove steering
components. It also involves fitting and testing vehicle steering components, fit and test vehicle
components and finalize vehicle steering system service.

9.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

7. Assess vehicle steering system.
8. Remove steering components.
9. Assess serviceability of vehicle steering components
10. Replace/service vehicle steering components
11. Fit and test vehicle steering components
12. Finalize vehicle steering system service
9.3 Learning Outcome 1: Assess vehicle steering system.
9.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to prepare work area, assemble tools and
equipment, fill vehicle steering checklists, use personal protective, visually inspect
steering systems and identify faulty steering components.
9.3.2 Performance Standard
1. Work area and steering units are prepared as per the workshop procedures
2. Tools and equipment are assembled as per job assignment
3. Vehicle steering system checklist is prepared based on workplace requirements
4. Personal protective clothing and equipment (PPE) is used as per OSHA 2007
5. Steering systems are visually inspected in accordance with service manual
6. Faulty steering components are identified as per the service manual.
9.3.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Steering system Steering system, in automobiles, includes steering wheel, gears,
linkages, and other components used to control the direction of a vehicle's motion.

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 Because of friction between the front tires and the road, especially in parking, effort is
required to turn the steering wheel. To lessen the effort required, the wheel is connected
through a system of gears to components that position the front tires. The gears give the
driver a mechanical advantage, in that they multiply the force he applies, but they also
increase the distance through which he must turn the wheel in order to turn the tires a
given amount.

After prolonged use, steering components can fail. It is important that the steering system
be kept in good working condition for obvious safety reasons.

Figure 124: Steering system adopted from: drivetribe.com

Functions of the steering system
 The primary function of the steering system is to achieve angular motion of the front wheels.
 To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead.
 To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
 To minimize wear and tear of tyres.
 To absorb a major part of road shocks thereby preventing them to get transmitted to the
hands of the driver.
 To provide perfect rolling motion of the road wheels at all times.
Types of steering system
 Manual steering system
 Power assisted steering system

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 Hydraulic power steering system
 Hydrostatic steering systems
 Electric power steering systems

Steering system assessment

Maintenance of the steering system consists of regular inspection, lubrication, and adjusting
components to compensate for wear. When inspecting the steering system, you will need
someone to assist you by turning the steering wheel back and forth through the free play while
you check the steering linkage and connections. You will also be able to determine if the steering
mechanism is securely fastened to the frame. A slight amount of free play may seem
insignificant, but if allowed to remain, the free play will quickly increase, resulting in poor
steering control.

Steering Faults
Steering Wheel Play
The most common of all problems in a steering system is excessive steering wheel play. Steering
wheel play is normally caused by worn ball sockets, worn idler arm, or too much clearance in the
steering gearbox. Typically, you should not be able to turn the steering wheel more than 1 1/2
inches without causing the front wheels to move. If the steering wheel rotates excessively, a
serious steering problem exists.
An effective way to check for play in the steering linkage or rack-and-pinion mechanism is by
the dry-park test. With the full weight of the vehicle on the front wheels, have someone move the
steering wheel from side to side while you examine the steering system for looseness. Start your
inspection at the steering column shaft and work your way to the tie-rod ends. Ensure that the
movement of one component causes an equal amount of movement of the adjoining component.

Watch for ball studs that wiggle in their sockets. With a rack-and-pinion steering system,
squeeze the rubber boots and feel the inner tie rod to detect wear. If the tie rod moves sideways
in relation to the rack, the socket is worn and should be replaced.

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Another way of inspecting the steering system involves moving the steering components and
front wheel by hand. With the steering wheel locked, raise the vehicle and place it on jack stands.
Then force the front wheels right and left while checking for component looseness.

Hard Steering
If hard steering occurs, it is probably due to excessively tight adjustments in the steering gearbox
or linkages. Hard steering can also be caused by low or uneven tire pressure, abnormal friction in
the steering gearbox, in the linkage, or at the ball joints, or improper wheel or frame alignment.
The failure of power steering in a vehicle causes the steering system to revert to straight
mechanical operation, requiring much greater steering force to be applied by the operator. When
this happens, the power steering gearbox and pump should be checked as outlined in the
manufacturer's service manual.

To check the steering system for excessive friction, raise the front of the vehicle and turn the
steering wheel and check the steering system components to locate the source of excessive
friction. Disconnect the pitman arm. If this action eliminates the frictional drag, then the friction
is in either the linkage or at the steering knuckles. If the friction is NOT eliminated when the
pitman arm is disconnected, then the steering gearbox is probably faulty.

If hard steering is not due to excessive friction in the steering system, the most probable causes
are incorrect front end alignment, a misaligned frame, or sagging springs. Excessive tire caster
causes hard steering. Wheel alignment will be described later in this chapter.

Steering System Noises

Steering systems, when problems exist, can produce abnormal noises (rattles, squeaks, and
squeals). Noises can be signs of worn components, unlubricated bearing, ball joints, loose
components, slipping belts, low power steering fluid, or other troubles.

Rattles in the steering linkage may develop if linkage components become loose. Squeaks during
turns can develop due to lack of lubrication in the joints or bearings of the steering linkage. This
condition can also produce hard steering.

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Some of the connections between the steering linkage components are connected by ball sockets
that can be lubricated. Some ball sockets are permanently lubricated on original assembly. If
permanently lubricated ball sockets develop squeaks or excessive friction, they must be replaced.
Belt squeal is a loud screeching sound produced by belt slippage. A slipping power steering belt
will usually show up when turning. Turning the steering wheel to the full right or left will
increase system pressure and belt squeal. Belt squeal may be eliminated by either adjusting or
replacing the belt.

Power Steering Fluid Leak

The power steering system is completely dependent on the hydraulic fluid. If there isn’t enough
fluid or the fluid has been compromised, you’ll run into problems. A common issue with the
power steering system is a power steering fluid leak.
This can happen at any point in the chain of components. The cylinder of the rack and pinion
unit can develop a crack or leak from either the cylinder itself or more commonly from the
steering rack seals, the fluid lines may develop cracks or holes that leak power steering fluid or
the pump can spring a leak. All of these occur due to the wear and tear and high pressure the
fluid is raised to.

If your power steering system develops a leak, it’s a matter of time before your fluid levels drop
to the point where your power steering either begins to be less effective or even fails entirely.
You definitely don’t want to let it get to that point. If you detect any evidence of your power
steering fluid leaking, you’ll want to bring your vehicle in for service as soon as possible. Signs
of a leak include the sight of fluid beneath your car, a noise from under the hood particularly
while turning, or a decrease in the effectiveness of your power steering.

Contaminated Power Steering Fluid

In comparison to something like your car’s engine oil, power steering fluid remains relatively
clean over time. The process isn’t as messy as the combustion of fuel in the engine or other
systems that dirty up their respective fluid quicker. However, as time goes on the power steering
fluid does in fact begin to accumulate debris. This chiefly comes from micro bits of plastic or
metals worn from the inside of the system.
Other than maybe a screen within a particular component, a power steering system has no main

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filter for the fluid, meaning that debris builds up within the fluid and is never removed unless it’s
flushed out manually. If the power steering fluid becomes too contaminated, it will begin to wear
away at the inside of the power steering system and do damage to the fluid lines, pump and
cylinder.
A power steering flush removes all the old fluid from the system and clears out any accumulated
grime and debris. Brand new fluid is then filled back up to optimum levels. Many manufacturers
recommend getting a power steering flush at regular intervals. If it’s been a while, consult your
user manual or bring your car in to us for a power steering flush.

Problems with the Power Steering Pump

The power steering pump is powered by your car’s engine. A belt runs from the crankshaft to the
power steering pump, and over time that belt can wear out, crack, and eventually break. If the
power steering belt breaks, your power steering will not function. Part of a car’s routine
maintenance should be inspecting the belt for signs of wear to determine whether it needs
replacement. Our Certified Automotive Experts inspect all belts during routine vehicle
maintenance.

Another common issue is the power steering pump itself going bad. If the pump starts to wear
out, it won’t be as effective in pressurizing the fluid, and your power steering effectiveness will
suffer. You may be able to detect the power steering pump failing if you hear noises while it’s
working, that it, typically while your turning the steering wheel.
This is a typical power steering pump with the power steering fluid reservoir attached. A pulley
attaches to the shaft and a belt drives the pump through that pulley.

Power Steering Rack Failure

The power steering rack is in a lot of ways the heart of your power steering system. If the power
steering rack breaks down, it’s even more dangerous than many of the other previously discussed
issues, as it may compromise your ability to handle the car at all.
There are a few clues that your power steering rack may be on the verge of failure. If your
steering wheel feels unusually tight, this is a potential sign. Another is grinding or other metallic
noises when you turn the wheel. A very common precursor to power steering rack failure is fluid

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leaking from the rack. If you’re noticing signs along these lines, it’s a good idea to bring your
vehicle in to us for service sooner rather than later.
9.3.4 Learning Activities
Practical Activities
Perform visual inspection on the steering system of the vehicle provided and identify faulty
steering components.

Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish vehicle Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual correctly used.
steering system visual during visual The relevant regulative Act indicated
inspection inspection. e.g. OSHA 2007.
Safety precautions
observed.
To access a sample Correctly filled details Signed by the workshop manager.
inspection sheet
9.3.5 Self-Assessment
1. How does the steering system lessen the effort required from a driver to move
wheels?
2. What are the main types of steering system?
3. What are the common steering system faults?
9.3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Digital micrometer
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
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 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;
9.3.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
9.3.7 Model Answers
1. How does the steering system lessen the effort required from a driver to move
wheels?
The wheel is connected through a system of gears, which give the driver a
mechanical advantage in that they multiply the force he/she applies, but also
increase the distance through which he must turn the wheel in order to turn the
tyres a given amount.
2. What are the main types of steering system?
 Manual steering system
 Power assisted
 Hydraulic power
 Hydrostatic
 Electric power
3. What are the common steering system faults?
 Steering wheel play
 Hard steering
 Steering system noises
 Power steering fluid leak
 Contaminated power steering fluid
 Steering rack failure

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 9.4 Learning Outcome 2: Remove steering components
9.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to use technical information, raise the
vehicle, drain and dispose lubricants &fluids and remove steering components.
9.4.2 Performance Standard
1. Technical information is used according to the service manual
2. Vehicle is raised in accordance with workshop procedures
3. Lubricants and fluids are drained and disposed according to HSE&Q
4. Steering components are removed as per service manual.
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9.4.3 Information Sheet
8.20.10.1 Definition of terms
Steering knuckle – the part which contains the wheel hub or spindle and is attached to the
suspension and steering components

8.20.10.2 Components of steering system

Ball Socket Ball sockets are like small ball joints; they provide a swivel connection between two
parts. Ball sockets are needed so that the steering linkage is not bend when the wheels turn or
move up and down over rough road surfaces.
Ball sockets are filled with grease to prevent friction and wear. Some ball sockets are sealed.
Others have a grease fitting that allows chassis grease to be inserted with a grease gun.

Figure 125: Ball socket adopted from (howcarworks.com)

Drive Belt
Drive belts are used to operate all the accessories that are run by the engine. For example Water
pump, Fan, power steering pump and air-conditioning.They can be found in two forms, the V
belt or the multi V belt as pictured here. The multi V belts
can come with anywhere between 3 and 7 grooves in the belt.

Figure 3 : Adopted from: howcarworks.com

The belts are made from rubber with a reinforcing running through the rubber.
Fluid Reservoir
The fluid reservoir holds the hydraulic fluid used in the power steering systems of the vehicle.

Generally it is made of plastic. It can be found attached to the side of the engine bay or mounted
directly on top of the power steering pump.

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 Figure 126: Fluid reservoir adopted from: howcarworks.com
Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic fluid is liquid made of different kinds of chemicals. Hydraulic fluids are used to
transfer motion from one point of a vehicle to another point, that are not connected in a straight
line.
When the fluid is compressed by a piston at one end, the fluid in the line is compressed all the
way to the other end. At the other end the fluid presses on a second piston. When the pressure on
the piston becomes greater that the pressure on the other side of the piston, the piston will move
away from the compressed fluid. Most vehicle power steering systems use automatic
transmission fluid as their hydraulic fluid.
Idler Arm
The idler arm supports the end of the centre link on the passenger side of the car. The idler bolts
to the car frame or sub frame.

Figure 5:Idler arm adopted from: howcarworks.com

Pitman Arm
The pitman arm transfer steering box motion to the steering linkage. The pitman arm is splined
to the steering box sector (output) shaft. A large nut and lock washer secure the arm to its shaft.
The outer end of the pitman arm normally uses a ball socket (swivel joint.)

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 Figure 127: Pitman arm adopted from: howcarworks.com
Power steering hoses

Power steering hoses are high pressure, hydraulic, rubber hoses that connect the power steering
pump and the integral gearbox and power cylinder.
One line serves as the pressure feed line. The other acts as a return line to the reservoir.

Power Steering Pump

The power steering pump is engine driven and produces the hydraulic pressure for system
operation. A belt running from the engine the engine crankshaft pulley normally powers the
pump. During pump operation, the drive belt turns the pump shaft and pumping elements. Oil is
pulled into one side of the pump by vacuum. The oil is then trapped and pushed to a smaller
volume inside the pump. This pressurizes the oil at the output and oil flows to the rest of the
power steering system.

Figure 128: Steering pump adopted from: howcarworks.com

Rubber Coupling

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Many steering systems have a rubber coupling.
The rubber coupling helps keep road shock from being transmitted to the steering wheel. It also
allows for slight misalignment of the steering shaft and steering gear input shaft.
Rack and Pinion
A rack and pinion is a pair of gears which convert rotational motion into linear motion. The
circular pinion engages teeth on a flat bar - the rack. Rotational motion applied to the pinion
will cause the rack to move to the side, up to the limit of its travel.

Figure 8 : Rock and pinion adopted from: howcarworks.com

The rack and pinion arrangement is commonly found in the steering mechanisms of cars or
other wheeled, steered vehicles. This arrangement provides a lesser mechanical advantage than
other mechanisms such as recirculating ball, but much less backlash and greater feedback, or
steering "feel"
Steering Box
A steering box is a small gearbox connected between the driver's steering wheel and the linkage
of the steering system. The gearing enables the front wheels to be turned easily from side to side,
and also prevents road shocks from being transmitted directly back to the driver.
Most steering boxes are classed as worm gearing, because they all use a worm of some form or
another on the main shaft.

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 Figure 9 : Steering gear box adopted from: howcarworks.com
A basic worm steering box has a housing which encloses the worm and gear sector. The main
shaft, which carries the worm, is supported by bearings in the housing.
The sector, which is a portion of a gear with number of teeth, has its own shaft which is mounted
in bearings or bushes in the housing at right angles to the worm. The outer end of the sector shaft
(also referred to as a pitman shaft or a cross-shaft) is splined to take the pitman arm which forms
part of the steering linkage.

The steering box is most commonly used in passenger cars and light commercial vehicles is the
recirculating- ball type.
A recirculating-ball steering box combines the principle of a worm-and-nut with that of a worm-
and-sector. The main shaft has a worm which carries a large square nut. The nut has a number of
teeth which are engaged with the teeth of the sector gear.
Steering Column
The steering column assembly consists of the steering shaft, column (outer housing) and
sometimes a rubber coupling and/or universal joint. The steering column normally bolts to the
underside of the dash. The column projects through the engine bay firewall and fastens to the
steering rack or box. Bearings fit between the steering shaft and column. They permit the shaft to
rotate freely. The steering wheel is locked to the shaft by splines. A large nut holds the steering
wheel on the shaft splines.

Figure 129: Steering column adopted from: howcarworks.com

Steering Damper
The steering damper is basically a shock absorber mounted to the steering of a vehicle.
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It is mostly found on commercial vehicles with linkage steering systems, but can also be found
on large cars.
The purpose of the steering damper is to remove sudden movements of the wheels caused by
uneven road surfaces.

Figure 130: Steering damper adopted from: howcarworks.com

Steering Knuckle
The steering knuckle connects the front, and in some cases the rear, wheels to the vehicles.
It does this by supporting the CV joint or stub axle. In the case of a stub axle, the stub axle bolts
to the steering knuckle and the wheel hub is mounted onto the stub axle.
For a CV joint the steering knuckle has a hole through the centre where the CV joint is supported
by bearings. The wheel hub then connects to the CV joint.
The steering knuckle then connects to the vehicles suspension and steering, hence connecting it
to the vehicle itself.

Figure 131: Steering knuckle adopted from: howcarworks.com

Steering Rods
Steering rods are steel bars that connect the different parts of the steering system.
There are two ways that the steering rods connect to the other components. First is by screwing
onto the end of the rod, a locking nut is normally used to keep the component from unscrewing.

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The second way rods connect to the other components is through a eye in the rod. Here the pin of
a ball socket passes through the eye and a nut is fitted on the pin to keep it in place.

Figure 132: Steering rods adopted from: howcarworks.com

Steering Wheel
A steering wheel is a type of steering control used in most modern land vehicles, including all
mass-production automobiles.
The steering wheel is the part of the steering system that is manipulated by the driver; the rest of
the steering system responds to the movements of the steering wheel.
To prevent motor vehicle theft, most steering wheels are locked if the ignition key is taken out of
the ignition lock.

Figure 133: Steering wheel adopted from: howcarworks.com

Tie Rod End
Tie rod ends are used to connect one steering rod to another steering rod or the steering knuckle.
Basically the tie rod end is a ball socket with a threaded sleeve or rod attached. It is generally
cased metal.

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 Figure 134: Tie rod end adopted from: howcarworks.com
Universal Joints
A universal joint, also called U-joint or UJ, is a swivel connection capable of transferring power
or turning force through an angle.
A simple universal joint is made of two Y-shaped yokes or knuckles connected by a cross or
spider. Bearings on each end of the cross allows the two yokes to swing into various angles while
turning.

Figure 135: Universal joint adopted from: howcarworks.com

Today's drive shafts use two or more U-joints. A majority only use two. Extra universals are
sometimes needed in very long drive shafts.

The cross and roller, also called a cardan universal joint, is the most common type of drive shaft
U-joint. It consists of four bearing caps, four needle roller bearings, a spider or cross, grease
seals, grease retainers, and snap rings.
The bearings caps are held stationary in the drive shaft yokes. Roller bearings fit between the
caps and cross to reduce friction. The cross is free to rotate inside the caps and yokes.
Snap rings usually fit into grooves cut in the caps or the yoke bores. There are several other
methods of securing the bearing caps in the yokes. Sometimes, bearing covers, U-bolts, or

130
injected plastic rings keep the caps and rollers from flying out of the rotating drive shaft
assembly.
8.20.10.3 Layout of various steering system
Axle-beam Suspension Steering System
This steering system incorporates a steering-wheel to impart motion to the steering-box which
transfers the steering effort through the drop-arm and drag-link directly to one of the two stub-
axles pivoting at the ends of the axle-beam. Both the stub-axles are joined together by a track-
rod. The Figure below illustrates the axle beam steering layout in one of its views and the
functions of the components are as follows:
Steering Box. The steering box uses a reduction gear which provides a much larger force to the
steering linkage with only a small effort. Simultaneously, the degree of stub-axle movement is
decreased for a given angular movement of the steering wheel so that the oversensitivity of the
steering with respect to driver’s touch on the wheel is reduced.

Figure 136: Axle beam steering linkage adopted from: what-when-how.com

Drop-arm.
This forged lever-arm is bolted on to a tapered steering-box output rocker-shaft and it hangs or
drops downwards. It imparts a circular-arc movement to the drag-link through its swing action.

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Drag-link.
This tubular rod converts the circular movement of the drop-arm into a linear push or pull motion
of the drag-link arm, attached rigidly to one of the stub-axles. A ball-joint is fitted at each end of
the rod so that a relative movement is provided in planes. Figure 17 shows an alternative
transverse drag link layout suitable for cross country applications.

Drag-link Arm.
This arm joints the drag-link to one of the stub-axles and provides sufficient leverage to convert
the linear movement of the drag-link to an angular movement about the stub-axle king-pin.

Stub-axles.
The stub-axle is a short axle-shaft to which one steered road-wheel is mounted. It uses two
extended horizontal prongs that fit over the ends of the axle-beam. The king-pin, a short circular
bar, passes vertically through both prongs and the eye of the axle-beam to form the hinge pivot.
The stub-axle acts as the wheel axle as well as the pivot support member in the horizontal plane.

Track-rod Arms.
Each stub-axle uses a forged track-rod arm bolted approximately at right angles to the wheel axis
in the horizontal plane. This arm provides the leverage to rotate the stub-axle about the king-pin.
This rotary movement is transferred to the other stub-axle through the track-rod.

Track-rod.
A tubular track-rod spans the wheel track and pivots together the two stub-axles. The ends of this
rod carry ball-joints, which in turn are bolted to the track-rod arms of each stub axle. These ball-
joints are allowed to move only in the horizontal plane. The drag-link movement is either a pull
or a push action and rotates one of the stub-axles. This motion is transferred to the other stub-
axle through the track-rod.
Independent Suspension Steering System
In the rigid-beam suspension, the stub-axle is pivoted at each end of the axle-beam.
Consequently the relative movement is permitted only in the horizontal plane due to which
effective track-rod length is not affected by any vertical suspension deflection.
Independent-suspension steering, on the other hand, copes with up a down movement of each
stub-axle independent of the other due to which the distance between track-rod-arm ball-joint
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centers varies continually. Therefore, if a single track-rod joins the two stub-axles together, the
slightest bump or rebound tends to pull both stub-axle arms at once and thus interferes with the
steering-track toe-in or toe-out. To overcome the problem of the changing distance between
track-rod-arm ball-joint centers, a three-piece track-rod is used. The centre portion of the track
rod may be a relay-rod suspended between the steering-box drop-arm and an idler arm fixed to
the body structure. Also the centre portion may from the track shaft of a rack-and-pinion
steering-box. In both the cases, this part moves only in the horizontal plane. Movement in the
vertical plane is provided by the two outer connecting rods, known as tie-rods. The tie-rods
swing about the ball-joints placed at the end of the middle track rod member. In earlier designs,
independent suspension steering incorporated stub-axles and king-pin pivots similar to those
used with the axle-beam. But current systems use ball-swivel joints for the stub axle pivot and
are also spaced further apart.

Rack and Pinion Steering System

The steering wheel is attached to a steering shaft, which descends down toward the front axle. At
the other end of the steering shaft is a circular gear, which is called the “pinion.” The pinion
interlocks with the rack, which is a straight gear that connects to the steering arms of your car’s
wheels through tie rods.

When you turn the wheel, this causes the pinion to rotate, which in turn causes the rack to move
either left or right. This pulls the wheels in the appropriate direction. Basically, the rack and
pinion converts the turning force of the steering wheel into a side-to-side force causing the
wheels to turn.

However, without power steering, operating a rack and pinion steering system requires a great
deal of force and strength. The hydraulic system assists in the turning process and makes steering
easy and controllable for the driver.

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 Figure 137: Rock and pinion steering adopted from: what-when-how.com

Hydraulic Power Steering system

The addition of power steering means a slight modification of the rack and pinion setup. In a
power steering setup, part of the rack is now a hydraulic piston and cylinder. The rack is
connected to the piston, and the cylinder is connected on both sides by fluid lines (typically
metal or special rubber hoses).

Pressurized power steering fluid gets fed through either of the sides of the cylinder, which causes
the piston to move in the opposite direction of the fluid. The fluid then cycles back into its
reservoir. The pressurized hydraulic fluid is the key to the force multiplier effect, making a slight
turn of the wheel result in significant power to the wheels when pushing the piston to move the
rack; and, in turn, the wheels.

Another key component of a power steering system is the power steering pump, which is
responsible for pressurizing the power steering fluid before delivering it to the cylinder in the
rack and pinion unit. The power steering fluid is stored in depressurized form within the power
steering reservoir, and only when needed does the power steering pump pressurize the fluid and
deliver it to assist in steering.

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Electric Power Steering
More and more cars these days are being equipped with electrically-assisted power steering. The
advantage of electric power steering is the driver will have power assist even if the engine is not
running. Other advantages include the ability for vehicle manufacturers to program the system to
provide variable assist, depending on the driving situation. For example: more assist while
parking and less assist at higher speeds.

Electric Power Steering (EPS) uses an electric motor to provide power steering on demand. This
actually leads to more economical operation of the vehicle’s engine. In a hydraulic power
steering system, the power steering pump is running (always on, so to speak) regardless of
whether or not power steering – or steering at all – is needed. Whereas EPS is only activated
when the driver turns the wheel.

In an Electric Power Steering system, there is an electric motor mounted to either the steering
rack or on the steering column; and there are electronic sensors somewhere at the steering wheel.
When the steering wheel is turned, the sensors pick up the input from the driver and send a signal
to a control unit (computer), which in turn applies torque via the electric motor to assist in
turning.

Dismantling of the steering system.

Disassembling the steering system
a) Before removal, move the steering gear into the Centre position and secure it to prevent it
from turning;
b) Use a suitable pan to collect the hydraulic oil. Do not re-use drained-off hydraulic oil;
c) Remove the steering gear, observing the position of the corresponding parts;
d) Racks being returned for remanufacture should have all ports plugged, return tags attached
and be returned in the original packaging;
e) In case of contamination, the hydraulic lines must be flushed using the hydraulic fluid
recommended by the manufacturer.
9.4.4 Learning Activities
Practical Activities

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Raise the vehicle provided, drain and dispose lubricants &fluids and remove steering
components.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish removal Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
of vehicle steering during removal of correctly used.
components vehicle steering The relevant regulative
system. Act indicated e.g. OSHA
Safety precautions 2007.
observed.

9.4.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the functions of the following steering system components?
a. Ball socket
b. Drive belt
c. Hydraulic fluid
2. How does the steering gearbox aid the steering system?
3. What procedure is followed during dismantling of the steering system?
9.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

136
9.4.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
9.4.8 Model Answers
1. What are the functions of the following steering system components?
a. Ball socket-It provides a swivel connection between two parts which helps the
steering linkage not to bend when wheels are turn or move up and down.
b. Drive belt- used to operate all the accessories that are run by the engine for example
water pump , power steering and air conditioning
c. Hydraulic fluid –used to transfer motion from one point of the vehicle to another
point that is not connected in a straight line.
2. How does the steering gearbox aid the steering system?
The gearing in the gear box enables the front wheels to be turned easily from side to side
and also prevents road shocks from being transmitted directly back to the driver.
3. What procedure is followed during dismantling of the steering system?
 Before removal, move the steering gear into the Centre position and secure it to
prevent it from turning;
 Use a suitable pan to collect the hydraulic oil. Do not re-use drained-off hydraulic
oil;
 Remove the steering gear, observing the position of the corresponding parts;
 Racks being returned for remanufacture should have all ports plugged, return tags
attached and be returned in the original packaging;
 In case of contamination, the hydraulic lines must be flushed using the hydraulic
fluid recommended by the manufacturer.

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 9.5 Learning Outcome 3: Assess serviceability of vehicle steering components
9.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to disassemble steering components,
clean steering components and assess serviceability of steering components.
9.5.2 Performance Standard
1 Steering components are disassembled as per the service manual
2 Steering components are cleaned in accordance with service manual
3 Serviceability of steering components is assessed as per the service manual
9.5.3 Information Sheet
8.20.10.4 Definition of terms
Steering linkage – mechanism consisting of system of rods and levers connecting to the front
wheels of a vehicle
Steering wheel – hand wheel used for steering
Steering gear – a gear that couples the steering wheel to the steering linkage of a vehicle
Diagnosis and servicing of steering system
Steering Pump Inspections
Always begin by checking the power steering fluid level because the steering pump is the heart
of the power steering system. If the level is low, we could assume that the system is leaking
fluid.

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Next, it’s important to check the color and viscosity of the fluid. Normal color is red or straw-
colored. Blackened fluid might indicate that the hoses are deteriorating or that the power steering
pump itself is worn. If the fluid appears extremely viscous, the fluid might have been
contaminated with motor oil or other lubricant. If the fluid has an odd odor, it’s possible that an
inexperienced technician has added brake fluid to the reservoir. In any case, if the fluid appears
contaminated, the system needs a thorough flushing with the specified fluid.
Check the steering assist again after the pump and fluid warms up. If the pump produces
noticeably less assist when hot, it’s probably worn. If the pump is noisy, check the fluid for
foaming. If the fluid is foaming, it might be contaminated and the system might require flushing
to correct this condition.
Although it’s rare, internal leakage inside the steering assist cylinder can’t be discounted if
steering assist deteriorates as the fluid warms up. At this point, it’s best to recommend pressure-
testing the steering pump. Of course, gaining access to the high-pressure hydraulic connections
at the power steering pump or steering gear can be difficult, if not altogether impossible, on
modern engines. Because testing is application-specific, it’s important to have manufacturer’s
specifications at hand before recommending a pressure test to your customer.

Steering Gear Inspections

Conventional steering gears are extremely reliable and most of the failures involve leakage
around the steering shaft and sector shaft seals. In high-mileage cases, the steering gear might be
slightly worn and require a sector shaft adjustment to remove excessive steering wheel play.
With the engine running and a helper rocking the steering wheel, observe the end play at the
steering shaft. Keep in mind that the steering shaft is pushing against its reaction discs, so the
shaft should move in or out about 1/16 of an inch as the steering wheel is slowly rocked right and
left.

Similarly, watch the movement in the output or sector shaft. The sector shaft will tend to move
fore and aft as the steering wheel is slowly rocked right and left if the sector shaft bushings or
housing are worn. In addition, if the sector shaft will show a polished ring around the shaft at the
seal contact point, it has excess end-play. In most cases, a simple sector shaft adjustment will
restore the gear to normal operation.

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Make sure the steering is centered at the “high point” on the steering gear with the Pitman arm
pivot points parallel to the frame and the steering wheel correctly indexed to its shaft when
adjusting the sector shaft end-play in-chassis. The sector shaft adjusting screw should be turned
in until end-play is removed. A good rule of thumb is, before tightening the lock nut, back the
adjustment screw out one-half turn to allow for heat expansion, unless otherwise specified. When
properly adjusted with the steering linkage disconnected, the steering gear should have a slight
amount of play on either side of the steering gear high point. The gear should easily rotate
through the high point, but the high point itself should not exhibit play in the steering wheel.

Rack And Pinion Inspections

With the vehicle on a lift grasp the tire at the 9 and 3 o’clock positions and rock the wheel in and
out. If a clicking noise is heard, the inner tie rod end is probably worn where it connects to the
steering rack. While we’re looking at the steering rack, check for external oil leakage at the boots
and also feel the boot to see if it’s filled with oil. Always squeeze steering rack boots to see if
they’re filled with oil. Boots that are torn should be immediately replaced.
If the boot is full of oil, the rack seals are leaking and the rack should be replaced. Because loose
steering rack mounts will cause steering wander, it’s important to inspect the mounts for
deterioration.

Steering Linkage inspection.

Any area containing a ball-and-socket joint is subjected to extreme movements and dirt. The
combination of these two will cause the ball- and-socket joint to wear. When your inspection
finds worn steering linkage components, they must be replaced with new components. Two areas
of concern are the idler arm and the tie-rod ends.
Idler arm inspection. - A worn idler arm causes play in the steering wheel. The front wheels,
mostly the right wheel, can turn without causing movement of the steering wheel. This is a very
common wear point in the steering linkage and should be checked carefully.

To check an idler arm for wear, grab the outer end of the arm (end opposite the frame) and force
it up and down by hand. Note the amount of movement at the end of the arm and compare it to
the manufacturer's specifications. Typically, an idler arm should NOT move up and down more
than 1/4 inch.

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Diagnosis, service and replacement of steering system
Maintenance of the steering system consists of regular inspection, lubrication, and adjusting
components to compensate for wear. When inspecting the steering system, you will need
someone to assist you by turning the steering wheel back and forth through the free play while
you check the steering linkage and connections. You will also be able to determine if the steering
mechanism is securely fastened to the frame. A slight amount of free play may seem
insignificant, but if allowed to remain, the free play will quickly increase, resulting in poor
steering control. After prolonged use, steering components can fail. It is important that the
steering system be kept in good working condition for obvious safety reasons.
Power steering-Components of four wheel steering system
The four-wheel steering mechanism is obtained with the help of a rack and pinion for the front
wheels and a connector turning the rear wheels. The front wheels are turned using a basic rack
and pinion mechanism, while the rear wheels are controlled using tie rods.
9.5.4 Learning Activities
Practical Activities
Disassemble, clean the steering components and assess their serviceability.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish disassembly Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
of vehicle steering disassembly of vehicle correctly used.
components and steering components and The relevant regulative
assessment for assessment for Act indicated e.g.
serviceability. serviceability. OSHA 2007.
Safety precautions
observed.
9.5.5 Self-Assessment
1 What inspections are done on steering system during diagnosis and service of its
components?
2 What does steering system maintenance entail?
3 How is a four wheel steering achieved?
9.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Mallet
Equipment Jack
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 Inspection pit
materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Steering fluid
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;
9.5.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.

Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
9.5.8 Model answers
1. What inspections are done on steering system during diagnosis and service of its
components?
a. Steering pump inspections
b. Steering gear inspections
c. Rack and pinion inspections
d. Steering linkage inspection
e. Idler arm inspection
2. What does steering system maintenance entail?
Consists of regular inspection, lubrication and adjusting components to compensate
for wear.
3. How is a four wheel steering achieved?
The four-wheel steering mechanism is obtained with the help of a rack and pinion
for the front wheels and a connector turning the rear wheels. The front wheels are
turned using a basic rack and pinion mechanism, while the rear wheels are
controlled using tie rods

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 9.6 Learning Outcome 4: Replace/service vehicle steering components.
9.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to replace worn/damaged components,
verify replaced parts, re-assemble steering components and service vehicle steering
components.

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9.6.2 Performance Standard
Worn/damaged components are replaced as per manufacturer’s manual
1 Replacement parts are verified against manufacturers’ part numbers
2 Steering components are re-assembled in accordance with manufacturers’
specification
3 Vehicle steering components are serviced according to the service manual.
9.6.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Drag link – transfers movement from the steering gearbox to the road wheels
Pitman arm – arm that connects the steering wheel and transmits through the gearbox to the
drag link
8.20.10.5 Steering wheel centralization
Rack and Pinion Steering only.
On each of the tie rods (rods coming out of the steering) there is a nut on each one on each
side, right and left. You have to loosen those nuts on each side. Turn either the right side
clockwise or the left side counter clockwise (or reverse that).
If you turn the right side a half turn, you will then have to turn the left side a half turn.
You will have to play with them until you have the steering wheel centered, but that is the
process.

Steering system components service and replacement

Steering Linkage Service
Any area containing a ball-and-socket joint is subjected to extreme movements and dirt.
The combination of these two will cause the ball- and-socket joint to wear. When your
inspection finds worn steering linkage components, they must be replaced with new
components. Two areas of concern are the idler arm and the tie-rod ends.
Idler Arm Service.
A worn idler arm causes play in the steering wheel. The front wheels, mostly the right
wheel, can turn without causing movement of the steering wheel. This is a very common
wear point in the steering linkage and should be checked carefully.
To check an idler arm for wear, grab the outer end of the arm (end opposite the frame)
and force it up and down by hand. Note the amount of movement at the end of the arm

144
and compare it to the manufacturer's specifications. Typically, an idler arm should not
move up and down more than 1/4 inch.

The replacement of a worn idler arm is as follows:

Separate the outer end of the arm from the center link. A ball joint fork or puller can be
used to force the idler arms joint from the center link. With the outer end removed from
the center link, unbolt and remove the idler arm from the frame. Install the new idler arm
in reverse order of removal. Make sure that all fasteners are torqued to manufacturer's
specifications. Install a new cotter pin and bend it properly.
Tie-Rod End Service. - A worn tie-rod end will also cause steering play. When
movement is detected between the ball stud and the socket, replacement is necessary.

The replacement of a worn tie-rod end is as follows:

Separate the tie rod from the steering knuckle or center link. As with the idler arm, a ball
joint fork or puller can be used. With the tie rod removed from the steering knuckle or
center link, measure tie-rod length. This will allow you to set the new tie rod at about the
same length as the old one. NOTE: The alignment of the front wheel is altered when the
length of the tie rod is changed.
Loosen and unscrew the tie-rod adjustment sleeve from the tie-rod end. Turn the new tie-
rod end into the adjustment sleeve until it is the exact length of the old tie rod. Install the
tie-rod ball stud into the center link or steering knuckle. Tighten the fasteners to
manufacturer's specifications. Install new cotter pins and bend correctly. Tighten the
adjustment sleeve and check steering action

Manual Steering System Service

Steering system service normally involves the adjusting or replacement of worn parts.
Service is required when the worm shaft rotates back and forth without normal pitman
arm shaft movement. This would indicate that there is play inside the gearbox. If excess
clearance is not corrected after the adjustments, the steering gearbox must be replaced or
rebuilt.

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Manual Gearbox Adjustment. - Since there are numerous steering gearbox
configurations, this guide has discussed the most common type, recirculating ball and
nut. There are two basic adjustments - worm bearing preload and over center clearance.
Worm Bearing Preload - Assures that the worm shaft is held snugly inside the gearbox
housing. If the worm shaft bearings are too loose, the worm shaft can move sideways and
up and down during operation.
Over Center Clearance - Controls the amount of play between the pitman arm shaft
gear (sector) and the teeth on the ball nut. It is the most critical adjustment affecting
steering wheel play. NOTE: Set the worm bearing preload first and then the over center
clearance.

The procedures for adjusting worm-bearing preload are as follows:

 Disconnect the pitman arm from the pitman arm shaft. Loosen the pitman arm
shaft over center adjusting locknut and screw out the adjusting screw a couple of
turns. Then turn the steering wheel from side to side slowly.
 Using a torque wrench or spring scale. Measure the amount of force required to
turn the steering wheel to the CENTER position. Note the reading on the torque
wrench or the spring scale and compare it to the manufacturers’ specifications.
 If readings are out of specifications. Loosen the worm-bearing locknut. Then
tighten the worm bearing adjustment nut to increase the preload. Loosen it to
decrease preload and turning effort. With the preload set to specifications. Tighten
the locknut. Make sure the steering wheel turns freely from stop to stop.
NOTE: If the steering wheel binds or feels rough, then the gearbox has damaged
components and should be rebuilt or replaced.

The procedures for adjusting the over center clearance are as follows:
 Find the CENTER position of the steering wheel. This is done by turning the
steering wheel from full right to full left while counting the number of turns.
 Divide the number of turns by two to find the middle. This allows you to turn the
steering wheel from full stop to the center.

146
 NOTE: Most gearboxes are designed to have more gear tooth backlash
(clearance) when turned to the right or left. A slight preload is produced in the
center position to avoid steering wheel play during straight-ahead driving.
 With the steering wheel centered, loosen the over center adjusting screw locknut.
Turn the over center adjusting screw in until it bottoms lightly. This will remove
the backlash.
 Using the instructions in the service manual, measure the amount of force
required to turn the steering wheel. Loosen or tighten the adjustment screw to
meet the manufacturer's specifications. Tighten the locknut and recheck the
gearbox action.

When adjustment fails to correct the problems, the steering gearbox needs to be
overhauled or replaced. Overhauling a gearbox is done by disassembling, cleaning,
inspecting, replacing worn components, and seals. After reassembling the gearbox, fill
the housing with the correct type of lubricant. Most manual steering systems use SAE 90
gear oil. Make sure that you do not overfill the gearbox. Refer to the manufacturer's
service manual for the particular gearbox you are working on since procedures,
specifications, and type of lubricants vary.

Rack-And-Pinion Service.
Rack- and-pinion steering systems have few parts that fail. When problems do develop,
they are frequently in the tie-rod ends. When NOT properly lubricated, the rack and
pinion will also wear, causing problems.
Depending upon the manufacturer, some rack-and-pinion steering systems need periodic
lubrication. Others only need lubrication when the unit is being reassembled after being
repaired.
Most rack-and-pinion systems have a rack guide adjustment screw. This screw is adjusted
when there is excessive play in the steering.
Procedure for adjusting rack-and-pinion steering system is as follows:
 Loosen the locknut on the adjusting screw.
 Then turn the rack guide screw until it bottoms slightly.

147
  Back off the rack guide screw the recommended amount (approximately 45
degrees or until the prescribed turning effort is achieved).
 Tighten the locknut. Check for tight or loose steering and measure steering effort.
Compare with the manufacturer's specifications. If not with specifications, an
overhaul of the system will be required.
 For instructions on the removal/installation and overhaul of the rack-and-pinion
system, refer to the manufacturer's service manual for the equipment you are
repairing.
Power Steering System Service
Many of the components of a power steering system are the same as those used on a
manual steering system. However, a pump, hoses, a power piston, and a control valve are
added. These components can also fail, requiring repair or replacement.

Power steering system service typically consists of the following:

 Checking power steering fluid level
 Checking belts and hoses
 Checking the system for leaks
 Pressure testing the system
 Bleeding the system

Checking Power Steering Fluid. To check the level of the power steering fluid, you
should not let the engine run. With the parking brake set, place the transmission in either
PARK or NEUTRAL.

Procedure for checking the level of the power steering fluid is as follows:
 Unscrew and remove the cap to the power steering reservoir. The cap will
normally have a dipstick attached.
 Wipe off the dipstick and reinstall the cap.
 Remove the cap and inspect the level of the fluid on the dipstick. Most dipsticks
will have HOT and COLD markings. Make sure you read the correct marking on

148
 the dipstick. NOTE: The fluid level will rise on the dipstick as the steering system
warms.
If required, only add enough fluid to reach the correct mark on the dipstick. Automatic
transmission fluid is commonly used in a power steering system. Some power steering
systems, however, do not use automatic transmission fluid and require a special power
steering fluid. Always refer to the manufacturer's service for the correct type of fluid for
your system.
CAUTION: Do not overfill the system. Overfilling will cause fluid to spray out the top of
the reservoir and onto the engine and other components.
Servicing Power Steering Hoses and Belt.
Always inspect the condition of the hoses and the belt very carefully.
The hoses are exposed to tremendous pressures; if a hose ruptures, a sudden and
dangerous loss of power assist occurs. Make sure that the hose is NOT rubbing on
moving or hot components. This can cause hose failure.
CAUTION: Power steering pump pressure can exceed 1,000 psi. This is enough pressure
to cause serious eye injury. Wear eye protection when working on a power steering
system.

If it is necessary to replace a power steering hose, use a flare nut or tubing wrench. This
action will prevent you from stripping the nut. When starting a new hose fitting, use your
hand. This action will prevent cross threading. Always tighten the hose fitting properly.

A loose power steering belt can slip, causing belt squeal and erratic or high steering
effort. A worn or cracked belt may break during operation, which would cause a loss of
power assist.
When it is necessary to tighten a power steering belt, do not pry on the side of the power
steering pump. The thin housing on the pump can easily be dented and ruined. Only pry
on the reinforced flanged or a recommended point.

The basic procedure for installing a power steering belt is as follows:

 Loosen the bolts that hold the power steering pump to its brackets.

149
  Push inward on the pump to release tension on the belt. With the tension removed,
slide the belt from the pulley.
 Obtain a new belt and install it in reverse order. Remember when adjusting belt
tension to specifications, only pry on the reinforced flange or a recommended pry
point.
Power Steering Leaks. A common problem with power steering systems is fluid
leakage. With pressure over 1,000 psi, leaks can develop easily around fittings, in hoses,
at the gearbox seals, or at the rack-and-pinion assembly.
To check for leaks, the following procedure is followed:
 Wipe the fluid-soaked area(s) with a clean rag.
 Then have another person start and idle the engine.
 While watching for leaks, have the steering wheel turned to the right and left. This
action will pressurize all components of the system that might be leaking.
 After locating the leaking component, remove and repair or replace it.

9.6.4 Learning Activities

Practical Activities
Replace worn components, re-assemble and service vehicle steering components on the
vehicle provided.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish replacement of Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
worn/damaged parts, during replacement of correctly used.
verification of replaced parts, worn/damaged parts, The relevant regulative
re-assembly of steering verification of replaced Act indicated e.g. OSHA
components and servicing of parts, re-assembly of 2007.
steering components steering components
and servicing of
steering components.
Safety precautions
observed.

9.6.5 Self-Assessment
1 What do you understand by steering wheel centralization?

150
 2 What are the two adjustments done on a recirculating ball and nut gear box during
service?
3 What procedure is followed while checking for power steering leaks?
4 How is servicing of power steering hoses and belt done?
9.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Disc brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Wrench and screw driver set
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

9.6.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment
9.6.8 Model Answers
1. What do you understand by steering wheel centralization?
On each of the tie rods (rods coming out of the steering) there is a nut on each one
on each side, right and left. You have to loosen those nuts on each side. Turn either
the right side clockwise or the left side counter clockwise.

151
 If you turn the right side a half turn, you will then have to turn the left side a half
turn. You will have to play with them until you have the steering wheel centered,
but that is the process.
2. What are the two adjustments done on a recirculating ball and nut gear box during
service?
 Worm bearing preload
 Over center clearance

3. What procedure is followed while checking for power steering leaks?

 Wipe the fluid-soaked area(s) with a clean rag.
 Then have another person start and idle the engine.
 While watching for leaks, have the steering wheel turned to the right and left.
This action will pressurize all components of the system that might be
leaking.
 After locating the leaking component, remove and repair or replace it.
4. How is servicing of power steering hoses and belt done?
Always inspect the condition of the hoses and the belt very carefully. The hoses are
exposed to tremendous pressures; if a hose ruptures, a sudden and dangerous loss of
power assist occurs. Make sure that the hose is NOT rubbing on moving or hot
components. This can cause hose failure. If it is necessary to replace a power
steering hose, use a flare nut or tubing wrench. This action will prevent you from
stripping the nut. When starting a new hose fitting, use your hand. This action will
prevent cross threading. Always tighten the hose fitting properly.
A loose power steering belt can slip, causing belt squeal and erratic or high steering
effort. A worn or cracked belt may break during operation, which would cause a
loss of power assist. When it is necessary to tighten a power steering belt, do not pry
on the side of the power steering pump. The thin housing on the pump can easily be
dented and ruined. Only pry on the reinforced flanged or a recommended point.

152
 9.7 Learning Outcome 4: Fit and test vehicle steering components.

9.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to fit back steering components,
replenish lubricants and fluids, set steering geometry and test steering system.

9.7.2 Performance Standard

1 Steering components are fitted back as per service manual
2 Lubricants and fluids are replenished according to the service manual
3 Steering geometry is set in accordance with manufacturers’ specifications
4 Steering system is tested as per the manufacturers’ specification

153
9.7.3 Information Sheet
9.7.3.1 Definition of terms
Tie rod end – this are arms connected through a center link mounted to the pitman’s arm
on the steering gearbox
Steering column – it is a shaft which is used to connect the steering wheel directly to the
steering gearbox through universal joints
Replenishing fluids
a) Fill the reservoir with hydraulic fluid to the maximum mark;
b) Clean the areas around the connections of the hoses and pipe (take care to maintain
cleanliness at all times when replacing steering system components);
c) If necessary, activate the steering system with the service tester, calibrate it and make a
final diagnosis of error codes.
d) Carry out a test drive
e) Check and adjust the steering geometry if required.
Bleeding
1 Before connecting the pressure and return pipes, new hydraulic fluid is filled into the
reservoir, and then run off into a collecting vessel to dispel any old fluid;
2 The return pipe is then closed, the pressure pipe must lead into a collecting vessel,
and the equalizing tank must be filled with new hydraulic fluid;
3 The starter is then turned, without starting the engine, and at least one litre of
hydraulic fluid is added, with constant monitoring of the level;
4 The return pipe is opened again and both pipes are connected to the steering system,
using new seals;
5 Fill the reservoir with hydraulic fluid to the maximum mark;
6 Start the engine and run in neutral, paying specific attention to the fluid level;
7 Raise the car so that the front wheels can turn freely;
8 Turn the steering wheel evenly 10 to 15 times from one lock to the other, but do not
leave at full lock for more than 5 seconds. During this time a colleague must monitor
the fluid level;
9 The color and consistency of the hydraulic fluid is checked: if the fluid is light brown,
light red, cloudy or frothy, this means there is still air in the system. All steps are then

154
 repeated. But a waiting time of at least 30 minutes must be adhered to between
attempts at bleeding (turn off the engine at this time).

Setting steering geometry

Steering system allows the driver to guide the moving vehicle on road and turn it right or left as
he desires. During steering, the movement of the wheel must be positive and exact and no wheel
should slide on the road. This aspect is influenced by the steering linkage mechanism, tyre and
road conditions and vehicle suspension system.
In order to maintain proper control throughout its speed range with safety in a straight ahead
motion as well as during bumps and bounce and provide directional change with minimum effort
of driver. Such mechanism is used in a vehicle is known as steering mechanism.
When a vehicle is moving on a road surface, the relative motion between the wheels and the
road surface should be one of pure rolling. This condition must be satisfied when the vehicle is
moving along straight or curved paths.

Steering Geometry
1.The angular relationship among the front wheels, the front wheel attaching parts and vehicle
frame is known as steering geometry.
2. The various factors entering into the front end geometry and influencing the steering
case/steering stability, riding quality have direct effort on tyre wear. These factors are discussed
as under.
(a)Camber
It is the angle of inclination of the front wheel tyre with respect to the vertical axis view from
front of vehicle. Camber provided may be positive or negative. Camber is also called as ‘wheel
rake’.

155
 Figure 138: Camber angle adopted from: townfairtire.com

Figure 139: Positive and negative camber adopted from: nolathane.com.au

Effect:
1 When the wheel is tilted outward at the top camber is positive. Because of positive
camber, the rolling radius at different points of the tyre tread is different result of which
the tyre tends to roll like truncated cone about the centre of rotation, so tyre will wear
more on outside.
2 Negative camber will cause the wear of tyre more on inside. Initially positive camber is
provided to wheels so that when the vehicle is loaded, it automatically comes to vertical
position.
3 The tyre life will be maximum when camber angle is zero.
4 Amount: Camber should not be exceed 2 degrees

156
 b) Kingpin inclination (Steering axis inclination)

Figure 140:Kingpin inclination adopted from: uniquecarsand parts.com.au

Most of the steering systems have a kingpin which is attached to steering knuckle to a support. In
some later design kingpin is replaced by ball and socket joint. In this design, the Steering
knuckle and knuckle support are combined into a single part, this part is called steering knuckle.
No kingpin is used in this case. The steering knuckle is supported at the top and bottom by
control arm,
Nomenclatures used generally:
1 The angle between the vertical line and centre of the kingpin or steering axle when viewed
from the front of the vehicle is known as kingpin inclination or steering axis inclination.
2 The kingpin inclination ranges from 3.5 c to 8.5 0 and its average value is 5 0. It reduces tyre
wear and helps to provide steering stability. It also reduces steering effort particularly when
the vehicle is stationary.
(c) Combine angle and scrub radius:

157
 Figure 22: Combine angle and scrub radius adopted from : sagarpatil860.wordpress.com

It is the angle formed in vertical plane between the wheel centre line and kingpin centre line.
Combine angle is equal to camber inclination, the angle may be to 10 the distance between the
centre of the tyre patch and intersection of the kingpin or steering axis with the ground is called
kingpin offset or scrub radius. Kingpin inclination or positive camber or both reduce scrub
radius.
(1) If the scrub radius is negative the wheel tends to toe-in.
(2) If the scrub radius is positive the wheel tends to toe-out.
(3) If the scrub radius is zero the wheel is in straight position.
Without any tendency toe-in and toe-out: In this position the steering is called Centre point
steering.
The amount of scrub radius should be upto12 mm
(d) Caster

158
 Figure 141: Caster angle adopted from: townfairtire.com
The angle between the king pin centre line and the vertical, in the plane of the wheel is called
caster angle. Caster is the slant of the steering axis as viewed from the side of the vehicle. The
steering axis is the imaginary steering pivot line which in some vehicles runs through the center
of the king pin and on other runs through the canters of the upper and lower ball joint.
Caster is negative when the top of the steering axis leans to the front of the vehicle.
The steering axis intersection point is called leading point and the tyre ground contact point is
called trailing point. The positive caster is to provide directional stability. The greater the
positive caster, greater is the stabilizing force.
(e) Toe in and toe out

Figure 142: Toe in and toe out adopted from: vamag.co.uk

Toe-in is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer together at the front than at the rear
when the vehicle is stationary.
Toe-out is the amount by which the wheel may be set closer at the rear than the front when the
vehicle is stationary.
The difference in distance, toe-in or toe-out into a vehicle to counteract the fact that the tyres
tend to change their track when the vehicle is running on the road. An equal amount of toe-out
will not cause anymore tyre wear. But this toe-out will tend to make the wheel wander and
therefore toe-in is usually preferred. The correct toe-in causes rapid tyre wear, vibration and
wheel wobble.
Adjustment of toe-in or toe-out is provided on all vehicle by track rod attached to the steering
or on the ball joint end of the steering arms on the rack and pinion steering.
Read more at http://www.patilsagar.in

9.7.4 Learning Activities

Practical Activities

159
Fit back steering components, replenish lubricants and fluids, set steering geometry and test
steering system on the vehicle provided.
Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish fitting Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
back of steering fitting back of steering correctly used.
components, components, replenishing of The relevant regulative Act
replenishing of fluids, fluids, steering geometry indicated e.g. OSHA 2007.
steering geometry setting and testing of the
setting and testing of steering system
the steering system Safety precautions
observed.

9.7.5 Self-Assessment
1 How is steering system fluids replenished?
2 What procedure is followed during bleeding of the steering system?
3 What do you understand by the following terms:
a. Steering geometry
b. Camber angle
c. Caster angle
d. King pin inclination
e. Toe-in and Toe-out

9.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Needle nose pliers
Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Disc brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Equipment Jack
Inspection pit
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Steering fluid
Cleaning materials
Accessory manufacturers technical data

160
 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

9.7.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment

9.7.8 Model Answers

1. How is steering system fluids replenished?
a) Fill the reservoir with hydraulic fluid to the maximum mark;
b) Clean the areas around the connections of the hoses and pipe (take care to
maintain cleanliness at all times when replacing steering system components);
c) If necessary, activate the steering system with the service tester, calibrate it and
make a final diagnosis of error codes.
d) Carry out a test drive
e) Check and adjust the steering geometry if required.
2. What procedure is followed during bleeding of the steering system?
 Before connecting the pressure and return pipes, new hydraulic fluid is filled
into the reservoir, and then run off into a collecting vessel to dispel any old
fluid;
 The return pipe is then closed, the pressure pipe must lead into a collecting
vessel, and the equalizing tank must be filled with new hydraulic fluid;
 The starter is then turned, without starting the engine, and at least one litre of
hydraulic fluid is added, with constant monitoring of the level;

161
  The return pipe is opened again and both pipes are connected to the steering
system, using new seals;
 Fill the reservoir with hydraulic fluid to the maximum mark;
 Start the engine and run in neutral, paying specific attention to the fluid level;
 Raise the car so that the front wheels can turn freely;
 Turn the steering wheel evenly 10 to 15 times from one lock to the other, but do
not leave at full lock for more than 5 seconds. During this time a colleague must
monitor the fluid level;
 The color and consistency of the hydraulic fluid is checked: if the fluid is light
brown, light red, cloudy or frothy, this means there is still air in the system. All
steps are then repeated.
3. What do you understand by the following terms:
a. Steering geometry
The angular relationship among the front wheels, the front wheel attaching parts
and vehicle frame is known as steering geometry.
b. Camber angle
It is the angle of inclination of the front wheel tyre with respect to the vertical axis
view from front of vehicle. Camber provided may be positive or negative.
c. Caster angle
The angle between the king pin centre line and the vertical, in the plane of the wheel
is called caster angle. Caster is the slant of the steering axis as viewed from the side
of the vehicle.
d. King pin inclination
The angle between the vertical line and centre of the kingpin or steering axle when
viewed from the front of the vehicle is known as kingpin inclination or steering axis
inclination.
e. Toe-in and Toe-out
Toe-in is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer together at the front
than at the rear when the vehicle is stationary.
Toe-out is the amount by which the wheel may be set closer at the rear than the
front when the vehicle is stationary.

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163
9.8 Learning Outcome 5: Finalize vehicle steering system service.

9.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to complete steering service and repair,
clean workshop/station and dispose waste.

9.8.2 Performance Standard

1 Steering service and repair is completed according to workplace
policy/customer’s specification
2 workshop/station is cleaned in accordance with work shop procedures
3 Waste is disposed as per OSH Act- 2007

9.8.3 Information Sheet

Types of tests done on steering system.

a) Power Steering Pressure Test. - A power steering pressure test checks the operation
of the power steering pump, the pressure relief valve, the control valve, the hoses and
the power piston. Basic procedure for performing a power steering pressure test is as
follows:
 Using a steering system pressure tester, connect the pressure gauge and
shutoff valve to the power steering pump outlet and hose.
 Torque the hose fitting properly.
 With the system full of fluid, start and idle the engine (with the shutoff valve
open) while turning the steering wheel back and forth. This will bring the fluid
up to temperature.
 Close the shutoff valve to check system pressure. Note and compare the
pressure reading with manufacturer's specifications.
CAUTION: Do not close the shutoff valve for more than 5 seconds. If the
shutoff value is closed longer, damage will occur to the power steering pump
from overheating.
 To check the action of the power piston, control valve and hoses, measure the
system pressure while turning the steering wheel right and left (stop to stop)
with the shutoff valve open. Note and compare the readings to the

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 manufacturer's specifications. If the system is not within specifications, use
the manufacturer's service manual to determine the source of the problem.

b) The ‘Dry-Park’ Performance Test

A dry park test is performed with the transmission in “park” and the front wheels on the
ground. After starting the engine, check for a “bump” or movement in the steering wheel
as the engine starts. Stand outside the vehicle and rock the steering wheel. If there’s
excess play or if you hear knocking noises, the power steering system needs attention. If
movement is detected, the power steering gear might have developed an unequal steering
assist in one direction or the other. Next, check for a smooth power assist. If the assist is
uneven or jerky, inspect the power steering pump fluid level and check the drive belt
condition and adjustment. If the fluid level is low, check for leaks at the pump, hoses or
the steering gear or rack oil seals. If the belt is worn or glazed, it should be replaced.

Binding strut support bearings or seized ball joints can cause the steering to feel heavy
and unresponsive. When turning the steering wheel several times from lock to lock,
power assist should feel even from side to side and the steering wheel should feel
immediately responsive to changes in direction. If the right-to-left and left-to-right assist
isn’t equal, the steering gear’s control valve system could be at fault. If there’s excessive
play in the steering wheel, inspect the steering shaft universal joint, steering gear, steering
gear mounts and steering linkage for looseness and wear. Always inspect the universal
joint for wear and loose bolts.When the steering gear reaches full lock, a hissing noise
usually indicates that the oil pressure bypass is limiting the pump’s maximum pressure. If
the drive belt squeals at full lock, the belt is slipping due to wear or incorrect adjustment.

The exception to the above tests might be a power steering pump in which the Power
train Control Module (PCM) controls oil pressure through a pulse-modulated pressure
control valve on the steering pump. Because a variable-assist system responds to vehicle
speed and other driving conditions, the diagnostics vary according to application. Always
test for trouble codes stored in the PCM and check scan tool menus for available data and
performance tests on any modulated system.

165
9.8.4 Learning Activities
Practical Activities
Complete steering service and repair, clean workshop/station and dispose waste.

Field/Visit to a garage
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish workshop Procedure followed during Manufacturers’ manual
cleaning and waste disposal workshop cleaning and correctly used.
waste disposal The relevant regulative
Safety precautions Act indicated e.g. OSHA
observed. 2007.

9.8.5 Self-Assessment
1. What two tests done on the steering system.
2. What inspection tests would perform on a power steering system

9.8.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Tire chocks (blocks of wood)
Drum brake tool kit
Jack stands
Wheel spanner
Equipment Jack
Ramp
Testing equipment
Supplies and materials Personal protection equipment
Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

166
9.8.7 References
Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive engineering fundamentals (Vol. 199). SAE Technical
Paper.
Carmo, J. (Ed.). (2012). New advances in vehicular technology and automotive engineering.
BoD–Books on Demand.
Don, K. (Ed.). (1987) Automotive suspension and steering systems. Classroom manual
Chris, J. (Ed.). (2000) Automotive suspension and steering.
James, D. (Ed.) (1995) Automotive steering, suspension and alignment.

9.8.8 Model Answers

1. Discuss two tests done on the steering system.
a. Power Steering Pressure Test.
A power steering pressure test checks the operation of the power steering pump, the
pressure relief valve, the control valve, the hoses and the power piston.
The procedure for performing a power steering pressure test is as follows:
 Using a steering system pressure tester, connect the pressure gauge and shutoff
valve to the power steering pump outlet and hose.
 Torque the hose fitting properly.
 With the system full of fluid, start and idle the engine (with the shutoff valve
open) while turning the steering wheel back and forth. This will bring the fluid
up to temperature.
 Close the shutoff valve to check system pressure. Note and compare the
pressure reading with manufacturer's specifications.
 To check the action of the power piston, control valve and hoses, measure the
system pressure while turning the steering wheel right and left (stop to stop)
with the shutoff valve open. Note and compare the readings to the
manufacturer's specifications. If the system is not within specifications, use the
manufacturer's service manual to determine the source of the problem.
b. The ‘Dry-Park’ Performance Test
A dry park test is performed with the transmission in “park” and the front wheels
on the ground. After starting the engine, check for a “bump” or movement in the
steering wheel as the engine starts. Stand outside the vehicle and rock the steering

167
 wheel. If there’s excess play or if you hear knocking noises, the power steering
system needs attention.

If movement is detected, the power steering gear might have developed an unequal
steering assist in one direction or the other. Next, check for a smooth power assist.
If the assist is uneven or jerky, inspect the power steering pump fluid level and
check the drive belt condition and adjustment. If the fluid level is low, check for
leaks at the pump, hoses or the steering gear or rack oil seals. If the belt is worn or
glazed, it should be replaced.

Binding strut support bearings or seized ball joints can cause the steering to feel
heavy and unresponsive. When turning the steering wheel several times from lock
to lock, power assist should feel even from side to side and the steering wheel should
feel immediately responsive to changes in direction. If the right-to-left and left-to-
right assist isn’t equal, the steering gear’s control valve system could be at fault. If
there’s excessive play in the steering wheel, inspect the steering shaft universal joint,
steering gear, steering gear mounts and steering linkage for looseness and wear.
Always inspect the universal joint for wear and loose bolts.
When the steering gear reaches full lock, a hissing noise usually indicates that the oil
pressure bypass is limiting the pump’s maximum pressure. If the drive belt squeals
at full lock, the belt is slipping due to wear or incorrect adjustment.
The exception to the above tests might be a power steering pump in which the
Power train Control Module (PCM) controls oil pressure through a pulse-
modulated pressure control valve on the steering pump. Because a variable-assist
system responds to vehicle speed and other driving conditions, the diagnostics vary
according to application. Always test for trouble codes stored in the PCM and check
scan tool menus for available data and performance tests on any modulated system.
2. What inspection tests would perform on a power steering system
- Steering wheel free play
- Power steering fluid
- Leakage in the power unit
- Steering wheel flexibility

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 CHAPTER 10: SERVICE VEHICLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Unit of learning code: ENG/AUT/CR/8/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Service vehicle electrical systems
10.1Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit specifies competencies required to service vehicle electrical systems. It involves
diagnosing electrical systems and servicing ignition, electrical accessories, air conditioning,
auxiliary, lighting and vehicle electrical motors systems.
10.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes
 Diagnose electrical systems
 Service vehicle ignition system
 Service vehicle electrical accessories
 Service vehicle air conditioning system
 Service vehicle charging systems
 Service vehicle auxiliary system
 Service vehicle lighting system
 Service vehicle electrical motors
 Install Vehicle safety systems
10.3 Learning Outcome 1: Diagnose electrical systems
10.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to identify electrical defects, use
electrical diagnostic tools & equipment, use diagnostic procedures and identify cause and
location of defects.
10.3.2 Performance Standard
9. Electrical defect(s) are identified according to clients’ report.
10. Electrical diagnostic tools and equipment are used as per the service manual
11. Diagnostic procedures are used as per service manual
12. Cause and location of defects is identified as per service manual

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10.3.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms.
Amperes is the unit of measurement for the amount of current.
Electromotive force the voltage between the positive and negative pole of the battery when no
load is connected.
Capacity the maximum amount of electrical energy that a battery can deliver.
Voltage – is the electrical pressure that causes the electrons to flow through a conductor potential
Volt is the unit of measurement for voltage.
Open circuit – An open circuit is any circuit that is not complete, or that lacks continuity, such as
a broken wire
OHMS - resistance to the flow of current through a conductor is measured in units called ohms.
Closed circuit – circuit with continuous flow of electrons, electrons flow from one side of the
voltage source, through the circuit, and then return to the other side of the source.
Vehicle electrical system The vehicle electrical system of a motor vehicle comprises the
alternator as the energy converter, one or more batteries as the energy accumulators and the
electrical equipment as consumers. The energy from the battery is supplied to the starter
(consumer), which then starts the vehicle engine. During vehicle operation, the ignition and fuel-
injection system, the control units, the safety and comfort and convenience electronics, the
lighting, and other equipment have to be supplied with power.

CIRCUIT TESTERS AND DIGITAL METERS

(i) FUSED JUMPER WIRE
A fused jumper wire is used to check a circuit by bypassing the switch or to provide a power or
ground to a component. A fused jumper wire, also called a test lead, can be purchased or made by
the service technician, the fused Jumper has the following components
Fuse - A typical fused jumper wire has a blade-type fuse that can be easily replaced. A 10
ampere fuse (red color) is often used.
Alligator clip ends. Alligator clips on the ends allow the fused jumper wire to be clipped
to a ground or power source while the other end is attached to the power side or ground
side of the unit being tested.

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 Good-quality insulated wire. Most purchased jumper wire is about 14 gauge stranded
copper wire with a flexible rubberized insulation to allow it to move easily even in cold
weather.

Figure 1 Fused Jumper lead

(ii) CONTINUITY TEST LIGHTS A continuity light is similar to a test light but includes a
battery for self-power. A continuity light illuminates whenever it is connected to both ends
of a wire that has continuity or is not broken.

Figure 2 continuity test lights

(iii) DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Digital multimeter (DMM) and digital volt-ohm meter (DVOM) are terms commonly used for
electronic high impedance test meters. High impedance means that the electronic internal
resistance of the meter is high enough to prevent excessive current draw from any circuit being
tested.

171
 Figure 3 Digital Multimeter
MEASURING VOLTAGE A voltmeter measures the pressure or potential of electricity in units
of volts. A voltmeter is connected to a circuit in parallel. Voltage can be measured by selecting
either AC or DC volts.

MEASURING RESISTANCE An ohmmeter measures the resistance in ohms of a component or

circuit section when no current is flowing through the circuit. An ohmmeter contains a battery (or
other power source) and is connected in series with the component or wire being measured. When
the leads are connected to a component, current flows through the test leads and the difference in
voltage (voltage drop) between the leads is measured as resistance. Note the following facts about
using an ohmmeter.
- Zero ohms on the scale means that there is no resistance between the test leads, thus
indicating continuity or a continuous path for the current to flow in a closed circuit.
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 - Infinity means no connection, as in an open circuit.
- Ohmmeters have no required polarity even though red and black test leads are used for
resistance measurement.

MEASURING AMPERES An ammeter measures the flow of current through a complete circuit
in units of amperes. The ammeter has to be installed in the circuit (in series) so that it can measure
all the current flow in that circuit, just as a water flow meter would measure the amount of water
flow (cubic feet per minute, for example).

How to Read Digital Meters

- Select the proper unit of electricity for what is being measured.
- Place the meter leads into the proper input terminals
- Measure the component being tested
- Interpret the reading

(iv) OSCILLOSCOPES
An oscilloscope (usually called a scope) is a visual voltmeter with a timer that shows when a
voltage changes.
Using a Scope
Most scopes, both analog and digital, normally use the same test leads. These leads usually attach
to the scope through a BNC connector, a miniature standard coaxial cable connector. BNC is an
international standard that is used in the electronics industry. If using a BNC connector, be sure to
connect one lead to a good clean, metal engine ground. The probe of the scope lead attaches to the
circuit or component being tested. Many scopes use one ground lead and then each channel has it
own signal pickup lead.

Measuring battery voltage with a scope

One of the easiest things to measure and observe on a scope is battery voltage. A lower voltage
can be observed on the scope display as the engine is started and a higher voltage should be
displayed after the engine starts.

Testing Fuses

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It is important to test the condition of a fuse if the circuit being protected by the fuse does not
operate. Most blown fuses can be detected quickly because the center conductor is melted. Fuses
can also fail and open the circuit because of a poor connection in the fuse itself or in the fuse
holder. All fuses should be tested with a test light. The test light should be connected to first one
side of the fuse and then the other. A test light should light on both sides. If the test light only
lights on one side, the fuse is blown or open. If the test light does not light on either side of the
fuse, then that circuit is not being supplied power.

Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are used to prevent harmful overload (excessive current flow) in a circuit by
opening the circuit and stopping the current flow to prevent overheating and possible fire caused
by hot wires or electrical components. Circuit breakers are mechanical units made of two different
metals (bimetallic) that deform when heated and open a set of contact points that work in the same
manner as an “off” switch.

Procedure to Locate an Open Circuit

The typical procedure for locating an open circuit involves the following steps.
STEP 1 Perform a thorough visual inspection. Check the following:
 Look for evidence of a previous repair. Often, an electrical connector or ground connection
can be accidentally left disconnected
 Look for evidence of recent body damage or body repairs. Movement due to a collision
can cause metal to move, which can cut wires or damage connectors or components.
STEP 2 Print out the schematic. Trace the circuit and check for voltage at certain places. This
will help pinpoint the location of the open circuit.
STEP 3 Check everything that does and does not work. Often, an open circuit will affect more
than one component. Check the part of the circuit that is common to the other components that do
not work.
STEP 4 Check for voltage. Voltage is present up to the location of the open circuit fault. For
example, if there is battery voltage at the positive terminal and the negative (ground) terminal of a
two-wire light bulb socket with the bulb plugged in, then the ground circuit is open.

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When diagnosing an electrical problem that affects more than one component or system, check the
electrical schematic for a common power source or a common ground. Example of lights being
powered by one fuse (power source).
 Underhood light
 Inside lighted mirrors
 Dome light
 Left-side courtesy light
 Right-side courtesy light
If a customer complains about one or more of the items listed, check the fuse and the common part
of the circuit that feeds all of the affected lights. Check for a common ground if several components
that seem unrelated are not functioning correctly.

WIRE REPAIR
Many manufacturers recommend that all wiring repairs be soldered. Solder is an alloy of tin and
lead used to make a good electrical contact between two wires or connections in an electrical
circuit. A flux must be used to help clean the area and to help make the solder flow. Therefore,
solder is made with a resin (rosin) contained in the center, called rosin-core solder.

SOLDERING GUNS When soldering wires, be sure to heat the wires (not the solder) using:
An electric soldering gun or soldering pencil (60 to 150 watt rating)
Butane-powered tool that uses a flame to heat the tip (about 60 watt rating)

Figure 4 Soldering gun

SOLDERING PROCEDURE
Soldering a wiring splice includes the following steps.
STEP 1 While touching the soldering gun to the splice, apply solder to the junction of the

175
 gun and the wire.
STEP 2 The solder will start to flow. Do not move the soldering gun.
STEP 3 Just keep feeding more solder into the splice as it flows into and around the strands
of the wire.
STEP 4 After the solder has flowed throughout the splice, remove the soldering gun and the
solder from the splice and allow the solder to cool slowly.
The solder should have a shiny appearance. Dull-looking solder may be caused by not
reaching a high enough temperature, which results in a cold solder joint. Reheating the
splice and allowing it to cool often restores the shiny appearance.

CIRCUIT TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE

Follow these steps when troubleshooting wiring problems.
STEP 1 Verify the malfunction. If, for example, the backup lights do not operate, make
certain that the ignition is on (key on, engine off), with the gear selector in reverse, and
check for operation of the backup lights.
STEP 2 Check everything else that does or does not operate correctly.
For example, if the taillights are also not working, the problem could be a loose or broken
ground connection in the trunk area that is shared by both the backup lights and the
taillights.
STEP 3 Check the fuse for the backup lights.
STEP 4 Check for voltage at the backup light socket. This can be done using a test light or a
voltmeter. If voltage is available at the socket, the problem is either a defective bulb or a
poor ground at the socket or a ground wire connection to the body or frame. If no voltage
is available at the socket, consult a wiring diagram for the type of vehicle being tested.
The wiring diagram should show all of the wiring and components included in the circuit. For
example, the backup light current must flow through the fuse and ignition switch to the gear
selector switch before traveling to the rear backup light socket. As stated in the second step, the
fuse used for the backup lights may also be used for other vehicle circuits.
The wiring diagram can be used to determine all other components that share the same fuse.

If the fuse is blown (open circuit), the cause can be a short in any of the circuits sharing the same
fuse.

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TROUBLESHOOTING AN ELECTRICAL FAULT
The following field-tested procedure provides a step-by-step guide for troubleshooting an
electrical fault.
STEP 1 Determine the customer concern (complaint) and get as much information as
possible from the customer or service advisor.
a) When did the problem start?
b) Under what conditions does the problem occur?
c) Have there been any recent previous repairs to the vehicle which could have created
the problem?
STEP 2 Verify the customer’s concern by actually observing the fault.
STEP 3 Perform a thorough visual inspection and be sure to check everything that does and
does not work.
STEP 4 Check for technical service information from the user manual/online information.
STEP 5 Locate the wiring schematic for the circuit being diagnosed.
STEP 6 Check the factory service information and follow the troubleshooting procedure.
a) Determine how the circuit works.
a) Determine which part of the circuit is good, based on what works and what does not
work.
b) Isolate the problem area.
STEP 7 Determine the root cause and repair the vehicle.
STEP 8 Verify the repair and complete the work order by listing the three Cs (complaint,
cause, and correction).
10.3.4 Learning Activities
Practical activities
1) Measure the voltage, current and electrical resistance in a circuit and drawing
conclusions from the measurement results.
2) Identify electrical defects on the electrical systems of the vehicle provided.

Field visit.
Visit Indicators Special instruction
objective/Aim

177
 To establish Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
vehicle electrical during vehicle electrical correctly used.
defects defects identification and The relevant regulative
location Act indicated.

10.3.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the

diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle
electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts
Supplies and Personal protection equipment
materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Digital meters
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;

10.3.6 Self-Assessment
1. What do you understand by vehicle electrical system?
2. What Is in Lead-Free Solder?
3. What Methods of Wire Repair Should you Use?
4. Why is the battery an important component of the electrical system?

10.3.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey

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 10.3.8 Model Answers
1. What do you understand by vehicle electrical system?
- The electrical system of a motor vehicle comprises the alternator as the energy
converter, one or more batteries as the energy accumulators and the electrical
equipment as consumers.
2. What is in Lead-Free Solder?
- Lead free solder does not contain lead but usually a very high percentage of tin.
3. What Method of Wire Repair Should I Use?
- Vehicle manufacturers recommend all wire repairs performed under the hood, or
where the repair could be exposed to the elements, be weatherproof. Common
recommended methods include:
- Crimp and seal connector. These connectors are special and are not like low cost
insulated-type crimp connectors.
- Solder and adhesive-lined heat shrink tubing. uses the special heat shrink that has glue
inside that melts when heated to form a sealed connection. Regular heat shrink tubing can
be used inside a vehicle, but should not be used where it can be exposed to the elements.
- Solder and electrical tape. This is acceptable to use inside the vehicle where the splice
will not be exposed to the outside elements. It is best to use a crimp and seal even on the
inside of the vehicle for best results.
4. Why is the battery an important component of the electrical system?
- It must operate the starting motor, ignition system, electronic fuel injection system,
and other electrical devices for the engine during engine cranking and starting.
- It must supply all of the electrical power for the vehicle when the engine is not
running.
- It must help the charging system provide electricity when current demands are
above the output limit of the charging system.
- It must act as a capacitor (voltage stabilizer) that smoothes current flow through the
electrical system.
- It must store energy (electricity) for extended periods.

10.4 Learning outcome 2: Service Vehicle Ignition System

10.4.1 Introduction to learning outcome
In this unit the trainee is expected to develop competencies required to perform vehicle
ignition service and maintenance. These include knowing types of ignition, ignition
system components and testing of the components.

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10.4.2 Performance standards
3.2 Battery condition and functionality is checked according to manufacturers’
specification.
3.3 Ignition coil is checked/ replaced according to manufacturers’ specification.
3.4 Ignition distributor and distributor cap is serviced according to manufacturers’
specification.
3.5 Ignition spark plug and high tension (HT) cables are serviced as per manufacturers’
manual.
3.6 Ignition switch/key is serviced/ replaced according to manufacturers’ specification.
3.7 Ignition timing is carried out as per manufacturers’ specification.
3.8 Electronic ignition fault diagnosis is performed as per manufacturers’ manual.

10.4.3 Information sheet

10.4.3.1 Definition of terms
HT - High Tension Lead
Distributor – controls supply of spark to the cylinders
Electronic ignition (EI) is the term specified by the SAE for an ignition system that does not
use a distributor.
Ignition timing - The moment at which the mixture combusts depending on the operating
conditions of the engine.
ECU - Electronic Control Unit
PCM - PCM Powertrain Control Module.

BATTERY
The battery supplies electrical energy when the energy that the alternator supplies is insufficient.
Electrical energy is difficult to store. Consequently, chemical energy rather than electrical energy
is stored in the battery:
- if the battery supplies current, chemical energy in the battery is converted into electrical
energy
- charging the battery converts electrical energy into chemical energy.
The battery’s construction
Batteries are constructed of a number of cells. Each cell has a number of positive and negative
plates. Each cell has a voltage of approximately 2 V. A 12 V battery has 6 cells connected in series.
The positive and negative plates are insulated from each other by separators.

180
 Figure 5 construction of the battery
The positive and negative plates are connected by a bridge. The plates are made of a lead-alloy
grille. The grilles are filled with a paste (a mixture of lead powder, sulphuric acid and various
additives). The separators are made of a plastic or cellulose material.
The battery cells are filled with electrolyte. This is a mixture of sulphuric acid and demineralised
water. This is otherwise referred to as dilute sulphuric acid. Detached particles (sediment) are
collected in a space at the bottom of the cell. This prevents the particles from causing short-circuits
between the plates.

181
 Figure 6 Sectional view of a battery
The positive plates are connected to the positive pole and the negative plates to the negative pole.
Various measures are taken to prevent connection mistakes:
- the terminals are marked (+ and –)
- the diameter of the positive pole is larger than that of the negative pole
- the positive pole has a red ring, the negative pole a blue ring.

Battery maintenance
Batteries should be checked for the following during servicing:
- fastening: the battery must not be able to move
- state of the terminals and battery terminal clamps: the terminal and battery terminal
clamps must be free of corrosion and the battery terminal clamps must enclose the
terminals properly

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 - the level of the electrolyte: marks are often provided on the battery case to indicate the
maximum and minimum level.
- Corrosion of the terminals and battery terminal clamps can be prevented by lightly
greasing them with Vaseline.
If the electrolyte level is too low, it should be topped up. This is not possible for all batteries.
Many maintenance-free type batteries have no filler caps. Water consumption in these types of
batteries is so low that no topping up is required.

A battery’s state of charge can be measured using a hydrometer. It works as follows:

- place the tip of the hydrometer in the electrolyte
- squeeze the suction ball and release it; the hydrometer fills up with electrolyte
- read the value of the specific gravity from the liquid level.
Points for attention when using hydrometers:
- Hold the hydrometer vertically when making the measurement. When not held vertically,
the densimeter touches the side of the glass tube and the measurement value is incorrect.
- It is pointless to measure the specific gravity immediately after topping up with
demineralised water.
- Sulphuric acid is extremely corrosive. Be sure not to spill any electrolyte on the vehicle
or clothing.
- Maintenance-free type batteries have a test indicator

Figure 7 Maintenance-free battery with test indicator

The test indicator provides information on the level of the electrolyte and the state of charge. The
test indicator should be read as follows:

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 - indicator green (state 1): the battery is more than 65% charged and the electrolyte is at
the right level
- indicator dark (state 2): the battery is less than 65% charged and the electrolyte is at the
right level
- indicator clear (state 3): the level of the electrolyte is too low.
Normal charging – During normal charging, the battery’s capacity is returned to 100%. The size
of the charging current is 5 to 10% of the capacity. A battery with a capacity of 40 Ah is charged
during normal charging by a charging current of 2 to 4 A.

Fast charging - Fast charging is used for batteries that have been completely discharged, and then
only if the battery concerned was also discharged quickly. Fast charging partially charges the
battery again in a short period. The charging current is 30 to 50% of the battery’s capacity. The
charging current for a battery with a capacity of 40 Ah is 12 to 20 A. Fast charging is only used in
exceptional cases. Many fast chargers can also be used as a start booster and normal charger.

Trickle charging - Batteries that are not used for a long time lose voltage owing to self discharge.
Trickle charging can compensate for the loss. The charger is connected to the battery continuously
during trickle charging. The charging current is approximately 0.1 % of the battery’s capacity. A
battery with a capacity of 40 Ah is therefore charged using a current of 0.04 A. Some battery
chargers automatically switch to trickle charging after normal charging.

Buffer charging - During buffer charging the loads as well as the charger are connected to the
battery at the same time. The charger supplies sufficient current to keep the battery practically
fully charged. The battery supplies the current peaks to the loads. Buffer charging takes place
when the alternator charges the battery while simultaneously supplying current to the loads.

Ignition System Components

Various ignition circuit components are designed to achieve the functions of the ignition circuit.
Basic ignition circuit components are as follows:
 The battery provides power for the circuit.
 The ignition switch allows the operator to turn the circuit and engine on and off.
 The ignition coil changes battery voltage to high ignition voltage (30,000 volts and
greater).
 The ignition distributor distributes ignition voltage to the spark plug. Contains either
mechanical contact points or an electronic switching circuit.

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  The spark plug is a device that provides an air gap in the combustion chamber for an
electric arc.
Ignition Switch
The ignition switch enables the operator to turn the ignition on for starting and running the
engine and to turn it off to stop the engine. Most automotive ignition switches incorporate four
positions: off, accessory, ignition on, and start:
The off position shuts off the electrical system. Systems such as the headlights are usually not
wired through the ignition switch and will continue to operate. The accessory position turns on
power to the entire vehicles electrical system with the exception of the ignition circuit. The
ignition-on position turns on the entire electrical system including the ignition circuit.
The start position energizes the starter solenoid circuit to crank the engine. The start position is
spring-loaded to return to the ignition-on position when the key is released automatically.
Ignition Distributor
An ignition distributor can be a contact point, or pickup coil type. A contact point distributor is
commonly found in older vehicles, whereas the pickup coil type distributor is used on many
modern vehicles. The ignition distributor has several functions:
 It actuates the on/off cycles of current flow through the primary windings of the coil.
 It distributes the high voltage surges of the coil to the spark plugs.
 It causes the spark to occur at each spark plug earlier in the compression stroke as speed
increases.
 It changes spark timing with the changes in engine load. As more load is placed on the
engine, the spark timing must occur later in the compression stroke to prevent spark
knock.
 In some cases, the bottom of the distributor shaft powers the engine oil pump.
 In some electronic distributors, the distributors house the ignition coil and the electronic
switching unit.
The distributor cap is an insulating plastic component that covers the top of the distributor
housing. Its center terminal transfers voltage from the coil wire to the rotor. The distributor cap
also has outer terminals that send electric arcs to the spark plugs. Metal terminals are molded
into the plastic cap to provide electrical connections.
The distributor rotor transfers voltage from the coil wire to the spark plug wires. The rotor is
mounted on top of the distributor shaft. It is an electrical switch that feeds voltage to each spark
plug wire in turn. A metal terminal on the rotor touches the distributor cap center terminal. The
outer end of the rotor almost touches the outer cap terminals. Voltage is high enough that it can
jump the air space between the rotor and cap. Approximately 4,000 volts are required for the spark
to jump this rotor-to-cap gap.
Distributor less Ignition

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A distributor less ignition uses multiple ignition coils, a coil control unit, engine sensors, and a
computer to operate the spark plugs.
The electronic coil module consists of more than one coil and a coil control unit that operates the
coils. The module’s control unit performs about the same function as the Ignition Control Module
(ICM) in an electronic ignition. It will analyze data from different engine sensors and the system
computer. The coils are wired so they fire two spark plugs at the same time. One plug will fire on
the power stroke and the other will fire on the exhaust stroke (there is no effect on engine
operation).
This system reduces the number of ignition coils required to operate the engine. For instance, a
four cylinder would have only two coils, a six cylinder would have only three coils and so on. A
camshaft position sensor is installed in place of the ignition distributor. It sends an electrical pulse
to the coil control unit providing data on camshaft and valve position.
Spark Plug

Figure 8: Spark plug

Adopted from: help.summitracing.com
The spark plug consists of a porcelain insulator in which there is an insulated electrode supported
by a metal shell with a grounded electrode. Spark plugs have the simple purpose of supplying a
fixed gap in the cylinder across which the high voltage surges from the coil must jump after passing
through the distributor. The spark plugs use ignition coil high voltage to ignite the fuel mixture.
Somewhere between 4,000 and 10,000 volts are required to make current jump the gap at the plug
electrodes. This is much lower than the output potential of the coil. Spark plug gap is the distance
between the center and side electrodes. Normal gap specifications range between 0.030 to 0.060
inch. Smaller spark plug gaps are used on older vehicles equipped with contact point ignition
systems.

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Spark plugs are either resistor or non-resistor types A resistor spark plug has internal resistance
(approximately 10,000 ohms) designed to reduce the static in radios. Most new vehicles require
resistor type plugs. Non-resistor spark plugs have a solid metal rod forming the center electrode.
Spark Plug Wires
The spark plug wires carry the high voltage electric current from the distributor cap side terminals
to the spark plugs. In vehicles with distributor less ignition, the spark plug wires carry coil voltage
directly to the spark plugs. The two types of spark plug wires are solid wire and resistance wire.
The wire conductor is simply a strand of metal wire. Solid wires can cause radio interference and
are no longer used.

Resistance spark plug wires consist of carbon-impregnated strands of rayon braid. They are used
on modern vehicle because they contain internal resistance that prevents radio interference.

Figure 9: Coil Ignition circuit diagram

Adopted from: hobby-circuits.com
Operation
The ignition circuit supplies high voltage surges (some as high as 100,000 volts in electronic
ignition circuits) to the spark plugs in the engine cylinders. These surges produce electric sparks
across the spark plug gaps. The heat from the spark ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture in the

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combustion chambers. When the engine is idling, the spark appears at the spark plug gap just as
the piston nears top dead center (TDC) on the compression stroke. When the engine is operating
at higher speeds, the spark is advanced. It is moved ahead and occurs earlier in the compression
stroke. This design gives the compressed mixture more time to burn and deliver its energy to the
pistons. The functions of an ignition circuit are as follows:
 Provide a method of turning the ignition circuit on and off.
 Provide capability of operating on various supply voltages (battery or alternator
voltage).
 Produce a high voltage arc at the spark plug electrodes to start combustion.
 Distribute high voltage pulses to each spark plug in the correct sequence.
 Time the spark so that it occurs as the piston nears TDC on the compression
stroke.
 Vary spark timing with engine speed, load, and other conditions.
The ignition circuit is actually made of two separate circuits which work together to cause
the electric spark at the spark plugs: the primary and secondary.
Primary Circuit
The primary circuit of the ignition circuit includes all of the components and wiring operating on
low voltage (battery or alternator voltage). Wiring in the primary circuit uses conventional wire,
similar to the wire used in other electrical circuits on the vehicle.
Secondary Circuits
The secondary circuit of the ignition circuit is the high voltage section. It consists of the wire and
components between the coil output and the spark plug ground. Wiring in the secondary circuit
must have a thicker insulation than that of the primary circuit to prevent leaking (arcing) of the
high voltage.
Electronic Ignition System

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 Figure 10 Electronic Ignition System
Adopted from: electronicsforu.com
The basic difference between the contact point and the electronic ignition system is in the
primary circuit. The primary circuit in a contact point ignition system is open and closed by
contact points. In the electronic system, the primary circuit is open and closed by the electronic
control unit (ECU).
The secondary circuits are practically the same for the two systems. The difference is that the
distributor, ignition coil, and wiring are altered to handle the high voltage produced by the
electronic ignition system. One advantage of this higher voltage (up to 60,000 volts) is that spark
plugs with wider gaps can be used. This results in a longer spark, which can ignite leaner air-fuel
mixtures. As a result, engines can run on leaner mixtures for better fuel economy and lower
emissions.
Electronic Ignition System Components
The components of an electronic ignition system regardless of the manufacturer all perform the
same functions. Each manufacturer has its own preferred terminology and location of the
components. The basic components of an electronic ignition system are as follows:
- The trigger wheel, also known as a reluctor, pole piece, or armature, is connected to the
upper end of the distributor shaft. The trigger wheel replaces the distributor cam. Like the
distributor cam lobes, the teeth on the trigger wheel equal the number of engine cylinders.
- The pickup coil, also known as a sensor assembly, sensor coil, or magnetic pickup
assembly, produces tiny voltage surges for the ignition systems electronic control unit.
The pickup coil is a small set of windings forming a coil.
- The ignition system electronic control unit amplifier or control module is an "electronic
switch" that turns the ignition coil primary current ON and OFF. The
ECU performs the same function as the contact points. The ignition ECU is a network of
transistors, capacitors, resistors, and other electronic components sealed in a metal or
plastic housing. The ECU can be located in the engine compartment, on the side of the
distributor, inside the distributor, or under the vehicle dash. ECU dwell time (number of
degrees the circuit conducts current to the ignition coil) is designed into the electronic
circuit of the ECU and is NOT adjustable.
Electronic Ignition System Operation

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With the engine running, the trigger wheel rotates inside the distributor. As a tooth of the trigger
wheel passes the pickup coil, the magnetic field strengthens around the pickup coil. This action
changes the output voltage or current flow through the coil. As a result, an electrical surge is sent
to the electronic control unit as the trigger wheel teeth pass the pickup coil.
The electronic control unit increases the electrical surges into on/off cycles for the ignition coil.
When the ECU is on, current passes through the primary windings of the ignition coil and
develops a magnetic field. Then, when the trigger wheel and pickup coil turn off the ECU, the
magnetic field inside the ignition coil collapses and fires a sparkplug.
Ignition System Maintenance
Maintenance to modern ignition systems is limited to replacing spark plugs and sometimes
checking the (basic) ignition timing.
When removing spark plugs,
- make sure you prevent any dirt from getting into in the cylinder chamber through the
spark plug hole.
- Always first unscrew the spark plugs a quarter of a turn. Then blow the space around the
spark plugs clean with compressed air.
- Now you can remove the spark plugs.
When checking spark plugs, pay attention to the following:
- the electrode distance
- the position of the electrodes
- the condition of the insulator nose

Ignition timing
The moment at which the mixture combusts (ignition timing) depends on the operating
conditions of the engine.

In some ignition systems, the ignition timing can be adjusted. In most ignition systems, however,
adjustment is not possible, but it may still be necessary to check the ignition timing.

You can measure the ignition timing with a motor tester (diagnostic tester).
You can also often use a stroboscope lamp.

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Reference marks are necessary to measure the ignition timing with a stroboscope lamp. The
location of these reference marks can differ for each brand and type of car. Possible locations
include:
- on the crankshaft pulley and the engine block or the distributor cap
- on the flywheel and the clutch housing.

Figure 11 spark inspections on crankshaft pulley and engine block

Figure 12 Ignition timing reference marks on flywheel and clutch housing

10.4.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Perform vehicle ignition service and maintenance on the vehicle provided.
Field visit.
Visit Indicators Special instruction
objective/Aim

191
 To establish Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
vehicle ignition during vehicle ignition correctly used.
maintenance. maintenance. The relevant regulative Act
indicated.
Field visit to establish vehicle ignition maintenance

10.4.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the diagnosis
service and repair of motor vehicle electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

10.4.6 Self-Assessment
1. What are the major components of the ignition system circuit?
2. Why is the distributor important on a vehicle electrical system?
3. How does the primary circuit differ from the secondary circuit of the ignition system?
4. How does the distributor less ignition system operate?
10.4.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey
10.4.8 Model Answers
1. What are the major components of the ignition system circuit?
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  Battery - provides power for the circuit.
 Ignition switch - turn the circuit and engine on and off.
 Ignition coil - changes battery voltage to high ignition voltage.
 Ignition distributor- distributes ignition voltage to the spark plug.
 Spark plug - provides an air gap in the combustion chamber for an electric arc.
2. Why is the distributor important on a vehicle electrical system?
 It actuates the on/off cycles of current flow through the primary windings of the
coil.
 It distributes the high voltage surges of the coil to the spark plugs.
 It causes the spark to occur at each spark plug earlier in the compression stroke as
speed increases.
 It changes spark timing with the changes in engine load. As more load is placed on
the engine, the spark timing must occur later in the compression stroke to prevent
spark knock.
 In some cases, the bottom of the distributor shaft powers the engine oil pump.
 In some electronic distributors, the distributors house the ignition coil and the
electronic switching unit.
3. How does the primary circuit differ from the secondary circuit of the ignition system?
Primary Circuit: The primary circuit of the ignition circuit includes all of the components
and wiring operating on low voltage (battery or alternator voltage). Wiring in the primary
circuit uses conventional wire, similar to the wire used in other electrical circuits on the
vehicle.
Secondary Circuits: The secondary circuit of the ignition circuit is the high voltage
section. It consists of the wire and components between the coil output and the spark plug
ground. Wiring in the secondary circuit must have a thicker insulation than that of the
primary circuit to prevent leaking (arcing) of the high voltage.
4. How does the distributor less ignition system operate?
- A distributor less ignition uses multiple ignition coils, a coil control unit, engine
sensors, and a computer to operate the spark plugs.
- The electronic coil module consists of more than one coil and a coil control unit that
operates the coils.
- The module’s control unit analyzes data from different engine sensors and the system
computer. The coils are wired so they fire two spark plugs at the same time. One plug
will fire on the power stroke and the other will fire on the exhaust stroke (there is no
effect on engine operation).
- A camshaft position sensor is installed in place of the ignition distributor. It sends an
electrical pulse to the coil control unit providing data on camshaft and valve position.

10.5 Learning Outcome 3: Service vehicle electrical accessories

10.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to check electrical accessories to confirm
compatibility with the vehicle, check electrical accessories for compatibility with legal

193
legislations, identify location and fitting in accordance with legislations, install accessories and
test accessories for correct operation.
10.5.2 Performance Standard
1. Electrical accessories are checked to confirm compatibility with the vehicle as per
manufactures specifications
2. Electrical accessories are checked for compatibility with legal legislations as per state
policies.
3. Location and fitting is identified in accordance with legislations and manufactures’
specification
4. Accessories are installed in accordance with manufacturer’s specification
5. Accessories are tested for correct operation as per manufacturer’s specification.
10.5.3 Information Sheet
10.5.3.1 Definition of terms
Fuse - an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent protection of an electrical
circuit
Resistor - Resistance is the opposition to current flow. Resistors represent an electrical load, or
resistance, to current flow. Most electrical and electronic devices use resistors of specific values
to limit and control the flow of current.
Thermistor - a semiconductor material such as silicon that has been doped to provide a given
resistance. When the thermistor is heated, the electrons within the crystal gain energy and electrons
are released.
Diode - an electrical one-way check valve made by combining a P-type material and an N-type
material.
Automotive Electrical system
In terms of purpose of electrical components, the automotive electrical system can be divided into
the power source, protective devices, control devices, power consumer equipment, connectors, and
harnesses.

The accessories are categorized as follows

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Protection devices include fuses, circuit breakers and PTC thermistors.

Fusible line Fuse Bimetal electrical PTC Thermistor appliance

Figure 13: Accessories
Adopted from: pinterest.com
Control device - switch, relay, and ECU

Figure 14 Switch
Adopted from: wisegeek.com
These are devices used to control appliances in a vehicle such as wiper, and lighting accessories
such as indicators, headlights e.t.c
Connector
These are devices used to connect different accessories and their electrical lines or harnesses.
They are of different sizes and categorized in terms of their number of connector pins. They are
used to prevent disengaging during vehicle driving

195
 Figure 15 Connector
Adopted from: desertcart.co.ke

ECU
ECU is an embedded electronic device, basically a digital computer that reads signals coming from
sensors placed at various parts and in different components of the car and depending on this
information controls various important units e.g. engine and other automated operations within the
vehicle.

Figure 16 Electronic Control Unit

Types of ECU
 ECM - Engine Control Module
 EBCM - Electronic Brake Control Module
 PCM – Power train Control Module
 VCM - Vehicle Control Module

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  BCM - Body Control Module
Vehicle harness
These are the connection wires used in a motor vehicle.

.
Figure 17: Vehicle harness
Adopted from: autosparks.co.uk
Relay
The relay can be used to automatically switch on or off one or more pairs of contacts to complete
the control of a large current with a small current, which can reduce the current load of the
control switch and protect the control switch in the circuit. Like horn relay and fog lamp relay.

Figure 18: Relay

Adopted from: indiamart.com
Relays are divided into: normally open relays, normally closed relays and normally open, normally
closed hybrid relays. Each pin of the relay has a number, which corresponds to the number of the
jack of the relay socket on the front panel of the central junction box.

10.5.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Check electrical accessories to confirm compatibility with the vehicle, check electrical
accessories for compatibility with legal legislations, identify location and fitting in accordance

197
with legislations, install accessories and test accessories for correct operation on the vehicle
provided.

Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish checking of Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual correctly
electrical accessories to used.
confirm compatibility with The relevant regulative Act
the vehicle, checking of indicated.
electrical accessories for
compatibility with legal
legislations, identification of
location and fitting in
accordance with
legislations, installation of
accessories and testing
accessories

10.5.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the
diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle electrical
systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining motor
vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording maintenance
records;

198
10.5.6 Self-Assessment
1. What are vehicle electrical accessories?
2. What are the following accessories in a vehicle electrical system:
a) Relays
b) Connectors
c) Vehicle harnesses
10.5.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey

10.5.8 Model Answers

1. What are vehicle electrical accessories?
The automotive electrical system can be divided into the power source, protective
devices, control devices, power consumer equipment, connectors, and harnesses.
2. What are the following accessories in a vehicle electrical system:
a) Relays - The relay can be used to automatically switch on or off one or more
pairs of contacts to complete the control of a large current with a small
current, which can reduce the current load of the control switch and protect
the control switch in the circuit
b) Connectors - These are devices used to connect different accessories and their
electrical lines or harnesses
c) Vehicle harnesses - These are the connection wires used in a motor vehicle.

10.6 Learning Outcome 4: Service vehicle air conditioning system

10.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to service and maintain the air
conditioning system.
10.6.2 Performance Standard
1. Air-con condenser and condenser cooling fans are checked/ serviced according to
manufacturer’s specifications.
2. Evaporator and heater blower fans are checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s
specifications.
3. Compressor and pressure switch are checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s
specifications.
4. Drier and expansion valve are checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s specification.
5. Air conditioner is recharged according to manufacturer’s specification.
6. Air conditioner leakages are checked according to manufacturer’s specification

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10.6.3 Information Sheet
10.6.3.1 Definitions of terms
Refrigerant: This is the cooling substance used in air conditioning
Compressor: Supplies the refrigerant to the air conditioning system at high pressure.
Air Conditioning System
The aim of an air conditioning system is to regulate the temperature in the interior of the car. An
air conditioning system can treat the air in the motor vehicle by:
- cleaning the air
- regulating the temperature
- influencing the level of humidity (warm air can absorb more moisture than cold air!).
The heat transport unit in a car’s air conditioning system contains a refrigerant. The refrigerant is
evaporated by the evaporator in the system, and this causes heat to be extracted from the air in the
vehicle. The refrigerant in an air conditioning system occurs in three states:
1 as liquid
2 as vapour (mixture of gas and liquid)
3 as gas.
Refrigerant
1 the boiling point of a refrigerant can be increased by increasing the pressure above the liquid
(compression), which means that more heat evaporation is necessary
2 the boiling point can be reduced by reducing the pressure above the liquid (expansion).
3 The drop in pressure can also cause the condensation process to take place more easily
4 The boiling point of water is much too high for it to be used in an air conditioning-
system. The ideal liquid is a liquid that turns into gas or vapour at a much lower
temperature called a refrigerant, most commonly used refrigerant is R134A.
Properties of a refrigerant
- odourless and non-toxic
- in concentrations of more than 30 volume percent
- produce a lack of oxygen
- not combustible
- not explosive
- they absorb moisture, but without forming a bond with it heavier than air

200
 - dirt particles in the refrigerant do not settle readily and can therefore move through the
entire system
Personal precautionary measures
1 Refrigerants should never be allowed to come in contact with the skin as they can cause
serious frostbite.
2 If liquid refrigerant does come in contact with the skin or in the eyes, it is important to
immediately rinse the area with a lot of water and then contact a doctor.
3 If refrigerants come in contact with a naked flame or hot surfaces, it can result in toxic
gases (fluorine and/or phosgene gas). These gases are recognizable by their strong pungent
odour.
4 Refrigerant evaporates immediately but is heavier than air. There is therefore a risk of
suffocation close to the ground or in a pit.

Operation of the Air Conditioning System

The compressor draws in refrigerant gas from the evaporator. The compressor compresses this gas,
causing the pressure and temperature to rise. The compressor then pumps the gas to the condenser.
In the condenser, the gas releases its heat to the surrounding air and condenses into liquid. The
liquid refrigerant now passes through the expansion valve, by way of a water separator, and enters
the evaporator. The evaporator absorbs the heat from the car’s interior and transfers it to the liquid
refrigerant.

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1 compressor, 2 condenser, 3 water separator, 4 expansion valve, 5 evaporator, 6 anti-ice switch, 6a
temperature sensor

Figure 19: Diagram of an air conditioning system

Compressor
The function of a compressor is to compress gasified refrigerant. The compressor is driven by the
car’s engine and is engaged or disengaged by means of an electromagnetically operated
coupling.

202
 Figure 20 : Compressor components
The compressor must be lubricated with special oil. A new air conditioning system contains the
necessary amount of oil in the compressor. The lubricant mixes with the refrigerant so that the oil
is distributed throughout the system. This mixture lubricates moving parts and also cools the
system and acts as a seal.

The specific type of oil prescribed by the manufacture must be used with every type of air
conditioning system. The workplace manual must always be consulted to check whether the
correct amount of oil is being used. In the old systems with R12, a mineral oil was used. In the
newer R134a systems, a synthetic PAG or a Ester oil is required.

Switching on the compressor

The electromagnetically operated coupling is energized. An electric current flows through a field
winding. This makes the coil magnetic. The driver plate is mounted on the compressor axle. This
drive shaft is pulled against the belt pulley. From that moment on, the engine drives the
compressor and the refrigerant is compressed and starts to circulate in the system.
Switching off the compressor
To switch off the compressor, the electrical circuit is broken. Reverse springs push the driver
plate and the belt pulley away from each other.

203
Compressors are classified in the following way;
1. Reciprocating movement:
- with a crankshaft
- with a swash plate
2. Rotating
3. With vanes
Filter/dryer
In the system with a thermostatic expansion valve, a filter/dryer is positioned in a part of the
circuit where the refrigerant is in liquid form (Figure 45).

Figure 21 : The Filter/dryer

The filter/dryer has a number of functions:
- extracts water to the refrigerant
- filters refrigerant
- acts as a storage vessel for refrigerant
- acts as a buffer for sudden changes in pressure.

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The liquid refrigerant is pumped to the filter/dryer under high pressure. On its way to the point of
exit, the liquid goes through a filter and an absorption element. This element can absorb around 8
to 15 grams of water. The filter prevents dirt particles from entering the liquid. In addition, the
filter/dryer ensures that the last gas bubbles remain at the top so that they can still condense.
Expansion valve
The function of the expansion valve is to lower the pressure so that evaporation can take place.
As mentioned above, there are two different types:
- thermostatic expansion valve (variable flow)
- capillary (fixed flow).

Evaporator
The function of the evaporator is to cool the air in the interior of the car. This is done by
evaporating the refrigerant in the evaporator. An evaporator is a heat exchange unit.

Figure 22: Evaporator

Like the condenser, the evaporator consists of a coiled pipe with extended fins to increase the
surface area. Liquid refrigerant enters through an expansion valve or a capillary.
When the interior air is cooled, the moisture in the air condenses.

The level of humidity drops when the air is cooled. The water vapour in the air precipitates on the
cold exterior of the evaporator. It is then conveyed away through a pipe and drips off during the
cooling process. When an air conditioning system is operating at full capacity, two litres of water
can be extracted from the system every hour. A pool of water under a car with the air conditioning
running therefore does not signify a leak. It actually means that the system is functioning properly.
At the same time, the air flowing along the evaporator fins is partially cleaned of pollen and dust

205
particles by the leaking film of water. It is therefore important that the water catchment system can
always empty properly

Pipes/hoses and connections

Pipes are more leak-proof than hoses. The rubber of older hoses can become porous. However,
flexible hoses to and from the compressor are always necessary because the compressor is
mounted on the engine block using a bracket. Always use pipes and/or hoses prescribed by the
manufacturer, and make sure they have the correct ring seals
(Figure 54)! The R12 and the R134a require different parts and materials.
Switches
In the electrical circuit, various types of switches may be used to switch the compressor on and
off. The circuit may also include switches for one or more cooling ventilators, depending on the
temperature. These single or combined switches can be fitted in different places in the circuit.
Switches usually operate a relay that switches on the main current of the compressor or ventilator
motor.
Switching on the compressor
Low-pressure switch
The low-pressure switch must react to excessively low pressure in the circuit and immediately
switch off the compressor. Low pressure can be caused by a collision, for example. Refrigerant
can leak out if pipes are damaged or torn. A refrigerant leak causes a drop in pressure. Depending
on its function, this switch can be located in the high-pressure or low-pressure part of the circuit.
High pressure switch
The high-pressure switch switches off the compressor when the pressure in the circuit gets too
high. This can happen, for example, if the electric ventilator in the engine cooling system stops
working, which means that the refrigerant in the condenser has not been cooled enough and the
pressure could be dangerously high.
Anti-ice switch
The anti-ice switch is connected to a sensor in the evaporator. When the evaporator temperature is
too low, there is a risk of external freezing. The anti-ice switch then breaks the electrical connection
of the compressor coupling. In systems with a capillary, this can be done with a low-pressure
switch in the low-pressure side.
Full-load switch

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The full-load switch is used to switch off the air conditioning if the full engine capacity is required.
Modern engine management systems already have a throttle valve potentiometer. The signal from
this potentiometer is passed on to the computer and is used to switch off the air conditioning.
Switching the condenser ventilator on and off
To obtain a sufficient flow of air through the condenser, most systems have one or more cooling
ventilators. Pressure switches are also used to switch these ventilators on and off. Switches can be
combined. There are binary and trinary switches. A binary switch consists of two switches and a
trinary switch of three switches. A trinary switch is a combination of a low-pressure switch, a high
pressure switch and a switch for the ventilator.

SERVICING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Testing
Air conditioning systems should be checked at the end of every major overhaul. The following
testing procedure can be used:
Conditions:
- the air conditioning must have reached its operating temperature (after running for
around 10 minutes)
- doors closed, front windows open
- booster fan on maximum
- motor running at around 1500 rpm
Measurement:
- the temperature of the air from the outflow vents must be lower than 5 °C.
Malfunctions
In the case of complaints made by the customer, take the following steps:
- Listen to the customer’s complaint.
- Check his/her complaint.
- Was there a reason for the malfunction (due to building in an alarm, radio, LPG,
telephone)?
Then perform a ‘visual’ check (air conditioning not switched on):

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 - Is the belt tight enough?
- Are there any plugs not plugged in?
- Is there a greasy deposit on parts of the air conditioning system? (indicates a leak)
- Is the condenser very dirty?
After switching on the air conditioning, perform the ‘visual’ inspection:
- Can you hear the coupling switching on?
- Is the peep-hole unclouded?
- Does the pipe to the evaporator feel warm?
- Does the pipe from the evaporator feel cold?
- Does the condenser ventilator switch on (sometimes at two speeds)?
If there is an electrical malfunction, use the circuit diagram to systematically track down the
cause of the malfunction. If you find that there is no refrigerant or too little refrigerant in the
system, you will have to refer the car owner.

10.6.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Service and maintain the air conditioning system on the vehicle provided.

Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish Vehicle air Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
conditioning system correctly used.
service and The relevant regulative
maintenance. Act indicated.
Table 1.8: Field visit to establish maintenance of air condition

10.6.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for
the diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle
electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and materials Personal protection equipment

Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
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 Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records;
10.6.6 Self-Assessment
1. Why is water unsuitable as a refrigerant in an air conditioning system?
2. Name the three states in which a refrigerant occurs in an air conditioning system.
3. What is the main reason for replacing R12 with R134a?
4. What are components of an air conditioning system.
5. In which ways can an air conditioning system be operated?

10.6.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey

10.6.8 Model Answers

1. Why is water unsuitable as a refrigerant in an air conditioning system?
- Undesirable boiling and freezing point of water.
2. Name the three states in which a refrigerant occurs in an air conditioning system.
- liquid
- vapour.
- gas.
3. What is the main reason for replacing R12 with R134a?
- because of its harmful effect on the environment, R12 has been prohibited.
4. What are components of an air conditioning system
- Evaporator
- Condenser
- Dryer
- Control valves
- Compressor
5. In which ways can an air conditioning system be operated?

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 - Manually operated a hand-operated air conditioning system can only be switched on
using the air conditioning switch.

- Semi-automatically a semi-automatic air conditioning system, the air conditioning

switch is also an on/off switch.

- Fully automatically In an air conditioning system with fully automatic control, the
temperature in the car will be continuously compared to the defined value.

10.7 Learning Outcome 5: Service vehicle charging systems

10.7.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to service and maintain vehicle charging system.
10.7.2 Performance Standard
1. Alternator is checked /serviced as per manufacturer’s specification.
2. Alternator control box is checked/ serviced as per the manufacturer’s specifications.
3. Charging system is tested according to manufacturer’s specifications

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10.7.3 Information Sheet
10.7.3.1 Definition of terms
Stator - The alternator’s AC voltage is generated (induced) in the stator. The stator consists of
small metal plates that are insulated from each other. The small plates have recesses for the location
of the windings (coils). The stator has three coil groups (U, V and W). There is a phase difference
of
120° between each of the three groups.
Rotor - The rotor provides the magnetic field that is required to generate a voltage in the stator.
Discharge Voltage – a voltage battery terminals can discharge
Discharge capacity – capacity that can be discharged from a battery in ampere hours
Field – winding - the insulated current-carrying coils on a field magnet that produce the
magnetic field needed to excite a generator or motor
Series connection – arrangement of cells where the positive terminal of each successive cell is
connected to the negative terminal of the next adjacent negative terminal
VEHICLE CHARGING SYSTEM
The charging system supplies the energy for the electrical loads and ensures that the energy
supply in the battery is at the right level

The alternator is an important component in the charging system. Mechanical energy is converted
into electrical energy in the alternator. This means that the alternator has to be driven. Belt
transmission is used to transfer the rotational movement of the crankshaft to the alternator

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 Figure 23: alternator drive
The alternator generates an AC voltage. However, the battery cannot be charged with an AC
voltage. Charging with an AC voltage would mean that the energy supplied to the battery at a
given moment would be drawn from it again shortly afterwards. The AC voltage therefore has to
be rectified.

Rectification converts the AC voltage into a DC voltage. The battery can be charged with a DC
voltage.

The alternator is constructed so that it supplies sufficient voltage at a low engine speed. This
means that the alternator voltage at higher engine speeds may be too high. A voltage regulator
is used to prevent this from occurring

ALTERNATOR
An alternator is a generator of electric power in a car and is a major component of the vehicle's
charging system. All cars with an internal combustion engine except for some hybrids have an
alternator. When an engine is running, the alternator charges the battery and supplies additional
electric power for the vehicle electrical systems.

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 Figure 24: Alternator
Adopted from: samarins.com
An alternator is bolted to the engine and is driven by a serpentine belt (drive belt).
Symptoms of alternator problems
The most common symptom of a problem with your vehicle's charging system is a battery-
shaped warning light (in the photo) or the "CHARGE" icon that comes on while driving.
Normally this warning light should come on when you turn the ignition, but should disappear as
soon as the engine is started. If it stays on, there is a problem with your charging system.

Figure 25: Battery-shaped warning light indicates a problem with a charging system.
Adopted from: samarins.com

The charging system warning light doesn't point directly to a failed alternator, although
alternator problems are very common. Your mechanic will need to do further testing to pinpoint
the defective part.
Another symptom of a weak charging system is when the dash lights and headlights dim at idle,

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but become brighter when the engine is revved. This problem could be caused not only by a
weak alternator, but also by a failing battery, poor connection at the battery terminals or a loose
serpentine belt.

Figure 26: Computerized battery and charging system tester

You can test the state of your charging system with the battery and charging system tester (in the
photo). A test can show if the charging system is weak or not working at all. It also can detect if
one of the diodes inside the alternator has failed.

If the charging system failed the test, you will need to do further diagnostic to see if it's the
alternator or something else causing the problem. Other charging system problems include a
loose drive belt, faulty wiring or blown fuse and defective ignition switch.
How an alternator works, common problems

Figure 27: Alternator cutaway.

Adopted from: Robert Bosch GmbH
A typical AC car alternator has two windings: a stator (stationary outside winding) and a rotor
(rotating inner winding). A voltage supplied through the voltage regulator to the rotor winding
energizes the rotor and turns it into a magnet. The rotor is rotated by the engine via a drive belt.

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The magnetic field produced by the rotating rotor induces AC electric current in the stationary
stator winding. Diodes are used to convert AC current into DC current used in the vehicle's
electric system. The output voltage is controlled by the voltage regulator (photo below).
Typically, a voltage regulator is built-in into the alternator.

Figure 28: Voltage regulator.

Image courtesy Robert Bosch GmbH
The most common alternator problems include worn carbon brushes (the two "legs" in this photo),
worn contact rings (the two copper cylinders at the back of the rotor in the cutaway image) and a
failed voltage regulator.
Bad outer and inner alternator bearings (large and small silver cylinders in the cutaway image
above) can produce a whining noise. When the alternator is rebuilt, the bearings, voltage
regulator, brushes and some other parts are typically
Checking the belt tension
The following requirements have to be fulfilled to minimise belt transmission losses:
- belt tension must be correct: if too high, an undue load is placed on the bearings, and, if
too low, the belt slips
- the belt must not be too narrow with respect to the belt pulley because the belt would
otherwise be supported by the underside of the belt and the belt would have no wedging
action
- the angle of wrap around the belt pulley must be sufficient
- the coefficient of friction between the belt and belt pulley must be sufficient.
The alternator’s belt pulley is smaller than the belt pulley on the crankshaft. This means that the
alternator’s rate of rotation is higher than that of the crankshaft.

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 Figure 29 : alternator belt

Measuring the charging voltage and charging current

The charging voltage and charging current indicate the operation of the alternator and the voltage
regulator. The voltage that the alternator supplies can be easily measured by connecting a voltmeter
to the battery’s terminals:
- if the engine is not turning, the battery’s terminal voltage is measured
- if the engine is turning, the alternator voltage as regulated by the voltage regulator is
measured.
The alternator voltage increases as the engine’s rate of rotation increases, until the regulated
voltage is reached. The alternator voltage stops increasing after this point, even if the engine’s rate
of rotation increases.
There are two ways of measuring regulated voltage:
- off-load: no loads are switched on
- on-load: as many loads as possible are switched on.
The regulated voltage depends on the make and type of alternator. The value of the regulated
voltage of a 12 V alternator is between 13.5 and 15.5 V.
The charging voltage and charging current are measured by connecting a voltmeter and ammeter,
as shown in figure 75. The ammeter clamp is placed around the conductor.

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 Figure 30: Measuring the charging voltage and charging current

Diagnosing charging systems

Charging system defects can result from:
- defects in the alternator drive
- a defective alternator
- a defective regulator
- defective wiring.
First check the alternator drive if there are problems with the charging system. The next step is a
visual check of the wiring.
Check for:
- corrosion and that the battery clamps have been fitted properly
- oxidised or blown fuses
- oxidation of the alternator’s connection clamps
- oxidation of plug-in connectors in the charging system’s wiring
- breaks in the charging system’s wiring.
Checking alternator components
If measurements made on the vehicle show that the alternator is not working properly, it will
have to be removed. It can then be checked for noises as follows:
- rotate the pulley manually
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 - listen for abnormal noises.

Figure 31 : checking alternator for noise

The alternator should turn easily without making abnormal noises
Noises can be caused by:
– defective bearings
– defective brushes
– defective slip rings
Excessive bearing play can be determined by manually moving the pulley axially and radially.
No abnormal play should be detectible.

Figure 32 : checking alternator radial and axial play

The stator and rotor can be checked once the alternator has been removed:
- short-circuit to earth: this means that one or more windings are touching earth
- broken wire: this means that a winding is broken, so the current circuit is entirely or
partially open-circuit
- short-circuit of the copper winding: this means that windings are touching each other
(insulation between windings is broken).

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Short-circuits to earth, broken wires and short-circuits of copper windings can be traced using an
ohmmeter. It is necessary to know the resistance of the rotor and stator windings (workplace
documentation). Assume the following values if no details are available:
- rotor 3 to 5 Ω
- stator 0.1 to 0.5 Ω per phase.

Check rotor for short-circuit to earth

Check the rotor using an ohmmeter for a short-circuit to earth:
- place one of the ohmmeter’s measuring prongs on one of the slip rings and the other on
the rotor’s shaft or pole claw (fig. 81)
- the resistance should be infinite.
If the measured resistance is not infinite, the rotor has a short-circuit to earth.

Figure 33 : Checking rotor for short-circuit to earth

Checking the rotor for a broken wire

– Place each of the ohmmeter’s measuring prongs on a different rotor slip ring.
– The measured resistance should correspond to the value indicated by the manufacturer.
An infinite resistance means there is a broken wire.

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 Figure 34 : Checking rotor for broken wire

Checking for short-circuit copper windings

Checking the rotor for short-circuit copper windings involves making the same measurement as
that made when checking for a broken wire:
- place each of the ohmmeter’s measuring prongs on a different rotor slip ring (fig. 82)
- the resistance should correspond to the value indicated by the manufacturer.
A resistance that is too low indicates short-circuit copper windings.
Checking the stator
Measuring the stator entails disconnecting the three stator windings (U, V and W) from the
diodes.

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 Figure 35 : Checking stator for short-circuit to earth

Checking stator for broken wire

To check the stator for a broken wire the resistance has to be measured between each of the
following connection wires:
- between U and V
- between U and W
- between V and W.

Figure 36 : Checking stator for broken wire

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For a star connection, this measurement always measures the resistance between two coils in
series. If an infinite resistance is measured, a wire is broken in one of the coils.

Checking stator for short-circuit copper windings

Checking the stator for short-circuit copper windings involves making the same measurement as
that made when checking for a broken wire.
Short-circuit copper windings are difficult to trace because the coils have a low resistance anyway.
Use an ohmmeter to trace short-circuit copper windings. If there is a short-circuit copper winding,
the measured resistance will be noticeably lower than that of the others.
If it has a short-circuit copper winding, the stator will produce extra heat.
Checking diodes
The diodes are checked using a test lamp or a diode tester. Diodes are checked using a test lamp
as follows
- connect the lamp and diode to a 12 V supply
- close the switch to see if the lamp lights
- then connect the lamp and diode (positive and negative poles reversed)
- close the switch to see if the lamp lights.
If the lamp lights for the first test and not for the second, the diode is all right. If the lamp fails to
light for both tests or if it lights for both tests, the diode is defective.

Figure 37 : Checking the diodes

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 Learning Activities
Practical activities

Service and maintain the vehicle charging system on the vehicle provided.

Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish Vehicle Procedure Manufacturers’ manual
charging system followed correctly used.
service and The relevant regulative Act
maintenance. indicated.

10.7.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the
diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle
electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records

10.7.5 Self-Assessment
1. What is an alternator?
2. How will you know that the alternator is faulty?
3. What are the tests performed on a vehicle charging system.
10.7.6 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis

223
 Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey

10.7.7 Responses to Self-Assessment

1. What is an alternator?
An alternator is a generator of electric power in a car and is a major
component of the vehicle's charging system. All cars with an internal
combustion engine except for some hybrids have an alternator. When an
engine is running, the alternator charges the battery and supplies additional
electric power for the vehicle electrical systems.
2. How will you know that the alternator is faulty?
The most common symptom of a problem with your vehicle's charging
system is a battery-shaped warning light (in the photo) or the "CHARGE"
icon that comes on while driving. Normally this warning light should come
on when you turn the ignition, but should disappear as soon as the engine is
started. If it stays on, there is a problem with your charging system.
3. What are the tests performed on a vehicle charging system?

Common charging system tests are as follows:

• Charging system output test-measures current and voltage output of the
charging system.
• Regulator voltage test—measures charging system voltage under low
output, low load conditions.
• Regulator bypass test—connects full battery voltage to the alternator
field, leaving the regulator out of the circuit.
• Circuit resistance tests—measures resistance in insulated and grounded
circuits of the charging system. Charging system tests are performed in
two ways—by using a load tester or by using a volt-ohm millimeter
(VOM/multimeter). The load tester provides the accurate method for
testing a charging system by measuring both system current and voltage.

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10.8 Learning Outcome 6: Service vehicle auxiliary systems
10.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to check vehicle auxiliary systems for
faults, service and maintain the systems.
10.8.2 Performance Standard
1. Vehicle alarms and horns are checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s
specification.
2. Vehicle gauges are checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s specification.
3. Vehicle central locking is checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s specification.
4. Radio and television are checked/ serviced/ installed according to manufacturer’s
specification.
5. Power windows and power mirrors are checked/ serviced according to manufacturer’s
specifications.
6. Air bags are checked and replaced according to manufacturer’s specifications.
10.8.3 Information Sheet
10.8.3.1 Definition of terms
AC – alternating current
Interference – unwanted signals distorting the quality of radio waves
Wave - pattern of radio signals
Auxiliary Systems
a) Power windows
Functions
1. Power window can help driver more concentrate on driving, and make it convenient for
driver and passenger operation.
2. Driver can control the rise and fall of 4 power windows.
3. Passengers can control the rise and fall of power windows near their seat.
4. Driver can limit passengers’ operation on the rise and fall of power windows

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 5. Automatic function helps in preventing sticking and shutting the window as soon as
locking the door.
Type
1. Window lifter steel wire
2. Cross armed-type lifter (gear sector-type lifter)
3. Flexible shaft-type lifter (rack-type lifter)
4. Rope wheel-type lifter (drum-type lifter
Main parts of power window
1. Motor
2. Reducer
3. Window lift
4. Circuit and Relay
5. Driver seat switch seat switch
Control circuit of power window
b) Power-operated rearview mirror
Function
For the convenience of driver’s adjusting the angle of rearview mirror, power rearview
mirrors are installed in many cars, and driver can conveniently adjust the angle of left and
right rearview mirrors at any time when driving.
Composition
Switch for selection between LH and RH sides
Direction switch
Motor
Consist of transmission and executing mechanism, lens, shell and connectors.
c) Central door lock
Function
To facilitate the driver to lock and unlock the doors, most modern cars are equipped with a
central locking system.
 The driver can lock/unlock other doors with one door locked/unlocked using the
key/door lock switch.
 If an individual door in the vehicle needs to be locked or unlocked, you can pull and
operate the latch of its respective mechanical device.
 It can achieve anti-theft function in conjunction with the anti-theft system.
 It can do remote locking or unlocking in conjunction with the remote control system.
 Child lock
The central locking of high-end cars can also achieve the following functions:
 The linkage with the power window realizes the simultaneous lifting and closing of
all the glasses when the door is locked with the key.
 The car cannot travel until the doors are fully closed.
 The doors automatically lock when the vehicle speed reaches a set speed.
Composition
 Door lock control switch
 Key control switch

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  Door lock assembly
 Courtesy position switch
 Door lock position switch
 Door lock motor
 Door lock controller etc.
 Mechanical lock button
 Door opening handle

Locking and unlocking mechanism

 Lock and unlock the door with key through connecting rod
 Control the locking and unlocking of motor with key control switch and lock control
switch
 Lock and unlock the door with lock button through connecting rod.
Horn
Function and type of horn
Function--Vehicles are equipped with horns. The horn sound is used to remind pedestrians and
other vehicles to draw attention to ensure traffic safety.
Type—air horn and electric horn according to power
Spiral shape, cylindrical shape and basin shape, according to the shape
High pitch and low pitch, according to sound
Ordinary electric horn with contact and electric horn without contact, according to whether it has
contact
Control circuit and working principle of horn
To obtain a more pleasing sound, there are often two horns with different pitches (high and low)
in the vehicle, in which the treble horn has a thick diaphragm and short loud sound. However, the
bass horn is the opposite. Sometimes, even three horns with different tones (treble, medium and
bass) are used to make the horn sound more pleasing
Adjustment of horn
Horn adjustment includes tone and volume adjustments.
(1) Tone adjustment
Reducing the gap between the armature and the iron core can increase the tone.
(2) Adjustment of horn volume
The volume of the electric horn is related to the size of the current through the horn coil.
Airbag
Function of vehicle airbag;
When the vehicle speed changes suddenly in a collision, the airbag rapidly inflates to lay an air
cushion among the driver, the occupant and the interior components, so that the driver, the
occupant's head and chest are pressed against the gas-filled airbag tightly. The damping effect of
the airbag and the damping effect of the airbag exhaust throttling are used to absorb the kinetic
energy generated by the human body's inertial force, thereby reducing the degree of injury
suffered by the human body.

Composition of vehicle airbag

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 Gas bag components; Airbag, Gas generator, Lighter
 Spiral wire harness
 Collision sensor
 Airbag ECU
 Airbag indicator lamp
 Seat belt pretension
Wiper
Composition of windshield wiper
Function
Remove water, snow and dust on the windscreen, to ensure that driver can still have a good view
in bad weather conditions
Function modes
 High speed
 Low speed
 Inching
 Intermittently (adjustable intermittent time)
 Automatically (rainfall control and vehicle speed control)
 Return
Audio systems
The word audio system is here taken to mean an automobile radio with loudspeakers and an
antenna, possible expanded by a cassette or CD player. Radio waves are received by the antenna
and are carried to the radio as electrical signals

Figure 38 : Radio system

Connecting of the Radio

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The automobile radio must be connected to a voltage of 12 volts. This can
be done in various ways. The ignition switch usually has a connection (R) or
(ACC) for accessories.

The plus for the automobile radio can be taken from this. The grounding connection is usually
made immediately between the metal casing of the radio and the body of the automobile. In the
case of a synthetic dashboard, take note: a grounding cable must be connected between the radio
and the body of the automobile. Carefully blank the connection to the body of the automobile
and connect the grounding cable.
A second possibility is to obtain the power supply directly from the battery. An additional
advantage can be that this way fewer bothersome interferences may be experienced. In general,
the radio is connected to the battery clamps using a double-core wire. Check if the radio is
secured through connection (R) or (ACC). If this is not the case, or if the radio is connected
directly to the battery, a so-called ‘floating fuse’ must be placed in the power supply cable (plus)
of the radio (fig. 60).

Interference
Radio interferences are in general high-frequency waves that are received simultaneously with
the desired signal. The most significant sources of interference in the automobile are:
(i) Ignition system - The high-voltage that is induced in the secondary winding of the
generator goes to the spark plugs through the high-voltage cables. Interference signals
that can be created in this process are distributed by the engine hood and received by
the antenna (fig. 61).
(ii) Charging system - The alternating current evoked by the alternator is rectified. The
output voltage of the alternator however is still a ripple voltage. The ripple voltage
enters the audio system through the power supply wires, and has a negative influence
on the operation of the audio system.
(iii) Horn - The operation of the horn creates induction voltages that are the result of the
opening and closing of the contacts in the horn.
(iv) Electrical motors - Interferences of the electrical motors are often caused by the
contact between the carbon brushes and the collector.
Interferences received by audio systems can be combatted in the following different ways:
- Suppression resistors
- Condensators and inductors
- Covering
- Grounding connection
(i) Covering - Applying a conductive covering around the source of the interference
prevents the interfering waves from exiting. It is important that the covering has a
good grounding connection. Covering is utilized, among other places, to the radio
itself and to the antenna cable. The radio is placed in a metal casing, while the
antenna cable is also provided with a conductive covering.
(ii) Suppression resistors - Suppression resistors are applied in interferences caused by
the wiring in the high-voltage circuitry. Think of interfering spark plugs, spark plug

229
 caps, spark plug cables and rotors. Through the application of suppression resistors,
the interference energy is converted into heat.
(iii) Condensators and inductors - Condensators and inductors are applied to
interference caused by wiring. They are suitable for lower voltages. Condensators and
inductors suppress the interference energy without using too much energy to do so.
Interference filters are a combination of condensators and inductors. They are also
known as L/C filters. These filters are especially suited for filtering low-frequency
interference signals.
(iv) Grounding connections - Good grounding connections are necessary to alleviate the
voltage differences between the metal sections of the automobile. It is important that
the antenna cable has a good grounding connection, both on the antenna side as well
as on the radio side.
10.8.4 Learning Activities
Practical activities
Check vehicle auxiliary systems for faults, service and maintain the systems on the
vehicle provided.
Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
checking vehicle correctly used.
auxiliary systems for The relevant regulative
faults, servicing and Act indicated.
maintaining the
systems on the
vehicle provided.
10.8.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the
diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle
electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals

230
 Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records

10.8.6 Self-Assessment
1. What are the functions of power windows?
2. What are the main parts of power windows?
3. What are the main functions of a car central door lock?
4. What adjustments are made on the vehicle horn?
5. Why is a vehicle fitted with an air bag?
6. Why are wipers important on a vehicle?
10.8.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey
10.8.8 Responses to Self-Assessment
1. What are the functions of power windows?
 Power window can help driver more concentrate on driving, and make it convenient
for driver and passenger operation.
 Driver can control the rise and fall of 4 power windows.
 Passengers can control the rise and fall of power windows near their seat.
 Driver can limit passengers’ operation on the rise and fall of power windows
 Automatic function helps in preventing sticking and shutting the window as soon as
locking the door.
2. What are the main parts of power windows?
 Motor
 Reducer
 Window lift
 Circuit and Relay
 Driver seat switch seat switch
3. What are the main functions of a car central door lock?
To facilitate the driver to lock and unlock the doors, most modern cars are equipped
with a central locking system.
 The driver can lock/unlock other doors with one door locked/unlocked using the
key/door lock switch.
 If an individual door in the vehicle needs to be locked or unlocked, you can pull and
operate the latch of its respective mechanical device.
 It can achieve anti-theft function in conjunction with the anti-theft system.

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  It can do remote locking or unlocking in conjunction with the remote control
system.
 Child lock
4. What adjustments are made on the vehicle horn?
 Tone adjustment: Reducing the gap between the armature and the iron core can
increase the tone.
 Adjustment of horn volume: The volume of the electric horn is related to the size of
the current through the horn coil.
5. Why is a vehicle fitted with an air bag?
When the vehicle speed changes suddenly in a collision, the airbag rapidly inflates to lay
an air cushion among the driver, the occupant and the interior components, so that the
driver, the occupant's head and chest are pressed against the gas-filled airbag tightly.
The damping effect of the airbag and the damping effect of the airbag exhaust
throttling are used to absorb the kinetic energy generated by the human body's inertial
force, thereby reducing the degree of injury suffered by the human body.
6. Why are wipers important on a vehicle?
To remove water, snow and dust on the windscreen, to ensure that driver can still have
a good view in bad weather conditions.

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 10.9 Learning Outcome 7: Service vehicle lighting system.
10.9.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to check/replace main beam and dip
beam switch, check/replace connectors and wire harness, check/service/replace main
headlight, interior lights and reverse lights, check/service/replace direction indicator
lights & flash unit and perform headlight beam setting.
10.9.2 Performance Standard
1. Main beam and dip beam switch is checked/ replaced according to manufacturer’s
specifications.
2. Connectors and wire harness are checked/ replaced according to manufacturer’s
specifications.
3. Main headlight, interior lights and reverse lights are checked/ serviced/ replaced
according to manufacturer’s specifications.
4. Direction indicator lights and flasher unit are checked/ serviced/ replaced according to
manufacturer’s specifications.
5. Headlight beam setting is performed according to manufacturer’s specifications.
10.9.3 Information Sheet
Lighting System
The lighting circuit includes the battery, vehicle frame, all the lights, and various switches that
control their use. The lighting circuit is known as a single-wire system since it uses the vehicle
frame for the return.
The complete lighting circuit of a vehicle can be broken down into individual circuits, each
having one or more lights and switches. In each separate circuit, the lights are connected in
parallel, and the controlling switch is in series between the group of lights and the battery.
The marker lights, for example, are connected in parallel and are controlled by a single switch. In
some installations, one switch controls the connections to the battery, while a selector switch

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determines which of two circuits is energized. The headlights, with their high and low beams, are
an example of this type of circuit.
In some instances, such as the courtesy lights, several switches may be connected in parallel so
that any switch may be used to turn on the light. When a wiring diagram is being studied, all
light circuits can be traced from the battery through the ammeter to the switch (or switches) to
the individual light
Headlights
The headlights are sealed beam lamps that illuminate the road during nighttime operation.
Headlights consist of a lens, one or two elements, and an integral reflector. When current flows
through the element, the element gets white hot and glows. The reflector and lens direct the light
forward. Many modern passenger vehicles use a halogen or HID headlights.

Headlight Switch
The headlight switch is an on/off switch and rheostat (variable resistor) in the dash panel or on
the steering column. The headlight switch controls current flow to the lamps of the headlight
system. The rheostat is for adjusting the brightness of the instrument panel lights.

Lamps
Small gas-filled incandescent lamps with tungsten filaments are used on automotive and
construction equipment. The filaments supply the light when sufficient current is flowing
through them. They are designed to operate on a low voltage current of 12 or 24 volts, depending
upon the voltage of the electrical system used. Lamps are rated as to size by the candlepower
(luminous intensity) they produce. They range from small 1/2-candlepower bulbs to large 50-
candlepower bulbs. The greater the candlepower of the lamp, the more current it requires when
lighted. Lamps are identified by a number on the base.
When you replace a lamp in a vehicle, be sure the new lamp is of the proper rating. The lamps
within the vehicle will be of the single- or double-contact types with nibs to fit bayonet sockets.
Halogen
Most vehicles made today use a halogen headlamp bulb insert. These are small heat-resistant
quartz bulbs filled with halogen gas to protect the filament from damage. They are inserted to a
headlight lens assembly. This assembly will protect the light bulb and disperse the light given
from the halogen bulb.
High Intensity Discharge (HID)
A high intensity discharge lamp does not use a filament. Instead, a high voltage electric arc flows
between two electrodes in the bulb. This arc excites xenon vapor contained in the bulb,
producing a bright blue-white light. An external ballast is used to convert battery voltage into
high-voltage AC to create and maintain the arc. When it is first turned on, an igniter works with
the ballast to provide several thousand volts to establish the arc. The ballast then provides as
many as 450 volts to maintain the arc. As the bulb warms up, the voltage needed to maintain the
lamp can be as low as 50 volts. HID lights produce more light than a standard halogen bulb

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while consuming less power, and they last longer. WARNING: HID bulbs require a large
amount of voltage for startup: beware of a shock hazard. Also, HID bulbs are under pressure
when hot and may lead to an explosion hazard.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A light emitting diode is a semiconductor that will emit light when electrically energized. The
LED converts electricity directly into light; this makes it much more efficient than a normal
filament bulb. The LED is an N-P junction with special doped semiconductors. When energized,
photons (electrons) are emitted from the semiconductor substance. We then see these photons as
light.
Electrical System Inspection
Avoid those 'wiring woes' by giving that electrically ailing vehicle a good checkup with an
Electrical System Inspection Checklist. Electrical systems fall prey to a number of events and
situations-accidents, flood damage, vehicle fires and the onset of the rust and corrosion. All these
factors can contribute to electrical system problems.

Performing the Inspection

An electrical system inspection will take more time than most other systems on the car. And it's
often necessary to use some test equipment during the inspection. This testing may be more than
you'd normally do under the strict term "inspection." It may border on diagnostic procedures.
When doing the inspection, have as much resource information at hand as possible. Repair
manuals, specification guides and electronic information all will be helpful in determining proper
voltages, settings and outputs. Electrical system components vary widely from vehicle to vehicle,
but there are still some basic procedures to follow.
Adjusting headlamps
Headlamps must be adjusted correctly. Oncoming vehicles must not be dazzled and as much as
possible of the road and the verge must be lit.
Before adjusting the head lamps it must be checked that:
- the tyre pressure is correct
- the car is standing horizontally
- the car is loaded properly
- the headlamp glasses are clean.
Headlamp glasses are made of glass or plastic. A number of things have to be taken into
consideration:
- plastic glasses should not be cleaned with a dry cloth (scratches); use a damp sponge to clean
them
- Plastic glasses should not be cleaned with aggressive cleaning agents (they damage them).

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 Figure 39 : Headlamp Adjuster

A few points to bear in mind when positioning the headlamp adjuster:

- the distance from the lens to the headlamp must be 30 to 70 cm
- the middle of the lens must be put at the same height as the middle of the headlamp
- use the viewer to place the lens perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the car
- secure the locking device when the headlamp adjuster is in the right position.

Position the headlamp adjuster at the right distance

Position the headlamp adjuster perpendicular to

the longitudinal axis
Figure 40 : positioning of the Headlamp Adjuster
In order to be able to establish whether the headlamps are adjusted correctly, the screen has a
number of lines. What these lines mean (Fig. 65):
1. Line for adjusting all the headlamps in passenger cars and loaded goods vehicles
- the beam must on the left exactly touch the horizontal striped line
- on the right the beam must exactly touch the oblique striped line

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 2. Line for adjusting fog lamps on passenger cars and loaded goods vehicles
- the beam must exactly touch line 2.
3. Line for adjusting the headlamps on unladen goods vehicles.
4. Line for adjusting the fog lamps on unladen goods vehicles.

Figure 41 : The screen on a headlamp adjuster

DIAGNOSING LIGHT SYSTEMS

Faults in light systems can be broken down into four groups:
– one or more lamps are not working
– one or more lamps are weak
– the lamps keep on burning out
– other faults.
If a lamp is not working, there may be a number of reasons:
– the lamp is broken
– the fuse is burnt out
– faulty switch
– faulty relay
– break in the positive line
– break in the earth line
– bad connections.
A burnt out fuse or a faulty switch is generally not the reason if only one lamp is not working.

When looking for faults start by checking the lamp. If the lamp is in order, check whether there
is any voltage on the lamp. Then check whether the lamp has an earth contact. If the lamp does
not have an earth contact, there is a voltage on the lamp’s earth connection.

Note
There is always a small contact resistance in lines and connections. With light systems it is
generally the case that: if the measured voltage is greater than 0.5 V, the contact resistance is too

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great. If the fuse has burnt out, it may be due to a short circuit or an overload. If it is a short
circuit, a new fuse will burn out straight away. If it is an overload, a new fuse will burn out again
after a longer period. A short circuit can be detected with a test lamp.
- replace the fuse with a test lamp with a rating of 18 or 21 W (note: the lamp gets hot,
make sure the hot lamp does not damage any parts)
- switch on the unit (if the lamp burns fiercely, there is a short circuit; if the lamp burns
weakly or not at all, then there is not a short circuit). If there is a short circuit, the first
plug must be disconnected from the user unit:
- if the test lamp is still burning, the short circuit is closer to the fuse
- remove the previous plug connection and check whether the test lamp is still burning.

Work in this way away from the user unit towards the fuse in order to detect where the short
circuit is. If there is a fault in the wiring, the connections or a relay, the cause can be detected by
measuring the voltage at different places using a voltmeter. Study the wiring diagram and the
manufacturer’s instructions.

CONNECTING TRAILER LIGHTS

The light and signal system of the trailer or caravan is branched off from that of the car. A plug
and socket are used. These are available with 7 poles and 13 poles.

Figure 42 : Connection for a socket and plug (EC standard)

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The connections for the plug and the socket are standardized. Some points to bear in mind when
connecting the wiring:
- Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for branching off the wiring.
- When wiring, use the universal colour code as much as possible.
- Make sure the cables are connected securely.
- Make sure there are good earth connections.
- Make sure the wiring is fixed securely.

10.9.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Check the main beam and dip beam switch, check connectors and wire harness, service
main headlight, interior lights and reverse lights, direction indicator lights & flash unit and
perform headlight beam setting on the vehicle provided.

Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish checking the Procedure Manufacturers’
main beam and dip beam followed manual correctly
switch, checking connectors used.
and wire harness, servicing The relevant
main headlight, interior regulative Act
lights and reverse lights, indicated.
direction indicator lights &
flash unit and performing
headlight beam setting

10.9.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the
diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle
electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials

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 Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records

10.9.6 Self-Assessment
1. What is the lighting system of a vehicle?
2. What are the following components of the lighting system?
a) Headlights
b) Lamps
c) Light Emitting diode
3. How is the lighting system inspected?
10.9.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey
10.9.8 Model Answers
1. What is the lighting system of a vehicle?
The lighting circuit includes the battery, vehicle frame, all the lights, and various switches
that control their use. The lighting circuit is known as a single-wire system since it uses the
vehicle frame for the return.
The complete lighting circuit of a vehicle can be broken down into individual circuits, each
having one or more lights and switches. In each separate circuit, the lights are connected in
parallel, and the controlling switch is in series between the group of lights and the battery.
2. What are the following components of the lighting system?
a) Headlights
The headlights are sealed beam lamps that illuminate the road during nighttime
operation. Headlights consist of a lens, one or two elements, and an integral reflector.
When current flows through the element, the element gets white hot and glows. The
reflector and lens direct the light forward.
b) Lamps
Small gas-filled incandescent lamps with tungsten filaments are used on automotive
and construction equipment .The filaments supply the light when sufficient current is
flowing through them. They are designed to operate on a low voltage current of 12 or
24 volts, depending upon the voltage of the electrical system used. Lamps are rated as
to size by the candlepower (luminous intensity) they produce.

240
 c) Light Emitting diode
A light emitting diode is a semiconductor that will emit light when electrically
energized. The LED converts electricity directly into light; this makes it much more
efficient than a normal filament bulb. The LED is an N-P junction with special doped
semiconductors. When energized, photons (electrons) are emitted from the
semiconductor substance. We then see these photons as light.
3. How is the lighting system inspected?
An electrical system inspection will take more time than most other systems on the car.
And it's often necessary to use some test equipment during the inspection. This testing
may be more than you'd normally do under the strict term "inspection." It may border
on diagnostic procedures. When doing the inspection, have as much resource
information at hand as possible. Repair manuals, specification guides and electronic
information all will be helpful in determining proper voltages, settings and outputs.
Electrical system components vary widely from vehicle to vehicle, but there are still
some basic procedures to follow.

10.10 Learning Outcome 8: Service vehicle electrical motors.

10.10.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
In this learning outcome, the trainee is expected to identify electrical motor faults, remove
electrical motors, service electrical motors, perform tests on serviced motors and install electrical
motors.
10.10.2 Performance Standard
1. Electrical motor faults are identified according to manufacturer’s specifications.
2. Electrical motors are removed from the vehicle according to manufacturer’s manual.
3. Electrical motors are serviced according to manufacturer’s specifications.
4. Tests are performed on serviced electrical motors according to manufacturer’s manual.
5. Electrical motors are installed as per manufacturer’s specifications.
10.10.3 Information Sheet
a) Starter motor
Function of starter -- convert the electric energy of the battery into mechanical energy, and
then drag and start the engine through the transmission mechanism.
The starter consists of three parts
1. Motor
2. Transmission mechanism
3. Control mechanism

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 Figure 43 : startor motor
Check and repairing steps of starter are:
 Obtain required tools and make preparations;
 Check the starter on the vehicle to confirm fault of the starter;
 Remove the starter from the vehicle;
 Check the starter without disassembly to confirm fault position;
 Disassembling of starter;
 Check and repair components and parts after disassembly of the starter;
 Install and repair the starter; check after the installation and repairing and performance
inspection;
 Install the starter on the vehicle;
 Check and assess work quality.
 Tidy up the tools and clean the workplace.
b) Power seats Motor
Power seats adopt permanent magnet bidirectional direct-current motor, and circuit breaker is
installed in motor to prevent motor overload Due to different types of seats, generally 2, 3, 4
or 6 motors can be installed on one seat.
Transmission and executing mechanism
The function is to transform the rotary motion of motor into the up-down and front-and-back
movement of seats or wallowing motion of backrest Worm and gear mechanism is the core
component, and it has larger transmission and high self-locking performance
c) Wiper motor
Wiper motors are used to drive the windscreen wipers
Direct-current motor/reducer/ automatically stopping switch at the lowest place

MOTOR SERVICE

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Check Amarture Shaft and Brushing Wear
Measure the shaft wear with a micrometer
If the clearance between shaft and bushing is larger than the tolerance, grind and put an
undersized bushing
If wear is serious, replace the armature

Figure 44 : Armature shaft wear test

Check armature shaft bending
Install a dial – gauge and turn the armature shaft
A half of dial-gauge reading is bending
If bending is higher than the tolerance, it should be corrected by pressing or replaced
Special attention should be paid if armature coil is damaged

Check armature shaft bending

Install a dial guage and turn

Figure 45 : Armature bending test

Check the commutator surface and correction

243
If the depth of mica plate of commutator becomes less, it should be corrected by using a special
tool or a saw
When the surface is burned – out, it should be ground with a sandpaper of the same thickness as
that of armature. After the grinding, copper debris in the armature segment should be cleaned
with a brush

Figure 46 : Commutator correction

Check the armature grounding
Put the armature on the groller tester
Set power supply “ON”
Put one probe tip on the core of armature and the other on the armature segment
Change measurement location on the core and segment while watching the test lamp
Test lamp lights on means bad insulation, and should be replaced. If the lamp not light, armature
is not ground

Figure 47 : Armature coil ground test with groller tester

Turn control switch to resistance x1Ω

244
Put one probe on the core of armature and hthe other on the armature segment. Any needle
movement indicates grounded. ∞ Resistance means good and 0 Ω means bad

Figure 48 : Armature coil ground test with a tester

10.10.4 Learning Activities
Practical activities
Identify electrical motor faults, remove electrical motors, service electrical motors,
perform tests on serviced motors and install electrical motors on the vehicle provided.

Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish identification of Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
electrical motor faults, correctly used.
removing electrical motors, The relevant regulative
servicing electrical motors, Act indicated.
performing tests on serviced
motors and installation of
electrical motors

10.10.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the
diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle
electrical systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings

245
 Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records

10.10.6 Self-Assessment
1. Discuss types of electric motors used in motor vehicles.
2. What procedure is followed while repairing the stator motor?
3. What is wiper motor used for in a vehicle.
10.10.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology and
Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey
10.10.8 Responses to Self-Assessment
1. Discuss types of electric motors used in motor vehicles.
There are various types of motors that are used in electric vehicles nowadays:
1. DC Series Motor
It was a widely used motor back in the 1990s. This motor is capable of producing
high initial torque. The easy speed control and sudden load increase bearing
capacity make these motors a good choice. But the high maintenance due to the
brushes and commutators is a major drawback in the DC series motor which are
also known as Brushed DC Motors. These motors are still in use by the Indian
railways.
2. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)
These motors are the technically advanced versions of DC series motors. They
don’t use brushes and commutators. Instead, permanent magnets are used.
BLDCs have high starting torque, high efficiency and low maintenance. BLDCs
are widely used these days either as the hub motor or belt-driven.
3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
It is very similar in construction to the BLDCs. But the major difference is in the
back emf. PMSM has a sinusoidal back emf whereas BLDC has trapezoidal one.
They have a high power rating and can be used in high-performance
applications such as sports cars, buses etc. For example, Nissan Leaf uses a
PMSM for propulsion.

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 4. Three Phase Induction Motor
Unlike the DC motors, induction motors don’t have a high starting torque. It is
cheap as compared to the other available options. But don’t go with the price. It still
has very high efficiency and can withstand rugged environmental conditions. Tesla
Model S uses this type of motor. Even Tata and TVS are planning to use induction
motors in their electric vehicles. Indian Railways have also started using induction
motors over DC motors.
2. What procedure is followed while repairing the stator motor?
 Obtain required tools and make preparations;
 Check the starter on the vehicle to confirm fault of the starter;
 Remove the starter from the vehicle;
 Check the starter without disassembly to confirm fault position;
Disassembling of starter;
 Check and repair components and parts after disassembly of the starter;
 Install and repair the starter; check after the installation and repairing and
performance inspection;
 Install the starter on the vehicle;
 Check and assess work quality.
 Tidy up the tools and clean the workplace.
3. What is wiper motor used for in a vehicle.
Wiper motors are used to drive the windscreen wipers
Direct-current motor/reducer/ automatically stopping switch at the lowest
place

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10.11 Learning Outcome 9: Install Vehicle safety systems
10.11.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
The trainee is expected to install airbags, connect safety belts, mount electrical
components related to vehicle safety, fit anti-roll components and fit vehicle tracker.
10.11.2 Performance Standard
1. Install Airbags according to manufacturer’s manual
2. Connect Safety belts according to workshop procedures
3. Mount electrical components related to vehicle safety according to manufacturer’s
manual
4. Fit anti-roll components according to manufacturer’s manual
5. Fit vehicle tracker according to manufacturer’s manual
10.11.3 Information Sheet
Tracker - means for automatically determining and transmitting the geographic location of a

vehicle.

LED - is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows through it

Air Bags
To install airbags, a trainee should always remember to unplug the car battery.
Before installing, ensure the connectors and harnesses are in good working conditions.
While installing the connectors ensures the clicking sound is hear when the connectors snap in
place. This ensures that they are firmly secured.
The trainee can now install the airbag system to the steering wheel and secure using the screws.

Safety Belts
Before connecting safety belts, the trainee should ensure that the belts are within the acceptable
limits of operation as specified by the manufacturer’s manual.

Electrical components
Before installing any electrical equipment, the trainee should ensure all harnesses are safe to
install and are not peeled off. This reduces chances of electrical shocks.
All the connectors should be secured tightly by ensuring they clip together. This ensures all
electrical accessories function and do not get disconnected even in rough terrains.

Anti-roll
Anti-rolls ensure safety in the event of crushes. It ensures the driver or passengers are not
squashed. Installing anti rolls, the trainee should ensure that they are installed in areas of high
impact and are either welded to chassis or bolted. This depends on the manufacturers’
specifications

Alarm system
An automobile alarm system gives an optical and/or acoustical signal when:

248
 - One of the doors, the trunk lid or the engine hood are opened by unauthorized individuals
- Non-authorized individuals take place in the automobile.
The optical signal is the flashing of the turning indicators. The acoustical signal is given through
a separately build-in siren.

An automobile alarm system consists of:

- Sensors

- Actuator

- Control unit

- Cable harness

Figure 49 : Components of the automobile alarm system

Fit GPRS Car Tracker
Purpose of a tracker is to improve the safety of vehicles from all aspects. GPS Tracker’s real-
time tracking recovers stolen vehicles.

The GPS Tracker receives signals from GPS satellites for accurate real-time location. The
backend software stores all the basic data sent by the Tracker. This data is displayed on the
platform for viewing by the user when needed.
The user can see the vehicle details on the platform only after the device is installed. You can
also set up related functions such as fences on the platform.
How to determine the installation location of the device?
There are 3 types of GPS Tracker.

249
 - Battery-powered Tracker,
- hardwired GPS Tracker,
- OBD port Tracker.
The best places to install Tracker are generally the following:
- Under the co-pilot;
- The position of the deputy in the glove box;
- The front bumper;
- The door glove box;
- The rear bumper;
- The rear windshield
How to install a GPS tracker in your car
1 Hardware installation
- Connect the power: The device should be connected to the power supply. There are two
types of device power.
o Battery-powered devices are easier, just charging them regularly.
o The power supply connected to the car battery is not charged.
There is also a special OBD Tracker that connects to the OBD-II port on the car. The
OBD-II port is the driving force for Vehicle tracking equipment.
- Place hidden: After the power is normal, place the tracker in a relatively hidden place.
Make sure it is not known to others and affect the security of the device. At this point, the
hardware of the GPS device has been installed.
2 Software Installation
Tracking software can set your vehicle information, such as license plate number. Once you are
done, you can start tracking the vehicle in real time. When the vehicle encounters something like
theft, a notification will be sent to your phone.

The GPS Tracker is usually equipped with an instruction manual. You can follow the steps in the
manual to complete the installation. After installation, check if the tracking device can correctly
transfer the location data. The user can then view the real-time location of the vehicle on the web
or the phone at any time.

10.11.4 Learning Activities

Practical activities
Install airbags, connect safety belts, fit anti-roll components and fit vehicle tracker on the
vehicle provided.

Field visit.
Visit objective/Aim Indicators Special instruction
To establish airbags Procedure followed Manufacturers’ manual
installation, connecting correctly used.
safety belts, mounting The relevant regulative Act
electrical components indicated.
related to vehicle safety,

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 fitting anti-roll
components and vehicle
tracker

Field Visit to establish airbags, belts, antiroll and vehicle tracker fitting

10.11.5 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools Comprehensive set of hand and power tools for the
diagnosis service and repair of motor vehicle electrical
systems
Torque setting tools
Equipment Electrical system instructional models
Vehicle lift/inspection pit
Facilities for the disposal of used parts

Supplies and Personal protection equipment

materials Vehicle technical data
Manufacturers’ online information
Accessory manufacturers technical data
Vehicle Electrical cables and connectors
Seals, fasteners and fittings
Cleaning materials
Resource A workshop that is fully equipped for maintaining
motor vehicles
Manufacturer’s manuals
Customer database and systems for recording
maintenance records

10.11.6 Self-Assessment
1. What procedure is followed while installing the following:
a) Air bags
b) Safety belts
c) Anti-roll
10.11.7 References
Tom, Denton., (2004) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 3rd ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Automobile Electrical and Electronic systems, 5th ed.
Tom, Denton., (2006) Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Hillier V.A.W., Coombes P. and David R. (2006), Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
Technology and Power Trains Electronics BK. 2 5th Ed
Tom Denton., (2006). Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis, 2nd Ed. Elsevier, USA
James D. Halderman., (2012) Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service,
4th ed. New Jeasey

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10.11.8 Model answers

1 What procedure is followed while installing the following:

a) Air bags
To install airbags, a trainee should always remember to unplug the car battery.
Before installing, ensure the connectors and harnesses are in good working
conditions.
While installing the connectors ensures the clicking sound is hear when the
connectors snap in place. This ensures that they are firmly secured.
The trainee can now install the airbag system to the steering wheel and secure
using the screws.
b) Safety belts
Before connecting safety belts, the trainee should ensure that the belts are within
the acceptable limits of operation as specified by the manufacturer’s manual.
c) Anti-roll
Anti-rolls ensure safety in the event of crushes. It ensures the driver or
passengers are not squashed. Installing anti rolls, the trainee should ensure that
they are installed in areas of high impact and are either welded to chassis or
bolted. This depends on the manufacturers’ specifications

CHAPTER 11: PERFORM VEHICLE BODY WORKS

Unit of Learning Code: ENG/AUT/CR/9/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Perform Vehicle Body Works
Maintenance.
11.1 Introduction to perform vehicle body works
This unit specifies competencies required to perform vehicle body works. The various areas to be
covered are: performing vehicle body jacking, performing vehicle body pulling, performing
vehicle body dent checking, beating and gas welding. It also involves performing vehicle body
filling and sanding, spot putty application, performing vehicle body cleaning/ degreasing, vehicle
body spraying and valeting, performing vehicle body fitting and performing vehicle body
buffing.
11.2 Summary of learning outcomes
Use body work tools and equipment
Perform vehicle body jacking
Perform vehicle body pulling
Perform vehicle body dent checking, beating and gas welding

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Perform vehicle body filling and sanding
Apply spot putty
Perform vehicle body cleaning/degreasing
Spray and valet vehicle body.
Perform vehicle body fitting
Perform vehicle body buffing
11.3 Learning Outcome 1: use body work tools and equipment
11.3.1 Introduction to the outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify the various body tools and
equipment used in the repair of different vehicle body panels and their proper use in repairing the
vehicle body.
11.3.2 Performance Standard
Identify and use PPE as per workshop regulations
Identify and set out vehicle body works tools and equipment as per workshop procedures
Use vehicle body work tools and equipment to perform vehicle body works as per work shop
procedures
11.3.3 Information sheet

Definition of terms

Dolly - Heavy steel block with various shapes on each side; used like a small anvil held on the
back side of a panel being struck by a hammer to work out body damage.

Hand tools used in body repair work

Body Hammers

Planishing hammer - is used more than any other tool in the body repair trade, and for this reason
the best hammer available should be obtained. The principal purpose of the panel hammer is for
the smoothing and finalizing of a panel surface after it has been roughed out to the required
shape.

Standard bumping hammer - is used for initial roughing out of work on damaged panels. It is
also used for finalizing and finishing.

Light bumping hammer - is ideal for work on light gauge materials. It is used in the same manner
as the standard bumping hammer

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Dinging hammer - is a long-reach planishing hammer and is designed for careful, controlled
finishing work.

Shrinking hammers - hammer but have faces which, instead of being smooth, are serrated, giving
a cross-milled effect like a file. The purpose of these serrations is to achieve a shrinking effect
when the hammer is used in conjunction with a dolly block.

Pick and finishing hammer- is used in place of, or in conjunction with, the planishing hammer.
Its main use is to pick up small, low areas on the surface of a panel which is in the process of
being repaired by planishing.

Figure 9.1 : Body Hammers

(a) standard hammer, (b) standard bumping hammer, (c) light bumping hammer crown faces (d)
light bumping hammer (flat faces)

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Figure 9.2 Body Hammers

Heavy Dinging hammer, (b) light dinging hammer crowned (c) heavy shrinking hammer serrated
flat face (d) light shrinking hammer milled flat face (e) light shrinking hammer shallow milled
flat face

Mallets

A mallet is greatly used in the initial stages of smoothing and roughing out of a panel prior to
planishing.

Figure 9. 3 Body Mallets

Hand Dollies

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They are used in conjunction with the planishing hammer or beating file and act as a support or
anvil to smooth out the surface area of panels that have been damaged

Figure 9. 4 Hand dollies

(a) shrinking dolly (b) light weight curved dolly or comma block (c) regular dolly (d) toe dolly €
round dolly (f) heel dolly

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Figure 9.5 Hand dollies

(a) thin toe dolly (b) angle dolly (c) utility dolly (d) general purpose dolly (e) grid dolly (f)
double – ended dolly (g) curved dolly

Body spoons

They are sometimes called prying spoons because the spoon end is used in the same manner as a
dolly in conjunction with a hammer. The body spoon really does the same job as a dolly block
but is designed for use in confined spaces where a normal dolly block cannot be held in the hand,
e.g. between door frames and outer door panels.

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Figure 9.6 Body Spoons

Figure 9.7 Body Files

(a) Flexible panel file (b) flat file (c) half-round body file (d) abrasive file

Hand snips – used for cutting sheet metal

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Figure 9.8 Snips

(a) Universal combination snips RH (b) universal combinations snips LH (c) standard pattern
straight snips

Specialist panel beating tools

Panel puller - has been designed to pull out dents and creases from the face side of the panel
without the necessity of removing the trim and lining materials to gain access behind the dents.

Figure 9. 9 Panel Pullers

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Figure 9 .10 Drills

(a) Cone drills or variable hole cutters (b) cobalt drills or spot drills

Body Hand tools use

Before doing any work make sure all materials and tools are gathered and organized.

Have a clean and well lit workspace.

Be sure to be wearing protective clothing when necessary. (work gloves, steel toe boots, long
sleeve shirt, pants).

Read through instructions prior to doing the work will make work easier and more
understandable.

10.3.4 Learning Activity

Identify, properly use and clean the body hand tools to repair the body panel of the vehicle
provided
10.3.5 Self-Assessment
1. What hand tools would you expect to find in a body repairer’s toolkit?
2. What will be the suitable application for?
i. a toe dolly
ii. an anvil dolly.

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 3. In what a repair situation where a body spoon may be used instead of a panel dolly?
4. What safety precautions must be observed before using an electric drilling machine?
5. In which repair situation will the following special hand tools be used:
i. impact driver
ii. panel puller
iii. edge setting tool
iv. door skinner.
10..3.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
 Equipped Autobody repair workshop
 body repair hand tools to use and maintain
 PPE applicable to the tools
 vehicles, components or materials that require the use of tools specified in the
performance evidence
 material relevant to maintaining body repair hand tools
 tool operating instructions and manuals
 relevant tool adjusting or calibration equipment
 cleaning material.
10.3.7 References
Dennis W. Parks (2015),The Complete Guide to Auto Body Repair, (MotorbooksWorkshop)
2nd Ed
Matt Joseph (2009)., Automotive Bodywork & Rust Repair
10.3.8 Model answers
What hand tools would you expect to find in a body repairer’s toolkit?
· Dollies
· Body hammers
· Spoons
· Body files
What will be the suitable application for?
a) Toe dolly- Used to shape sheet metal in auto repair, especially in locations where it is
difficult to swing a hammer.
b) An anvil dolly - Provide a curved surface over which to dome or dish metal.
In what a repair situation where a body spoon may be used instead of a panel dolly?
Spoons are used for bumping and prying.
When direct access to the rear of a panel is obstructed.

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What safety precautions must be observed before using an electric drilling machine?
Wear safety glasses or a face shield (with safety glasses or goggles).
Keep drill air vents clear to maintain adequate ventilation.
Keep drill bits sharp always.
Keep all cords clear of the cutting area during use. Inspect for frays or damage before each use.
Disconnect power supply before changing or adjusting bit or attachments.
Tighten the chuck securely. Remove chuck key before starting drill.
Secure work piece being drilled to prevent movement

10.4 Learning outcome 2: Perform Vehicle Body Jacking

10.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
jacking. The various activities involved when jacking a vehicle shall be covered. This includes
definition of jacking, types of jacking, importance of jacking, safety precautions in jacking,
jacking sections in vehicle body, jacking tools and equipment, and operation of jacking machines
when performing vehicle body works.

10.4.2 Performance Standard

Body panel section requiring body jacking is identified according to workshop procedures.
Position body jack on the vehicle panel section according to workshop procedures.
Body jack is operated according to manufacturer’s specification
10.4.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
A jack is a mechanical device used for applying great forces lifting heavy loads. Jacking in
vehicle body is therefore the process of lifting the vehicle with the aim of undertaking the body
work exercise.
Types of Jacking
Scissor Jacks
Trolley Jack
Bottle Jack
Floor Jack
Pneumatic Jack

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Hi-Lift Jack
Strand Jack
Motorcycle Jack
However among the above, only four types of jacks are commonly used in vehicles. These
include;
Scissor Jack
This is an old-fashioned scissor jack, which is the cheapest and smallest option available. It
comes with a handle to wind the arms apart, which then lifts the car up. Position it under the
jacking point and wind it clockwise until the car is lifted off the ground. To lower it back down,
it is simply a case of winding the handle the other way.

Figure 9.11: Scissor Jack

Trolley Jack
The trolley jack is a safer, more stable and quicker option and the choice of many professional
mechanics. The wheels enable one to roll the trolley jack into any position easily. It’s advisable
for one to always make sure that the little lever is turned to the right before turning the trolley to
various positions. This can be done using the end of the handle by inserting the handle and
pumping it until this cradle reaches the jacking point. To lower it back down, take the handle out
and twist the little lever anti clockwise, taking care to do so steadily to lower the car slowly.

Figure 9.12: Trolley Jack in Operation

Bottle Jack
The bottle jack works in much the same way as a trolley jack, using hydraulic force to lift the
vehicle up. It has the bonus of being smaller and easier to store than a trolley, but this means it is
not quite stable. Again, when using it, one should make sure the lever is set to the right, and then

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unscrew the top of the jack to the correct length before positioning it under the jacking point,
then inserting the handle and pumping until the vehicle is raised. When lowering, do the same
way as the trolley jack. Finally, and most importantly, you should never rely on a jack alone
while working underneath a car, and should always use axle stand to support it.

Figure 9-13: Bottle Jack

Floor Jack
A floor jack is a similar to trolley jack however, floor jack is used to raise body level which are
much lower unlike the trolley. It is a manually operated hydraulic jack with a cylinder mounted
horizontally, enabling a low profile. That enables floor jack users to lift low-profile cars, but
most make use of this type of jack on heavy vehicles. After rolling the jack until the saddle is
underneath the lift point, the user pumps the handle. That results in the hydraulic cylinder raising
the lift arm until the saddle touches the vehicle.

Figure 9-14: Floor Jack in Operation

Safety Precautions in Jacking
Follow jacking instructions recommended by your vehicle manufacturer.
1. Do not put any part of your body under the vehicle supported by the jack for this may
lead to personal injury.
2. Do not start or run the engine while your vehicle is supported by the jack.
3. When jacking, stop the vehicle on a level firm ground then firmly engage the parking
brake. Finally block the wheels in the opposite side of the jack up point if necessary.
4. Make sure you set the jack properly on the jack point. Raising the vehicle with jack
improperly positioned will damage the vehicle or may allow the vehicle to fall off the
jack and cause personal injury.
5. Never get under the vehicle when vehicle is supported by the jack alone; use vehicle
support stands.

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6. Do not raise the vehicle with someone in the vehicle.
7. When raising the vehicle, do not place any objects on top of or underneath the jack.
8. Do not use inferior jack. You may end up getting more than you bargained for. This may
be harm to oneself or damage to vehicle.
9. Jacking Sections in Vehicle Body
10. The various vehicle body jacking sections are:
11. Vehicles with separate chassis offer many appropriate support points. With vehicles that
use a monologue construction, jacking and stand should be placed on the under
substantial sections underneath chassis rails.
12. Front cross members and underneath the diff pumpkin are prime jacking points. While
it's possible to jack up one side only, the vehicle will be more stable if you jack up the
front or rear as one unit and support it as such.
13. Areas where suspension components and gearbox cross members tie into the car's main
structure are also good locations for jacking.

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 14. Table 9-3: Jacking Tools and Equipment
S/No. Name Image S/No. Name Image
1. Air jack 6. Ramps

2. Axle Stands 7. Scissor Jacks

3. Bottle Jacks 8. Trolley Jacks

4. creepers 9. Vehicle Lifts

5. Motorcycle Lifts and 10. Wheel Chocks

Supports

10.4.3 Learning Activities

Inspect the vehicle body, identify the damaged panel, identify the jacking position you will
safely secure the jack provided.
10.4.4 Self-assessment
1. What is a jack?
- A simple machine which helps in lifting heavy objects
2. Why is it important to jack up a vehicle?
- To check for the damage and wear of vehicle components such as frame, floor pan,
suspension, driveline, steering, fuel tank and fuel system, critical hoses and lines and
electrical harnesses which are commonly exposed to flying rocks and debris, water, salt,
“road trash.
- To service vehicle components such as suspension, driveline, steering, fuel tank etc
- To replace the worn out systems such as suspension system, transmission system,
steering system, fuel system braking system

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10.4.5 Tools, Equipment and Materials
Dent puller machines
Body Pulling jigs
Body jacks
Dent repair remover kit
Dented Body panel
Special Pick tools
Spray gun
Paint
Thinner
10.4.6 Reference
Car Inspectors. (2020, January 10). Retrieved from Importance of Jacking up Vehicles.
Deborah P. (2019, 10 15). 8 Different types of Jacks and When to use them.
Draper Tools Limited. (2020). Retrieved from Vehicle Lifting Equipment.
Duffy, J. E. (2016). Auto Body Repair Technology . Boston in USA: Cengage Learning.
Emeka, N. (2019). 9 Safety precautions you should keep while jacking up your car.
James E. Duffy, R. S. (2003). Auto Body Repair Technology. Thomson/Delmar Learning.
Joseph, M. (2009). Automotive Bodywork and Rust Repair. Grand Avenue in China: CarTech
Publishers
10.4.7 Model Answers
1. What is a jack?
- A simple machine which helps in lifting heavy objects
2. Why is it important to jack up a vehicle?
- To check for the damage and wear of vehicle components such as frame, floor pan,
suspension, driveline, steering, fuel tank and fuel system, critical hoses and lines and
electrical harnesses which are commonly exposed to flying rocks and debris, water, salt,
“road trash.
- To service vehicle components such as suspension, driveline, steering, fuel tank etc
- To replace the worn out systems such as suspension system, transmission system,
steering system, fuel system braking system

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10.5 Learning Outcome 3 : perform vehicle body pulling
10.5.1 Introduction to Perform Vehicle Body Pulling
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
pulling. It includes definition of pulling, types of vehicle pulling, importance of pulling, safety
precautions in pulling, pulling sections in vehicle body, pulling tools and equipment and
operation of pulling machines.
10.5.2 Performance standards
1. Body panel section requiring body pulling is identified according to workshop
procedures.
2. Position body hook puller on the vehicle panel section according to workshop
procedures.
3. Body hook puller is operated according to manufacturer’s specification
10.5.3 Information Sheet

1. Definition of terms
Pulling - Pulling is a mode of aligning unaligned vehicle body by straightening it using
necessary tools and equipment. Sometimes it’s known as pushing.
Body puller - An equipment used to rectify the vehicles damage by applying tension on them
causing re alignment.
Types of Vehicle Pulling
The following are the types of pulling, alignment and repair systems available:
 Portable pulling equipment
 Stationary pull-post systems
 Stationary floor-mounted rack
 Stationary floor-mounted rails
 Floor-anchored or anchor-pot pulling systems
 Stationary bench-type jig-mounted pulling systems (universal or brackets)
 Mobile bench-type jig mounted pulling systems (brackets, mechanical measuring,
electronic measuring, laser measuring)
 Mobile bench-type jig-mounted pulling system using universal brackets
 Centre-post hoist jig system with pulling equipment (brackets/measuring)
 Four-post hoist jig system (brackets/ measuring)
 Scissor-type hoist jig system with pulling equipment (mechanical or electronic
measuring)
 Drive-on bench systems with tower ram pulling (mechanical or laser measuring)
 Multifunctional repair systems with pulling and measurement systems

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Safety Precautions in Pulling
The following are the safety precautions to be observed when pulling a vehicle body.
1. Always pull towards the cause of the damage.
2. Use reliable clamps of good quality and always clean area first remove any sealers dirt etc.
3. For better grip use connected clamps.
4. Always use a safety chain/rope.
5. Connect safety chain/rope to draw clamp.
6. Never stand in the line of the draw liner or draw clamp during pulling.
7. Always make sure fellow operators are safe.
8. Stand in a safe place when operating vehicle lifting equipment.
9. When safety rope/chain is connected to the draw clamp secure the other end to the bench or
draw liner with minimum travel.

Pulling Tools and Equipment

Vehicle straightening involves the use of high-powered hydraulic equipment, mechanical
clamps, chains, and a measuring system to bring the frame back to its original shape.
Straightening equipment includes anchoring equipment, pulling equipment, hydraulic rams, and
pulling posts.

Figure 9-15: Portable pulling equipment

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Operation of Pulling Machine
Pulling equipment available for major accident damage can range from a single mobile pulling
unit to multi-pulling units. These may be arranged around a bracket jig system or a measuring
bridge system. They may be set up on mobile benches, centre-post or four-post lifts; and they
may incorporate brackets or measuring systems or a combination of the two. The choice of
systems is varied and wide and depends on the cost involved in the initial outlay, the
requirements of the individual workshop and the workload of the shop (based on the number of
vehicles estimated for repair within a given period).

The following is a basic approach to repair procedure:

1. Inspect and check underframe or chassis for alignment using conventional equipment.
2. Rectify any misalignment of underframe or chassis using hydraulic pulling and pushing
equipment, hydraulic body jack, and alignment and repair system.
3. Realign body shell, correcting damage with a combination of pulling equipment and body
jack, and the use of heat and hand tools. Also cut out and weld in any replaced buckled
panels and reinforcing members which are beyond repair.
4. Repair doors, fit glass, and body trim to doors and check for ease of operation and
alignment of the door in the opening in the body shell. Also check alignment of bonnet
and boot lid and ease of operation.
5. Smooth and finalize minor damage to body panels with hand tools.
6. Replace all mechanical, trim and body parts.
7. Replace windscreen and rear windows if necessary.
8. Make an optical check on the vehicle’s steering geometry.
9. Road test the vehicle.
10. Refinish to original factory condition.
11. Valet car’s interior and exterior.
12. Final body shop check for quality control of completed work, prior to returning vehicle to
customer.
10.5.4 Learning activity
Identify body panel requiring pulling and correctly position the pulling equipment to pull the
dent on the vehicle body panel
10.5.5 Self-assessment
1. Which types of dents are common in Vehicle body?
2. What safety precautions must you observe on safety cables during pulling?
3. With the vector method of pulling, what is the procedure of carrying out parallel pulling of
the chassis?
10.5.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
1. Dent puller machines
2. Body Pulling jigs

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 3. Dent repair remover kit
4. Dented Body panel
5. Special Pick tools
6. Spray gun
7. Paint
8. Thinner
10.5.7 References
Bannockburn Panel Repairs. (2015). Panel Beating Procedure.
Car Inspectors. (2020, January 10). Retrieved from Importance of Jacking up Vehicles.
Deborah P. (2019, 10 15). 8 Different types of Jacks and When to use them.
Draper Tools Limited. (2020). Retrieved from Vehicle Lifting Equipment.
Duffy, J. E. (2016). Auto Body Repair Technology . Boston in USA: Cengage Learning.
Emeka, N. (2019). 9 Safety precautions you should keep while jacking up your car.
HiChem Industries. (2015). Spot Putty - Pink. 2-3.
James E. Duffy, R. S. (2003). Auto Body Repair Technology. Thomson/Delmar Learning.
Joseph, M. (2009). Automotive Bodywork and Rust Repair. Grand Avenue in China: CarTech
Publishers
Parker, C. (2017). How to safely jack up and support your car. 3
Solas. (2014). Use of Push/Pull Equipment. In M. Stack, Trade of Vehicle Body Work Repair
(pp. 3-4).
10.5.8 Model answers
1. Which types of dents are common in Vehicle body?
Creased dents - Crease dents are on the more severe side of damage that can be fixed with paint
less dent repair. It occurs when something (a vehicle, tree branch, bicycle, trailer) brushes up and
draws against the side of your car. Creased dents show by forming a straight line at the bottom of
the dent. These tend to be longer and are more prone to damage the metal in your vehicle. Fixing
large car dents like these can be a challenge, but car dent repair methods have developed in
recent years, and modern automotive paints and dent repair can help resolve these issues more
often nowadays.
Sharp dents - Are caused by a tough impact, usually by a small item. Sharp dents are often
caused in parking lots by another vehicle’s doors, shopping carts, or wind blowing things into
your car. Due to the metal part being stretched outwards, sharp dents sometimes leave a high
spot with a deep scratch. While seldom appearing as a single dent, these dents may look like
multiple dents above and below certain body lines of the vehicle.

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Extreme dents - usually happen when your vehicle hits with something substantial at a quicker
speed, or by a person just leaning on it. Severe dents often look unrepairable; however, with the
conventional tools and experts, they can be fully corrected. Not all issues can be repaired with
paint less dent repair methods. If the body of your car has been damaged or you’ve got large
creases and dents in multiple areas on your vehicle, you might require a bit more work done to
completely get your car back to where you want it to be.
Hail dents - hail-dents are caused by hail. These will usually look fairly similar to round dents
and can use Hail Damage Repair Laramie or Paintless Dent Remove likewise to fix the damage.
1. With the vector method of pulling, what is the procedure of carrying out parallel pulling
of the chassis?
 Connect the chain to the damaged part of the car
 Hold the chain tightly in the direction you wish to pull and adjust the pulling unit or ram
to the measured angle.
 As soon as tension is applied to the chain, safety wires must be fitted in case the clamp or
chain tears away from the main structure of the car.
2. What safety precautions must you observe on safety cables during pulling?
 Always pull towards the cause of the damage.
 Use reliable clamps of good quality and always clean area first remove any sealers dirt
etc.
 For better grip use connected clamps.
 Always use a safety chain/rope.
 Connect safety chain/rope to draw clamp.
 Never stand in the line of the draw liner or draw clamp during pulling.
 Always make sure fellow operators are safe.
 Stand in a safe place when operating vehicle lifting equipment.

10.6 Learning outcome 4: Perform vehicle body dent checking, beating and gas welding
10.6.1 Introduction to the Learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
dent checking, beating and gas welding. It includes vehicle body dent identification techniques,
types of vehicle body damages, types of damage, minor damages, major damages, technical
report, tools and equipment in panel beating, types of vehicle body parts, parts of vehicle body,
bonnet, boot, firewall/bulkhead, sill, pillar, cant rails, panels, door skins, scuttle, drip moulding,
valance, methods of chassis alignment, materials used in panel beating, panel beating procedures
and precautions for panel beating process.
10.6.2 Performance standard
1. Vehicle body dent section is identified according to workshop procedures.
2. Dent removal tool is operated according to workshop procedures.

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 3. Body panel section requiring body beating is identified according to workshop
procedures.
4. Operate panel beating tools on the vehicle panel section according to workshop
procedures.
5. Gas welding equipment is operated to heat panel section according to workshop
procedures
10.6.3 Information sheet
Definition of terms
Dents: refers shallow deformations in the surface of an object usually as a result of an impact or
stresses beyond elastic limit of the surface
Fillers: It's a compound used to repair vehicles after correcting dents Auto body filler, otherwise
known as body putty

Dents can be identified either;

 Manually: The basic human senses of sight and touch can be used to identify dents on a
vehicle body. One can easily spot dents on the surface of the panel if the dents are big
enough or feel the dents by moving the hand across the panel for the dents that are less
visible with bare eyes.
 Automatically: Uses computer vision to detect dents that are not visible to the eye.

Panel Beating Procedure

The dents and breakages which may occur after an accident need to be beaten and smoothed
back to shape. This entire process is referred to as panel beating
i. Metal stretching - The first step to fix a dent would be to stretch the metal back into
shape. This is done by heating the dented area with a blow torch and, once well heated,
the panel beaters hammer the metal slowly to stretch it back to shape. A shrink hammer is
used to beat the metal all while another tool called a dolly is laid back on the panel to
give it shape.
ii. Welding - When two pieces of metal are to be joined together, this is the next process.
Welding done during panel beating is usually localized and is done by either arc welding
or using oxyacetylene flame. This process is only necessary if the panel could not be
beaten easily to its original shape and more metal needs to be added. The weld needs to
be light and fine so as to limit the visibility.
iii. Putty fillers - Putty may sometimes be used to fill small dents and holes. Panel beaters
prepare putty mix and quickly set it into the dents while shaping all through. Putty must
be set quickly since it hardens fast. Once applied, the putty filler hardens and the panel
beaters can then sand and smooth it before primer is set. Putty fillers should be carefully
and quickly prepared and laid to ensure a smooth finish.

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 iv. Panel sanding - Once the panel has been reshaped and filled with putty, if necessary, the
next process is sanding. Sanding is necessary for further smoothing of the surface and
preparation for the next paint job. There are two types of sanding done by panel beaters.
Dry sanding removes the previous color coat while wet sanding prepares the surface
further by smoothing and cleaning off any debris in the newly fixed area.
v. Spray painting - After a successful panel beating, the final step is usually spraying paint.
Spray painting should be done in a uniform way with the previous coat. This is to
eliminate the chance of uneven colorization of the surface. Once the area has been spray
painted, the surface is then baked in heat. This ensures the paint further sets and also
gives the part a gloss.

Precautions for Panel Beating Process

Each stage of panel beating process has its own precautions as explained below.
Preparing for work
- Task instructions should be interpreted and vehicle body panel to be worked on be
identified
- Manufacturer specifications and workplace procedures for preparing panel surface be
sourced and interpreted
- Safety and environmental requirements should also be sourced and interpreted. Potential
hazards and risks associated with task should be identified and reported to workplace
supervisor.
- Tools and equipment required for preparing body panel are identified and checked for
serviceability

Preparing surfaces for masking

- Panel surface should be cleaned and checked for contaminants according to workplace
procedures and safety and environmental requirements, and without causing damage to
components and systems.
- Body panel should be inspected according to workplace requirements
- Body panel inspection results should be recorded.

Applying masking materials to surface

- Components and fittings that can be affected by the refinishing process should be
protected or removed according to workplace procedures and safety requirements, and
without causing damage to components and systems
- Masking should be applied to surfaces adjacent to the area to be refinished according to
workplace procedures and safety requirements, and without causing damage to
components and systems

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Body panel should be inspected to ensure correct application of masking
Body panel inspection results should be recorded

Completing work processes

Final inspection should be made to ensure work meets task instructions and workplace standards,
and body panels are presented ready for use or storage according to workplace procedures
Work area should be cleaned, waste and non-recyclable materials are disposed of, and recyclable
material is collected and stored according to environmental requirements and workplace
procedures
Tools and equipment should be checked and stored according to workplace procedures, or tagged
and reported as required
Workplace documentation should be processed according to workplace procedures

GAS WELDING
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding Personal Protective Equipment

Welding goggles must be Long and loose hair Oil free leather gloves
worn at all times in work must be contained. must be worn.
areas.

Sturdy footwear must be Close Rings and jewellery

worn at all times in work fitting/protective must not be worn.
areas. clothing must be worn.

Pre-operational safety checks

- Locate and ensure you are familiar with all machine operations and controls.
- Check workspaces and walkways to ensure no slip/trip hazards are present.
- Keep area clean and free of grease, oil and any flammable materials.
- Ensure gas hoses are in good condition and do not create a tripping hazard.
- Before lighting up, check all equipment for damage.
- Check that the area is well ventilated. Start the fume extraction unit before beginning to
weld.
- Ensure the unit is fitted with working flashback arresters.
- Ensure work return earth cables make firm contact to provide a good electrical
connection.

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 Pressure setting
- Check that the oxygen and acetylene regulator adjusting knobs are loose.
- Check that both blowpipe valves are closed.
- Slowly open the cylinder valves on each cylinder for half a turn only.
- Screw in the regulator adjusting knobs slowly until the delivery pressure gauges register
70kPa.
Purge and check for constant oxygen gas flow:
- Open the oxygen blowpipe valve for 2 seconds and check the delivery gauge.
- If necessary re-adjust the oxygen regulator to achieve a 70kPa pressure.
- Close the oxygen blowpipe valve.
Purge and check for constant acetylene gas flow:
- Open the acetylene blowpipe valve for 2 seconds and check the delivery gauge.
- If necessary re-adjust the acetylene regulator to achieve a 70kPa pressure.
- Close the acetylene blowpipe valve.
Lighting up
- Open the acetylene blowpipe valve slightly and light the blowpipe with a flint lighter.
- Continue to slowly open the acetylene valve until the flame no longer produces soot.
- Slowly open the oxygen blowpipe valve until a neutral flame is produced.
Shutting off blowpipe
- Close the acetylene blowpipe valve first.
- Then close the oxygen blowpipe valve.

Ending operations
- Close down both cylinder valves.
- Open oxygen blowpipe valve to allow the gas to drain out.
- When oxygen gauges read zero, unscrew regulator-adjusting knob.
- Close oxygen blowpipe valve.
- Turn off acetylene cylinder valve.
- Open acetylene blowpipe valve and release gas.
- When acetylene gauges read zero, release regulator adjusting knob.
- Close acetylene blowpipe valve.

Cleaning up
- Hang up welding blowpipe and hoses.
- Switch off the fume extraction unit.
- Leave the work area in a safe, clean and tidy state.

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Don’t
- Do not use faulty equipment. Immediately report suspect equipment.
- Do not light the blowpipe with matches or lighters.
- Do not use oil, grease or other hydrocarbons.
- Do not use oxygen as a substitute for compressed air
10.6.4 Learning activity
Inspect the vehicle body, identify the damage, weld and panel beat the area to the required body
contour.
10.6.5 Self- Assessment
1. Which two gases are used in gas welding?
2. Why is it important to set the flame before welding process?
3. What steps do you follow when panel beating a body panel of a vehicle?
10.6.6 Tools, Materials and Equipment·
 Panel beaters tool kit
 Auto body paint
 Primer
 Feeler
 Spreader
 Spot putty
 Hardener
 Thinner
 Gas welding equipment
10.6.7 Reference
Bannockburn Panel Repairs. (2015). Panel Beating Procedure.
Car Inspectors. (2020, January 10). Retrieved from Importance of Jacking up Vehicles.
Deborah P. (2019, 10 15). 8 Different types of Jacks and When to use them.
Draper Tools Limited. (2020). Retrieved from Vehicle Lifting Equipment.
Duffy, J. E. (2016). Auto Body Repair Technology . Boston in USA: Cengage Learning.
Emeka, N. (2019). 9 Safety precautions you should keep while jacking up your car.
HiChem Industries. (2015). Spot Putty - Pink. 2-3.
James E. Duffy, R. S. (2003). Auto Body Repair Technology. Thomson/Delmar Learning.
Joseph, M. (2009). Automotive Bodywork and Rust Repair. Grand Avenue in China: CarTech
Publishers

277
Parker, C. (2017). How to safely jack up and support your car. 3
Solas. (2014). Use of Push/Pull Equipment. In M. Stack, Trade of Vehicle Body Work Repair
(pp. 3-4).
10.6.8 Model Answers
1. Which two gases are used in gas welding?
· Oxygen
· Acetylene
2. Why is it important to set the flame before welding process?
Because different flames have varying composition of oxygen and acetylene gas.
Carburizing flame has more of acetylene gas, oxidizing flame has more of oxygen and
neutral flame has equal amount of oxygen and acetylene gases. The thickness of the work
piece.
3. What steps do you follow when panel beating a body panel of a vehicle?
Metal stretching - This is done by heating the dented area with a blow torch and, once well
heated, the panel beaters hammer the metal slowly to stretch it back to shape. A shrink hammer
is used to beat the metal all while a dolly is laid back on the panel to give it shape.
Welding - This is vital when two pieces of metal need to be joined together. Welding done
during panel beating is usually localized and is done by either arc welding or using oxyacetylene
flame. This process is only necessary if the panel could not be beaten easily to its original shape
and more metal needs to be added. The weld needs to be light and fine so as to limit the
visibility.
Putty fillers - Putty may sometimes be used to fill small dents and holes. Once applied, the putty
filler hardens and the panel beaters can then sand and smooth it before primer is set. Putty fillers
should be carefully and quickly prepared and laid to ensure a smooth finish.
Panel sanding - necessary for further smoothing of the surface and preparation for the next
paint job. There are two types of sanding done by panel beaters; dry sanding removes the
previous color coat while wet sanding prepares the surface further by smoothing and cleaning off
any debris in the newly fixed area.
Spray painting - After a successful panel beating, the final step is usually spray painting. Spray
painting should be done in a uniform way with the previous coat. This is to eliminate the chance
of uneven colorization of the surface. Once the area has been spray painted, the surface is then
baked in heat. This ensures the paint further sets and also gives the part a gloss.

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10.7 Learning outcome 5: perform vehicle body filling and sanding
10.7.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
filling and sanding. It includes vehicle body preparation for filling and sanding, body filling and
sanding tools and equipment, filling materials, filling and sanding procedures, repair of damaged
filling procedures and precautions in body vehicle sanding.
10.7.2 Performance Standard
1. Body filler material is applied on the panel section as per workshop procedures.
2. Tools and equipment are identified according to workshop procedures.
3. Body sanding is performed on the panel section as per workshop procedures.
10.7.3 Information sheet
Definition of terms
Cleaning agent: a cleaning agent is a substance either in liquid or solid form that is used to
remove dirt including dust, stains and other foreign particles.
Sand down: sanding down is the process through which a surface is rubbed with abrasive
material to either remove a substance or smoothen the surface.
Primer: a primer is a substance applied to a surface as an undercoat to prepare the surface for
painting by leveling and building the surface.
Second primer: is the second coating of primer applied to ensure that the missed areas are fully
covered.

Mixing of body filler with hardener Body filler

In order to achieve these repairs in a satisfactory manner, a few steps have to be taken to ensure
that the body filler will adhere to the surface correctly. When using body filler, mixing is the
most crucial step. Proper mixing ensures the body filler is even and consistent which eliminates
the need to redo or repair the part once more in the future. Furthermore, improper mixing will
not give the good finish you anticipated for.

Application of filler
1. Ensure the area is clean and dry. Once grinding is done the following steps are taken to apply
the filler evenly:
2. Check the welded panel to ensure the lumps are levelled out with the surface.
3. Strip off the paint on the area to be filled and some portion of the surround area to allow for
feathering of the filler into the existing surface.

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Mix the filler in the can before placing it on the board. The hardener should also be kneaded in
its tube before it gets added to the filler. Mix the two thoroughly in the required ratio on the
board. Barely hardened filler makes it easy to be shaped using a sanding clock.
Gently spread the filler on the panel with a spreader. The first layer acts as a primer to establish a
bond between the metal and the filler. The successive layers will establish a bond between filler
and filler.
Let the filler cure.
1. Sanding only starts when the filler starts to powder. Start with the coarsest grade (36 grit) and
progress to the finest grades (320 grit). Sanding with finest grits removes the scratches left by
the previous coarse grits.
2. Spray a guide coat on the filler to check for levelness and continue sanding. Use a big enough
block to bridge most area of the part being filled.
3. Mix glazing putty and repeat the above process. Glazing putty is much thinner thus fills up the
minute scratches on the filler.
4. Wipe down the glazing putty once dried and sand it with the 80 grit until smooth. Proceed to use
the 180 grit once shaped and feather and smooth the part even further.
Body Sanding
1. The following steps outlines the sanding process:
2. Remove all primer from the panel to ensure good adhesion of the filler.
3. Apply the first layer of filler on the panel. The recommended amount is 1/8" of a lip requires
about 3" to blend in.
4. Add more filler until the panel is filled up properly.
5. Let the filler cure and harden before shaping it by block sanding.
6. Once the filler has dried up and hardened, start block sanding. Choose the right block in
accordance to the contours of the panel. Sand until you touch metal on all sides of the filler to
ensure the filler is level with the panel
7. Spray a light coat of black mist on the filler and block sand again. The black coat helps identify
the high and low spots in the filler. Repeat the filling process and mist again until the filler is
level without any lows.
8. Let the filler cure before application of primer.
10.7.4 Learning Activities
Practical activity
Inspect the vehicle body, mix the body filler with hardener, apply the filler to the prepared
surface, sand and allow the filler to cure.
10.7.5 Self-assessment
1. What type of sander should be used to prevent an accumulation of dust?
2. What grade of sand paper should you start with when feather edging coarse or fine?
3. What safety precautions need to be observed when sanding?

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10.7.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
 Rotary and orbital Polishers
 Polishing pads
 Microfiber cloths and towels
 Assorted brushes
 Spray booth
 Compressor
 Spray gun
10.7.8 Reference
Dole, M. (2018). Mechanic auto body painting: Question answers MCQ. Manoj Dole.
Duffy, J. E. (2008). Auto body repair technology. Cengage Learning.
Parks, D. (2015). The complete guide to auto body repair (2nd ed.). Motor books International.
10.7.9 Model Answers
1. What type of sander should be used to prevent an accumulation of dust?
- orbital sander
2. What grade of sand paper should you start with when feather edging coarse or fine?
- Coarse
3. What safety precautions need to be observed when sanding?
- Wear safety glasses with side shields or safety goggles, or a face shield (with safety
glasses or goggles) when operating a sander.
- Wear hearing protection that is suitable for the level and frequency of the noise you are
exposed to in the woodworking area.
- Wear protective footwear when required.
- Use sanders with the local exhaust ventilation (LEV) turned on. The LEV should be
designed for the sander and well maintained to work effectively.
- Wear respiratory protection (e.g., dust masks) where required, during sanding operations
and clean up.
- Keep hands away from the abrasive surface.
- Hold small or thin pieces of stock in a jig or holding device to prevent injuries to the
fingers or hands.
- Inspect abrasive belts before using them. Replace belts worn, frayed, or excessively worn
in spots.
- Sand on the downward side of a disc sander so that the wood is driven onto the table by
the machine's rotation.
- Enclose all drums, disk or belt sanding machines with an exhaust dust hood that covers
all portions of the machine but the portion designed for the work feed.
- Adjust work rests on all manually fed sanders to provide minimum clearance between the
belt and the rest. The work rest should be secured properly.
- Install abrasive belts that are the same width as the pulley drum.

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- Turn off the sander and unplug the electricity when making any adjustments or changes
in the set up.
- Adjust abrasive belt tension to keep the belt running the same speed as pulley-drum when
the wood is in contact with the belt.
- Make sure fences and any other guards are properly adjusted and in place before using
the machine.
- Guard feed rollers to allow boards to pass, but keep operators' fingers and arms out.
- Install guards to prevent contacts

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 10.8 Learning outcome 6: Apply spot putty
10.8.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to apply spot putty. It
includes definition of spot putty, importance of spot putty, spot putty materials, spot putty
application process, removal of spot putty materials, sand drying process and safety precautions.
10.8.2 Performance Standard
1. Panel section to apply spot putty is identified according to workshop procedures.
2. Spot putty is applied according to workshop procedures.
3. Dry sanding is performed according to workshop procedures
10.8.3 Information sheet
Definition of terms
Filler: refers to a substance used to patch small panel imperfections to restore the smooth looks
and structural integrity. Some of the imperfections include: rust holes and cracks or fill small
dents
Blending: refers to the process of slightly mixing two different colours when wet to get a smooth
transition from one colour to the next, a product of the two blended colours (i.e. if you are
blending green into a red, the transition colour will be a yellow). Oil based paints are the best for
blending compared to acrylic since oil paints dries much slower
Spot Putty Spot putty is another type of filler that is used to fill tiny pinholes in the body filler.
If one fails to fill those pinholes, the filler might crack when there is any movement of the
underlying metal. Spot and glazing putty is ideal for spot repairs and other small repairs to auto
body panels. It’s used for filling pinholes in body filler as well as for covering minor sand
scratches, and more on metal, fiberglass and wood as well as sanded and primed or sanded and
painted surfaces.
Importance of Spot Putty - Spot putty is ideal for spot repairs and other small repairs to auto
body panels. It is used for filling pinholes in body filler as well as for covering minor sand
scratches, and more on metal, fiberglass and wood as well as sanded and primed or sanded and
painted surfaces.
- Spot Putty Application Process
- Spot putty is very easy to sand, dries fast and doesn’t require a hardener to cure. It can be
applied from the tube. When applying, use a plastic spreader to put a thin coat of spot
putty on the sanded area and avoid putting too much of it. Then wait for 15 min for it to dry
before sanding it with 180 grit followed by 320 grit. The surface should now be smooth and
ready for primer.
- Removal of Spot Putty Materials
- There are three ways to remove body filler such as spot putty from a vehicle and each has its
advantages and disadvantages.
- Mechanically – This is the most common way is to sand the old filler. This is time-
consuming, messy and expensive because of the cost of sandpaper and man-hours.

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- Chemically stripping-This is also time-consuming and messy.
- Heat stripping-This is a fast and not as messy way unlike the other two.
- Sand Drying Process
- Sand has no unique advantages in nature, but it has a wide range of uses after being dried by
a sand dryer. River sand, yellow sand, sea sand, etc., these sands are divided according to the
size of different particles, the particle size is different, the purpose of the sand is also
completely different. There is no way to divide the sand when it is wet. At this time, you
need to use a dryer to dry the sand and enter it into the linear vibrating screen. Through
different screen meshes, the size of the sand is divided and stored separately.

- The sand drum dryer is generally suitable for granular materials and can be used to treat river
sand, dry-mixed mortar, yellow sand, cement plant slag, clay, artificial sand, quartz sand,
slag, cinder, fly ash, gypsum, iron dry powder, limestone, and other raw materials, especially
dry sand, river sand, quartz sand, and other materials have excellent drying effects. For the
drying process, watch the following videos:

- Safety Precautions When Spot Puttying

- The following are the various safety precautions to be observed when handling the spot
putty.
- Obtain special instructions before use
- Do not smoke when handling the spot putty
- Do not breathe dust/fume/gas/mist/vapours/spray
- Use only when in outdoors or in a well-ventilated area
- Use personal protective equipment as required
- Ground/bond container and receiving equipment
- Use explosion-proof electrical/ventilating/lighting/intrinsically safe equipment
- Use only non-sparking tools
- Take precautionary measures against static discharge
- Avoid release to the environment
- Wear protective gloves/protective clothing/eye protection/face protection
- If exposed or concerned, get medical advice/attention.
- Wash contaminated clothing before reuse.
- In case of fire, use alcohol resistant foam or normal protein foam for extinction
- In case the spot putty is on skin, wash with plenty of water and soap
- In case of one inhaling the putty, remove person to fresh air and keep comfortable for
breathing
- Store in a well-ventilated cool place with container tightly closed
10.8.4 Learning Activity
Prepare damaged area of body panel, Mix and apply spot putty, file and sand to correct contour
of panel

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10.8.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the properties of a good spot putty?
2. How would you go about to apply spot putty on a vehicle panel?
3. What are the potential health effects of spot putty?
10.8.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
 Safety Equipment
 Grinder
 Vacuum sander
 Tool kit
 Various grades of sandpaper
 Body fillers
 Spatula
 Damaged body panel
 Classroom/workshop
 Spot putty
10.8.7 Reference
Crolla, D. (2009). Automotive engineering: Powertrain, chassis system and vehicle body.
Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Choosing the ideal filler. (2011). Illustrated Manual of Injectable Fillers, 34-44.
doi:10.3109/9781841847504-8
Tony, Harris, G., Bandalos, T., & Smith, P. (2018, March 08). Painting Auto Body Panels and
Blending Paint. Retrieved from https://www.learnautobodyandpaint.com/painting-auto-body-
panels-and-blending-paint/
Teal, B., Bandalos, T., Kauffman, M., Chavez, J., Ydav, A., Evans, E., . . . GUZMAN, O. D.
(2017, June 05). How To Mix Body Filler - Learn Auto Body and Paint Boot Camp. Retrieved
from https://www.learnautobodyandpaint.com/how-to-mix-body-filler/
10.8.8 Model Answers
1. What are the properties of a good spot putty?
- Good adhesion
- Be easy to sand
- Dries quickly
- Does not need hardener
2. How would you go about to apply spot putty on a vehicle panel?
- Clean the body part with warm water and liquid soap.
- Remove any layers of paint around the damaged area using sanding paper.
- Read and understand the instructions on the packaging.
- Apply directly from the tube then use a plastic spreader to apply around the sanded
area.
- Wait for about fifteen minutes for it to dry
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 - Sand the area to ensure it is smooth before application of primer.
3. What are the potential health effects of spot putty
- Eye Contact-Moderate Eye Irritation:
- Signs/symptoms may include redness, swelling, pain, tearing, and blurred or
hazy vision.
- Skin Contact: Moderate Skin Irritation:
- Signs/symptoms may include localized redness, swelling, itching, and dryness.
- Inhalation-Respiratory Tract Irritation:
o Signs/symptoms may include cough, sneezing, nasal discharge, headache,
o hoarseness, and nose and throat pain.
- Prolonged or repeated exposure may cause Pneumoconiosis:
- Ingestion: Gastrointestinal Irritation:
- Signs/symptoms may include abdominal pain, stomach upset, nausea,
vomiting and diarrhea. May be absorbed following ingestion and cause target
organ effects.

10.9 Learning outcome 7: Perform vehicle body cleaning/degreasing

10.9.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
cleaning/degreasing. It includes definition of terms related to vehicle body cleaning, the
importance of vehicle body cleaning, cleaning tools and equipment, cleaning agents, cleaning
procedures and disposal of cleaning waste.
10.9.2 Performance Standard
1. Necessary cleaning materials are identified according to cleaning procedures.
2. Wet sanding procedure is performed according to the workshop process.
3. Drying process is performed according to workshop procedures.
10.9.3 Information sheet
Definition of terms
Cleaning agent: A cleaning agent is a substance either in liquid or solid form that is used to
remove dirt including dust, stains and other foreign particles.
Sand down: sanding down is the process through which a surface is rubbed with abrasive
material to either remove a substance or smoothen the surface.
Importance of Vehicle Body Cleaning
The five biggest advantages of cleaning the vehicle body are listed below.
a. Avoiding Damage

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Mud, dirt, rain, and even salt sprinkled on icy roads once they attach themselves to the surface of
the vehicle may cause damage to vehicle body paint as a result of minerals contained in them. It
is therefore important to wash your vehicle regularly so avoid this.
b. Improving the Condition
When a vehicle is washed, soap and water will brush the impurities away from the autobody.
This helps in preventing the deterioration of your paint and even the different parts of the
vehicle. In doing this, one improves the condition of his/her vehicle and its overall longevity.
This is especially true if you have your engine washed, because removing debris and dirt from
this area can help keep your engine healthier in the long-run.

c. Improving Safety
When you go for a drive, your windows, mirrors, and even tires should be clear of debris. By
going to the car wash on a regular basis, you’ll never have to worry about these areas being too
dirty to drive with. You’ll have confidence knowing your windshield, rear window, side mirrors,
and tires are clean and safe for your next trip.
d. Improving the Value
When one is planning to sell his/her vehicle or even trading it in future, it’s important to do what
one can to keep the vehicle look great. Regular car washes are a big part of this, as they help
prevent rust, scratches, dull paint, and other issues that take away the physical appearances of a
vehicle.
e. A Clean Look
Vehicle washed on a regular basis makes the possessor avoid dirtiness on his/her hands and
clothing.
Vehicle Body Cleaning Procedures
The following steps are followed when cleaning a vehicle:
 Park the vehicle in the shade
 Rinse the vehicle to remove loose dirt
 Gather necessary supplies such as two buckets, one for the cleaning solution and the other
for clean water
 Start at the top, and work your way down
 Rinse, and dry the vehicle
 Feel the surface, consider using a clay bar if needed
 Wax the vehicle
Disposal of Cleaning Waste

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Garbage accumulation has never been much of a concern in the past, but due to globalization and
industrialization, there is a need for a more efficient waste disposal method. Following are some
of the methods that are used today.
i. Landfill
In this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and spread as a thin
layer in low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is added after each layer of garbage.
However, once this process is complete, the area is declared unfit for construction of buildings
for the next 20 years. Instead, it can only be used as a playground or a park.
ii. Incineration
Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to incombustible
matter such as ash and waste gas. The exhaust gases from this process may be toxic, hence it is
treated before being released into the environment. This process reduces the volume of waste by
90 per cent and is considered as one of the most hygienic methods of waste disposal. In some
cases, the heat generated is used to produce electricity. However, some consider this process, not
quite environmentally friendly due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide.
iii. Waste Compaction
The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are compacted into blocks and sent for
recycling. This process prevents the oxidation of metals and reduces airspace need, thus making
transportation and positioning easy.
iv. Biogas Generation
Biodegradable waste, such as food items, animal waste or organic industrial wastes from food
packaging industries are sent to bio-degradation plants. In bio-degradation plants, they are
converted to biogas by degradation with the help of bacteria, fungi, or other microbes. Here, the
organic matter serves as food for the micro-organisms. The degradation can happen aerobically
(with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen). Biogas is generated as a result of this process,
which is used as fuel, and the residue is used as manure.
v. Composting
All organic materials decompose with time. Food scraps, yard waste, etc., make up for one of the
major organic wastes we throw every day. The process of composting starts with these organic
wastes being buried under layers of soil and then, are left to decay under the action of
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
This results in the formation of nutrient-rich manure. Also, this process ensures that the nutrients
are replenished in the soil. Besides enriching the soil, composting also increases the water
retention capacity. In agriculture, it is the best alternative to chemical fertilizers.
vi. Vermicomposting

2
Vermicomposting is the process of using worms for the degradation of organic matter into
nutrient-rich manure. Worms consume and digest the organic matter. The by-products of
Digestion which are excreted
by the worms make the soil nutrient-rich, thus enhancing the growth of bacteria and fungi. It is
also far more effective than traditional composting

Surface Sanding Methods

Refinishing sanding can be done by hand or by using power equipment. Most heavy sanding,
such as removing the old finish, is done with power sanders, but some conditions, particularly
the delicate operations, dictate hand sanding.
Dry Sanding
One of the problems with dry sanding is that the paper tends to clog with paint or metal dust.
Tapping the paper from time to time or spinning it against a scuff pad will remove some of the
dust.
Wet Sanding
Wet sanding solves the problem of paper clogging when fine sanding). It is basically the same
action as dry sanding except that water, a sponge, and a squeegee are used in addition to the
sanding block. Sandpapers are available in dry, wet, or wet-or-dry abrasive types. When wet
sanding, dip the paper in the water or wet the surface with the sponge. Use plenty of water to
flush away old paint and sanding grit.
Use long, smooth strokes and light pressure when wet sanding large areas. A sanding block is
needed to keep the surface level and to keep your fingertips from digging troughs in the surface.
If wet sanding a small area, use a circular motion only on the specific problem area. Small dirt
nibs or pieces of dust in the primer can often be removed with wet sanding in this manner.
Never allow the surface to dry during the wet sanding operation. Also, do not allow paint residue
to build up on the abrasive paper.
It is possible to tell how well the paper is cutting by the amount of drag felt as it moves across
the surface being sanded. When the paper begins to slide over the surface too quickly and easily,
it is no longer cutting. The grit has become filled with paint particles, or sludge. Rinse the paper
in water to remove the paint, and sponge the surface to remove the remaining particles. Then the
sandpaper will again cut the surface.
Check your work periodically by sponging the surface off and wiping it dry with a squeegee.
This will remove all excess water so that it is easier to evaluate the surface condition.
It is usually wise to complete one panel or body section at a time. Then remove the sanding
residues with a sponge and dry off with a squeegee before sanding the next panel.

When the surface is wet, view it from an angle or from the side. This will help magnify the
surface so you can find any remaining flaws that must be wet sanded.
3
Once the wet sanding operation is completed, be sure that all surfaces are dry. Blow out the
seams and molding with compressed air at a lower pressure and tack cloth the entire surface. Do
not touch the body surface with your bare hands.

Table 9-2 : Comparison of wet and dry

Item Wet sanding Dry sanding
Work speed Slower Faster
Amount of sandpaper Less More
Required
Condition of Very good Final finish difficult
Finish
Workability Normal Good
Dust Little Much
Facilities Water drain necessary Dust collector and exhaust
required necessry
Drying time Necessary Not necessary

10.9.4 Learning Activity

Sand, Clean and dry the vehicle provided using appropriate cleaning agents.
10.9.5 Self-Assessment

1. Why is cleaning a vehicle body important?

2. Which detergents and solvents can you use to clean interior and exterior of a vehicle?
3. What safety equipment is required for the filler operation?

10.9.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials

 Chemicals such as cleaning and spot-free solutions
 Dryers
 Blowers
 Vacuums
 Brushes
 Towels
 Water system (conveyor tunnel or self-service wands)
10.9.7 Reference
Dole, M. (2018). Mechanic auto body painting: Question answers MCQ. Manoj Dole.
Duffy, J. E. (2008). Auto body repair technology. Cengage Learning.
Parks, D. (2015). The complete guide to auto body repair (2nd ed.). Motor books International.

2
10.9.8 Model Answers
1. Why is cleaning a vehicle body important?
- Improve safety of the occupants
- Appealing appearance
- Avoid damage of parts.
- Improve value
2. Which detergents and solvents can you use to clean interior and exterior of a vehicle?
- Degreaser
- Steam cleaning
- Alkali cleaning
- Volatile solvent
3. What safety equipment is required for the filler operation?
- Dust particle mask and P.P.E

10.10 Learning outcome 8 : Spray and valet vehicle body

10.10.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to Spray and valet vehicle
body. It includes identification of tools, materials and equipment used in spray painting, polishes
and waxes used in spray painting, spraying painting process and safety precautions.
10.10.2 Performance Standard
1.Vehicle parts not requiring painting are masked according to workshop procedures.
2.Automotive paints are identified according to manufacturer’s specification.
3.Primer is sprayed according to workshop procedures.
4.Appropriate colour matching and mixing (manual/computer aided) is performed
according to manufacturer’s specification.
5. Spraying equipment is selected according to manufacturer’s specifications.
6. First coat paint is sprayed according to workshop procedures.
7. Second coat paint is sprayed according to workshop procedures.
8. Body valeting is performed according to workshop procedure
9. Final coat paint is sprayed according to workshop procedures.
10. Vehicle paint is cured/ baked according to manufacturer’s specifications.
10.10.3 Information sheet
Definition of terms
Coat paint: this is a process of applying a pigment, color or other medium to a surface thus
forming a protective layer.
First coat paint: a process of applying the first layer of paint on a surface. It is also referred to
as primer.

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Body valeting: refers to performing a thorough cleaning procedure on your vehicle.it involves
the cleaning of windows, wheels and mirrors, as well as vacuuming and shampooing the interior.
Masking is the process of covering parts of a vehicle that will not be painted thus maintaining
their appearance, purpose and quality.

Cleaning of vehicle body using appropriate cleaning agents

Cleaning the vehicle is the first step in spray painting a car. This is done using certain cleaning
agents such as denatured spirit or mineral water which removes any oil residue which may affect
the painting process. The surface to be finished should be well cleaned before painting. If the
paint manufacturer’s instructions call for it, the surface should be chemically treated. Use a blow
off gun and tack rag to remove dust and dirt. Remember that no amount of primer or paint will
cover up a badly prepared surface.

Masking of vehicle parts not requiring painting using covering materials

Several parts of a vehicle are not painted thus are covered to prevent paint reaching them. This
include:
 Mirrors are covered using simple plastic bags that are put over mirrors and taped in place.
 Wheels are covered using covers shaped like a wheel that can be reused to stop spray
getting on the road wheels.
 There are several types of masking material used to cover parts of a vehicle.
 Masking paper. This should of good quality, with high wet strength, freedom from loose
fibres and resistance to solvent penetration.
 Masking tape has an elastic property which is often helpful when following curves. It is
also found in various sizes depending on the usage.
 Foam mask- is appropriate for edges since it stays in places during painting.
 There are also static covers such as;
 Clear thin film is a polyethylene sheeting designed to protect the vehicle from paint
overspray.
 Slime – Overspray Masking Film is a liquid that is an alternative to plastic bags and
sheets. Protects vehicles surfaces throughout the repair process from paint overspray,
light scratches and even weld splatter. It is applied by a spray gun, dries to the touch
trapping dust under the film even in areas such as wheel arches.
 ‘Fine Line’ Striping Tapes are used by specialists to achieve multiple striping
configurations
 Fine Line’ Masking Tape has several advantages such as sharp paint lines, less edge
build up, and works without edge tear or wrinkling.
 Trim Lifting Cord is used when painting in an area with a rubber moulding. This is
done by foam cord is slid under the moulding using a clever applicator tool. This is quick
to apply, the cord ensures no edge build up and no visible evidence of repair work.

27
  Soft - Edge Masking Foam Tape. The tape is used to mask vehicles apertures such as
door, bonnet, and filler cap. As well as achieving the required ‘soft edge’, this tape
ensures that the interior of the vehicle is kept free of paint and dust.
 Trim Masking Tape is used to mask the rubber trim on bonded screens and sealed
windows. Its application involves pushing a small plastic strip behind the rubber then an
self-adhesive tape is folded back. It sticks to the window to hold the rubber clear of the
paintwork.
Basic Composition/Constituents of Paint
Pigments
- Fine solid particles which do not dissolve in the binder.
- They give colour and/or body to the paint.
- Some pigments possess good anti-corrosive properties and are used in paints designed to
give protection to the substrate.
Binder
-Reacts to form a film, and binds the pigments together and to the surface.
-The binder is often referred to as the medium of the paint.
Thinner
-Some of the liquid of the paint is often withheld from the paint container and supplied
separately as a thinner.
-The user adds thinners to adjust the viscosity to suit his requirements.
Additives
-Small quantities of substances which are added to carry out special jobs.
-Wax in varnish creates a matt finish, and silicones in metallic paint give a hammer finish.
 Types of paint
 Cellulose synthetic - This dries by the evaporation of the solvent.
 Oil paints - The drying of an oil paint depends on the ability of certain drying oils to dry
by a reaction that involves atmospheric oxygen, a process which is confined to relatively
thin films.
 Synthetic paints -These are mixtures of drying oils and synthetic resins. The
disadvantage of this paint is drying oil is slowly. To improve this property and to give
tougher films and improve the gloss, a resin is added to the oil and they are cooked
together for a period so that they chemically combine.
 Stoving paints - These are also mixtures of oils and resins that require exposure to an
elevated temperature to produce a cure (dried film). The time of exposure is mainly
dependent on the temperature: e.g 60 minutes at a temperature of not less than 138 °C;
and 10 minutes at a temperature of not less than 205 °C.
 Blacking paints - Chassis black is a cheap black paint generally based on bitumen. It has
good adhesive qualities on bare metal and is a good rust inhibitor. Tyre black is also a
cheap black paint, being of low viscosity

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  Two-pack paints - These are probably the most widely used paints in the vehicle
refinishing trade. These paints consist of a base material and a catalyst or activator.
When they are mixed together, a chemical reaction takes place which results in complete
polymerization. Two-pack (or 2K) paints have a limited pot life after mixing, but when
curing is complete they can equal stoving paints in hardness and durability.

Identification of automotive paints

There are two different types of automotive paints.
 Removable: this type of paint is made for giving the vehicle a custom appearance.
 Non-removable: made for original painting and touch-ups
In choosing automotive paint for your vehicle, there are some factors that need to be considered,
they include the following.
 Adhesive quality- the paint should be able to stick fast to the surface.
 Price- the quality of the paint should correspond to the price.
 Type of car paints- the type of material to be painted should correspond to the type of
paint used.
 Durability- it should be long lasting.
 Maintenance- the paint should be strong, easy to clean and maintain.

Performing appropriate colour matching and mixing

Before spraying your vehicle, you need to know a few things about automotive paint:
 Automotive paint is made up of resin and, pigment and solvent.
 Resin determines the durability of your paint and the quality of the application.
 Solvent provides the right amount of viscosity for the paint to be applied.
 Pigmented powder form includes colours and toners that are mixed together to give the
finish.
 When choosing a colour to match your car:
 Find a colour code for the original paint on your car. Having the manufacture’s and the
cars details or information will enable you to find the original colour code on the
manufacture’s website.
 Once the original colour code has been identified, take it to an auto body supply shop or
repair shop and place an order
 Since vehicles may have two or more tones and need two or more paints, mix the paint
until you get the exact colour you need. Precision and accuracy is highly recommended
as slight inaccuracy may make the repaired spot to be too light or too dark since one is
dealing with a lot of variables. Matching the exact colour is thus very important when
spot repairing.

Selection of spraying equipment

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A spraying equipment is the most important tool as far as spray painting is concerned. In
choosing an appropriate spray painter there are some factors that need to be considered. They
include:
 Power source- the selection of power is often determined by the operating conditions and
availability of power sources. Airless pumps can be powered by air, gas or electricity.
 Material to be sprayed- coating type also plays a major role in spray equipment.
 Demand of application- the rate at which coating is to be sprayed, or application demand,
is also a key role in selecting equipment.
 Distance from pump to gun- the diameter of the spray hose also affects pressure drop. By
increasing hose diameter, pressure drop can be reduced
 Portability- they should be able to be moved within the job site.
 Maintenance-they should be able to be easy to troubleshoot and maintain makes work
easier and profitable.
 Operating environment- different operating environment requires different spray-painting
equipment. Temperature and humidity are key factors to consider.

Spraying of first coat paint

The following steps are followed:
 Remove dirt- wash, grease or wax the car to remove dirt or grit that may otherwise interfere
with the primer.
 Sand the car- this is important because it smoothens any rough surfaces making it easier to
apply the primer.
 Dry the vehicle- the car should be completely dry before any paint is applied.
 Cover areas not to be painted (masking)- it is important to cover all the areas that you do not
want paint on. Those parts may include: mirrors, windows, headlights and taillights.
 Priming- this step requires a paint primer exterior as this will be tougher than interior primers
 Sand the car again- since applying the primer may cause some mounds or dips in areas and
you want to smoothen those areas.

Spraying of second coat paint

The base coat being the second coat paint, its applied after the primer. The base coat is also
referred to as the paint since it has the visual properties of colour and effects. It is divided into
three categories namely: solid paints, metallic paints, pearlescent paint.

The following steps are followed:

 Clean the car thoroughly- the car should be cleaned thoroughly using soap and water.
 Removal of wax- grease or wax should be removed to ensure that the paint will adhere to the
body of the vehicle.
 Taking out of trims- all the plastic and chrome trims should be removed to ensure that they
will not be painted on

30
 Masking- mask the car using tapes or newspapers to avoid painting areas that do not require
painting
 Spraying the base coat- using a spray gun, spray the base coat on the frame of your car. Spray
the base coat lightly and evenly while maintaining the distance between the spray gun and
the body frame to avoid big pools of paint on one side.

Performance of body valeting

Body valeting entails performing a thorough cleaning procedure on your vehicle.it involves the
cleaning of windows, wheels and mirrors, as well as vacuuming and shampooing the interior.
They use high-pressure hoses and steam cleaners to clean the engine, frame and wheel arches, as
well as using wax and polish on the bodywork. There are two types of body valeting: interior
valeting, exterior valeting.

How to perform exterior body valeting.

Steps
 Spray the whole car ensuring you get under the wheel arches where there may be mud this is
done to loosen the dirt and make it easier to be removed later.
 Clean the wheels with a reliable wheel cleaner to give it time to loosen any baked-on brake
dust.
 Shampoo the car starting with the top of the car working down.
 Dry the car, since leaving the car wet will leave some streaks and smears behind all of which
will require polishing later
 Polishing- you can either polish your car or wax. Polishing involves using a mild abrasive
and should only be used once in a while, while waxing uses a wax sealant to seal in the shine
after polishing.

Spraying of final coat paint

 The final coat paint is the clear coat, which is usually sprayed on top of the base coat paint, it
is a glossy and transparent coating that forms the final interface with the environment. This
coating must be durable enough to withstand abrasion and chemically strong to withstand
UV light.
Steps
 Cover the areas you do not want clear coated with newspapers and tapes or plastic sheets.
The main areas include: windows, mirrors, head and taillights.
 Sand the surface of your car using a wet sandpaper, when choosing a sandpaper use a fine
grain, which leaves your car completely dry.
 Wipe your car using a wet rag to remove any dust or grit allow the car to dry again.
 Prepare your clear coat according to manufacturer’s instructions. Each brand of the coat will
have a different set of instructions.
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 Use steady strokes to coat the entire car with an airbrush. Work in 12 inches sections to
ensure evenness in then coating.
 Leave the clear coat to dry completely. The duration of curing will depend on the product as
well as the weather condition.
 Remove all the protective covering from your car and consequently polish your car using an
electric buffer and buffing materials of your choice.

Curing of vehicle paint

Curing of a vehicle paint involves two processes: hardening and drying. Drying the paint
corresponds to the evaporation of all solvents and diluents added to the paint in order to make it
liquid or reduce its viscosity. While hardening involves the process by which the main polymer
of the paint it creates and hardens with all the other pigments and additives which comprises the
paint, creates a solid and adherent coating. It is therefore important to understand the curing
mechanism, it involves;
 Physical curing paints- set of paints where the main resin is already formed, hence to cure the
paint you need to evaporate the solvent input in the painting itself.
 Chemical curing paints- set of paint where the main resin is created through a chemical
reaction between various compounds.
 Both the physical and chemical curing process can be activated or accelerated by applying
the following techniques;
 Hot air curing- involves applying certain temperature to the painted surface, such that the
increase in temperature causes a faster evaporation of the solvents and accelerates the
chemical reaction, the temperature acts as a catalyst.
 Radiation curing- involves the use of infrared and microwave technology to increase the
substrate temperature so that the heat it propagates is used to dry and hardened.
 Curing by electrical process- involves the conversion of electrical power into heat, supplying
it directly to the painted surface so that the heat generated accelerates the curing of the paint,
on the other hand the use of electromagnetic fields heated at the molecular level the paints
accelerating its curing process.
10.10.4 Learners Activity
Mask, select the correct vehicle body paint and spray paint the door panel provided
10.10.5 Self-assessment
1. What is body valeting?
2. What do you understand by the following terms as used in curing process vehicle paint?
a) Hardening
b) Drying
3. Why is it important to apply primer to a vehicle body?
10.10.6 Tools, Equipment and Materials
 Autobody paint
 Spray gun

32
  Thinner
 Masking tape
 Paper towels/cloth Wax /grease remover
 Rotary and orbital Polishers
 Polishing pads
 Microfiber cloths and towels
 Assorted brushes
 Spray booth
 Compressor
 Mixing room
 Painting tools
 Painting materials and sundries
 PPE’s
10.10.7 Reference
Dole, M. (2018). Mechanic auto body painting: Question answers MCQ. Manoj Dole.
Duffy, J. E. (2008). Auto body repair technology. Cengage Learning.
Parks, D. (2015). The complete guide to auto body repair (2nd ed.). Motor books International.
Brooks, R., Hirst, J., & Whipp, J. (2001).
Vehicle maintenance: Vehicle Fitting units level 1 and 2. Cengage Learning EMEA.
Christena, S. B. (2014). Learn to weld: Beginning MIG welding and metal fabrication basics
Includes techniques you can use for home and automotive repair, metal fabrication projects,
sculpture, and more.
Dole, M. (2018). Mechanic auto body repair: Question answers MCQ. Manoj Dole. For more
tools,
10.10.8 Model Answers
1. What is body valeting?
Body valeting is thoroughly cleaning of windows, wheels and mirrors, as well as vacuuming
and shampooing the interior. Also cleaning the engine, frame and wheel arches using high-
pressure hoses and steam cleaners as well as using wax and polish on the body.
2. What do you understand by the following terms as used in curing process vehicle paint
a. Hardening - process by which the main polymer of the paint it creates and hardens with
all the other pigments and additives which comprises the paint, creates a solid and
adherent coating.
b. Drying - corresponds to the evaporation of all solvents and diluents added to the paint
in order to make it liquid or reduce its viscosity.
3. Why is it important to apply primer to a vehicle body?

33
- For proper paint adhesion
- Protects the car from corrosion
- Acts as a surface leveler.
4. What is the use of masking materials in vehicle bodywork?
Masking materials are used to cover and protect body parts from paint overspray.
- Which components make up paint’s chemical?
- Binders
- Pigments
- Solvents
- Additives
10.11 Learning outcome 8: Perform vehicle body fitting
10.11.1 Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
fitting. It includes identification of tools and equipment used for vehicle body fittings, qualities
of the parts to be fixed, economic use of available materials, types of vehicle belts and seat belts
and fixing vehicle body parts.
10.11.2 Performance Standard
1. Upholstery items are identified according to workshop procedures.
2. Tools and equipment are identified according to workshop procedures.
3. Upholstery items are checked/ serviced according to workshop procedures.
10.11.3 Information Sheet
Definition of terms
Upholster- This is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs,
webbing and fabric or leather covers.
Upholstery material- This is the material used to pad and refurbish furniture.
Adhesive- This is a substance used for sticking objects or materials together; glue.

Upholstery Tools and Equipment

a. Industrial Sewing machine
b. Working tables
c. Cutting shears
d. Hog ring pliers
e. Industrial Steamer
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 f. Heat gun
g. Compressor
h. Glue gun
i. Staple gun
j. Hand tools and rulers
 Measuring tape
 Straight edge
 Steel carpenters square
 Chalk
 Seam ripper
 Dykes

Types of upholstery material

 Vinyl: This is a popular automotive choice. It is easy to clean and stain resistant
 Microsuede: Microsuede automotive interiors are typically comprised of polyester
materials. While durable and cost effective, this upholstery type can be difficult to clean
and can easily stain.
 Ultrasuede: Also known as alcantara, ultrasuede is extremely durable and can withstand
harsh environments.
 Performance-oriented cars. It also offers high friction while being soft to the touch.
 Leather: It is easy to clean and spill resistant, leather minimizes the level of allergens
within a vehicle.

Car Flooring Materials

These include soundproofing, waterproofing, heating, anti slip, anti dirt, and mould resistance.
The following is a vast variety of products available according to one’s requirement.
 Custom carpet kits
 OEM carpet kits
 Custom flooring (trimmer)
 Carpet material by the meter
 Jute padding
 Vinyl mats
 Thermal insulation kits
 Sound reducing kits
 Trunk mats
 Speaker box felt

How to Reupholster Car Seats from Scratch

3|Page
  Purchase desired seat upholstery fabric.
 Using the appropriate socket wrench, detach the seat base from the floor.
 If there are any electrical components connected (e.g., power-seat controls), detach the
connectors.
 Remove the seat and set it on a work table or bench.
 Remove the headrest by pushing in the small detent at its base.
 Unzip the upholstery from the seat backing (gives access to the seat base)
 Unscrew the seat base from the seat frame, but do not remove it.
 Carefully detach the side clips holding the seat base to the cushion.
 Lifting upward, remove the upholstery while carefully detaching the additional inner
clips using the small pry bar.
 Repeat steps 7 and 8 for the seat backing.
 With the upholstery laid in front of you and still all in one piece, use the marker to label
where the seams meet (e.g., 1 meets 2, 2 meets 3, etc.), as well as where the mounting
clips are placed. This will be important when sewing the new upholstery together and
remounting.
 Using a seam ripper, or scissors, very carefully separate the upholstery’s sections from
one another.
 Lie the unstitched upholstery on a large sheet of white paper and trace its edges to create
a pattern guide. Remember to include any necessary openings (e.g., headrest slots) in the
pattern.
 Cut out the pattern and place it onto the new fabric.
 Using the pattern, cut the new upholstery leaving three-quarters of an inch between the
fabric edge and the stitching line (known as the seam allowance).
 Using the seam markers as a guide, sew together the cut pieces of new upholstery.
 Sew in the mounting clips and zipper (if applicable).

Fixing cured upholstery material on the vehicle body

After curing of cured upholstery material of vehicle car seats, the material has to be fixed back to the
bare car seats. The following procedure highlights the main steps to achieve this action:
 Place the new seat base upholstery on the base cushion and stretch to connect the first
clip at the rear.
 Working back to front, connect the clips to the cushion, ensuring it remains taut
throughout.
 Reattach seat base to seat frame.
 Perform seat backing.
 Once seat backing upholstery is secure and taught, zip up the backing.
 Reinstall the headrest.
 And finally, reinstall the seat.

4|Page
10.11.4 Learning Activity
Identify Tools and Equipment used for upholstery, cut and sew upholstery material, apply adhesive
on surface to be trimmed, allow material to cure and fix on the vehicle body
10.11. 5 Self-Assessment
1. Why is it important to consider selection of upholstery materials?
2. What are the five steps of cutting and sewing of upholster materials
3. What are the steps to follow when fixing cured upholstery material on the vehicle
4. State the reasons for allowing upholster material to cure
10.11.6 Tools, Materials and Equipment
 Safety Equipment
 Heat gun
 Putty knife
 Adhesive cleaner
 Automotive adhesive
 Rubbing alcohol
 Clean rag
 Level
 Painters tape
10.11.7 Reference
Dole, M. (2018). Mechanic auto body painting: Question answers MCQ. Manoj Dole.
Duffy, J. E. (2008). Auto body repair technology. Cengage Learning.
Parks, D. (2015). The complete guide to auto body repair (2nd ed.). Motor books International.
Brooks, R., Hirst, J., & Whipp, J. (2001).
Vehicle maintenance: Vehicle Fitting units level 1 and 2. Cengage Learning EMEA.
Christena, S. B. (2014). Learn to weld: Beginning MIG welding and metal fabrication basics -
Includes techniques you can use for home and automotive repair, metal fabrication projects,
sculpture, and more.
Dole, M. (2018). Mechanic auto body repair: Question answers MCQ. Manoj Dole.
10.11.8 Model Answers
1. Why is it important to consider selection of upholstery materials?
The wrong decision when choosing car upholstery materials leads many consumers to big
disappointments in terms of quality, durability, and also practicality, if the upholstery
material is not sufficiently sturdy, it will not resist eventual wear and tear
5|Page
 2. What the five steps of cutting and sewing are of upholster materials?
Remove the Seat
- Measure the Material: Using the cloth measuring tape.
- Cut Your Material: Following the measured dimensions.
- Sewing Pleats into the Fabric: Choose how many pleats you would like and space.
- Sewing the Pieces Together
3. What are the steps to follow when fixing cured upholstery material on the vehicle?
- Place the new seat base upholstery on the base cushion and stretch to connect the
first clip at the rear.
- Working back to front, connect the clips to the cushion, ensuring it remains taut
throughout.
- Reattach seat base to seat frame.
- Perform seat backing.
- Once seat backing upholstery is secure and taught, zip up the backing.
- Reinstall the headrest.
- And finally, reinstall the seat.

10.12 Learning outcome 9: Perform vehicle body buffing

10.12.1 Introduction to Learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to perform vehicle body
buffing. It includes identification of tools and equipment used for vehicle body buffing,
Preparation of the vehicle body for buffing, perform buffing and cleaning of the vehicle body
after buffing.
10.12.2 Performance Standard
a. Buffing tools and materials are selected according to manufacturer’s specifications.
b. Vehicle body is prepared for buffing according to workshop procedures.
c. Body buffing is performed according to manufacturer’s specifications
d. Body vehicle cleaning is performed.
10.12.3 Information sheet
2. Definition of terms
Buffing materials: these are the tools, equipment and materials used in the buffing process. The
type of material used depends on the nature of the surface. The different types of surfaces are
wood and metal.
Body buffing: body buffing is a process of using a buffing pad or an abrasive compound to
remove deep metal scratches on the surface of one’s vehicle or to fix a faded car paint.
Types of Buffing Products

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Buffing products are made from three materials: foam, cotton, and microfiber. There are three
types of buffing products: pads, towels, and cloths.

Figure 9-16 : Buffing pad

A buffing pad is used with a buffing wheel (either hand-held or electric) and bonded to that pad
via Velcro or straps. They are also used as a standalone product when used by hand. They can be
made from all three materials listed above.

Figure 9-17: Buffing towel

A buffing towel is made from microfiber and used mainly to remove paint protection products
due to their unique construction in helping to reduce scratching and carefully lifting residual
substances.

Figure 9-18: Buffing cloth

A buffing cloth is smaller, typically no larger than 20-inches x 20-inches. They are used for
smaller projects, and typically are included with DIY kits – such as Armor Shield IX DIY nano-
ceramic coating.

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Vehicle Body Buffing Process
 Park the car in a shady spot. Make sure the surface of the car is cool. This will help prevent
soap stains from appearing on the car's surface.
 Place the soap in a gallon-sized bucket then add water until the bucket is filled and the water
is sudsy. Use only car wash-specific soaps. Read the soap packaging for the amount of soap
to dispense.
 Take a large sponge and submerge it into the soapy water. Remove the sponge, squeeze out
about half of the water, place the sponge on the car and begin washing.
 Move the sponge in circular motions across the body of the car, paying special attention to
crevices and cracks that may have dirt trapped. Start at the top of the car and work
downward. Once the car has been completely cleaned, hose off all of the soap.
When to buff a Car
i. Surface Repair
Though polishing and buffing are related to the same task (of repairing an automotive surface)
polishing and buffing are not the same thing. Polishing is the act itself, where you’ll apply a
liquid substance (known as a polishing compound) to a solid material and gradually remove
layers of that surface that are damaged. Buffing is the second step in the polishing process, where
you use a clean and debris-free towel, pad, or cloth to remove the residual polishing compound.
ii. Surface Protection
After repairing minor scratches, oxidation and other damage to a surface are protected. During
this stage, professional detailers apply a paint protection product – such as wax, paint sealants, or
a ceramic coating.
Like polishing, applying paint protection is a multiple step process.
 Prep the surface: Once the polishing or paint correction was completed, you need to prepare
the surface before applying the paint protection product. Typically, this involves washing the
vehicle, and then spraying an isopropyl alcohol solution to remove any residual polishing
materials, chemicals or debris.
 Application: After the surface is prepped, you’ll apply the paint protection substance. It is
either applied by rubbing or spraying the protectant onto the surface. You’ll then agitate or
smooth the protectant, allow it to ‘flash’ or initially cure, then remove.
 Buffing: Once again, buffing is the final step in the surface protection process. When a
surface protectant is applied, a large portion of the materials is bonded onto the surface – on
in the case of a ceramic coating, embedded into the surface by filling the microscopic
imperfections. The rest of the material is residual which needs to be removed.

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This is where buffing comes into play. If you remove the protectant too early, it’ll fail to bond
correctly – leading to thin coverage and quicker degradation. If you remove it too late, the
residual can also bond, leaving streaks or reducing some of the benefits of that product.
Types of Polishing
The following are the types of polishing used in vehicle bodies:
i. Hand Polishing
This is the old reliable elbow-grease method. While modern technology and general ‘build a
better mousetrap’ thinking has introduced machinery to expedite this process, there are some that
swear by the hand polishing method.
When hand polishing, you’ll basically use three supplies:
 Polishing Pad: The polishing pad is what you’ll use to rub the polishing compound onto the
surface. It is often round, made from microfiber and intended to be used “once” – meaning
per polishing job.
 Polishing Compound: You’ll hear this called cutting compound from time to time, as it
describes the action. This liquid substance (sometimes a paste) is basically a finer grade
liquid sandpaper. It contains tiny particles of ‘grit’ that when applied, help to cut into the
clear coat on paint or first layer of other surfaces such as plastics, metals, or glass. There are
several grades of polishing compound that are relative to their ‘grit’ percentage or roughness.
 Buffing Towel or Pad: The final step in the hand polishing process is removal – again
completed by buffing the substance off. Typically hand polishing techniques will use a
buffing wheel, which is a solid round object with a handle and a buffing cloth or pad applied
to the wheel.
 If you are new to polishing, the hand method is arguably the best way to learn how and
reduce potential screw ups. The main pain point involved with polishing is the potential of
cutting too deep into the clear coat, which will then require professional repair. By doing this
by hand, you can slowly cut into the surface and stop when you can see the damage resolved.
ii. Electric Polishing
For those with experience, this is the preferred and more efficient way to remove surface
damage. Basically, you’re using the same root supplies of a polishing pad, compound, and
buffing cloth. The variable and scary element is the power tool.
10.12.4 Learning Activity
Select buffing materials, prepare the vehicle body and perform body buffing of the vehicle body
panel.

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10.12.5 Self-Assessment
1. What factors should be considered in selecting the materials, tools and equipment for
buffing?
2. Which two reasons explain why buffing process on a vehicle body is done?
3. What Four steps would you undertake in preparing a vehicle body for buffing?
10.12.6 Tools, Equipment, Materials
 Base coat
 Spray gun
 Soap and water
 Masking tape
 Paper towels/cloth Wax /grease remover
 Rotary and orbital Polishers
 Polishing pads
 Microfiber cloths and towels
 Assorted brushes
 Spray booth
 Compressor
 Mixing room
 Painting tools
 Painting materials and sundries
 PPE’s
10.12.7 References
James E. Duffy, R. S. (2003). Auto Body Repair Technology. Thomson/Delmar Learning.
Joseph, M. (2009). Automotive Bodywork and Rust Repair. Grand Avenue in China: CarTech
Publishers
Solas. (2014). Use of Push/Pull Equipment. In M. Stack, Trade of Vehicle Body Work Repair
(pp. 3-4).
10.12.8 Model answers
1. What factors should be considered in selecting the materials, tools and equipment for
buffing?
- Ease and versatility
- Speed
- Accessories and attachments
- Size and weight
- Safety
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 2. Which two reasons explain why buffing process on a vehicle body is done?
- Surface repair
- Surface protection
3. What Four steps would you undertake in preparing a vehicle body for buffing?
- Park the car in shade.
- Thoroughly wash your car clean to ensure there is no dust or dirt on the body.
- Use a clay bar on the surface of the car after washing to remove any grime or grit left on
the surface of the car.
- Mask the vehicle to protect other areas from being scuffed by the heat generated by the
buffer

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