MOMENTUM IAS

Dr. Piyush Chaubey

PSIR Foundation 2023

COMPARATIVE POLITICS
and
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNITED NATIONS

8929879230, 8929879231
https://momentumias.com
Content
Comparative Politics: Nature and major approaches; Political economy
and political sociology perspectives; Limitations of the comparative
method. .................................................................................................01-49

1.1. Comparative Politics: Nature And Major Approaches ......................................... 01

 Introduction to Comparative Politics: Subject Matter of Comparative Politics ........................................01
 What Exactly is Comparative Politics? .......................................................................................................................01
 Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics .............................................................................................................03
 Difference Between ‘Comparative Politics’ And ‘Comparative Government’ ............................................04
 Methods of Comparison: How and What to Compare ......................................................................................05
 Evolution of Comparative Politics ...............................................................................................................................05
 Globalisation and the Challenge for Comparative Politics ...............................................................................07
 Gendering Comparative Politics ..................................................................................................................................08
 Significance of Comparative Political Analysis ......................................................................................................10
 Limitations of Comparative Method..........................................................................................................................10

1.2. The Political Economy Approach ............................................................................ 12

 Political Economy Approach ........................................................................................................................................12
 Major Theories Linked to Political Economy Approach ....................................................................................14
 Criticism ................................................................................................................................................................................18
 Significance of the Political Economy Approach ..................................................................................................18

1.3. Political Sociology Approach .................................................................................. 19

 Contemporary Political Sociology ..............................................................................................................................22

1.4. Systems Approach .................................................................................................... 25

 David Easton’s Input Output Model ........................................................................................................................26
1.5. Structural Functional Approach...............................................................................28

1.6. Additional Notes .......................................................................................................31

 End of Ideology Debate..................................................................................................................................................31
 End of History Debate .....................................................................................................................................................32
 The Clash of Civilizations Theory ................................................................................................................................34

1.7. Political Culture Approach .......................................................................................37

 Components and Shifts of Political Culture ............................................................................................................38
 Classification of Political Culture .................................................................................................................................39
 Political Culture in Comparative Perspective ..........................................................................................................39
 Continental European Political System .....................................................................................................................40
 Developing Countries Political System .....................................................................................................................40
 Totalitarian Political System...........................................................................................................................................40
 Limitations of Political Culture Approach ................................................................................................................41
 Significance of the Political Culture Approach ......................................................................................................41

1.8. Political Development Approach .............................................................................43

 Limitations of this Approach ........................................................................................................................................44

1.9. Political Modernisation Approach...........................................................................46

 Critique of Political Modernization Approach ......................................................................................................47

State In Comparative Perspective: Characteristics And Changing Nature

Of The State In Capitalist And Socialist Economies, And Advanced
Industrial And Developing Societies. .................................................50-66

2.1. The Concept of Nation State....................................................................................50

 Nation vs State Debate ...................................................................................................................................................50
 Brief Analysis of Evolution of State in West ............................................................................................................51

2.2. State In Comparative Perspective............................................................................53

 Characteristics and Changing Nature of the State in Capitalist/Socialist and Advanced Industrial
Societies/Economies ........................................................................................................................................................53

2.3. Post Colonial State/ Post-Colonialism ....................................................................55

 Nation State in Postcolonial Context.........................................................................................................................58
 Hamza-Alawi’ Notion of Overdeveloped State .....................................................................................................59
2.4. Characteristics And Changing Nature Of The State In Socialist Economies ...... 61

2.5. Trends In The Third World ...................................................................................... 64

Politics of Representation and Participation: Political parties, pressure

groups and social movements in advanced industrial and developing
societies. ................................................................................................67-99

3.1. Political Parties ......................................................................................................... 67

 Definition of Political Parties .........................................................................................................................................68
 Marxist Concept of Parties ............................................................................................................................................68
 Contemporary views about the Parties ....................................................................................................................69
 Classification of Political Parties ..................................................................................................................................71
 The Elitist Parties................................................................................................................................................................71
 Mass Parties.........................................................................................................................................................................72
 Intermediate Type Parties ..............................................................................................................................................73

3.2. Parties In Developing Countries ............................................................................. 74

 Hitchner & Levine’s Classification...............................................................................................................................74
 Party System ........................................................................................................................................................................75
 One Party System ..............................................................................................................................................................76
 Two Party System ..............................................................................................................................................................77
 The Distinct Two-Party System ....................................................................................................................................78
 Multi-Party Systems .........................................................................................................................................................78
 Role and Evaluation of Party Systems .......................................................................................................................79
 Crisis of Political Parties ..................................................................................................................................................80
 Emerging Trends in Party System ..............................................................................................................................81

3.3. Dominant and Distinctive Features of Non-Western Political Process .............. 83

3.4. The Characteristics of the Democratic Regimes of Developed World ............... 85

3.5. Pressure Groups In Advanced Industrial and Developing Societies ................... 87

 Interest Groups ..................................................................................................................................................................88
 Mass and Traditional Groups ........................................................................................................................................89
 Interest/Pressure Groups and Political Parties .......................................................................................................90
  Classification of Interest Group ...................................................................................................................................91
 Jean Blondel’s Classification .........................................................................................................................................92
 Maurice Duverger’s Classification...............................................................................................................................92
 Role of Interest/Pressure Groups ................................................................................................................................93

3.6. Role Of Pressure Groups In Developing Countries .............................................. 94

 Pressure Groups as a Link Between the Government and the Public...........................................................95
 Role of Think Tanks in Indian Foreign Policy ..........................................................................................................95

3.7. Social Movements and New Social Movements ................................................... 97

 Social Movement in Advance Industrial Countries Versus Social Movement in Developing
Countries ..............................................................................................................................................................................97
 New Social Movements in Advance Industrial Countries Versus New Social Movements in
Developing Countries ......................................................................................................................................................97

Globalization: Responses from developed and developing

societies. ............................................................................................100-133

4.1. Globalisation: Theories of Globalisation ............................................................. 100

 Theories of Globalisation ........................................................................................................................................... 100
 Liberal Perspective: ........................................................................................................................................................ 100
 Skeptical Theory of Globalisation ............................................................................................................................ 101
 Transformationalist Theory of Globalisation ....................................................................................................... 101
 Marxist Theory of Globalisation: ............................................................................................................................. 101
 Dependency Theory of Globalisation ..................................................................................................................... 101
 Neoliberalism and Economic Globalisation ......................................................................................................... 102
 Merits of Globalisation ............................................................................................................................................... 103
 Demerits of Globalisation .......................................................................................................................................... 103

4.2. Impact of Globalisation on the Developing Countries ...................................... 104

 Globalisation & Human Welfare in Developing Societies .............................................................................. 106

4.3. Impact Of Globalisation On Developed Countries ............................................. 108

4.4. The Response of Developing and Underdevloped Countries Towards

Globalisation ........................................................................................................... 110
 Impact of Globalisation on the Internal Functioning of the State .............................................................. 111
 Is the Nation State Still Relevant after Globalisation?...................................................................................... 112
  Counter Arguments....................................................................................................................................................... 113
 Is Globalisation Essentially a Process of ‘Universalisation’ of Capitalist Modernity? ........................... 113

4.5. Globalisation and Human Rights.......................................................................... 118

 Relationship Between Globalisation and Human Rights: The Larger Debate......................................... 120
 Globalisation & The Right to Development ....................................................................................................... 121
 Transnational Corporations and Human Rights ................................................................................................. 121

4.6. The Globalisation Debate:Theoretical Aspects ................................................... 122

 Scholar’s Views on Globalisation ............................................................................................................................ 123

4.7. Globalization’s Impact on State’s Sovereignty .................................................... 124

4.8. Challenges of Globalisation and its Effects In India ........................................... 127

 Technological and Cultural Impact of Globalisation in India ........................................................................ 127
 Impacts of Globalisation on Different Sectors in India ................................................................................... 128
 Globalisation and the Human Rights Debate in India ..................................................................................... 128

4.9. Overcoming the Risks and Contradiction of Globalisation ............................... 130

Approaches to the Study of International Relations: Idealist, Realist,

Marxist, Functionalist and Systems theory. ..................................134-219

5.1. Approaches to the Study of International Relations .......................................... 134

 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 134
 Stages of Development of International Relations .......................................................................................... 134

5.2. Idealist Approach to International Relations ...................................................... 136

 Liberal Approach on Peace and Security .............................................................................................................. 138
 Liberal Approach on State and Power ................................................................................................................... 138
 Liberal Approach on Institutions and World Order: Liberal Institutionalism .......................................... 140
 Neo-Liberal Institutionalism ...................................................................................................................................... 141
 Sociological Liberalism................................................................................................................................................. 142

5.3. Functionalism / Functionalist Approach to International Relations ................ 144

 Neo Functionalism ......................................................................................................................................................... 145
 Democratic Peace Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 146
  Communication Theory ............................................................................................................................................... 146
 Critical Examination of the Liberal Approach to IR ........................................................................................... 147
 Common Misunderstandings .................................................................................................................................... 148
 Feminist Critique of Liberal Theory in IR .............................................................................................................. 148

5.4. Realist Approach to International Relations ....................................................... 150

 Evolution of Realism ..................................................................................................................................................... 151
 One Realism or Many? ................................................................................................................................................. 151
 Classical Realism ............................................................................................................................................................. 151
 Tenets of Classical Realism ......................................................................................................................................... 152
 Contemporary Realism or Neo-Realism ................................................................................................................ 153
 Realism: Main Assumptions and their Implications .......................................................................................... 154
 Neo Realism vs Neo Liberalism Debate ............................................................................................................... 156
 Common Assumptions of Both Neorealism and Neoliberal Institutionalism ....................................... 157
 Subaltern Realism .......................................................................................................................................................... 158
 Peripheral Realism.......................................................................................................................................................... 158
 Critical Examination of Realism as an Approach to International Relations ........................................... 159
 Scholarly Critiques of Realist Theory ...................................................................................................................... 161
 Significance of Realism ................................................................................................................................................ 161
 RealiSt Approach on Role of State and Power .................................................................................................... 162
 Realist Approach on Peace and Security............................................................................................................... 163
 Realist Approach on Institutions and World Order .......................................................................................... 163
 Hegemonic Stability Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 164

5.5. National Interest .................................................................................................... 165

 National Interest: Meaning, Components and Methods ................................................................................ 166
 Components of National Interest ............................................................................................................................ 167
 Classification of National Interests .......................................................................................................................... 167
 Methods for the Securing of National Interest .................................................................................................. 168

5.6. National Power ....................................................................................................... 171

5.7. National Security .................................................................................................... 172

 Third World Security ..................................................................................................................................................... 172
 A Short Note on Emerging Challenges to the Idea of Security in Post Cold War World: Debate on
“Human Security” ........................................................................................................................................................... 173

5.8. Security Dilemma: A Catalyst for Insecurity? ...................................................... 177

 Covid-19 Pandemic and National Security .......................................................................................................... 178
5.9. Balance of Power .................................................................................................... 180
 What Gave Rise to Bop Theory? ............................................................................................................................... 180
 Preference of Relative Gain or Absolute Gain and Balancing ....................................................................... 181
 Balancing Versus Bandwagoning ............................................................................................................................. 182
 Asia’s Balance of Power: Indian Context .............................................................................................................. 182
 Offshore Balancing ........................................................................................................................................................ 183
 Critical Examination of Balance of Power ............................................................................................................. 184

5.10. Deterrence Theory ................................................................................................. 186

 Special Reference: Theoretical Analysis of Nuclear Proliferation and Nuclear Deterrence ............... 187
 National Prestige Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 188
 ‘Great Power’ Status ...................................................................................................................................................... 189
 The Debate Between Waltz and Sagan about Nuclear Deterrence............................................................ 189
 Ten Serious Flaws in Nuclear Deterrence Theory .............................................................................................. 192
 Technological Challenges to Theory of Deterrence ........................................................................................ 193

5.11. Collective Security and Collective Defense ......................................................... 194

 Collective Defense ......................................................................................................................................................... 195
 Difference Between Collective Security and Collective Defence ................................................................ 195
 Collective Security and Balance of Power ............................................................................................................. 196
 UN Collective Security System ................................................................................................................................. 196
 Criticism Against Collective Security ...................................................................................................................... 197

5.12. Marxist Theory In International Relations .......................................................... 200

 Marxist Theory in IR ...................................................................................................................................................... 200
 Neo-Marxist Percieved: .............................................................................................................................................. 200
 Dependency Theory ..................................................................................................................................................... 201
 World-Systems Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 202
 Criticisms ........................................................................................................................................................................... 205
 Idea of Neo-Colonialism offered by Nkrumah .................................................................................................. 206
 Feminist Critique of Marxist Theory ...................................................................................................................... 207
 Views of Robert Cox ...................................................................................................................................................... 207
 Views of Andrew Linklater ........................................................................................................................................ 208

5.13. System Theory- Mortan Kaplan Model ............................................................... 210

5.14. Feminist Understanding Of International Relations .......................................... 212

 Feminist Understanding of International Relations .......................................................................................... 212
 Limitations: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 218
 Key Concepts in International Relations: National interest, security
and power; Balance of power and deterrence; Transational actors and
collective security; World capitalist economy and globalization...... 220-226

6.1. Key Concepts in International Relations: Transnational Actors and Collective

Security (The Rest of Concepts Have Been Already Discussed in the Preceding
Pages) ...................................................................................................................... 220
 Transnational Organisations and Their Various Clasifications ...................................................................... 220
 Transnational Actors and International Relations .............................................................................................. 221
 International Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOS) in International Relations .......................... 221
 Multinational Corporations (MNCS) in International Relations .................................................................. 222
 Epistemic Communities and Their Role in IR ..................................................................................................... 223

Changing International Political Order: Rise of super powers; Non-aligned

Movement; Collapse of the Soviet Union. ............................................ 227-274

7.1. The Cold War Era and its Politics .......................................................................... 227
 Meaning of the Cold War .......................................................................................................................................... 227
 Factors Responsible for the Cold War ................................................................................................................... 228
 Different Phases of the Cold War ........................................................................................................................... 228
 Second Phase of the Cold War : Post Truman-Stalin Era ............................................................................... 230
 The Detente .................................................................................................................................................................... 232
 New Cold War ................................................................................................................................................................ 233
 The End of the Cold War ............................................................................................................................................ 233
 Effects of the Cold War ................................................................................................................................................ 234
 Impact on the Security Scenario .............................................................................................................................. 235
 Consequences of the end of Cold War.................................................................................................................. 236
 Post Cold War Era .......................................................................................................................................................... 237

7.2. Changing International Order .............................................................................. 238

 What is an International Order? ............................................................................................................................... 238
 Evolution of the World Order .................................................................................................................................... 238
 World Order Post WW2- Liberal International World Order ......................................................................... 239
 What Were the Implications for the International System of Cold War Bipolarity? ............................. 239
 Post-Cold War Global Order- Emergence of Unipolar World....................................................................... 240
 A Multipolar Global Order? ........................................................................................................................................ 241
 Scholarly Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................... 243
7.3. New World Order ................................................................................................... 244
 India’s Vision of new World Order .......................................................................................................................... 244
 How Does it see the Current World Order? ......................................................................................................... 244
 What is the Vision of India’s new World Order? ................................................................................................ 244
 How India Would Engage With the World Depend on the Following Factors-..................................... 245
 India’s Role in Emerging World Order ................................................................................................................... 246
 India’s Foreign Policy to Emerge in new World Order-................................................................................... 247
 China’s Vision for A New World Order .................................................................................................................. 247
 Strategy of China to Engage in New World Order- .......................................................................................... 249
 Can China Replace USA as Hegemon? .................................................................................................................. 249
 China as a RevisIonist Power ? .................................................................................................................................. 251

7.4. Additional Content................................................................................................. 253

 Attacks on the Liberal World Order: Rise of Fascism ....................................................................................... 254
 New Realist Order .......................................................................................................................................................... 254

7.5. Arms Race ............................................................................................................... 257

 During Cold War ............................................................................................................................................................ 257
 Proliferation in the Post-Cold War Era ................................................................................................................... 259

7.6. Nuclear Arms Control and Disarmament ............................................................ 261

 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime.......................................................................................................................... 261
 Nuclear Supplier Group and its Objectives .......................................................................................................... 262
 The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)....................................................................................... 262
 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapon .................................................................................................... 263
 Strategies and Challenges to Achieve a World Free of Nuclear Weapons ............................................. 264

7.7. Non-Alignment Movement ................................................................................... 265

 NAM Structure and Organisation ............................................................................................................................ 266
 NAM in Cold War ........................................................................................................................................................... 268

7.8. India & NAM ........................................................................................................... 269

 What Were the Implications of the NAM ............................................................................................................. 269
 End of NAM 1.0............................................................................................................................................................... 270
 Future of NAM ................................................................................................................................................................ 270
 What is the Issue with the NAM?............................................................................................................................. 270
 Was NAM Successful? .................................................................................................................................................. 270
 Did NAM Lose its Relevance? .................................................................................................................................... 271
 How is the International order at Present? .......................................................................................................... 271
  Why is NAM Needed Now? ....................................................................................................................................... 271
 Emerging Global Order................................................................................................................................................ 271
 Relevance of NAM ......................................................................................................................................................... 272
 Way Forward .................................................................................................................................................................... 272

Evolution of the International Economic System: From Brettonwoods to

WTO; Socialist economies and the CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance); Third World demand for new international economic order;
Globalisation of the world economy. ..................................................... 275-308

8.1. Evolution of the Bretton Woods System ............................................................. 275

 Global Governance ........................................................................................................................................................ 275
 Global Governance: Myth or Reality? ..................................................................................................................... 276
 Global Economic Governance: The Evolution of the Bretton Woods System ........................................ 276
 Achievement of Bretton Wood System ................................................................................................................ 277

8.2. The International Monetary Fund ........................................................................ 278

 Functions of IMF ............................................................................................................................................................. 278
 Record of IMF so Far ..................................................................................................................................................... 280
 India and IMF ................................................................................................................................................................... 280
 IMF‘s Criticism ................................................................................................................................................................ 281
 Following Attempts Have Been Made to Reform IMF Although Limited Success has
been Achieved................................................................................................................................................................. 281
 Possiblity of Reforms .................................................................................................................................................... 281

8.3. World Bank Group ................................................................................................. 283

 History ............................................................................................................................................................................... 283
 International Finance Corporation .......................................................................................................................... 284
 International Development Association (IDA) .................................................................................................... 285
 International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)......................................................... 285
 Multiateral Investment Gaurantee Agency (MIGA) ......................................................................................... 286
 Criticism of World Bank .............................................................................................................................................. 286
 Reforms in World Bank ............................................................................................................................................... 287

8.4. WTO ......................................................................................................................... 288

 Goals of WTO ................................................................................................................................................................. 288
 Establishment of WTO.................................................................................................................................................. 289
  Why WTO Replaced the Gatt ? ................................................................................................................................. 289
 General Council ............................................................................................................................................................. 289
 WTO Ministerial Conferences ................................................................................................................................. 291
 (Mc12)- Geneva 2022 .................................................................................................................................................. 293
 Special Mention : The Doha Round ....................................................................................................................... 294
 WTO Contribution to the World ........................................................................................................................... 295
 WTO and India ................................................................................................................................................................ 296
 WTO Concerns ................................................................................................................................................................ 297
 Crisis at WTO.................................................................................................................................................................... 297
 Why Does the WTO Remain Relevant? .................................................................................................................. 299
 India’s Demand In WTO: ............................................................................................................................................ 300
 Reforming the Bretton Woods System: Issues and options .......................................................................... 301

8.5. Third World Demand for new International Economic Order: Globalisation of
the World Economy ............................................................................................... 303
 New International Economic order (NIEO)........................................................................................................... 303
 Prospects of NEIO .......................................................................................................................................................... 306
 What Should be Done? ................................................................................................................................................ 306
 India’s Role in Establishing NEIO ............................................................................................................................. 306

United Nations: Envisaged role and actual record; Specialized UN

agencies- aims and functioning; need for UN reforms. ..................... 309-363

9.1. United Nations: Envisaged Role and Actual Record; Specialized UN Agencies-
Aims and Functioning: Need for UN Reform ...................................................... 309
 History of UN Foundation .......................................................................................................................................... 309
 United Nations: Envisaged Role ............................................................................................................................... 309
 UN and its Organs ......................................................................................................................................................... 309
 The General Assembly .................................................................................................................................................. 310
 The Secretariat ................................................................................................................................................................ 310
 The Economic and Social Council ............................................................................................................................ 310
 The Trusteeship Council............................................................................................................................................... 311
 The International Court of Justice ........................................................................................................................... 311
 The Reform Process in the Economic and Social Arrangement of the United Nations...................... 311
 Achievements of UN ..................................................................................................................................................... 312
 Failures of UN .................................................................................................................................................................. 313
 Limitations of UN ........................................................................................................................................................... 313
9.2. UN In Cold War and in Post Cold War Era ........................................................... 314
 UN in Cold War Era........................................................................................................................................................ 314
 Changed Role of UN in Post Cold War Period .................................................................................................... 314
 Obstacles to Reform ..................................................................................................................................................... 315

9.3. Stratagies for Approaching The reforms in UN .................................................. 317

 Different Views on UNSC Reforms Claims and Counterclaims .................................................................... 318
 African View ..................................................................................................................................................................... 319
 Caricom .............................................................................................................................................................................. 321
 The Arab Group .............................................................................................................................................................. 321

9.4. Proposed Models for UN Reforms ....................................................................... 324

 Security Council Reforms ........................................................................................................................................... 324
 Proposed Solutions ....................................................................................................................................................... 324
 General Reforms: Proposed Models ....................................................................................................................... 325

9.5. Role of UN and Institutions in Controlling Nuclear Proliferations................... 326

9.6. International Court of Justice ............................................................................... 328

 International Court of Justice .................................................................................................................................... 328
 India at ICJ ........................................................................................................................................................................ 329

9.7. UN Contribution to World .................................................................................... 331

 Peace and Security......................................................................................................................................................... 331
 Economic Development .............................................................................................................................................. 331
 Social Development ..................................................................................................................................................... 332
 Human Rights .................................................................................................................................................................. 332
 Environment ..................................................................................................................................................................... 333
 International Law ............................................................................................................................................................ 333
 Humanitarian Affairs ..................................................................................................................................................... 334
 Health ................................................................................................................................................................................. 334
 Human Rights Under the UN .................................................................................................................................... 334

9.8. United Nations Human Rights Council ................................................................ 336

 About UN Human Rights Council ............................................................................................................................ 336
 India and UNHRC ........................................................................................................................................................... 338

9.9. The UN Performance in Containing Terrorism ................................................... 340

9.10. Challenges to Principle of Collective Security in UN Charter............................ 342

9.11. UN’s Peacekeeping Role-Changing Nature of Peacekeeping Operations........ 344

 UN’s Peacekeeping Role in Domestic Conflicts.................................................................................................. 345

9.12. The Politics of Financing the UN .......................................................................... 347

 USA and UN ..................................................................................................................................................................... 347

9.13. Required Reforms in UN........................................................................................ 349

9.14. Reforms Suggested by Antonioguttress in UN................................................... 352

9.15. The Sustainable Development Goals and UN ..................................................... 354

9.16. UN & India .............................................................................................................. 356

 UN Contribution to India ............................................................................................................................................ 356
 International Organisation for Migration ............................................................................................................. 356
 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) ........ 357
 Other Programmes of UN........................................................................................................................................... 357
 India’s Contribution to UN ......................................................................................................................................... 359
 India’s Claim to UNSC Seat and UN Peacekeeping ......................................................................................... 360
 Has This Sacrifice on Part of India Consolidated India’s Claim in the UNSC for Permanent
Membership? ................................................................................................................................................................... 360
 Why Should India Not Invest More Political Capital for UNSC Membership? ....................................... 361

Regionalisation of World Politics: EU, ASEAN, APEC, AARC,

NAFTA. ......................................................................................................... 364-387

10.1. Regionalisation Of World Politics......................................................................... 364

 Forms of Regionalisation ............................................................................................................................................ 365
 Trends of Regionalism Post 1990s ........................................................................................................................... 367
 Merits and Demerits of Regionalism ...................................................................................................................... 369
 Regionalism & Global Governance ......................................................................................................................... 369
 Regionalism and Globalisation or new Regionalism ........................................................................................ 370
 Regionalism Neither Challenges nor Fully Builds on Globalisation............................................................ 371
Or
 How is Regionalism Challenging Globalisation is Built on a Very Weak Argument ? ......................... 371
  Regionalisation As A Response To Globalisation ............................................................................................... 372
 Rising Regionalisation: Will the Post-Covid-19 World See a Retreat from Globalisation? ................ 373

10.2. European Union ...................................................................................................... 374

 The EU in Crisis?.............................................................................................................................................................. 376
 Limitations of EU ............................................................................................................................................................ 377
 Brexit .................................................................................................................................................................................. 377
 Regionalism in Asia: Replicating European Experience? ................................................................................. 379

10.3. ASEAN ..................................................................................................................... 381

 Success of Asean ........................................................................................................................................................... 381
 Issues Remain in the Asean ........................................................................................................................................ 382
 Obstacles to Asian Integration ................................................................................................................................. 382

10.4. BIMSTEC .................................................................................................................. 384

 Objectives of Bimstec: .................................................................................................................................................. 384
 Challenges......................................................................................................................................................................... 385
 Way Forward .................................................................................................................................................................... 385

Contemporary Global Concerns: Democracy, human rights, environment,

gender justice terrorism, nuclear proliferation. ................................... 388-440

11.1. Contemporary Global Concerns ........................................................................... 388

 Democracy ........................................................................................................................................................................ 388
 Can Democracy be Multicultural? or Can Multiculturalism be Democratic? .......................................... 388
 Democracy Promotion ................................................................................................................................................. 389
 Recent Global Trends In Elections............................................................................................................................ 391
 Reasons of Low Turnout in Developed Countries ............................................................................................. 391
 Recent Trends in Democracy (Based on Global State of Democracy Report 2021) ............................. 391

11.2. Gender Justice ........................................................................................................ 393

 Why do we Talk about Gender Justice? ............................................................................................................... 393
 Basic issues of Movements for Gender Justice................................................................................................... 394
 Key Demands in Gender Justice Movement ........................................................................................................ 394
 Some Organisations Demanding Gender Justice ............................................................................................. 394
 Global Justice Movement and Role of Women .................................................................................................. 395
 The Place of Gender Justice in the Global Political Agenda/What are the Demands of Gender
Justice in Political Agenda .......................................................................................................................................... 395
 Gendering Security ....................................................................................................................................................... 396
  Gender in the Global Economy................................................................................................................................. 396
 Policy Framework Available to Work for Gender Justice ................................................................................ 397
 Globalization’s Impact on Gender Equality.......................................................................................................... 398
 Negative Impact of Globalization on Women .................................................................................................... 399

11.3. Environment ........................................................................................................... 400

 Major Environmental issues ....................................................................................................................................... 400
 Green Politics: Reformism or Radicalism............................................................................................................... 401
 Classical Understanding of Environment ............................................................................................................. 401
 Reformist Ecology .......................................................................................................................................................... 401
 Contemporary Understanding of Environment.................................................................................................. 402
 Radical Undersatanding Environment ................................................................................................................... 402
 Radical Ecology ............................................................................................................................................................... 402
 Global Environmental Politics.................................................................................................................................... 403
 North-South Divide on Environmental Issues .................................................................................................... 404
 US and Climate Change Negotiations .................................................................................................................. 405
 Environment Focused Institutions ........................................................................................................................... 406
 Non-Bank Development Focused Institutions.................................................................................................... 408
 South-South Cooperation and Climate Change Politics................................................................................. 413
 India and Climate Change .......................................................................................................................................... 413

11.4. Terrorism ................................................................................................................. 416

 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 416
 Theories of Terrorism .................................................................................................................................................... 416
 Terrorism as Political Communication .................................................................................................................... 417
 Religion as Philosophy of Terrorism ....................................................................................................................... 418
 Types of Terrorism.......................................................................................................................................................... 419
 Recent Trends .................................................................................................................................................................. 421
 Evolution of UN for Countering Terrorism ........................................................................................................... 422
 Globalization and Terrorism ....................................................................................................................................... 423

11.5. Human Rights ......................................................................................................... 424

 Aspects of Human Rights ........................................................................................................................................... 424
 Vasek’s Three Generations of Rights ...................................................................................................................... 424
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights ................................................................................................................ 425
 Human Rights – International Relations .............................................................................................................. 425
 Recent Trends .................................................................................................................................................................. 426
 Cultural Relativist Approach to Human Rights: Asian Values Debate ...................................................... 428
11.6. Nuclear Proliferation ............................................................................................. 431
 SIPRI Report 2021 .......................................................................................................................................................... 431
 Nuclear Proliferation: A Theoretical Analysis ...................................................................................................... 431
 State Survival Theory .................................................................................................................................................... 432
 National Prestige Theory............................................................................................................................................. 432
 Great Power Status ........................................................................................................................................................ 433
 The Role of Nuclear Weapons in International Politics ................................................................................... 433
 Nuclear Issues in South Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 434
 Addressing Nuclear- Proliferation and Disarmament Challenges in South Asia .................................. 434
 How to Deal with the Non- Proliferation and Disarmament Challenges of South Asia?................... 435
 A New Nuclear ARMS Race is a Possibility?......................................................................................................... 436
 The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime ................................................................................................................. 437
 The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ............................................................................ 437
 India’s Perspective on NPT ......................................................................................................................................... 438
 3rd World Perspective on NPT .................................................................................................................................. 438
 Nuclear Supplier Group and its objectives........................................................................................................... 439
 3rd World Perspective on Nuclear Supplier Group........................................................................................... 439
 Challenges for the Future : ......................................................................................................................................... 440
 The Non-Proliferation Regime Faces a Crisis Today ......................................................................................... 440
 UNIT

1
Comparative Politics
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Chapter - 1.1

Comparative Politics: Nature And Major

Approaches

INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE  John Blondel- “the study of patterns of

POLITICS: SUBJECT MATTER OF national governments in the contemporary
COMPARATIVE POLITICS world”.
 M.G. Smith - “Comparative Politics is the
 Among the several fields or sub-disciplines into study of the forms of political organizations,
which Political Science is divided, Comparative their properties, correlations, variations and
Politics is the only one which carries a modes of change”.
methodological instead of a substantive label.  E.A Freeman - “Comparative Politics is
 The content and boundaries of comparative comparative analysis of the various forms of
politics are poorly defined, partly because the govt. and diverse political institutions”.
‘field’ is an ambiguous mixture of method and  Like any other form of evolutionary process,
subject areas. As some scholars have argued,
comparative government evolved into its present
comparative politics has a “messy center”.
form over a period of time. When you study the
 This is because it focuses on comparison evolution of comparative governments, you
and the comparative method, as a method study how political systems and procedures
of political inquiry. While all analysis involves vary across countries and across time
some degree of comparison without which an periods.
individual phenomenon cannot be understood,
comparative politics teaches us how to do so.  The actual evidence of undertaking such a study
It attempts to instill into this exercise scientific came to prominence in the 1950s, but its roots
rigor and technique. are even older. Aristotle can be called the
 While comparative government existed as a sub- ‘ancestral father’ of the study of comparative
discipline for a long time, comparative politics politics, since the methods that he used in
is a relatively new field dating from the post assigning politics among the sciences and
second world war period. It is a field that is problems and questions that he raised are still
difficult to define, has undergone many changes prevalent in current political studies.
and reached a plateau by the 1980s beyond  Consequently, as its name implies, it was
which it could not move. restricted to the study of the formal processes of
 But in recent years it has again attracted a governments and institutions.
growing interest due to the emergence of new  Political investigators use different approaches and
areas such as comparative public policy.
tools to arrive at greater political understanding.
The diversity of approaches is used by political
WHAT EXACTLY IS COMPARATIVE scientists to attack the complexity of political
POLITICS? systems and behavior.
 Conventionally, the study of comparative politics
Some popular definitions of comparative politics are is termed as ‘comparative government’. It
given below: includes the study of political institutions existing

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in various states. The features, advantages,  In 1955 R.C. Macridis clearly differentiated the
demerits, similarities, and dissimilarities of two when he pointed out that the traditional
political institutions were compared. It was approach was non comparative, descriptive,
an attempt to ascertain the best of political parochial, static, and monographic. It described
institutions. This approach also known as a number of countries one after the other in
the Traditional Approach continued to remain detail but attempted little comparison.
popular up to the end of the 19th century.  It was hence monographic in character i.e., we
 In the 20th century, the study of political had excellent country studies but no attempt
government underwent revolutionary changes. to understand why particular countries had a
The traditional focus of the study of politics multi-party system or why democracy worked
better in one country than another.
got substituted by new scope, methodology,
concepts, techniques which were known as  This was because the traditional approach was
contemporary views of the study of politics. much narrower in scope as it was based on
Political researchers made great attempts to the formal legal approach that characterized
develop a new science of ‘comparative politics’. political science as a whole. Consequently, as
They espoused comprehensiveness, realism, its name implies, it was restricted to the study
precision and use of scientific methods as the of the formal processes of governments and
new goals for the study of comparative politics. institutions.
This new endeavor is nowadays promoted as  Comparative politics is wider in scope and
‘modern’ comparative politics. encompasses not merely institutions but
political processes as well i.e., it covers
 In the modern assessment, the scope of
political parties, pressure groups and a wide
comparative politics is much wider. It includes
range of informal institutions and processes as
the analysis and comparison of the actual
well. This enables better analysis of institutions
behavior of political structures, formal as well
and processes within states and between states.
as informal. Hence, it can be comparative in a way that the
 Researchers believe that these political structures, traditional approach could not be.
governmental or non- governmental, directly  Comparative politics, in contrast to the
or indirectly affect the process of politics in all traditional approach, is multidisciplinary
political systems. Both traditional and modern in outlook, meaning that it draws not only on
comparative politics adopt different approaches political science but also on history, economics
to its study. and sociology. Part of this was due to changes in
 Traditional scientists follow a narrow and the discipline of political science as a whole, and
normative approach. It involves descriptive partly due to the behavioral approach.
studies with a legal institutional framework and  The traditional approach was parochial
normative prescriptive focus. i.e., restricted to European governments
and therefore Eurocentric in its outlook
 Whereas modern political scientists follow
and analysis. The post-war period saw a
empirical, analytical studies with a process
broadening of the fields after decolonization
orientated or behavioral focus and they adopt
number of states increased, throwing up fresh
scientific methodology. It seeks to analyze and
theoretical and methodological questions.
compare empirically the actual behavior of
political structures.  Finally, the traditional approach was static; it
did not try to understand why systems change.
The Content Pertaining To Tradtional Approaches Comparative politics, in contrast, has been
Is Exactly Similar As Provided In 1a Booklets. Also preoccupied with questions of how political
The Content Pertaining To Behaviouralism And systems change from tradition to modernity
Post-Behavioralism Is Common To Both Sections. and the problems that rapid change can
In This Section We Will Focus Solely On The produce, and also why some systems change
Comparative Aspects, The Rest Can Be Covered more slowly than others and retain traditional
From 1a Handouts. features.
Modern Approach (Comparative Politics Distinguished scholars such as Harold Lasswell and
Approach) Vs Traditional Approach (Comparative Gabriel Almond, took on the task of carving out and
Government Approach) establishing the field of comparative politics. Their

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basic task was to distinguish it from Political Theory  Other countries counted little, and their working
on the one hand, and from International Relations was seen as irrelevant in the grand political
and Area Studies on the other. Comparative Politics analyses and at the most found their mention in
was described as different from Political Theory as folkloristic reporting of their existence.
it involved not only theorizing but also classifying,  Soon, however, such parochial tendencies
categorizing, and discovering relationships among diminished, giving way to development towards
variables, hypotheses building and empirical more genuine comparative understanding of a
testing. It was suggested that circular relationships rather larger number of countries.
can be visualized between theory and comparative
politics. Comparative research begins by taking a  In the post-Second World War era, more and
fairly established theory, testing it empirically in the more political systems came up on the map of
field in a number of situations and then refining comparative politics. Literature grew on cross-
the theory again in the light of the findings. Many Atlantic comparisons, although their yardstick
theoretical tools such as party- systems, federalism, firmly remained British. Three kinds of work
parliamentary systems etc. were formulated in this emerged in cross-national studies.
manner.  The first category is denoted by the studies
of different countries of Europe that were
earlier not a part of the comparative political
NATURE AND SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE analysis.
POLITICS
 The second category of cross-national
studies was the works dealing with massive
 As the methods of comparison are deeply survey analysis that arose in the decade of
entrenched in comparative politics, this sub the 1960s and 1970s. In this league are the
discipline provides scientific rigour to the works of Almond Powell and Sidney Verba
study of politics-Landman. on political culture.
 The domain and scope of comparative politics is  The third type of cross-national analysis
very vast. Mark Lichbach and Alan Zuckerman was reflected by the works based on social
state that the students of comparative politics indicator data such as by Flora, Kraus, and
explain electoral behaviour, political networks, Pfenning on the growth of welfare state
political institutions, contentious politics, and political modernization, etc.
comparative political economies, welfare states,
 When all the writings produced in the field
international-comparative linkages, and the
were analyses, it was found that all the classical
state.
comparative literature were predominantly
 It is useful to explain the fundamental but concerned with attainment, maintenance,
complex questions about societies, such as: Why and defense of liberal democracy. Most of
do political phenomena unfold in a specific way these works were developed on the premise
in a particular society? Why do different countries of the division of the world into three distinct
have different kinds of regimes? Why do countries categories: (a) modern democratic countries
tend to develop in different directions and not in represented by the developed countries of the
one? How do we explain the complete adherence West, (b) modern non-democratic countries like
of some Western practices or institutions by some that of Nazi Fascist and totalitarian states, and
of the non-Western countries and not others? (c) non-modern countries who were amorphous
 The essence of comparative politics lies in and expected to modernize and develop like the
comparing and investigating. Before 1900, West.
the study of politics was largely dominated by  However, this categorization became obsolete
philosophy, history and law. in the wake of many global events that were
 Although these works were identified as neither expected nor could be explained by the
scholarships in comparative politics, in reality, scholarship and global discourse of comparative
they were specific to the history of some of the politics.
institutions of the West. Given the exclusionary  By 1980, all these categories started dissolving
nature of Western scholarship, these studies as there were no more prototypes of either
did not include the rest of the European liberalism or Marxism to be followed by the
democracies as they were seen as unusual and developing societies as internal crises started
less significant. pervading the capitalist and socialist camps.

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 The cost of modernity became apparently visible However, Edward Freeman is conscious of the fact
in the wake of environmental destruction and that these two terms are not identical.
ecological crisis.  Comparative government is concerned with
 The ambiguities were accentuated by the wave the study of formal political institutions like
of postmodernism that left the world with no legislature, executive, judiciary, and bureaucracy
unequivocal answers or generalized solutions. alone. In Comparative politics the other factors
 The world today is marked by fragmentation, which influence the working of the political
heterogeneity, and cosmopolitanism. The older institutions are considered. In other words,
forms of participation give way to newer forms ‘comparative politics’ makes a study of the formal
of collective action and solidarity. This explains as well as informal political institutions. This point
the global support for values such as human has been summed up by Edward Freeman:
rights, peace, environmental concerns, women’s  “The scope of comparative politics
rights, and homosexual rights. is wider than that of comparative
 Emphasizing on the positive achievement of government despite the search for
this discipline, Charles Boix and Susan Stoke making comparisons which is central
state that from the past few decades, the theory to the study of both. The concern of a
building in comparative politics has shifted from student of comparative politics does not
systemic broad explanations of countries to end with the study of rulemaking, rule
micro-foundations. implementation and rule adjudicating
organs of various political systems or
 Rather than developing a grand theory of a
even with that study of some extra
system, recent efforts in theorizing in the field
constitutional agencies (like political and
tend to prioritize an individual’s interests,
pressure groups) having their immediate
beliefs and context and then predict aggregate
connection, visible or invisible with the
outcomes. This, Boix and Stokes believe, is truly
a forward step in the discipline. departments of state activity. In addition
to all this, he goes ahead to deal with...
even those subjects hitherto considered
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘COMPARATIVE as falling within the range of Economics,
POLITICS’ AND ‘COMPARATIVE Sociology and Anthropology.”
GOVERNMENT’  Comparative government was chiefly
confined to the study of the political
 Scholars have tended to use the terms institutions of western democratic
‘comparative government’ and ‘comparative countries. On the other hand, comparative
politics for each other without realizing the politics concentrates on the study of
difference between the two. For example, Prof. political institutions of all the countries
S. E. Finer does not consider the two as different of the world. It has laid special emphasis
when he argues that “politics is neither the on the study of political institutions of the
same thing as government nor is it necessarily states which have emerged in the twentieth
connected only with those great territorial century.
associations which have a government, and which  Comparative government involves only
are known as ‘State’. For if we use government descriptive study of the political institutions
in the sense of ‘governance’ or the ‘activity of and makes only formal study of the political
governing’ we shall find that government exists institutions provided by the constitution.
at three levels. On the other hand, comparative politics
 For the vastest area of human conduct and concentrates on analytical study of the
activity in society proceeds quite unregulated various political institutions. Investigation
by the public authorities. It forms a coherent and experimentation constitute prominent
set of patterns and regulates itself. features of comparative politics.
 The second chief mode by which society  Comparative government concerns itself
forms its own patterns and regulates itself only with the political activities of the
is the process of so-called ‘socialization’ of political institutions, while comparative
the individual, which is associated with the politics also considers the economic,
concept of ‘social control’. Most societies cultural, and social factors. In other words,
in the modern world, however, are equipped it tries to examine the political institutions
with governments. through an inter- disciplinary approach.

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METHODS OF COMPARISON: HOW AND information as gazette and public records. Some
WHAT TO COMPARE examples of quantitative studies are the literacy
rate of women, school dropout rates of girls,
crimes against elderly and levels of agricultural
In a book by Todd Landman-Issues and Methods
production.
in Comparative: An Introduction has discussed
the following methods of comparative research in Kinds of Comparison
political science.
 Process of Comparative Research- Comparative  Comparing Many Countries- Comparing a
research is conducted in sequential processes large number of countries has great advantages
that follow in a line: description, classification, in terms of having huge information from a
hypothesis testing and prediction. Description wide variety of different conditions necessary
provides an introduction of a country, for general theory building. This method was
classification helps all the samples to be adopted by taking numerous countries for the
organized based on certain features, hypothesis study that easily shows the general pattern
testing enables general theorizing by eliminating across the behavioral political scientists and
the rival explanations and ultimately, based on political sociologists.
these theories, predictions can be made about  Comparing Few Countries- It basically focuses
future outcomes. Generalizations derived on selected but detailed study of some features
from the comparisons of some countries help or events in a limited number of countries. This
to predict likely outcomes even for those method takes five or six countries under its ambit
countries that are not part of the comparison of study. The goal of this method is to extract
but have an almost similar situation. When this targeted information that can help the researcher
is done, based on the analysis of the targeted to explain nuances in the understanding of
information generated so far, predictions are different systems. This, however, does not mean
made about the regimes under study. that single case studies are less important. In
 Levels of Analysis- Basically, there are two levels fact, when the political context is very varied,
of analysis: (a) micro or individual level and (b) complex, and nuanced, a detailed analysis
macro or system level. Micro-political analysis of the case study focusing on intra-system
concentrates on the Individual unit of analysis, level makes more sense in the comparative
for example, a leader of a social movement, an analysis.
important member of a political party and a
respondent in a survey. It tries to capture the EVOLUTION OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
modes, orientation, and aptitudes of individual
political units. Contrarily, macro-level analysis
focuses on bigger units that operate at a larger  The domain of comparative politics has evolved
scale and cause wider repercussions such as gradually with different theoretical discoveries
specific communities, social classes, and global and innovations. With changing context and time,
protest movements. it has gone through various phases characterized
by the associated dominant approach of that
 Quantitative and Qualitative Methods- period.
Quantitative method seeks to show differences in
terms of numbers, data generation interpretation  It was the post Second World War period that
and analysis. Contrarily, qualitative methods witnessed the retrenchment of the academic rigor
explain the differences in kind. There are so many of this sub-discipline, most particularly, under
features of countries that cannot be measured the leadership of David Easton in American
in numbers such as the degree of protection Political Science Association. Comparative
of human rights, kinds of protest movements, politics consolidated itself and was able to
nature of social mobilizations, features of political position as an independent and crucial area of
parties and nature of women’s participation. They inquiry from this time onwards.
tend to consider the attributes or different traits  Jean Blondel classifies it into three phases: the
of the object of study. As quantitative methods first phase extends till mid-18th century, second
generate numerical data, exact facts and figures, phase begins from mid-18th century and ends in
it is especially helpful for the government to 1914, and the third phase starts from 1914 and
legislate policies accordingly and to publish the continues till now. It is interesting to note that

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Klaus von Beyme’s classification of comparative Political System, Gabriel Almond and James
politics also resonates with that of Blondel. Coleman’s Politics of Developing Areas ,
He proposes three phases of development of Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba’s The Civic
the discipline in the categories of Premodern, Culture further fueled the quest for larger
Modern, and Postmodern, which comes very comparative studies.
close to the understanding of Blondel.  Behaviouralism gave rise to the analytical
framework of systems analysis under which
First Phase or Pre-Modern Phase countries were understood as political systems
 In its earliest days, the works in the field of constituted by the input, processing, output
comparative politics engaged with proposing and a feedback loop that allowed the system to
blueprints for organizing societies. The feature maintain a balance.
of this phase is exemplified by the works of  It was believed that the systems analysis aimed
Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. at studying the behaviour and functioning of
 The works produced in the first phase, or institutions and people.
traditional/classical phase, were marked by the  Unfortunately, despite too much stress on
predominance of philosophy, history, and precision and scientific method, comparative
jurisprudence. politics failed to predict and explain a spate
 Klaus von Beyme correctly reflects that the pre- of political events since 1945 that shook the
modern or classical approach was normative, world. Its inability to anticipate the student
speculative, impressionistic, and mostly movement of the 1960s, oil crisis of 1973,
ethnocentric. disintegration of Soviet Union in 1989, rise
of new fundamentalism and such other
 Though this phase is thought to have severe
limitations, classical political theorists are still crises brought a bit of embarrassment to the
very relevant. discipline.

 Alan R. Ball points out, the nature of questions  Consequently, the focus slowly shifted from
raised by these classical thinkers will remain the conventional framework of understanding
pertinent in all the times to come. confined to the state and its Institutions
to include a newer set of variables and
 Also, historical enquiry continues to guide the determinants of the system like class, culture,
more contemporary works such as that by Alexis race, ethnicity, gender, individual choices,
de Tocqueville, Max Weber, Gabriel Almond,
intersectionality and so on.
Seymour Martin Lipset and Theda Skocpol.
 The behavioral phase was rendered as
Second phase or Modern phase insufficient and therefore led to many
new approaches such as modernization
 Marked by scientific temperament and rigour and development school, dependency
 Von Beyme thinks that the works of Machiavelli, theory, political culture approach and new
Montesquieu, Tocqueville, and Mill paved the institutionalism.
way for a modern phase.  The 1960s was the decade of modernization,
 Witnessed prolific empirical works from a range Institution building and development projects.
of scholars engaging with different constitutions It pleaded that progress can be achieved by
that had recently proliferated in Europe and imitating all the patterns of development of
America and were considered perfect subjects societies of the West.
for the study.  It almost re-entrenched/re-established
 These works adopted a legalistic and the superiority of the Western discourse
constitutional framework of analysis as evident of knowledge, somewhat also legitimizing
in the prominent scholarships of this period such the European ventures and dismissing the
as James Byce’s Modern Democracies, Maurice emancipatory potential of epistemologies
Duverger’s Political Parties and K.C. Where’s (theories of knowledge) of the Global South.
Legislatures.  It is in reaction to this deeply flawed
 The decade of the 1950s was characterized by understanding of the world, societies and
the behavioral movement guided by American people that Dependency school emerged. This
scholarship. Works such as David Easton’s The approach had its roots in the non-West and

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held the pursuit of imperialism and colonialism  Blondel and Landman believe that comparative
responsible for inequality, underdevelopment, politics has entered a new phase of diversity in
and all other problems of developing societies. 1990 that is specified by stress on institutions,
(For Details Refer to Marxist Theory of IR in individuals, and cultural dimensions of politics.
the later pages).
 This theory provided a good amount of
ammunition to the scholars of developing
GLOBALISATION AND THE CHALLENGE
societies to expose how the whole understanding FOR COMPARATIVE POLITICS
of the world order was unjust and oppressive.
 On the other hand, the political culture  Webber and Smith notes, ‘one of the most
approach shifted the focus on people, their common descriptive labels of world politics in
political orientation and attitudes and their set of recent years has been that of transformation’ .
beliefs and sought to explore how these factors This transformation has been the phenomenon of
shaped politics and the economy of a country. globalization which has compelled comparative
 It considered the social, psychological and politics to consider new actors which are
historical accounts of people and the governing primarily non-state.
elite of a society.
 Old patterns and definitions within comparative
 Their scholarship was defined by questions politics were redefined to comprehend the
such as Individual political beliefs are shaped
existing scenario within and between countries.
by what kind of factors? What kinds of beliefs
Till the time of the post-behavioral revolution,
are politically important? In what ways political
systems are determined by political beliefs? Do the categories, units of analysis, and the ways
historical experience influence people’s perception of studying were nearly fixed. For instance, the
of politics? (Verba). state was studied in terms of its nationality,
population, territory, culture, democratization,
 In order to answer these queries, they established
a straight link between people’s intrinsic etc. and the society was studied in relation to the
commitment to democratic principles. state, political culture, and behavior.
 It expanded the contours of the discipline of  However, by the 1990s, there was an expansion
comparative politics, although it has also been and intensification of all kinds of social relations
critiqued for overemphasize stability and the across borders: economic, political, cultural, and
Anglo-Saxon style of democracy, so on, which Sorensen defines as globalization,
which became a major challenge for comparative
The Third phase or the Contemporary politics in contemporary times.
Phase
 The third phase or the contemporary phase Jeff Haynes lists five far-reaching processes
may also be taken to loosely represent Beyme’s of change' which altered the way of doing
postmodern phase. It is characterized by many comparative politics:
features, one of them being renewed interest  First- Emergence of many new countries
in institutionalism. Neo-institutionalism got
 Second- Widespread political changes like
popularized by the works of James G. March
decolonization, disintegration of the Union
and Johan P. Olsen, although it is quite different
from the old institutionalism. of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR), and new
wave of democratization in Latin America,
 The new institutionalism emphasizes the relative East Asia and Europe.
autonomy of the political institutions. (March
and Olson).  Third- Transnational corporations like
Microsoft and Macdonald, which are
 This approach brought the focus on institutions important non-state actors, affect domestic
back to the center stage. politics in a significant way.
 Though the theory of neo-institutionalism is  The fourth process was the emergence of
not coherent or complete yet, it has successfully regional entities based upon the integration
reoriented the political studies towards a of different nation states such as the European
nuanced yet comprehensive understanding of Union.
Institutions.

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 The entire understanding is made to

 The fifth process was the coming of transnational
dwell on the perception that the West is
civil society, as increasing regional economic
a place of perfection which encompasses
integration and the growth of transnational
values of equality, justice, tolerance,
political institutions have also affected domestic
democracy and on, and if the other parts
politics in major ways.
of the world want to develop, they would
In this era of globalization, we might say that have to imitate the path.
governments have to face trivial and complex  The more problematic aspect is that the
issues like accommodation of various identities and path laid down by the West for the West
granting them rights including citizenship rights.
has to be followed by the latter and this is
Along with this, there are various questions regarding
considered the ‘natural/logical’ way.
the economic growth, there are also issues with
regards to the distribution of natural resources like  The traditional scholars of comparative
water, clean air, diseases and epidemics, terrorism. politics were basically rooted in the
There are various social movements that run across Anglo-American tradition. The works
countries like feminist movement, LGBT movements, were primarily aimed at providing
anti-nuclear movement, etc. So, we can say that now models to the non-Western world,
comparative politics has to deal with myriad actors, being completely oblivious to the social,
the state-centric approach has been under question. political, and economic situations in the
So, when the world becomes a global village, what non-West world.
should be the framework for the discipline? Do we
need grand narratives, or should we identify it with  The new comparativists of the behavioral
the heterogeneous particularities of each country? era, held that the traditional way of doing
comparative politics was parochial in nature
Now, comparative politics is not restricted to politics and that the theorists should strive for a
from above like that of government and other power
value free understanding of politics.
holders, but it is also politics from below and politics
from outside like various social movements such as  The framework for comparisons was based
the World Trade Organization. In this context, we could upon the experiences of the Western
also mention Wiarda who argues that in the changed world. Thus, the universal categories of
context of state-society relations, comparative politics comparative analysis were based upon
needs to study lower-level topics like public opinion, a complete ignorance of the history and
electoral behavior, electoral strategies and so on. culture of the non-Western world.
Comparative politics came into terms
EUROCENTRISM: All Time Pervading 
with the challenge of eurocentrism with
Challenge the coming of the dependency theorists
 Scholars who challenge the Eurocentric biases of when for the first time it was recognized
this field raise the issues of denial of agency and that the study of the postcolonial
history to the non-Western world and that the countries must consider the fact that
West here basically means the United States, the colonialism has affected the social,
United Kingdom, France, and Germany. Stuart political, and economic conditioning of
Hall says that eurocentrism has been used to those societies.
mean putting Europe the center of things.  Henceforth, from the 1970s onwards, myriad
 The basic premise of the challenges to efforts were made to expand the ambit
Eurocentrism has been in terms of why/ of comparative politics by encompassing
how far the West could provide models to various voices and identities and not just
understand development and values of non- the Western ones.
Western nations.
The manifestations of eurocentrism are

GENDERING COMPARATIVE POLITICS
myriad; they could be seen in different
disciplines, theories, and in fact day-to-
day relationships. What is problematic is  There has been a conspicuous absence of gender
the hegemonic prevalence of European as a separate category of analysis in comparative
ideas and not European ideas per se- politics. The reason for this omission is the very
Deshpande. nature of the gendered world that we inhabit.

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 The homogenizing and functioning of a society is  Similarly, the dissolution of the USSR gave rise
based on patriarchal assumptions about the role to splintered fragile regimes that could not be
of men and women in society and politics. These comprehended by the traditional categories of
prejudices are then replicated in our political understanding. Widespread political changes in
attitudes and behavior, resulting in gendered these countries need a more dynamic framework
outcomes in development programmes and to make sense of politics and the political
policies. system.
 For example, we have exclusive male institutions  Also, some of these countries have been marked
like the military and nearly universal dominance by a high degree of instability and fluid nature
of male actors in governments worldwide of the state as in the case of Somalia, Syria,
(Beckwith). Gender remains so central to the or Afghanistan. Changing structure, forms
politics of a country and yet is systematically and features of states mould the nature of
dismissed as a not so relevant variable in the
engagement in the discipline.
political analysis.
 Changes due to Globalization: In contemporary
 Resonating with the concerns of Judith
times, the domestic political-economic terrains
Squires, who strongly advocates for gendering
the study of politics in her work Gender and of countries are defined hugely by transnational
Political Theory, there is a group of scholars in connections. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
comparative politics, such as Teri L. Caraway, factor in homogenizing or stress on uniformity/
Leslie A. Schwindt-Bayer, Karen Beckwith, and similarity caused by Globalization. In fact,
others, who plead for gendering comparative all dimensions of homogenizing have to be
politics. analyzed: technological, political, economic as
 All these scholars conceptualise their approach as well as cultural.
developing and defining ‘comparative politics  Jeff Haynes points to the fact that
of gender’. They argue that comparative political comparative political analysis cannot afford
research must engage with gender as one of the to neglect concerns arising from the impact
pertinent tools of analysis. of homogenizing on states, otherwise the
 By encouraging a greater integration of gender discipline will run the risk of being analytically
in the discourse of comparative politics, we will inadequate.
be better equipped to answer questions like:
 Multinational companies and global trade and
What is the relationship between women’s rights
supranational institutions have been constantly
and political stability? Does gender inequality
diminishing the power of the nation state. There
explain the prevalence of dictatorship in the
clearly emerges a tussle of power among all these
Muslim world? Is gendered leadership responsible
for gendered public policy? sources of authority that are locked in a game of
constant negotiation to draw and redraw their
What Changed in the Comparative boundaries of power and authority.
Political Science Tradition after Second  Rising social movements: new varieties of
World War? social movements have sprung up and have
been an all-pervasive phenomenon, particularly
Post-World War 2, there have been certain changes in postcolonial societies in the decade of 1970s.
taking place in the international arena which are There are protest movements backed by global
important to be analyzed in comparative politics. society e.g., Climate change, rights advocacy
These changes are-
groups, issues of conservation
 Political changes: After the Second World
 For instance, the relevance of comparative
War, a large number of new countries that
politics has grown all the more in the times
were earlier colonies emerged on the world
map. These countries were remarkably different when human rights have become an important
compared with the older democracies. Their yardstick to evaluate the efficacy of regimes.
state formation occurred in a very different Todd Landman in his article on Comparative
environment, and hence, they were bound to Politics and Human Rights suggests that the field
diverge from the Western framework. To engage of comparative politics has much to contribute in
with these countries, the discipline needed to this domain of research both in substantive and
discover newer rules and tools of analysis. in methodological ways.

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 The cross-cultural comparisons of different  Kenneth Newton and Jan Van Deth state that
countries of the world can explain inferences the study of comparative politics and government
about determinants and variables that enable is crucial as it serves three purposes. First, in
better protection and promotion of human order to understand our own country well, we
rights in some countries while not so in case must have knowledge of others, Second, we
of other countries. can understand other countries when we know
 In this light, it is important to study in their background, institutions, and history. Third,
comparative politics the relation between social we cannot arrive at valid generalizations about
movements and democratic institutions and the government and politics without the comparative
conditions in which they supplement democracy method.
or otherwise.
 Knowledge arising out of comparison assists
 Unfortunately, so far comparative research has understanding, explaining, and interpreting
shied away from the hard-core engagements with
varied historical facts and processes of present
alternative channels of political engagements,
institutional arrangements.
especially the demonstration and protest politics
and transnational policy networks.  Comparative method makes research not only
 Post-World War 2 war, there have been certain comprehensive but also systematic.
changes taking place in the international arena  Rightly said by Alexis de Tocqueville, ‘Without
which cannot be analyzed with the present comparisons to make, the mind does not know
literature of comparative politics. The earlier how to proceed.’ In this context, the comparative
literature in the field clearly looks uninformed method in politics has several significances.
of such changes or it may have failed to
fathom the ways and degrees in which these
transformations have impacted the political LIMITATIONS OF COMPARATIVE
world altogether. METHOD
 Studies in comparative politics have primarily
been engaged with conventional categories There are dissimilar methods of reviewing politics other
of analysis in politics such as the state and its than comparative such as experimental, statistical, and
institutions. Therefore, it becomes critical for case study. All of them have their own advantages
comparative politics to map ways and extent in
and disadvantages. Comparison is a popular research
which such processes of change are affecting the
technique which has several benefits and widespread
nature and scope of the discipline.
application. Although comparative approach in
political science is considered to be advantageous in
SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPARATIVE linking theory to evidence, enhancing it as a scientific
POLITICAL ANALYSIS discipline, there are a number of constraints that limit
its possibilities and can impair its usefulness.
 It helps to formulate a general theory about  Arend Lijphart claimed that the phrase
systems and processes that can be verifiable. comparative politics specifies the how but
Comparative approach is preferred as it does not postulate the what of the analysis.
deepens our knowledge of the political world
Comparativists usually compare and contrast
by explaining the similarities and differences
different component parts of countries; political
existing in it. It provides a wide range of
systems and try to discover differences and
factors for analysis, immediately widening
the scope and accuracy of the study. certain tendencies. Comparison entails following
basic operations: Compiling a list of things to
 Hague and Harrop think that comparison compare, Sorting and classifying them and,
widens our understanding of the political world
eventually, carrying out a basic act of comparison
around us, therefore enabling us to come up
and making relevant conclusions.
with improved classifications, explanations, and
predictions  Common problems are usually too many
 Judith Bara believes that comparison is variables and too few cases. There are more
indispensable, as researchers cannot make than 200 countries in the world, but regrettably,
an assertion about a specific feature of an they are all quite different. It is impossible to
event, institution, or form of behaviour without compare drastically different or completely
comparing with others. identical countries, so in order to take advantage

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of comparative methods, only similar countries  Comparative researchers may disagree about
with minor differences should be compared and, whether the assimilated knowledge may help
in some cases, it may prove to be complicated make the world a better place or help people
to find such. to make better judgments about politics, but
they usually accept that the job of defining and
 It is appraised that the common classification
explaining is big enough.
of scientific methods by Arend Lijphart is
comprehensible only to a limited extent and is  The most bothersome weakness of comparative
in part ambiguous. He distinguishes between politics is the uncertainty of the area of study.
experimental and non-experimental methods. Researchers often have too many theories that
fit the same data. This means that collecting valid
 Among the non-experimental methods, which and reliable data for the case researchers have
are applied in Comparative Politics in particular, selected to test theoretical relations can turn
he differentiates between the statistical and out to be a formidable task. If this problem is
the comparative method as well as the case insufficiently solved, it will undermine the quality
study. The difference between the statistical of results (Daniele Caramani).
and the comparative method is challenging.  Other disadvantages of comparative approach
Particularly, describing the statistical method are that if inadequate data is available, it may be
as an independent procedure is haphazard. impossible to apply. Adjustments must be made
 The other problem raised by researchers with as no two properties are ever identical.
the comparative method is that research  Precision of the method depends upon the
might be not objective, and the researcher appraiser’s ability to recognize differences,
purposely chooses countries to demonstrate and to make the proper adjustments for those
negative or positive moments to prove his/her differences.
opinion. For example, consider the proposition To summarise, the Comparative method is certainly the
that countries with weak trade unions are more effective method to study and analyse contemporary
economically efficacious than countries with politics, but researchers must be aware of the
strong trade unions. Here, trade unionists and, problems related with this process. Comparative
on the opposite side, managing directors have a method is used as a basis in all methods of valuation.
political point to make, so more than likely their Comparative methods make a complex political
conclusions might completely diverge. reality and make it more manageable. Comparative
politics brings researchers into contact with political
 Comparative Politics tend to ignore normative
worlds other than political and cultural horizons.
evaluation of the world in favour of defining
Comparative approach to studying politics
the political world and clarifying why it is the also enables researchers to move beyond mere
way it is. Nonetheless, it is important to recollect description, toward explanation and within this
that comparativists do this because as social method researchers can talk about comparative
scientists, they are committed first to offering politics as a science. But the negative side is that
systematic explanations for the world as it is. So, there is difficulty in operationalizing variables.
they try to draw a realistic rather than normative Any research of comparative methods is susceptible
model. to personal interests and motivations.

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Chapter - 1.2

The Political Economy Approach

POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROACH the material means of subsistence’ are part of

the political economy. He stated that ‘Political
economy deals with human working activity,
 Political economy refers to a specific approach
not from the standpoint of its technical
to study social and political events where
methods and instruments of labour, but from
economics and politics are not seen as
the standpoint of its social form. It deals with
separate domains. It is based on the belief that
production relations which are established
the two disciplines have an intimate relationship
among people in the process of production’.
and the hypothesis that this relationship unfolds
in diverse ways. These assumptions constitute  Similarly, the Russian economist I. I. Rubin, who
important explanatory and analytical frameworks authored Essays on Marx’s Theory of Value,
within which social and political phenomena can stated that ‘Political economy deals with human
be studied. Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and working activity, not from the standpoint of its
Karl Marx were some of the exponents of the technical methods and instruments of labour, but
political economy approach. In contemporary from the standpoint of its social form. It deals with
scholarship, the term ‘Political Economy’ indicates production relations which are established among
the amalgamation of two different disciplines- people in the process of production’.
Political Science and Economics.  Thus, the Political economy approach provides
 However, it must be noted that the evolution of an economic interpretation of political
economics and politics as separate disciplines consequences. It seeks to study the social
of study itself is a modern phenomenon. relations that evolve between people in the
The distinction between the subject matter of process of production, distribution, exchange
political science and economics was unknown and consumption.
until the Renaissance and Industrial Revolution  This approach assumes that political systems are
in Europe. The ancient Indian scholar Kautilya merely expressions of the economic requirements
described statecraft in his famous work of the society and social groups and that the
Arthashastra (Economics). On the other hand, changes in the economic system automatically
Aristotle considered economic questions in his lead to changes in the political system.
book Politics.
 This approach can be divided in two major
 Among classical political economists, Adam perspectives—Liberal and Marxist.
Smith considered political economy as ‘a
branch of the science of a statesman or Liberal Perspectives
legislator’. Karl Marx often referred to the
‘critique of political economy’ in his writings;  The Liberal perspective emerged as a critique
however, it was Friedrich Engels, the co-author of the comprehensive political control and
of The Communist Manifesto along with Karl regulation of economic affairs which had
Marx, who defined the term Political economy. dominated European nation building in the
According to Engels, studies of ‘the laws sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, i.e., the
governing the production and exchange of Mercantilist school of thought.

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 Liberals rejected theories and policies which  Adam Smith, became a major proponent of the
subordinated economics to politics. theory. The early economic liberals called for the
 They wanted a free market which was not limited Laissez faire doctrine, i.e., the freedom of the
by any monopoly or an economy that was not market from all kinds of political restriction and
disassociated from the interest of the poor and regulation.
of the community as a whole.  They advocated for minimal interference of the
 The core ideas of the Liberal perspective stresses government in a market economy although
on the fact that the individual, being a rational Laissez faire doctrine did not necessarily oppose
individual actor, will find his or her way to progress the state’s provision for a few basic public goods
through the process of free trade as there will be which was necessary for the market to function
mutual exchange of goods and services. properly.
 They say that the market being the main source of  The rationale of the doctrine is that if everyone
progress, cooperation and prosperity should not is left to their own economic devices instead of
have any political interference or state regulation being controlled by the state, then the result
as they are uneconomical and retrogressive and would be a harmonious and more equal society
lead to conflict. of ever-increasing prosperity.
 Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Paul Samuelson,
J.M Keynes, etc. are often regarded as leading Keynesian concept:
exponents of the liberal perspective of the
 Keynesian concept is based on the idea that the
political economy approach.
market may not work according to the belief of
 Adam Smith, the author of Wealth of Nations, efficiency and mutual gain and lead to instances
believed that the market tended to expand of market failure.
spontaneously for the satisfaction of human
needs - provided that the government did not  John Maynard Keynes, the leading economist
interfere. of the early twentieth century, argued that the
market economy was a great benefit to people
 He advocated the ‘Laissez faire’ policy where free
but it also entailed potential evils of ‘risk,
individuals were best equipped to make social
uncertainty and ignorance.’
choices.
 Therefore, the market had to be improved
 David Ricardo argued that free trade benefited all
the participants as it led to specialization which through the political management of the state.
increased efficiency and thus productivity. In other words, the state should play a positive
role in providing directions for the economy so
 Paul Samuelson summarized the argument by
that any market failure in the state can be averted
stating that trade will be mutually profitable when
and help to improve the situation if it occurs.
the region which has a comparative advantage of
specializing the product, specializes and makes  The Keynesian view became popular in the
the region more efficient. decades after the Second World War as the state
took up the responsibility of building the war
 There has been a recurring debate among
torn economy through public planning of the
economic liberals about the extent to which
political interference by governments may be state.
necessary.
Neo-liberal perspective:
 The different views of how much the state
should interfere have led to the development  In the latter part of the twentieth century,
of the different strands of Economic Liberalism, especially since the late 1980s, occurrence of
namely— Classical Laissez Faire doctrine, globalization, privatization and liberalization has
Keynesian concept and Neo-liberal Perspective. brought back the classical laissez faire doctrine
in the form of neoliberalism.
Classical Laissez Faire doctrine:
 It describes the political economy approach
 The Laissez faire doctrine was introduced in the from the perspective of the market to economic
eighteenth century, though the origin of the as well as social policy, which is based on neo
term remains unclear. classical theories of economics.

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 It stresses on the efficiency of private enterprise  According to V.I. Lenin, the process of capitalist
and the need to liberalize trade through open expansion must always be unequal or uneven.
markets, in order to maximize the role of the He alluded to how Britain was ahead of Germany
private sector and determine the political and during the eighteenth and nineteenth century,
economic priorities of the state. while in the twentieth century, Germany wanted a
 Economic liberals argue that the market economy, revision of the international spheres of influence
being an autonomous sphere of society, operates which led to war between Germany and England.
according to its own economic laws. This is the ‘law of uneven development’ which
leads to disparities and cause conflict under the
 The market maximizes benefits for rational self
capitalist conditions.
seeking individuals, households and companies
that participate in the market exchange. The
economy is a sphere of cooperation for mutual MAJOR THEORIES LINKED TO POLITICAL
benefit among the states as well as individuals. ECONOMY APPROACH
Thus, the economy should be based on free
trade.
Modernisation Theory: Development As
Marxist Perspectives Modernisation
 The Marxist perspective of political economy  The theory of modernization was an attempt by
believes that economics forms the base of society First world scholars to explain the social reality of
and the political system. the new states ‘of the Third world. This theory
is based upon separation or dualism between
 Marxist scholars hold that except in primitive
traditional ‘and modern ‘societies.
communism, every other society has been
divided along the classes of ‘haves’ and ‘haves-  The distinction between traditional and modern
not’. societies was derived from Max Weber via Talcott
 For Marxists, human history is a history of class Parsons. A society in which most relationships
struggle. They see the capitalist state as a tool were particularistic rather than universalistic
to legitimize human exploitation and class ‘(e.g. based on ties to particular people, such as
inequality. kin, rather than on general criteria designating
whole classes of persons) in which birth rather
 The Marxist school of political economy has been than achievement was the general ground for
led by Karl Marx, followed by other thinkers holding a job or an office; in which feelings
such as Engels, V.I. Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, rather than objectivity governed relationships of
Trotsky, Kautsky, Bukharin and so on. all sorts and in which roles were not separated
However, we can identify some common features - for instance, the royal household was also the
of the Marxist perspective as follows: state was called traditional.
 States are driven by the ruling class and are not  Other features generally seen as characteristic
autonomous. Capitalist states are primarily driven of traditional societies included things like a
by the interest of their respective bourgeoisie and low level of division of labour, dependence on
the conflict between states should be essentially agriculture, low rates of growth of production,
seen in its economic context of competition predominance of local networks of exchange
between capitalist classes of different states. In and restricted administrative competence.
other words, class conflict is more fundamental  A modern society, on the other hand, is seen
than conflict between states. as displaying the opposite features. Modern
 The economic system of capitalism is expansive. society was defined as a social system
As there is a never ending search for markets based on achievement, universalism, and
and profits, capitalism has expanded across individualism, as a world of social mobility,
the globe; first in the form of imperialism and equal opportunity, the rule of law and
colonization and in the contemporary world individual freedom.
after the colonies have gained independence, it  Following this opposition of the two categories,
is led by the giant transnational corporations in modernization referred to the process of
the form of economic globalization. transition from traditional to modern principles
 That is why class conflict is not confined to states, of social organisation. This process of transition
but rather cuts across state borders. was not only seen as actually occurring in the

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newly independent countries of Asia, Africa, and  Baran argued that the economic relationships
Latin America, but also seen as the goal these that existed between western Europe (and later
countries had set for themselves to achieve. Japan and the United States) and the rest of the
In other words, the purpose of modernisation world were based on conflict and exploitation
theory was to explain and promote the transition through trade, seizing, and removing tremendous
from traditional to modern society. wealth. The result was the transfer of wealth from
 Modernization theory argued that this the latter to the former.
transition should be regarded as a process  In the 1960s, Frank examined Third World
of traditional society catching up with the countries at close hand, and criticized the
modern world. dualist thesis (of the modernisation school),
 The theory of modernization was most clearly which isolated modern ‘and traditional
elaborated in the writings of W.W. Rostow ‘states, and argued that the two were closely
(The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non- linked (Latin America: Underdevelopment
Communist Manifesto, 1960), who argued or Revolution?, 1969). He applied his critique
that there were five stages of development to both modernisation theory and orthodox
through which all societies passed. These were: Marxism.
(i) the traditional stage; (ii) the preconditions
for take-off ; (iii) take-off ; (iv) the drive toward  He argued that the world has been capitalist
maturity and (v) high mass consumption. since the Sixteenth century, with all sectors drawn
into the world system based on production
 Third World societies were regarded as traditional,
for the market. The ties of dominance and
and so needed to develop to the second stage,
dependence, Frank argues, run in a chain-like
and thus establish the preconditions for take-
off. Rostow described these preconditions as fashion throughout the global capitalist system,
the development of trade, the beginnings of with metropoles appropriating surplus from
rational, scientific ideas, and the emergence satellites, their towns removing surplus from
of an elite that invests rather than squanders the hinterland and likewise.
its wealth.  Frank’s central argument is that the creation
 The theory argued that this process could of ‘First’ world (advanced capitalist societies)
be speeded up by the encouragement and and the ‘Third’ world (satellites) is a result
diffusion of Western investment and ideas. of the same process (worldwide capitalist
Scholars in this tradition also argued that expansion).
industrialization would promote Western ideas
 According to the dependency perspective, the
of individualism, equality of opportunity and
contemporary developed capitalist countries
shared values, which in turn would reduce social
(metropoles) were never underdeveloped as
unrest and class conflict.
the Third world (satellites) but were rather
 To conclude, modernisation theory was based undeveloped.
on an evolutionary model of development,
whereby all nation-states passed through  Underdevelopment, instead of being caused
broadly similar stages of development. In the by the peculiar socio-economic structures of
context of the post-War world, it was considered the Third World countries, is the historical
imperative that the modern West should help product of the relations (relations of
to promote the transition to modernity in the imperialism and colonialism) which have
traditional Third World. obtained between underdeveloped satellites
and developed metropoles.
Development As Underdevelopment And
 According to Frank, Latin America’s most
Dependency backward areas (e.g., north-eastern Brazil) were
 Dependency theory arose in the late 1950s precisely those areas which had once been most
as an extended critique of the modernisation strongly linked to the metropole. Institutions
perspective. This school of thought is supported such as plantations regardless of their internal
by Andre Gunder Frank, but the influence of appearance, have since the conquest been
Paul Baran’s (The Political Economy of Growth, capitalist forms of production linked to the
1957) work is also very important. metropolitan market.

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 Economic development, according to Frank, World System Analysis

was experienced in Latin America only in
those times when the metropolitan linkages  Immanuel Wallerstein further developed the
were weakened - the Napoleonic wars, the idea of the world capitalist economy in his world-
system analysis.
depression of the 1930s and the two World Wars
of the Twentieth century - and it came to an  Wallerstein argued that the expansion of Europe
end precisely as the metropoles recovered from starting in the Sixteenth century signalled the end
these disruptions and recovered their links to the of pre-capitalist modes of production in those
areas of the Third World incorporated within the
Third World.
world capitalist market.
Criticism  According to this theory, dualism or
feudalism does not exist in the Third World.
 Dependency theory was indeed a powerful The modern world-system is unitary in that
advance over modernization theory, but it it is synonymous with the capitalist mode of
suffered from peculiar weaknesses of its own. production, yet disparate in that it is divided
First of all, it suffered from a certain historical into tiers - core, semi-periphery, and periphery
character, viewing change within the Third World - which play functionally specific roles within
countries as an outcome of its undifferentiated the system as a whole.
dependent status. As Colin Leys put it,  World-system theory places a new emphasis on
dependency theory ―concentrates on what the multilateral relations of the system as a whole
happens to the underdeveloped countries at the (core-core and periphery-periphery relations
hand of imperialism and colonialism, rather than become important to the analysis as do core-
on the total historical process involved, including periphery ones), rather than on the unilateral
the various forms of struggle against imperialism relations of the system of metropole and satellite
and colonialism which grow out of the conditions characteristic of dependency theory.
of underdevelopment ‘(The Underdevelopment  Wallerstein’s basic argument was that the
of Kenya, 1975). creation of the world capitalist economy in
 Secondly, dependency theory tends to be the Sixteenth century led to a new period
economistic. Social classes, states and politics of history, based on expanded accumulation
appear as derivatives of economic forces rather than stagnant consumption.
and mechanisms and often receive very little  This was attributable to the emergence of three key
attention. factors: i) an expansion of the geographical size of
 Thirdly, critics have alleged that the concept the world in question (through incorporation),(ii)
of development is obscure in dependency the development of methods of labour control
theory. Given that it is frequently argued for different products and different zones of
that development occurs in the Third World the world economy (specialization) and (iii) the
creation of relatively strong state machineries in
when the metropolitan-satellite linkages are
what would be the core states of this capitalist
weakened, does development imply autarchy?
world economy (to assure the transfer of surplus
Since development is an attribute of capitalist
to the core).
development in the metropoles, is the debate
in the ultimate analysis again about the Third  In the formation of the world economy, core areas
World’s ability to replicate this path? emerge as countries where the bourgeoisie got
stronger and landlords weaker. The important
 Finally, the assumptions of the dependency relationship that determines whether a country is
theory fail to provide explanations for the various to be a core or part of the periphery is dependent
so-called economic miracles of the Third World. on the strength of its state.
 Thus, while marking an advance beyond the  A strong state enables the country as an entity
myths of modernisation, dependency theory did to get a disproportionate share of the surplus
not fully escape its imprint. While modernisation of the entire world economy. The stability of
theory argued that diffusion brought growth, the world capitalist system is maintained due
dependency theory would seem to argue to three factors: (i) the concentration of military
in a similar vein that dependence brought strength in the hands of the dominant forces, (ii)
stagnation. pervasiveness of an ideological commitment to

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the system as a whole, and (iii) the division of the Poulantzas in his early work (Political Power
majority into a large lower stratum and a smaller and Social Classes,) argued that functions of
middle stratum. The existence of the semi- the state in capitalism are broadly determined
periphery means that the upper strata (core) by the structures of the society rather than by
are not faced with the unified opposition of the people who occupy positions of the state.
all others because the middle stratum (semi- Poulantzas in his later work (State, Power, and
periphery) is both the exploited and the Socialism, 1980) argues that the capitalist state
exploiter. itself is an arena of class conflict and that whereas
 The semi-periphery, however, also constitutes the state is shaped by social-class relations, it is
a site for change. New core states can emerge also contested and is, therefore, the product of
from the semi-periphery, and it is a destination class struggle within the state.
for the declining ones.  Politics is not simply the organisation of class
 Although the world-systems theory has been power through the state by the dominant
advanced further by several thinkers like Oliver capitalist class, and the use of that power to
Cox, Samir Amin and Giovanni Arrighi, it has manipulate and repress subordinate groups, it is
been widely criticised for its primary focus on also the site of organized conflict by mass social
the system imperative. Thus, in this theory, all movements to influence state policies and gain
events, processes, group-identities, class, and control of state apparatuses.
state projects are explained by reference to
 The debate in New Left Review centered around
the system as a whole. Such a reference point
Miliband’s book The State in Capitalist Society:
implies that all the above-mentioned actors are
An Analysis of the Western System of Power
seen as embedded within the system so much so
(1969) in which the key argument in Miliband’s
that they do not act in their immediate concrete
work is that the state may act in the interests of
interests but always in accordance with the
capitalist, but not always at their command.
prescriptions or dictates of the system.
 Critics have also pointed out that the theory  While the above-mentioned debates focused
explains the contemporary capitalist world primarily on the nature of the state in Western
inadequately, since it focuses attention on the capitalist societies, a lively contribution to
market, failing to take into account the processes the debate on the nature of the state in the
of production. developing world followed.
 Hamza Alavi (The State in Postcolonial
State Centred Approaches Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh, 1972)
characterizes the postcolonial state in Pakistan
 G.W. Domhoff (Who Rules America? 1967;
and Bangladesh as overdeveloped (as it was
The Powers That Be, 1979) argues that there
the creation of metropolitan powers lacking
not only exists an upper class (corporate
indigenous support) which remained relatively
bourgeoisie) in the USA but also that this class,
is a governing class. Domhoff ’s contributions autonomous from the dominant classes.
have been seen as a part of instrumentalist  This theme of relative autonomy was later taken
tradition within Marxism in which state is seen by Pranab Bardhan (The Political Economy of
as an instrument of the ruling or dominant Development, 1986) in his analysis of the Indian
class. state, where the state is relatively autonomous of
 A careful reading of Domhoff ‘s works, however, the dominant coalition constituted by capitalist,
suggests that he does not subscribe to the landlords and professionals. State, however,
instrumentalist viewpoint and the state in the in Bardhan’s formulation remains a prominent
USA is seen as representing the interests of the actor which exercises choice in goal formulation,
corporate class while at the same time opposing agenda setting and policy execution.
the interests of individual capitals or fractions of  Issa G. Shivji (Class Struggle in Tanzania,
the business elite. 1976) argued that the personnel of the state
 A second tradition revolved around what apparatus themselves emerge as the dominant
has been described as the structuralist view class as they develop a specific class interest
of the state and is found in the writings of of their own and transform themselves into
French Marxists, notably Nicos Poulantzas. bureaucratic bourgeoisie.

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CRITICISM  It seeks to study the social relations that evolve

between people in the process of production,
 The notion of good governance within the distribution, exchange, and consumption.
neoliberal agenda of international aid-giving  This approach assumes that political systems
institutions has been viewed within scepticism. are merely expressions of the economic
 These structural adjustment programmes, requirements of the society and social groups
however, overlook the socio-economic and that the changes in the economic system
realities of specific countries and the role automatically lead to changes in the political
played by the state in providing social justice.
system.
The withdrawal of the state from this role, to
unfetter market forces, means that the state is  These assumptions constitute important
no longer expected to play a role in balancing explanatory and analytical frameworks within
unequal resources. which social and political phenomena can be
 This then leads to an increase in the vulnerability studied.
of the weaker sections, particularly women and  Having said this, it is important to point out that
of the working class, deepening already existing
whereas the concept of political economy points
hierarchies within countries.
at a relationship, there is no single meaning
 Kiley, for example, points out that the World which can be attributed-to the concept.
Bank’s explanations of the failure of structural
adjustment programmes in Sub Saharan Africa,  The specific meaning the concept assumes
as lack of good governance, fails to specify depends on the theoretical ideological
how public accountability, pluralism and the tradition. E.g., liberal or Marxist, within which
rule of law, all of which are cited by the World it is placed, and depending on this positioning,
Bank (Governance and Development, World the specific manner in which economics and
Development, 1992) as important constituents politics themselves are understood.
of good governance, can be achieved without
the participation of the lower classes of society.  In the majority of the countries, public issues are
 The concept of good governance within the economic issues and sometimes the only actors
neoliberal agenda envisages a condition are the personnel of the government such as the
where democracy and freedom are seen as prime minister, president, and other ministers.
antagonistic. Fiscal policies, industrial policy, agricultural
 Freedom involves the preservation of private policy, labor policy are all economic issues, but
property, free market, and provision of negative the foremost actors are the members of the
freedoms like the right to speech, associate and government. The implementation is approved
move freely, conditions, in other words, which by the government. Policy regarding production
preserve the market economy. Democracy, on the and distribution, though within the jurisdiction of
other hand, is seen with suspicion, as belonging to economics, is always decided by the government.
the political realm where demands for participation The impact of success and failure of economic
and distribution of resources are made.
policies depend upon the government. So,
 The latter, it is feared may endanger the freedoms discussion of politics cannot be successful
essential for the strength of the economic realm. without economics.
The prioritization of freedom over democracy, as
prescribed by the neoliberal paradigm, fails thus to  Political economy approach has been used in
meet the developmental needs of the people. context of the study of India by scholars like
Pranab Bardhan, Atul Kohli, Rudolph and
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POLITICAL Rudolph, Francine Frankel, Gunnar Myrdal.
They have analyzed land reforms, green
ECONOMY APPROACH
revolution, neo liberal economic policies etc.

 The Political economy approach provides  This approach is qualitative as well as

an economic interpretation of political quantitative. It is analytical as well as descriptive.
consequences. It is empirical as well as prescriptive.

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Chapter - 1.3

Political Sociology Approach

 Political sociology as a discipline aims to examine politics), of the social basis for the formation,
the interaction between politics and society. change, and maintenance of political institutions
In basic terms, political sociology explores the (including democracy and welfare states).
process of interaction between government  Both Lipset and Runchimen have fixed the
and society, decision making authorities and timing of the emergence of political sociology at
conflicting social forces and interests. It is the about the middle of 19th century when under the
study of interactions and relationships between impact of industrialized revolution, the traditional
politics and civilization; between a political European social order gave in to modern society.
system and its social, economic, and cultural Their proposition is that the emergence of
environment. modern society in Europe amply exhibited
the difference between state and society
 Political sociology is a linking bridge between
when political sociology originated.
sociology and political science. It believes in a
two-way relationship between sociology and  Other political scientists such as A.K.
political science, giving equal importance on Mukhopadhyay proclaimed that “political
social and political variables. For example, in sociology is the child from the marriage
between sociology and political science
the party system, political sociology does not
and as in human issues, cannot be solely
describe the working of the party system only
characterized by its parental qualities alone”.
in terms of its response to and reflection of the
socio-economic scene, but also investigates how  Political science is fundamentally a study of the
the society is as much conditioned by the party state, the development and organization of state
system. power, the way it operates through a network of
political institutions, the manner of its affecting
 Since the Second World War, western scholars, the individual’s life by means of various functions
especially the American scholars, were more are the things political science enquires and
interested in undertaking empirical research of explains.
various political phenomena related to sociology.
 Sociology stresses on the area disregarded
These research activities expanded in the area of by political science. Society being its central
sociology. It was comprehended that these novel concern, Sociology examines the pattern and
research findings were neither pure politics operation of interactive social relations, looks into
nor pure sociology and, therefore, they were the progress and working of social institutions
ultimately placed under the new title termed as and attempts at an evaluative description of social
Political sociology. power and social progress. It can be said that
 Political sociology deals with the study of the the distinction between political science and
social source of political competition (including sociology evidently relates to the distinction
social cleavages and identities), of social and between state and society.
political approaches (including political culture),  Political science begins with the state and
of processes of political engagement and inspects how it affects society, while Political
competition (including elections and protest Sociology starts with society and investigates

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how it affects the state. Political sociologists’ of institutionalism and behaviouralism. The
debate that the state is just one of many clusters institutionalists have been concerned chiefly with
of social institutions and clusters of institutions institutional types of political organisation, and
are the subject of sociology in general, and that their study has been characterized by legality
the relationship between political institutions and formality. The behaviouralists have focused
and other institutions is the special sphere of on the individual actor in the political ground.
political sociology. Their primary concerns are motives, attitudes,
 Eminent political sociologists such as Lipset perceptions, and the role of individuals.
and Bendix discussed two features of political  The task of a political sociologist is to study the
sociology, first, that political sociology political process as a continuum of interactions
studies the relation between the social and between society and its decision makers, and
the political, and second that the political between the decision-making institutions and
sociology cannot be understood unless it social forces.
is related to the social. The main argument  Since the evolution of sociology, the analysis
revolves around this definition of political of political processes and institutions has been
sociology- political sociology is a discipline
one of its most important concerns. Sociologists
that tries to understand political phenomena
debated and many political researchers agree that
by necessarily relating them to their social
it is difficult to study political processes except as
determinants.
special cases of more general psychological and
 In theoretical studies, it has been shown that sociological relationships.
political sociology believes in a two-way
 The term “Political Sociology” has been
relationship between sociology and political
recognized both within sociology and political
science, giving equal emphasis on both the social
science as encircling the overlap between two
and political variables.
sciences. However, the political scientist is
principally concerned with the dimension of
Vital features of political sociology are as
power and factors affecting its distribution. The
under: sociologist, on other hand, is more concerned
 Political sociology is not political science since, with social control, with the way in which the
unlike the latter, it is not a state discipline or a values and norms of a society regulate relations.
study of the state craft. Their emphasis is on social ties, rather than on
formal structures and legal definitions.
 Political sociology is associated not only with
social but with the political as well.  Robert.E. Dowse and John. A. Hughes explicated
political sociology as “political sociology is
 Political sociology spins around the conviction the study of political behaviour within a
that there exists an identity of form between the sociological perspective of framework”.
social process and the political process. Political
sociology tries to resolve the traditional  Michal Rush and Philip Althoff in their mutual
dichotomy between state and society. work attempted to define political sociology
when they wrote that political sociology is the
 Political Sociology is principally concerned with interactions and linkages between society and
the evolution of the political community, to
polity, between social structure and political
which political science assumes as existent, and
structure and between social behaviour and
with the development and functioning of all the
political behaviour.
organs of social control, of which the state is
only the most prominent among many. It is also  In the view of Smelser N. J., “Political Sociology
instantly interested in the modifications affected is the study of the interrelationship between
by the organs of social control, among them the society and polity, between social structures
state, in the structure of society. and political institutions”. Political sociology is
not exclusively the study of the social factors that
 It is also concerned with the skirmish of
condition the political order.
contending social interests and the adjustment
which they seek and secure through the political
Scope of political sociology:
institutions of society.
 Political sociology offers a new panorama in  This subject is less concerned with the formal
comparative political analysis. The standpoint aspects of government and law than with the
of political sociology is distinguished from that underlying support of these institutions. In

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comparative politics, political sociologists are  The study of the political process is also
also interested in studying the participation the domain of political sociology. Political
of individuals in politics. The discipline is process refers to activities of those underlying
concerned with why and how an individual’s vote tendencies in society that give meaning and
has public opinion, from and belongs to political order to the political system. Another major
associations and groups that support political element of political sociology is to study the
movements. impact of the political culture on the political
system. The concepts of political culture refer
 The scope of the discipline also includes different
to those underlying propensities that quicken or
types of organized groups in politics and the
retard the speed of performance of the political
interactions among them, and the influence
system.
of parties and movements in changing or
bringing about stability in the political system.  Political participation and political
An important factor of political sociology is the mobilization also included in scope of political
decision-making process through public means. sociology.
In this process, it considers not only the social  It studies different social stratification systems,
forces but also includes the economic factors such as class, caste, gender and status, and
that are controlled by forces such as money, analyses their impact on organized politics.
market, and other resource scarcities.  Political sociology also does analysis on the
 Political sociology also analyses whether the political dynamics, which consists of the study
person inhabiting the decision- making process of political parties, pressure groups, interest
has enough grip over the people on whom they groups, public opinion and propaganda that
are exercising authority. influences and manipulates the attitude and
political behaviour of individuals.
 Political sociology also embraces the concept of
political system, which introduces enthusiasm in  The process of change, which in the social
political analysis. It not only stresses on the study dimension refers to ‘modernization’, is also
of the major structures of the government such as another principal point of political sociology.
legislature, courts, and administrative agencies,  Political development is an important area of
but also emphasizes on all the structures in debate in political sociology. It refers to a process
their political aspects such as caste groupings, through which a political system acquires new
relationship groups and formal organizations roles and values in a civilization.
such as parties and interest groups.
Theories of political sociology:
 The political system deals with the political
phenomena in any society without considering The major theories within political sociology include
its size, culture and degree of modernization. social class theory, elite theory, and pluralism.
Political sociology deals with the analysis of  Social class theory-
the functions of various political structures
 Is often related with Marxist theory, in
in the political system from a structural
which power is scrutinized in terms of which
functionalist standpoint.
societal class controls the predominant
 Political sociology focuses on the phenomenon means of economic production. Social
of power and its related aspects. Power is a class analysis stresses the political power of
widespread and an important aspect of social capitalist elites.
interaction, which is necessary in determining the  It can be split into two parts. One is the
relationship between individuals and members ‘power structure’ or ‘instrumentalist’
of a group. approach; the other is the ‘structuralist’
 Political sociology also deals with the study approach.
of elites and their leadership styles. These  The power structure approach concentrates
elites govern the masses as well as provide them on determining who rules, while the
leadership. The discipline also focuses on the structuralist approach emphasizes the way
patterns and styles of leadership displayed by a capitalist economy operates, allowing and
the elites, which are necessary to maintain their encouraging the state to do some things
positions of power. but not others.

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 Elite Theory It embraces the view that politics and

 Is a theory in which power is observed as decision making are found mostly in the
being concentrated in elite groups and framework of government, but many
societies. The origin of Elite theory lies most non-governmental groups use their
evidently in the writings of Gaetano Mosca, resources to exert influence.
Vilfredo Pareto, and Robert Michels.  Groups of individuals try to maximize their
interests. There are multiple lines of power
 Elite or managerial theory is also called
that shift as power is a constant bargaining
a state-centered approach. It elucidates
process between competing groups. Any
power relationships in modern society. The
change under this view will be slow and
theory postulates that a small minority
incremental. Groups have different interests
consisting of members of the economic
and may act as “veto groups” to destroy
elite and policy-planning networks holds
legislation that they do not agree with.
the most power.
 This power is independent of a state’s
democratic elections process. Through
CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY
positions in corporations, corporate boards,
and policy-planning networks, members of  Contemporary political sociology is closely
the “elite” are able to exert significant power associated with cultural politics as it is called
over the policy decisions of corporations the “politics of politics.” From this standpoint,
and governments. what events mean to those who interpret and
act on them is what matters. Contemporary
 The classical elite theorists recognize the political sociology is also concerned with
governing elite in terms of superior personal cultural politics in a broader sense: political’’ is
qualities of those who exercise power. not simply confined to what takes place within
However later versions of elite theory place government, political parties, and the state. The
less emphasis on the personal qualities of perspective of cultural politics also helps
the powerful and more on the institutional people make sense of how the meanings of
framework of the society. social relations and identities are consistently
 They debated that the hierarchical challenged wherever they are framed as
organisation of social institutions allows a unfair, exclusionary, and destructive of the
minority to monopolize power. Another capacities of individuals and groups.
disapproval of the elite theories against the  Politicization across the social arena has not
Marxian view of distribution of power is that characteristically been the subject matter of
the ruling class is too large and amorphous a political sociology until recently.
group to be able to effectively wield power.
 Orum defined that political sociology directs
In their view, power is always exercised by a attention towards the social circumstances of
small, unified group of the elite. Elite theory politics, that is, to how politics both is shaped
disputed that all societies are divided into by and shapes other events in societies.
two main groups: a ruling minority and
the ruled. This situation is inevitable. If the  Instead of treating the political field and its
proletarian revolution occurs, it will merely actors as independent from other happenings in
result in the replacement of one ruling a society. Political sociology treats that arena as
intimately related to all social institutions.
elite by another. Classical elite theory was
advocated by Pareto and Mosca.  Dowse and Hughes discussed that political
sociologists have concerned themselves primarily
 In pluralism
with the ways in which society has affected the
 Power is understood to be spread state.
and shared throughout society and
 Since the last two decades, political sociology
institutions. Major scientists to develop
has shifted away from this focus on how
pluralism were Arnold Rose, Peter Bentley,
society affects the state. Political Sociology also
Talcott Parsons, Neil Smelser.
contemplates issues like third world development
 Many studies have shown that Pluralism approaches. So, the Political Sociology has
understands politics as a contest diverted their attention on how society affects
between competing interest groups. the state.

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 Contemporary Political Sociology discussed process to understand state structures

economic, political, and cultural globalization and processes of state transformation.
means that what the state is and does is now Post modernization theories of change
itself in question. accentuate the significance of warfare and
 With the occurrence of heart-breaking terrorists’ state consolidation of control over territory
events such as 9/11, state violence has become and people, especially in the seventeenth
more noticeable in some respects, state action to nineteenth century of Europe. In
must now almost invariably consider institutions, addition to the importance of geopolitical
processes, and actors in relation to which states conflict, resource extraction, and power
were previously considered independent. consolidation, these developments helped to
form a civil society with a public sphere. They
 Simultaneously, the class formations around which
also contributed to expanding citizenship,
national political parties were organized have
including franchise development.
become split and the political concerns associated
with class based political parties problematized.  Social Cleavages and Politics: Since ancient
The fragmentation and pluralization of values period, political sociologists scrutinized how
and lifestyles, with the growth of the mass media social cleavages get expressed politically,
and consumerism and the weakening of stable and class was the most striking cleavage
occupations and communities, all mean that with democratic class struggle thesis. They
previously taken for granted social identities hold an interest in social class but also
have become politicized. investigated other social cleavage. They
debated that class remains important but has
 Empirical changes would not be enough to
changed form and is not alone in affecting
create a new approach to political sociology if
voting. Thus, increased female labour force
there were not also new theoretical tools with
participation generated a new gender
which to make sense of them. There has been a
effect on voting, new religious cleavages
prototype shift in political sociology away from
state centred, class-based models of political appeared, professionals and managers differ
participation, or non-participation, toward an in voting, and racial differences are salient.
understanding of politics as a potentiality of all Many political scientists deliberated that
social experience. social class is no longer relevant, and it
has been swapped by cultural divisions
 In this sense, contemporary political (e.g., religion, no materialist values such as
sociology is concerned with cultural politics, environment or health) and status differences
understood in the broadest possible sense (e.g., gender, race, and ethnic group). The
as the contestation and change of social argument over class versus cultural
identities and structures. Contemporary cleavage effects on voting appears at
political sociology explains the reason that an impasse. New investigation has moved
the concept of cultural politics is useful to in several directions. One considers non-
understand the; politics of politics; today. voters; another reconceptualizes class and
other social cleavages; and other inspects
The substantive issue of contemporary the effect of class on electoral forms of
political sociology has six major areas: political mobilization.
 State, citizenship, and civil society  Protest Movements and Revolutions: The
study of collective behaviour transformed
 Social cleavages and politics
as studies on movements compounded with
 Protest movements and revolutions political sociology. By the 1970s, collective
 Surveillance and control protest was understood to be a political
 State-economy relations phenomenon, and the resource mobilization
approach enlightened movements in terms
 The welfare states of their ability to obtain and use major
 State, Citizenship, and Civil Society: resources. An outgrowth of resource
The modern nation state arose from the mobilization theory, the political process
departure of feudalism and was coincident model, placed movements firmly within
with the rise of industrial capitalism. political sociology. It looked beyond internal
Political sociologists scrutinize this movement organisation to include micro

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mobilization processes, following identity communist regimes, command economies,

transformation, and the broader political neoliberal ideology and state-economy
environment. Other political scientists arrangements diffused in a post- Cold War
conceptualized environmental conditions environment, and political sociologists
as political opportunity structures. Some shifted to discussing varieties of capitalism.
studies explored new social movements that They investigated alternative structural
is, movements focused more on cultural state economy arrangements among the
issues or identity affirmation than traditional advanced capitalist nation-states that form
political protest. The consequence of media integrated. Alternative arrangements and
attention, police responses to protests, state policies developed historically and
and spillover from one movement to reinforced specific patterns of corporate
another emphasized movements dynamic- capitalism with repercussions for economic
interactive politics. expansion, interstate relations, and domestic
labour relations and business practices.
 Surveillance and Control: Political
sociologists investigated surveillance and  The Welfare State: The welfare state
social control to understand how state measured as total social spending, the
authority infiltrates into and regulates many percentage of the population covered,
domains of social life, including activities to or range of different programs, extended
count, monitor, and regulate its population. in all advanced capitalist democracies.
Conventionally, criminal justice was treated This became a major area of comparative
as a political, technical- administrative field, research and the focus of competing
but political sociologists understand the theoretical explanations.
significance of the legal system and the To summarise, Political sociology is the
criminalization of behaviors as mechanisms comprehensive examination of the social
of power and tactics deployed in power organisation of power. Conventionally, political
struggles. They consider targeting certain sociologists have stressed on such themes as
social sectors for criminalization, historical the types of socio-political orders, theories of
and international patterns of imprisonment, the state, or political culture. According to Keith
felon disenfranchisement, and political Faulks, political sociology is concerned with
ideological agendas that shape crime the relationship between politics and society.
policy. The tension between politicized Its uniqueness within the social sciences lies
legal criminal issues and technical-scientific in its acknowledgement that political actors,
processes is itself a concern. including parties, pressure groups and social
movements, operate within a wider social
 State-Economy Relations: The relationship framework. Political leaders certainly shape,
between the state and the class of investors/ and in turn are shaped by, social structures
capital owners and market operations has such as gender, class and nationality. Such
been a continuing political sociological social structures guarantee that political influence
concern. Studies evaluated how political- within society is unsatisfactory. It follows from
institutional arrangements (e.g., laws and this that the major concept in political sociology
taxes, property ownership, investment, is that power. Power is explained as the capacity
and regulatory policy) and business to achieve one’s objectives even when those
political activism formed corporate objectives are in conflict with the interests of
capitalism expansion. This included noting another actor.
how institutional arrangements, including Political sociologists invariably raised questions:
their idea systems, shape economic which individuals and groups in society possess
outcomes. Several political scientists the capacity to pursue their interests, and how
examined how de facto industrial policy is this power exercised and institutionalized.
and business regulation in specific areas, Recently, there is more attention being devoted
including military-industrial expansion, to the socio-historical study of array of issues
altered economic affairs and politics. relating to state power, social stratification, war,
Associated studies considered corporate violence, political legitimacy, authority, ideology,
welfare as an alternative to industrial policy citizenship, social movements, nationalism,
in the United States. After the termination of ethnicity, and globalization.

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Chapter - 1.4

Systems Approach

 The origin of Systems approach can be the political canvas does not stand alone but is
attributed to the field of biology, cybernetics and related to each other parts”, or that “operation
operations research, anthropology, economics of the one parts cannot be fully understood
and sociology. without references to the others.”
 Ludwig Von Burtalanffy and others founded  Political and social thinkers have often proclaimed
the society for General Systems Research and a certain conception of a system to explain the
also a journal on Behavioral Science. phenomena of politics.
 After the second world war a good number of  Marx classified societies into systems
writers in various disciplines began to write about on the basis mode of production as
the need for the unification of science. In 1952 a feudal, bourgeois and proletarian; Weber
group, holding a meeting in university of Chicago, divided societies into systems of authority:
which reflected multi-disciplinary concerns traditional, Charismatic, and rational- legal.
and consisted of scholars from history, political Unlike Marx, who thought that system
science, economics, sociology, psychology, change was dialectical, Weber believed that
social psychology, anthropology, mathematical it was evolutionary.
biology and medicine, started discussion with
a view to finding out how the study of political  Classical writers viewed monarchies,
science could be made scientific. aristocracies, and democracies as political
systems.
 The most prominent among these are a number
of systemic approaches which arise from the  Almond classified political systems into
general system theory. The proponents of the primitive, traditional, transitional and
theory sought to find unifying elements which modem.
would offer a broader perspective for creative  Coleman spoke of competitive, semi-
analysis. In the period after the Second World competitive and authoritarian systems
War, this crystallized around the concept of and later divided them into dictatorial,
systems, which Von Betrallanfy, the German oligarchical, and representational systems.
biologist, defined as a set of “elements standing
in interaction”.  Eisenstadt suggested a long list of
primitive, patrimonial, feudal, bureaucratic,
 This concept is based on the idea that objects
democratic, autocratic, totalitarian and
or elements within a group are in some way
underdeveloped systems.
related to one another and in turn, interact
with one another on the basis of certain  Edward Shills classifies systems into
identifiable processes. political democracies, titular democracies,
modernizing oligarchies, totalitarian
 The term “system” is useful for organizing one’s
oligarchies, and traditional oligarchies.
knowledge about many social objects and the use
of the system approach to politics allows one to  Classifications of systems reveal a variety
see the subjects in such a way that “each part of of interpretations. The emergence of many

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new nations, the amassing of new data and  Inputs further classified as demands and supports
technological advances has increased the put the political system at work while outputs
complexity of this subject. Many social scientists through policies and decisions throw back what
now use the system as the basic concept of their is not accepted as feedback.
political analysis. For Easton his political system is organic consisting
 The analyst abstracts from the whole society of various functional parts, i.e. system, input, output,
some elements which are more coherent and call demand, support and feedback. Easton saw his
political system in a state of constant flux but still
them a system.
persisting in its existence, even under the pressure of
 Conceptually measurable amounts are called constant crisis.
variables, constant elements are termed
parameters. The variables of a political system
may consist of structures, functions, roles, actors’
values, norms, goals, inputs, outputs, response
and feedback.
Use of the systems approach to politics allows one
to see his subject in such a way that each part of the
political canvass does not stand alone but is related
to each other part, or that the operation of no one
part can be fully understood without reference to the
way in which the whole itself operates.
 The first part of his political system was the
input concept, which refers to everything in the
DAVID EASTON’S INPUT OUTPUT MODEL
environment of a political system that is relevant
to political stress. Input summarizes all of the
Political Systems or the Input-Output Approach is one activities and events that either contribute to
derivative of the systems analysis. David Easton has the persistence of modes of allocating values
been one of the early scientists to have introduced for a society or threaten the persistence of such
the systems approach to political analysis. He selects processes. Inputs may be further classified into
the political systems as the basic unit of analysis Demands and Supports.
and concentrates on the intra-system behavior of  Demands are claims to societal values and status
various systems. He defines political systems as and are the components of political processes
“those interactions through which values are that provide the process with its justification. If
authoritatively allocated and implemented for a individuals and groups did not seek to have the
society” (A Framework of Political Analysis). A preview society fulfill their demands, there would be no
of some of the characteristic features of Easton’s need for a system that authoritatively allocated
Political System is as follows: values for that society.

 The political system implies a set of interactions  However, demands also constituted a source
through which values are authoritatively of stress for the system. If demands cannot
be fulfilled, then the support for the system
allocated. This means the decisions of those
could decline. Thus, for the system to persist,
who are in power are binding.
it must fulfill the demands made, but it may
 Political system is a system of regularized not be able to process all the demands at all
persistent patterns of relationship among the times because there may be too many of them
people and institutions within it. for the system to process or the demands may
be incompatible with other demands that are
 Political system, like any other natural system,
being processed.
has in it a self-regulating system which enables
it to change, correct and adjust its processes and  Now if the system is to persist then it has to
structures. develop Cultural Norms which place limits on
the content and amount of the demands being
 Political system is dynamic in a sense that made so that the system is able to process it with
it can maintain itself through the feedback normality. Thus, the first reason political system
mechanism. The feedback mechanism helps persists through change is because cultural
the system to persist, though everything norms limit stress by controlling the flow of
associated with it may change radically. demand.

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 Support: was the second type of input. Supports Limitations and Challenges
indicate trust, confidence, and affection towards
the political system. Support is directed to what However, Easton’s political system approach has been
Easton calls “the basic political objectives”. severely criticized. Prof S P Verma regards it as an
Support may be of two types: abstraction whose relation to empirical politics is
impossible to establish.
 Specific Support, which is given in return for
the fulfillment of demand. It resembles the  Conceptual Inadequacy: In his work there is an
nature of the barter system. excessive pre-occupation with persistence and
stability in the face if changes and conflict in
 Diffused support for the system is actual political life. There is too much attention
expressed as a belief in the legitimacy to the paid to the central orienting conception of the
personnel and rules. It is quite similar with allocation of values.
the expression of patriotism. The second
reason why political system persist through  William Mitchell criticized Easton’s concept of
change is because of the diffused support politics as the allocation of values, as leading to
the system holds. misleading assumptions in theorizing politics. It
may mean that the political system has a single
 Now the other half of the analysis of the political function of allocation only. Moreover, the polity
system starts with the Output process. Outputs does not allocate all values of a society. The
are authoritative allocations of values or economy distributes income and resource.
decisions of the authorities about the goals
 Easton’s pre-occupation with boundary was also
to which the human and material resources
criticized. It was pointed out that political system
of the society will be committed. In general,
cannot be isolated from economic, social, and
they are responses to demands and represent
cultural-psychological systems. Evans concluded
efforts to meet or suppress them.
that Easton failed to define the ‘political’ and
 When the specific demands of the masses have distinguish it from the ‘non-political’ , making
been met or effectively suppressed or when his notion of the boundary vague.
people themselves belief that their demands are
 The above problems arose due to the Easton’s
unattainable, specific support for the political
avoidance of the human element. Easton,
system is generated which in turn allows the
Almond and Parsons belonged to the school
state to persist. which ignored both individuals and aggregation
 Putting his analysis, a little further, Easton states of people as active participants in politics.
that, to perform their functions effectively the  The method itself is difficult to operate. It has not
authorities must gain information about the state yielded any testable hypothesis. Thorson argues
and about the consequences of their outputs. that Easton has created a general theory of politics
Thus, the system must have a Feedback to and it is difficult to apply this for the study of any
supply this information. This feedback provides concrete , actually existing political system.
the means through which the political system is
enabled to cope with stress.  Easton’s approach has certain ideological
orientations. It seems to justify the status quo.
 Underlying the cultural norms that control the It is essentially a static system of analysis.
flow of demands, the diffused support for the A conservative bias is an inbuilt feature of
political objectives and the actual fulfillment of functionalism from which the system. The main
demands is the flow of from the political masses object of the system’s approach, like other
to the authorities and vice-versa. Authorities behavioral paradigms, is to validate the
can communicate to people through arresting assumptions of the dominant ideology of a
them and the people through rioting. With all liberal capitalist society.
these concepts in Easton attains the high level of
 Eugene Miller says that in the name of a
analysis of the political system.
scientific and casual theory, he presented a
 The input-output analysis is indeed an excellent status oriented general theory of the political
technique for political analysis since it is focused system. Easton refused to take cognizance
on the overview of the entire political system. of political conflict, catastrophic change,
Orang Young has described this analysis as class antagonism and resolution. He himself
“undoubtedly the most inclusive systematic admits “There can be little doubt that
approach so far constructed specifically for political science as an enterprise has failed
political analysis by a political scientist.” to anticipate the crises that are upon us”.

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Chapter - 1.5

Structural Functional Approach

 Structural Functional approach is a form of Model of structural functional analysis

systemic analysis which looks at political system
as a coherent whole which influences and is in
influenced by their environments.
 The interactions that take place within a system
are not between individuals but between the
roles which these individuals adopt. Lastly, the
political system is an open system and is involved
in communications with systems, beyond its
boundaries.
 Gabriel Almond’s conceptual framework
evolved through three phases. He wrote an
article in 1956 in which he said that system is
Almond then outlined his own functional categories
an “inclusive concept which covers all of the
patterned actions relevant to the making classifying them into inputs and outputs:
decisions.” For him, system was more important
than process because system implied totality, Input functions:
interactions among units within the totality and
 Political socialization and recruitment: The
stability in these interactions, which he described
function of political socialization and recruitment
as “changing equilibrium”.
are performed usually by the political structure,
 In 1958 and 1959, Almond and his colleagues political parties. The child is socialized by the
at Princeton University focused on the politics political parties, educational institution, family,
of developing countries. They applied their organizations, etc. And they are recruited directly
concepts of structures and functions to changes to the political parties by its senior members.
taking place in these developing countries
These two are the primary input functions
avoiding the examination constitutions and
performed by the structures.
formal government institutions. Later Almond
and Coleman edited and published a book  Interest articulation: Interest articulation means
entitled Politics of Areas on this subject. the identification and coordination of different
Almond suggested that all political systems have interests of the people by interest groups or
four characteristics: pressure groups. Based on these interests later
the demands are prepared by them for its
 All political systems have structures.
implementation. Caste, educational, business,
 The same political functions are performed in all farmers, laborer’s interest groups perform their
political systems. role in society to bring out their interests.
 All political structures are multifunctional.  Interest aggregation: After interest articulation,
 All political systems are mixed in the cultural the necessary demands from the groups were
sense. communicated to the political parties for its

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aggregation. This process is called as lobbying.  Almond says that political socialization takes
The political parties then accept or reject the place through the family, school, church, trade
various demands and formulate it in the form of union, party and even government agencies.
a proposal for law. It also involves recruitment of people from
 Political communication: The final input different social groups into political parties, civil
function is political communication. In this service etc.
function the aggregated demands or interests  Interest articulation is the expression of
are communicated to the political system by the political interests and demands for action.
political parties for its acceptance. Usually, the Interest aggregation is the combining of those
people’s representatives in the legislature, who interests and demands which are articulated by
are the members of different political parties, interest groups and political parties. Political
perform these functions. The political parties communication helps all these political functions.
have the responsibility to inform the public Political socialization, recruitment, articulation
about respective legislative proposals and they and aggregation occur through communication.
work as the channel of communication. After
 Gabriel Almond says that political culture is
political communication, the output structures
dualistic, not monistic. Political systems may
start to carry out their functions.
be represented as modern and traditional,
developed and underdeveloped, industrial and
Output Functions
agrarian.
 Rulemaking: Rule making is the primary output  Political systems have evolved through stages
function performed by the political structure, of development. Structures become more
legislature. After the political communication differentiated as systems reach higher
the political system receives necessary demands stages of growth. Almond divided them into
from the environment or society, and starts primitive, traditional, transitional and modem
the conversion process, i.e., the transformation systems.
of different demands into formal rules and
 Less developed systems display ‘traditional’ styles
regulations.
of diffuseness, particularism, and ascriptiveness.
 Rule application: The function of implementation The more developed systems display ‘rational’
of the rules is done by the executive wing of styles of specificity, universalism, achievement,
the government or political system, the other and affective neutrality. Yet this process of
political structure. Through its various Ministries modernization is never complete.
and departments, the executive enforces the
laws prepared from the legislature. Limitations and Challenges
 Rule adjudication: Rule adjudication is the final
Almond’s structural functionalism has been criticized
output function performed by the judiciary. The
on three grounds:
laws once implemented by the executive went
to the hands of the judiciary for interpretation.
Conservative Ideology
Judiciary interprets and judges in all cases
reached before it.  Critics have found that structural functionalism
 The outputs are functions and correspond to is based on a deterministic, conservative, and
the traditional legislative, executive, and judicial restrictive ideology. Don Martindale pointed out
functions. They show a bias towards American four defects of functionalism: the conservative
and European conceptions of government ideological bias and preference for status
showing traditional orientation of comparative quo; a lack of methodological clarity; an
politics. Almond, however, argued that input overemphasis on the role of closed systems
functions are crucial in characterizing the in social life, and failure to deal with social
political systems of developing countries. change.
 These input functions constitute the ingredients  C. Wright Mills criticized the conservative bias
of the system: who recognizes, deliberates, and in the writings of the advocates of structural
resolves problems and issues. Spiro called this a functionalism, which was a grand theory that
process of flow and interpreted it as consisting neither related to facts nor reached a level of
of demands and supports for action. theory.

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 Barrington Moore, Alf Dahrendorf and Andrew system approach and it would have been said
Hacker also criticized its conservative bias. more clearly.” Finer hated the use of “modish”
 Spiro considered Almond’s work as ethnocentric concepts. He thought that Almond’s conception
and Lijphart considered its emphasis on of “political” was misconceived and that his
stability as reflecting Anglo-American liberal, notion of system, with its inputs and outputs was
capitalist norms. Sanford made a similar charge “otiose and confusing”.
against Almond.  Hempel argued that functionalism is illogical,
 Other critics accuse functionalists of “a liberal bias Sherman Roy Krupp thought that it has tendency
“who believe that any interference with freedom to exaggerate the cohesiveness of systems and
of the market-place leads to inefficiency and to obscure goals resulting in vague description
limits on the system’s natural benefits. and lack of analysis.

 Charles Powell saw in Almond’s methodology a Operational Limitations

reflection of “American cultural mythology”. He
concluded that Almond’s structural functionalism  Structural functionalism has a methodology
is “establishmentarian, non-operational, where ideal situations are often confused with
formally inadequate. As a vehicle for research the observed situations of systems.
it goes nowhere, and as a language of discourse  Terry N. Clark complained that structural
it leads to confusion, the pluralistic neutralism functional model overemphasis on
of structural-functionalism renders it useless institutionalized political behaviour.
as a theory.”
 According to Holt and Turner, Almond viewed
Conceptual Confusion the modern system are structurally differentiated
and secular, but they found limitations with this
 J.C. Jurcie argued that “functionalism is formulation. They said “it is difficult to apply
limited by its lack of explanatory power, on a broad basis to include both historical
its satisfactoriness in explanation and the and contemporary cases. The formulation
constricting effect of its assumptions, about also tends in effect to equate the modem
the nature and working of social systems.” political system with modem Anglo American
 Groth’s criticism of Almond’s theory had three democratic system. its definitions employ
points against it: ambiguity in terminology, too many dimensions, and it neglects the
difficulties in determining political problem of variation in the societal functions
relationships, and confusion in the use of of government.”
facts and values.  According to Almond; there was no modem
 Malamson and Kind also criticized his obsession system in the Soviet Union. Its structure
with empirical detail detached from theory and lacked differentiation and autonomy. Thus, it
obscurity of his languages. was, in Almond’s view, traditional. Holt and
Turner refuted this description by referring to
 Mackenzie thought structural functionalism as the variety of interests that were expressed,
a mere jargon which mystified truth. He said, particularly during the post –Stalin period.
“Almond’s terms are in one sense no better Almond’s categories become too rigid and
than the old terms because they offer no specific cases do not relate to his conceptual
better definitions.” scheme. Other critics, however, suggest that
 S.E. Finer said about the vocabulary of Almond’s functional theory, if handled with care, could
political system: “What Almond has to say produce empirically testable hypotheses, and
could have been said without using this prove useful in research.

**********

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Chapter - 1.6

Additional Notes

END OF IDEOLOGY DEBATE the welfare state; and the democratic left has
recognized that an increase in overall state power
carries with it more dangers to freedom than
 In western liberal democratic countries, it was
solutions to economic problems. The triumph of
declared that the age of ideology had come to
democracy in the west has made the intellectuals
an end. These countries looked at ideology as
realize that they no longer need ideologies or
a tool of totalitarianism which had no place in utopias to motivate them into political action.
open societies.
 W.W Rostow built a one-dimensional model
 End of ideology also implies that at the of economic growth which was applicable
advanced stage of industrial development, to all countries irrespective of their political
a country’s social-economic organization ideologies. He suggested that all societies pass
is determined by its level of development, through five stages of growth; traditional
and not by its political ideology. In other society , preconditions for take-off, take off
words, capitalist and communist countries road to maturity and the age of high mass
were bound to evolve similar characteristics consumption. He asserted that the adoption
at the advanced stage of their industrial of different political ideologies played no
development, irrespective of their ideological role in determining the course of economic
differences. development in different countries.
 Daniel Bell, in his noted work the end of  J.K. Galbraith identified that all industrialized
Ideology, says that any advanced economy has societies are having greater centralization,
a lesser proportion of workers in industry than bureaucratization, professionalization and
in services. In other words, at the advanced technocratization. These characteristics were
stage of industrial development in any country visible in the Russian as well as American
the services sector expands at a faster rate than systems although they had adopted divergent
ideologies as communism and capitalism
the manufacturing sector, besides it is also
respectively. He claimed that a new ruling class
characterized by the increasing dominance of
consisting of bureaucratic and technocratic
technical elites. The change in this direction is
elite had emerged in all advanced industrial
not affected by its political ideology.
societies. This class belonged neither to the
 Seymour M. Lipset observed that in western working class nor to the capitalists. In liberal
democracies the differences between the left societies, the members of this class occupied
and right are no longer profound, the only issues high positions in an open meritocratic system.
before politics are concerned with marginal Because of the high rate of social mobility, they
increase in wages, marginal rise in prices, and are not attached to capitalists. Power in society
extension of old age pensions etc. He maintained is vested in bureaucracy and technocracy, and
that the fundamental political problems of the not in capitalists. Galbraith concludes that in the
industrial revolution have been solved: the contemporary world, emancipation of humanity
workers have achieved industrial and political should be sought in anti-bureaucratism rather
citizenship; the conservatives have accepted than in anti-capitalism.

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With the collapse of communist system in east  The most basic (and prevalent) error in discussing
European countries in 1989 and the Soviet Union Fukuyama’s work is to confuse “history” with
in 1991 this view got a new impetus in the form of “events”. Fukuyama claims not that events will
the ‘End of History´ thesis. Francis Fukuyama, in stop occurring in the future, but rather that
his paper entitled ‘The End of History’, argued that all that will happen in the future (even if
the failure of socialism meant an unabashed victory
totalitarianism returns) is that democracy will
of economic and political liberalism. It marked the
become more and more prevalent in the long
end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and
the universalization of western liberal democracy term, although it may suffer “temporary”
as the final form of human government. Fukuyama setbacks (which may, of course, last for
maintained that the liberal democracy contains no centuries).
basic contradictions and that it is capable of fulfilling  Some argue that Fukuyama presents “American-
the deepest aspirations of mankind. Its victory has style” democracy as the only “correct” political
heralded an end to the long historical struggle which system and argues that all countries must
had obstructed its expansion in the past.
inevitably follow this particular system of
government. However, many Fukuyama scholars
END OF HISTORY DEBATE claim this is a misreading of his work.
 Fukuyama’s argument is only that in the future
 The End of History and the Last Man is a 1992 there will be more and more governments that
book by Francis Fukuyama, expanding on his use the framework of parliamentary democracy
1989 essay “The End of History?”, published in the
and that contain markets of some sort. Indeed,
international affairs journal The National Interest.
Fukuyama has stated:
In the book, Fukuyama argues that, following the
ascendency of Western-style liberal democracy “The End of History was never linked to a specifically
following the Cold War and the collapse of the American model of social or political organization.
Soviet Union, humanity was reaching “not just Following Alexandre Kojève, the Russian French
... the passing of a particular period of post- philosopher who inspired my original argument, I
war history, but the end of history as such: believe that the European Union more accurately
that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological
reflects what the world will look like at the end of
evolution and the universalization of Western
history than the contemporary United States. The
liberal democracy as the final form of human
government”. Fukuyama himself drew upon the EU’s attempt to transcend sovereignty and traditional
philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel power politics by establishing a transnational rule of
(and to a lesser extent Karl Marx), who defined law is much more in line with a “post-historical” world
history as a linear progression from one epoch than the Americans’ continuing belief in God, national
to another. sovereignty, and their military.”

Highlights Arguments in favour of the Hypothesis

 History should be viewed as an evolutionary  An argument in favour of Fukuyama’s thesis is
process. the democratic peace theory, which argues that
 Events still occur at the end of history. mature democracies rarely or never go to war
 Pessimism about humanity’s future is warranted with one another. This theory has faced criticism,
because of humanity’s inability to control with arguments largely resting on conflicting
technology. definitions of “war” and “mature democracy”.
 The end of history means liberal democracy is the Part of the difficulty in assessing the theory
final form of government for all nations. There is that democracy as a widespread global
can be no progression from liberal democracy to phenomenon emerged only very recently in
an alternative system. human history, which makes generalizing
about it difficult.
Misinterpretations  Other major empirical evidence includes the
 According to Fukuyama, since the French elimination of interstate warfare in South
Revolution, democracy has repeatedly proven to be America, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Europe
a fundamentally better system (ethically, politically, among countries that moved from military
economically) than any of the alternatives. dictatorships to liberal democracies.

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 According to several studies, the end of the Cold into account the power of ethnic loyalties and
War and the subsequent increase in the number religious fundamentalism as a counter-force to
of liberal democratic states were accompanied by the spread of liberal democracy, with the specific
a sudden and dramatic decline in total warfare, example of Islamic fundamentalism, or radical
interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, and Islam, as the most powerful of these.
the number of refugees and displaced persons.  Benjamin Barber wrote a 1992 article and a
1995 book, Jihad vs. McWorld, that addressed
Criticism of the Hypothesis this theme. Barber described “McWorld” as a
secular, liberal, corporate-friendly transformation
 Critics of liberal democracy have argued against of the world and used the word “jihad” to refer to
the book due to an ideological disagreement the competing forces of tribalism and religious
with the concept of liberal democracy. fundamentalism, with a special emphasis on
 Derrida claims that the book uses a “sleight- Islamic fundamentalism.
of-hand trick” of making use of empirical data  Samuel P. Huntington wrote a 1993 essay, “The
whenever it seems to suit its message, while Clash of Civilizations”, in direct response to The
appealing to an ideal whenever the empirical data End of History; he then expanded the essay into
contradicts it. Derrida points out that Fukuyama a 1996 book, The Clash of Civilizations and the
himself sees the real United States and European Remaking of World Order. In the essay and
Union as imperfect compared to the “ideals” book, Huntington argued that the temporary
of liberal democracy and the free market. Even conflict between ideologies is being replaced
the author understands that such ideals are by the ancient conflict between civilizations. The
not demonstrated by empirical evidence or dominant civilization decides the form of human
ever could be demonstrated empirically. And government, and these will not be constant. He
yet Fukuyama still uses a movement toward especially singled out Islam, which he described
empirical observations, which he himself grants as having “bloody borders”.
are imperfect and incomplete, to validate an idea  After the September 11, 2001, attacks, The End
that is purely idealistic and transcendent of any of History was cited by some commentators as
empirical reality or possibility. a symbol of the supposed naiveté and undue
 Certain versions of Marxism can be conceived optimism of the Western world during the 1990s,
as “end of history” philosophies. Therefore, in thinking that the end of the Cold War also
Marxists like Perry Anderson have been among represented the end of major global conflict. In
the weeks after the attacks, Fareed Zakaria called
Fukuyama’s fiercest critics. Apart from pointing
the events “the end of the end of history”, while
out that capitalist democracies are still riven with
George Will wrote that history had “returned
poverty, racial tension, and the like, Marxists also
from vacation”.
reject Fukuyama’s reliance on Hegel. According
to them, Hegel’s philosophy was fatally flawed  Fukuyama did discuss radical Islam briefly in The
until Marx “turned it on its head” to create End of History. He argued that Islam is not an
historical materialism. imperialist force like Stalinism and fascism; that
is, it has little intellectual or emotional appeal
 Fukuyama argues that even though there outside the Islamic “heartlands”. Fukuyama
is poverty, racism, and sexism in present- pointed to the economic and political difficulties
day democracies, there is no sign of a major that Iran and Saudi Arabia face and argued
revolutionary movement developing that that such states are fundamentally unstable:
would actually overthrow capitalism. While either they will become democracies with a
Marxists disagree with Fukuyama’s claim Muslim society (like Turkey) or they will simply
that capitalist democracy represents the end disintegrate. Moreover, when Islamic states have
of history, they support the idea that the actually been created, they were easily dominated
“end of history” will consist of the victory of by the powerful Western states.
democracy: communism, in the Marxist view,
 The resurgence of Russia and China: Another
must necessarily involve a form of direct challenge to the “end of history” thesis is the
democracy. growth in the economic and political power of
 Radical Islam, tribalism, and the “Clash of two countries, Russia, and China; China has a one-
Civilizations”: Various Western commentators party state government, while Russia, though
have described the thesis of The End of History formally a democracy, has been categorized as
as flawed because it does not sufficiently take an semi-democracy.

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 Azar Gat, Professor of National Security at that economic growth, improved government,
Tel Aviv University, argued this point in his and civic institutions all reinforced one another,
2007 Foreign Affairs article, “The Return of he wrote that it was not inevitable that “all
Authoritarian Great Powers”, stating that the countries will... get on that escalator.”
success of these two countries could “end the  Twenty-five years later, the most serious threat to
end of history”. Gat also discussed radical Islam the end-of-history hypothesis isn’t that there is a
but stated that the movements associated with it higher, better model out there that will someday
“represent no viable alternative to modernity supersede liberal democracy; neither Islamist
and pose no significant military threat to the theocracy nor Chinese capitalism cuts it. Once
developed world”. He considered the challenge societies get on the escalator of industrialization,
of China and Russia to be the major threat, since their social structure begins to change in ways
they could pose a viable rival model which could that increase demands for political participation.
inspire other states. If political elites accommodate these demands,
we arrive at some version of democracy.
 This view was echoed by Robert Kagan in his
2008 book, The Return of History and the End  Fukuyama also warned of “political decay,”
of Dreams, whose title was a deliberate rejoinder which he wrote could also affect established
to The End of History. democracies like the United States, in which
corruption and crony capitalism erode liberty
 In his 2008 Washington Post opinion piece, and economic opportunity. Nevertheless, he
Fukuyama also addressed this point. He wrote, expressed his continued belief that “the power
“Despite recent authoritarian advances, of the democratic ideal remains immense.”
liberal democracy remains the strongest,
 Following Britain’s decision to leave the European
most broadly appealing idea out there.
Union and the election of Donald Trump as
Most autocrats, including Putin and Chávez,
President of the United States in 2016, Fukuyama
still feel that they have to conform to the
feared for the future of liberal democracy in the
outward rituals of democracy even as they face of resurgent populism, and the rise of a
gut its substance. Even China’s Hu Jintao felt “post-fact world”, saying that “twenty-five years
compelled to talk about democracy in the run- ago, I didn’t have a sense or a theory about
up to Beijing’s Olympic Games.” how democracies can go backward. And I
 Failure of civil society and political decay : In think they clearly can.” He also warned that
2014, on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of America’s political rot was infecting the world
the publication of the original essay, “The End of order to the point where it “could be as big as
History?”, Fukuyama wrote a column in The Wall the Soviet collapse”.
Street Journal again updating his hypothesis.
He wrote that, while liberal democracy still had THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS THEORY
no real competition from more authoritarian
systems of government “in the realm of ideas”,  The Clash of Civilizations is a theory that
nevertheless he was less idealistic than he had people’s cultural and religious identities will be
been “during the heady days of 1989.” the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold
 Fukuyama noted the Orange Revolution in War world. It was proposed by political scientist
Ukraine and the Arab Spring, both of which Samuel P. Huntington in a 1992 lecture at the
seemed to have failed in their pro-democracy American Enterprise Institute, which was then
goals, as well as the “backsliding” of democracy developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled
in countries including Thailand, Turkey and “The Clash of Civilizations”.
Nicaragua. He stated that the biggest problem  Huntington believed that while the age of
for the democratically elected governments in ideology had ended, the world had only reverted
some countries was not ideological but “their to a normal state of affairs characterized by
failure to provide the substance of what people cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the
want from government: personal security, primary axis of conflict in the future will be along
shared economic growth and the basic cultural and religious lines.
public services... that are needed to achieve Huntington divided the world into the “major
individual opportunity.” Though he believed civilizations” in his thesis as such:

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 Western civilization that is, the view that all civilizations should
 Latin American adopt Western values that infuriate Islamic
fundamentalists.
 The Orthodox world of the former Soviet
Union  Huntington suggests that in the future the central
axis of world politics tends to be the conflict
 The Eastern world is the mix of the Buddhist, between Western and non-Western civilizations.
Chinese, Hindu, and Japanese civilizations.
He offers three forms of general actions that
 The Muslim world of the Greater Middle East non-Western civilization can take in response to
 The civilization of Sub-Saharan Africa Western countries.
 In his thesis, he argues that Russia and India are  Non-Western countries can attempt to achieve
what ‘swing civilizations’ and may favor either isolation in order to preserve their own values
side. Russia, for example, clashes with the many and protect themselves from Western invasion.
Muslims ethnic groups on its southern border However, Huntington argues that the costs of
(such as Chechnya) but according to Huntington this action are high and only a few states can
cooperates with Iran to avoid further Muslim- pursue it. For E.g., Middle East
Orthodox violence in Southern Russia, and to  According to the theory of “band-wagoning”
help continue the flow of oil. non-Western countries can join and accept
 Huntington argues that a “Sino-Islamic Western values.
connection” is emerging in which China will  Non-Western countries can try to balance
cooperate more closely with Iran, Pakistan, Western power through modernization. They can
and other states to augment its international develop economic, military power and cooperate
position. with other non-Western countries against the
West while still preserving their own values and
 Huntington also argues that civilizational conflicts
institutions.
are “particularly prevalent between Muslims and
non-Muslims”, identifying the “bloody borders’’ Huntington believes that the increasing power of non-
between Islamic and non-Islamic civilizations. Western civilizations in international society will make
This conflict dates back as far as the initial thrust the West begin to develop a better understanding
of Islam into Europe, its eventual expulsion in of the cultural fundamentals underlying other
the Iberian reconquest and the attacks of the civilizations. Therefore, Western civilization will cease
Ottoman Turks on Eastern Europe and Vienna. to be regarded as “universal” but different civilizations
will learn to coexist and join to shape the future world.
 Huntington also believes that some of the For e.g., the rise of India and China.
factors contributing to this conflict are that
His projection of the future clash resembles very
both Christianity (which has influenced Western
closely that of issues which dominate the scenario of
civilization) and Islam are:
international politics and threaten international peace.
 Missionary religions, seeking conversion of Also, his theory of general actions is very relevant
others in understanding the post-cold war international
 Universal, “all-or-nothing” religions, in the dynamics and how the world is moving forward to
sense that it is believed by both sides that a multi polar era where each pole might represent a
only their faith is the correct one different civilization group.

 Teleological religions, that is, that their Communication Theory Approach

values and beliefs represent the goals of
existence and purpose in human existence.  This approach explores the process by which
 Religions perceive irreligious people who one segment of a system affects others by
sending messages or information. Robert
violate the base principles of those religions
Weiner had evolved this approach.
to be furthering their own pointless aims,
which leads to violent interactions.  Afterwards Karl Deutsch developed it and
applied it in Political Science. Deutsch stated
 More recent factors contributing to a Western-
that the political system is a network of
Islamic clash, Huntington wrote, are the Islamic
communication channels, and it is self-
Resurgence and demographic explosion in Islam,
regulative.
coupled with the values of Western universalism

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 Additionally, he emphasized that the influence the individuals have on the

government is responsible for administering decision makers.
different communication channels.  Numerous scholars such as Richard Synder
 This approach treats the government as and Charles Lindblom have developed this
the decision-making system. approach.
 Deutsch described that there are four factors  A political decision which is taken by a few
of analysis in communication theory which actors influences a larger society and such
include lead, lag, gain and load. a decision is generally shaped by a specific
situation.
Decision Making Approach  Therefore, it considers psychological and
 This political approach discovers the features social aspects of decision makers also.
of decision makers as well as the type of

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Chapter - 1.7

Political Culture Approach

Definition Of Political Culture  We study Political culture because it helps us

understand political life. For example, why do
 Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba defined different ethnic groups cooperate reasonably well in
political culture as the pattern of orientations Switzerland but not in Bosnia or Lebanon? Why are
to political objects among the members of the Russians more inclined than Canadians to support
nation. By political objects, Almond and Verba an all-powerful political leader? Political culture may
meant institutions such as parliament and provide at least partial answers.
political parties.  It is extremely difficult to define the term political
 Patrick O’Neil defines political culture as the culture. It is elusive and comprehensive at the
norms for political activity in a society. It is a same time. In the extant literature in political
science, political culture has been defined
determining factor in which ideologies will
in many ways but essentially it involves the
dominate a country’s political regime; it is unique
basic values, ideas, beliefs, attitudes, and
to a given country or group of people
orientations about politics.
 Sydney Verba defined political culture as “the  This involves issues of right and wrong, good,
system of beliefs about the pattern of political and bad, what is acceptable in politics and
interaction and political institutions” and what is not. The term culture has many different
those beliefs are fundamental, usually unstated, meanings, and it affects everything people do in
and unchallengeable, assumptions or postulates their society.
about politics  Culture is a powerful human tool for survival,
Longstanding argument in the literature on but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly
comparative politics is that political culture has changing and easily lost because it exists only in
an important effect on the emergence of political one’s mind. Culture, thus, represents the shared
democracy. In part, the focus on political culture, psychological orientation of the people of society
is rather a natural extension of the behavioral towards societal objects.
revolution in political science and a product of  The political culture approach can be seen as
economic modernization. With modernization came a natural evolution in the growth of behavioral
changes in values regarding the role of the individual approach in political analysis in the 1960s.
in the political system. Political culture is a simple  It is a set of attitudes and practices held by
concept, but it can easily be misunderstood. The fact people that shape their political behaviour
that we may characterize a given nation’s culture includes moral judgment, political myths,
in some way should not lead us to underestimate beliefs, and ideas about what makes up for a
the importance of diverse subcultures within it. good society (A. R. Ball).
Similarly, the fact that political culture may be an  It reflects government, but it also incorporates
explanatory factor should not lead us to overlook elements of history and tradition that may
the possibility that objective conditions within a predict the current regime. Political culture
country may be responsible for behaviour often matters because it shapes a population’s political
attributed to culture. perceptions and actions.

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 It is associated with the concept of political  This cross-national study connected individual
ideology, national ethos and spirit, national attitudes with the overall political system.
political psychology, the fundamental values Based on interviews conducted with about a
of people etc. For example, the United States thousand individuals in each of the five countries,
and Great Britain have been both democracies, the study offered a theory of political stability
but each has a distinctive political culture. and democracy that implicitly celebrated Anglo-
American government derives its power from American representative government.
a written constitution and is dominated by two  Although there was scepticism over the accuracy
political parties. In contrast, Britain has a long of characterising a culture based upon individual
history of monarchy and has never had a written interviews, the study gave a momentum to
constitution.
political culture approach in comparative
 There is a close relationship between political politics.
culture and the political system. Political culture
 The 1970s saw that political culture literature
is the basis of the survival of all old and modern
contained the normative bias that cultural
political systems.
symbols are shaped deeply by
 A political community, even without having
 Alongside political culture as a whole, there is
‘state’, can exist as a polity or political system.
the elite political culture that consists of the
Whatever be the form of a political system
beliefs, attitudes and ideas about politics held by
– developing or developed, it does possess
those who are closest to the centres of political
some form or pattern of political culture.
power. The values of the elites are more
Stateless political systems like the United Nations
coherent and consequential than are those of
Organization, many international and regional
the population at large.
organizations, more or less, operate on the basis
of some form of political culture.  Although most of the studies of political culture
focus on its dynamics within the state, the
Almond and Verba have identified five importance of global political culture is also
important dimensions of political culture significant.
namely:  Global political culture looks at the ambit of
the whole world from a macro perspective
 A sense of national identity to understand the all-encompassing aspects
 Attitudes towards oneself as a participant in of political culture. For example, Samuel P
political life Huntington in his classic work, The Clash of
Civilization, takes the analysis of political culture
 Attitudes towards one’s fellow citizens
into the international realm. But global political
 Attitudes and expectations regarding culture may primarily be a Western product.
governmental output and performance and,
 Thus, the political culture approach has been
 Attitudes towards knowledge about the political viewed differently by different scholars. The
process of decision making political culture of a system is a result of several
factors. These factors/ components over the
COMPONENTS AND SHIFTS OF period of time shape or reshape the political
culture. Listed below are some very important
POLITICAL CULTURE
components.

 Political culture is an analytical approach to  Political beliefs and values

comparative politics that is elusive in nature.  Political process
Its genesis in modern comparative politics  Political action
can be traced to Almond’s seminal article,
‘Comparative Political System’ in The Journal  Tradition and modernity
of Politics (1956). It was, however, with the  Culturalism
publication of The Civic Culture by Gabriel  Ethnic realities or differences
Almond and Sidney Verba (1963) that political
culture research emerged as a sub-field of  Role of state
political science.  Ideologies

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CLASSIFICATION OF POLITICAL CULTURE Almond and Verba suggest that a participatory

political culture fits a liberal democratic regime. The
participant political culture is the type of political
Almond And Verba’s Classification
culture that is consistent with a democratic
 Parochial Political Culture: This refers to a political political structure and the same has been called
culture where citizens are only distantly aware of by them as ‘Civic Culture’.
the existence of central government. There is no Finer’s Classification Attempting to understand
political orientation towards political objects. the phenomena of military intervention in the
People have neither knowledge nor interest in politics of developing countries: Samuel E Finer
politics. This type of political culture is compatible (The Man on the Horseback, 1962) relate civil-
with a traditional political structure. In this type military relations with political culture. In his analysis,
of political culture people have low awareness, there are four levels of political culture:
expectations, and participation.
 Mature Political Culture: In this type of political
 Subject Political Culture: In this political culture, culture, there is widespread public approval of
citizens see themselves not as participants in the the procedure for transfer of power; a belief
political process but as subjects of the government that the persons in power have the right to
- as with people living under a dictatorship. In this govern and issue orders; the people are attached
type of political culture, citizens are aware of the to the political institutions and there is a well
central government, and are heavily subjected mobilized public opinion.
to its decisions with little scope for dissent. The
individual is aware of politics, its actors, and  Developed Political Culture: In this type of
institutions. There is a political awareness but political culture, the civil institutions are highly
no confidence to air political views, thus there is developed, and the public is well organized
an absence of participatory norms. This type of into powerful groups but from time to time
political culture is compatible with a centralized there arises a dispute on the questions of who
authoritarian structure. and what should constitute the sovereign
authority and how power should be transferred.
 Participant Political Culture: In this political
culture, citizens believe that they can contribute  Low Political Culture: At this level of political
to the system and that they are affected by culture, the political system is weak and narrowly
it. They, therefore, respond positively to all organized; there is a lack of consensus on
political objects and have an active orientation the nature of the political system and the
to political activities. This encourages more procedures and the public attachment to the
and more participation and participation is the political system is fragile.
highest value. There is an ability to criticize the  Minimal Political Culture: At this low level of
authority and hold a positive orientation towards political culture, articulated public opinion
the political system. In this model, people have does not exist in the political system and the
a high level of awareness, expectations, and government can easily ignore public opinion;
participation. political cultures are decided by force or the
The three categories of political orientations which threat of force. A person or institution capable
they have identified are not always present in a pure of asserting itself can enforce its will and the
form; rather they are intermixed in many situations extent of one’s authority is directly related to the
of political culture. Thus, they re-classified political degree of force at one’s disposal. Finer argued
culture into three sub-types. These are discussed that developing countries with weak legitimacy
below: are prone to experience coup d etat or extreme
forms of military intervention.
 Parochial and Subject: This type of political
culture represents a shift from parochial
orientation to subject orientation POLITICAL CULTURE IN COMPARATIVE
 Subject and Participant: This type of political PERSPECTIVE
culture represents a shift from subject political
orientation to participant political orientation. Anglo-American Political System
 Parochial and Participant: This type of political
culture represents the parochial orientation in Associated with the advanced countries of the
the individuals whereas the norms introduced West, even termed as matured political culture, it
require a participant political orientation. incorporates the political consensus and higher

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degree of organization. It is the operating system  No political bargaining- the process of political
that acts as the benchmark which is being borrowed bargaining is virtually nonexistent that creates
by other nationalities. The political culture of this a situation in which politics becomes like a game.
system has the following characteristics: The result is that various sub-cultures are at war.
It is a race of superiority and power.
 A multi-valued, rational-calculating,
bargaining, and experimental political culture.  Expected criteria- stability of institutions
guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human
It is a homogeneous culture in the sense that
rights, protection of minority etc.
there is a sharing of political ends — the values
of freedom, mass welfare, and security — and  Form of governance- it imbibes both
means. monarchism, republicanism, presidential,
semi-presidential, parliamentary republic,
 A secularized political system involves parliamentary republic etc. For instance, countries
individuation of and a measure of autonomy like Belgium, Netherland, Sweden, Spain etc.
among the various roles. Each one of the roles have constitutional monarchies ·
sets itself up autonomously in the political  Formation of International Organization: for
business. example, the European Union.
 The basic principles of the system: Liberty,  Legitimacy of institutions
Equality, Democracy, Civic duty, Individual
 Civilian government
Responsibility, Trade Unionism, etc. Bargaining
politics: between rulers and rule (the elected and
electors, leaders, and its followers). DEVELOPING COUNTRIES POLITICAL
SYSTEM
 Plural society- the society is heterogeneous and
therefore different parties and interest groups
operate to influence the decision-making process This category includes countries that emerged from
the days of long colonial domination.
in response to their respective interests.
 Master and subjects- the political culture of
 Checks and balances- there is a diffusion of
the masters is superimposed over the political
power and influence where legal institutions are
culture of the subjects.
checked by the channels of mass communication
 The result is the erosion of the political culture
and mass education so that the prospect of
of the subjects and the super-imposition of the
authoritarian rule is mitigated, even eliminated.
political culture of the rulers that is deemed to
 Separation of power and stability of be superior in all respects.
differentiated roles.  New source of legitimacy by the rule over time.
 Political ideologies – multiculturalism,  Single structure multivariate political culture.
libertarianism, welfare state, utilitarianism,
 Commonality of history
individualism, egalitarianism etc.
 Primacy to the subject through providing voting
rights and peoples participation in governance.
CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN POLITICAL
 Agro-industrial fused society
SYSTEM
TOTALITARIAN POLITICAL SYSTEM
These are the western countries of Europe like Italy,
France, and Norway etc. It’s even considered a
The countries included here are the Soviet Union
developed political culture because in these
and China. These systems are characterised by the
societies’ public is highly organized.
following features:
 Fragmented political culture- the political  Legitimacy of centre: the quality of the
culture is fragmented where different sections acceptance of the legitimacy is artificially created.
of society establish different patterns of The characteristic orientation to authority tends
cultural development, while some are more to be some combination of conformity or apathy
developed than others. Thereby, political culture produced by the central control or the means of
incorporates distinctive sub-cultures. communication and of the agencies of violence.

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 Concentration of power. focusing only on shared values, Wildavsky misses

 Hierarchy of bureaucracy, police, and army the point that people with strongly opposed
views can share a culture and people with
 Coercion as the hallmark of the exercise of strongly similar views may come from different
authority cultures. Latin proposes that we should see
 Single pattern of cultural development culture not as values that are upheld but rather
 Unitary system as ‘point of concern. Latin argues that to share a
culture means to share a religion, language, or
It is clear that the different political systems have history.
different sets of political culture depending upon the
basic factors and constituents as has been discussed  Some of the other weaknesses of this approach are
earlier. (a) the conceptualization and operationalization
of the concept is difficult, (b) there is inability to
draw a clear distinction between subcultures and
LIMITATIONS OF POLITICAL CULTURE the overall political culture and (c) the inability
APPROACH to bridge the inferences made on the individual
level to the state or system level.
 It cannot be described as a very precise variable  Cultural approaches are less clear about exactly
for presenting a morphological study of the what domains of politics to examine, and there is
modern political system. even less of a consensus concerning the methods
 The approach cannot be taken as a correct and tools to employ.
barometer of individual behaviour because of  Cultural contributions to political analysis are
the very distinguishing and varied nature of the relatively rare and far less developed. Few
same. graduate students take culture very seriously,
 Lucian Pye criticizes this approach by stating and if one peruses the annual list of dissertations
that in no society there is a fundamental in comparative politics over several years, it is
distinction between the culture of the difficult to place cultural analyses in the trinity of
rulers and that of the masses. Therefore, any comparative politics.
attempt to distinguish them may not bring any
productive result. Others argue that the approach SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POLITICAL
is ambiguous.
CULTURE APPROACH
 The political culture approach is a byproduct of
modernization and development theories. It is
 The approach of political culture has certainly
not certain whether it is regarded it independent
heightened the ability of political scientists
variable or dependent variable, a cause, or an
to examine the psychological environment of
effect.
the political system broadly and scientifically.
 Some question the very assumption of the
 It has codified and synthesized into a style, a
approach that a system of government continues
well-developed concept, all that was studied
because it is in tune with a country’s political
in an abstract and crude fashion through such
culture.
traditional concepts as national morale, national
 Many descriptions of a political culture ignore character, national psychology and the like.
diversity within the country concerned.
 Political culture approach has made it easier
 The approach is not progressive but reactionary for political scientists to systematically
in character. and comprehensively analyze the social,
 The political culture approach, like other psychological, and sociological environment of
approaches, faces conceptual problems. the political system.
Scholars within have not reached a compromise  Through the political culture approach, political
in defining ‘culture’. scientists can systematically explain the
 In Political Culture and Political Preferences’, differences in the behaviour of different political
David Latin criticizes Wildavsky’s definition of systems, particularly the differences in the
culture as shared values legitimating social behaviour of similar political institutions working
practices (Latin 1986). Latin argues that by in different societies.

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 Political culture approach has also fortified  This can be used for analyzing the path of political
political scientists to conduct studies in the development of a political system.
process through which the political culture  The political culture approach has also been
of society passes from one generation to the used by several political scientists to investigate
next generation, i.e., the process of political the nature and dynamics of possible political
socialization. changes, violent changes- revolutions and coups,
in numerous political systems.

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Chapter - 1.8

Political Development Approach

 Political development gained recognition as a nations. In these studies, the rich and developed
subfield of comparative politics in the 1960s. It countries of the west (the United States and
has its roots in modernization theory that had European nations) became the reference points.
begun to influence several disciplines of social  It was assumed that the less developed countries
sciences in the post-War years. would follow the same trajectory of development
 Prior to the 1960s, comparative politics had and eventually catch up with the advanced
tended to focus on the forms of government that countries. W.W. Rostow’s the Stages of
prevailed in the advanced industrial world, that Economic Growth is illustrative of this thinking
is, Europe and the former Soviet Union. However, on development. In this book, Rostow argued that
with the emergence of a number of states in Asia there were five stages of development through
and Africa as a result of the breakup of Europe’s which all societies passed. Rostow’s stages of
empires and the cold war conflict which provided development and his emphasis on economic
alternative paths to development, comparative factors as the driving force of development
politics began to focus on what became known as shared similarities with the classical Marxists
the ‘new’, the ‘emerging’, the ‘underdeveloped’ who talked about the transition from feudalism
or ‘developing’ nations. to capitalism and then to socialism.
 With modernization theory emerging as a  However, while Marx emphasized that the
new paradigm in social sciences, studies on transition was through a dialectical process and
comparative politics became preoccupied with necessaries involved a clear break with the past,
the linkages between economic development, often characterized by the violent destruction
social change, and democratization. of the earlier stages, Rostow, who described his
 In the early 1960s when political modernization work as a ‘non-Communist manifesto’ saw a
became a preoccupation of comparative political smooth and unilinear path of development for
studies in America, the term was used as synonym all countries.
for political development. Political development  In the early stages of its evolution, almost
was seen as a transition towards democratic all studies in the 1960s regarded a politically
politics as reflected in the growth of interest developed state as the one which was democratic.
group activity, development of bureaucracies They regarded political development as a process
and political parties and development of of transition towards democracy.
capacities of democratic institutions.  Seymour P Lipset in his classic work Political
 In comparative politics, explicit efforts to theorize Man (1959) had argued that there was a direct
political development began in the latter half relationship between economic modernization
of the 1950s. These efforts were shaped by (industrialization) and the development of
the modernization theory. In the 1950s, Bruce political democracy. Economic modernization,
Morris and Everett von Hagen and in the 1960s he posited, created the social requisites for
W. W. Rostow and Robert Heilbroner worked the emergence of political democracy (a large,
on economic development in the emerging vibrant, and literate middle class and wealth.).

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 Karl Deutsch (1961), in his Social Mobilization

and Political Development, argued that  He argued that societies amid economic
industrialization and economic modernization development and social change lead people
to have increased expectations for a better
do not necessarily lead to the development
life. When political institutions are unable
of political democracy as Lipset had argued
to meet such expectations, there is bound
in 1959. Instead, they lead to the erosion
to be disappointment and frustration at the
of old social, economic, and psychological
national level leading to disorder or even
commitments and new patterns of
revolution.
socialization and behaviour in this process,
and people may gradually give up their local  Huntington, therefore, defined political
rural identities and identify with the nation. development as the institutionalization
Social mobilization generates pressure on the of political organizations and procedures.
existing political systems resulting in violence, He identified political development with
social disorder or political stability depending the strength or capacity of government
on how the political system deals with those institutions--“whatever strengthens
pressures. governmental institutions”.
 Almond and Coleman advanced a similar  For Huntington, political order was necessary
argument in their work The Politics of the for economic development to take place.
Developing Areas (1960) in which they argued He thus prioritized political development or
that economic modernization creates ‘crises’ that order over economic development and social
systems must resolve. change.

 FA Organski, (The Stages of Political  Samuel Beer took a similar, non-democratic

Development, 1965) and Barrington approach to development. He argued that
Moore (The Social Origin of Democracy political development is equivalent to the
and Dictatorship, 1966) adopted a historical expansion of the bureaucratic state. His
book Patterns of Government: The Major
approach to analyze political development.
Political Systems or Europe (1973) posited
 Almond and Verba (The Civic Culture: Political that economic development leads to social
Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, complexity and the need for specialization
1963), Lucian Pye (Aspects of Political and division of labour (which he calls as
Development, 1966) and David Apter (The patterns of interests).
Politics of Modernization, 1965) used the
 These patterns of interest create demands
structural, functional framework to explain
for more specialization and bureaucratization
political development.
(what he calls patterns of power). The
What is common to all these studies is that they shared creation of new patterns of power leads
the assumptions of the modernization theory that them to generate their own interests, making
change is linear, progressive, and gradual, irreversibly new demands for access and representation,
moving societies towards an advanced stage and creating a new pattern of power ad
making societies more like one another. The political infinitum.
development approach’s break with modernization  Political development, therefore, results in
came in the latter half of the 1960s principally in the differentiation and expansion of the realm
works of Samuel P Huntington. of the state activities. Thus, by the end of
the 1960s, students of comparative politics
HUNTIGTON AND SAMUEL BEER ON were confronted with various definitions of
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT political development.

 Huntington, in his writings, especially

Political Order in Changing Societies LIMITATIONS OF THIS APPROACH
(1968), Huntington rejected the notion
that modernization was a progressive,  For political sociologists, political development
convergent, or inevitable force. According meant greater differentiation and specialization
to him, economic development did of functions. For political scientists, political
unleash profound social changes, but development meant the growth of political
these changes were not necessarily benign institutions such as interest groups, political
or progressive. parties, bureaucracies, and similar institutions.

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Still, others, like Huntington, equated the term optimism that was characteristic of 1960s America
with stability and order. The lack of consensus began to wane. The civil rights movement and
on what ‘political development’ actually war in Vietnam had begun to erode the societal
meant made it impossible to posit a theory of and foreign policy consensus.
change (Eckstein, Cammack).
 Both the subdiscipline of political development
 Political modernization and development had and the scholars who had contributed to the
found rapid acceptance in comparative politics field came into question. In these circumstances,
in the 1960s. However, by the end of that the dependency or “world systems” theory
decade, there was a breakdown of consensus emerged as an alternative to the modernization
undergirding the political development. paradigm as a lens through which to interpret
 As Weirda and Skelley pointed out, there political, social, and economic change in Third
were broader changes in the larger society. The World countries.

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Chapter - 1.9

Political Modernisation Approach

 Political modernization emerged as a major economic development determines a society’s

approach in comparative politics in the late 1950s. political and cultural characteristics. The second,
It refers to the changes in political structure and Weberian version, maintain that culture shapes
culture characteristics, transformed by modern the economy and political life.
ideas like liberalism, secularism, transparency  Despite a continuing debate between the two
industrialization. It is also concerned with a streams, they have the same opinion on a central
change in the outlook, political culture, and rural point, that the socio-economic change follows
and urban social life. consistent and relatively expected patterns.
 This process, it was said, involved, among other  Thus, they imply that crucial social, political,
things, the ending of the dominance of religion/ and economic characteristics are not randomly
church and the establishment of a secular and related; they tend to be closely connected. Two
central political authority. elements that were common in their explanations
of social change were the belief in continuity and
 The political modernization approach, however,
progress.
lost its steam by the end of the 1960s as a result
of challenges emerging from within and from  The change was not only continuous but also
scholars in the non-Western world. progressive. For these thinkers, change implied
advancement and improvement from agriculture
 Nevertheless, with the onset of the Third Wave
to industry, from feudalism to capitalism, from
of democratization since the 1980s and the traditional to modern. This kind of change
growing interdependence of nations since the involved two sets of processes, increased
1990s, there has been a revival of interest in complexity and greater specialization of human
political modernization. organization and activity. These processes were
 Some of the feature of the modernization described in terms of greater differentiation in
process such as differentiation, secularization, society.
rationalization, economic development, and its  The industrial capitalist societies of the
linkages with sustainable democracy are gaining West supposedly have achieved greater
significance in comparative analysis. differentiation than other societies. A
 The French philosophers and founders of transforming society, in other words, was the
modern sociology Auguste Comte and Emile one that acquires most of the characteristics
Durkheim, the British philosopher Herbert common to most developed countries.
Spencer, Max Weber, and Karl Marx, gave
different explanations of the transformation
Modernization Theory: Evolutionary and
from pre-industrial to industrial society. Functional
 The modernization theory has long been divided  In the 1950s, modernization theory began to
into two major streams. The first is the Marxist affect the research agenda of political science.
description, which argues that economy, politics, This occurred as a result of the intellectual
and culture are intimately associated since ferment in the discipline and the insights based

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on advances in understanding of individual  On the other hand, the French Revolution created
and group behavior, drawing on psychology, a new political order based on liberty, equality,
sociology, and economics were incorporated fraternity, and parliamentary democracy.
into the theoretical domain of politics.
 The classical evolutionary theory assumed that
 It also occurred because of the historical human society invariably moves from a primitive
circumstances of the post-World War years as to an advanced stage. Thus, the fate of human
America emerged as a world leader. In the 1950s, evolution is predetermined.
America started dominating the affairs of the
 Underlying the evolution theory is the assumption
world. At the same time, there was the spread of
that the rate of social change is slow, gradual,
the communist movement under the leadership
and piecemeal, that is, it is evolutionary, not
of the Soviet Union. The newly emerged
revolutionary.
independent nation-states were faced with two
alternative development models, the Socialist
Functionalist theory
and the Capitalist models, to promote their
economy and consolidate their independence. In  Functionalist theory of Talcott Parsons who
such historical circumstances, it was natural that argues human society is like a biological
American political elite encouraged their social organism and can be studied like an organism.
scientists to study the “new‟, the “emerging‟, To understanding Parsons’s work, the organism
the “underdeveloped‟ or “developing‟ nations illustration is very crucial. The different parts of a
to promote their economic development and biological organism correspond to the different
political stability so as to avoid losing them to institutions that make up a society.
the Soviet communist bloc (Chirot).
 Just as the parts that make up a biological
 With the support and patronage from the organism such as the eye and the hand are
American government and private foundations, interrelated and interdependent in their
political scientists, ventured into studies on non- interaction with one another, the institutions in a
Western societies, especially those that were society such as the economy and the government
emerging out of decolonization. are closely related to one another.
 Much of the research on development of the  Parsons used the concept of system to denote
non-Western societies was influenced by two the harmonious coordination among institutions.
theories of modernization- the evolutionary and As each part of a biological organism performs
functionalist theories.
a specific function for the whole, the same way
each institution performs specific functions for
Evolutionary theory
the stability and growth of the society.
 The evolutionary theory explained modernization
in terms of a transition from traditional to modern CRITIQUE OF POLITICAL MODERNIZATION
society.
APPROACH
 This theory was an outcome of the Industrial
Revolution and the French Revolution which
Critique by Dependency Theorists
destroyed the old social order and laid the
foundation for a new social order.  Dependency theory has criticized the political
 The Industrial Revolution resulted in rising modernization approach and argued that
productivity with the advancement of science economic development might undermine
and technology. social mobilization and democratic political
system instead of promoting them.
 The basic path of modernity is known as
increasing differentiation and scale. Societies  Pointed out that the country’s development can
most successful at developing an intensive be explained based on its historical role in the
division of labour were able to become highly economic development of the global world.
productive.  Scholars who studied Latin America pointed
 The process of division of labour accelerated out that in the economic relations between
with the advancement of science and technology the highly industrialized developed countries
and changed the nature of the political system and predominantly primary good producing
as well. underdeveloped countries, the terms of trade have

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always been in favor of the economically developing American countries and showed that these
countries in the world. They have therefore argued countries have been trapped in the cycle of
that integration into the world economy is not economic underdevelopment and that their
suitable for developing countries. integration with the world economy has
 It indicates that stable economic growth will immensely benefited the developed countries
not be possible unless they overcome their rather than Brazil and Chile.
dependence on developed countries.  When financial investment is affected in the
 In his The Development of Underdevelopment, global world, these countries have also suffered.
Andre Gunder Frank (1970) studied Latin

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the main limitations of the comparative method to the study of political science.
2022/10/150
2. Discuss the political economy approach to the comparative analysis of politics. 2021 /10/150
3. Discuss the subject matter of comparative politics. Outline the limitations of comparative
political paralysis. 2020/10/150
4. Examine the significance of the comparative method in political analysis Discuss its limitations.
2019 /20/250
5. Describe the changing nature of Comparative Politics. Briefly explain the Political Economy
approach to the study of Comparative Politics. 2018 /10/150
6. Explain the Political-Sociological Approach in the field of comparative politics and discuss its
limitations. 2017 /10/150

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2
State In Comparative
Perspective
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Chapter - 2.1

The Concept of Nation State

A type of state that connects the political entity to the nearly a century for the Mexican government
cultural entity and derives its political legitimacy to to develop a sense of ‘Mexican-ness’, or
rule as a sovereign is a nation state. The term ‘nation Mexicanidad in Spanish.
state’ implies that the nation and state concur in
a manner that states prefer to adopt and endorse NATION VS STATE DEBATE
a specific cultural group in order to have a stable
system. The model of the nation state infers that
 The above understanding raises many questions
people of state establish a nation. They were united
because the concept of Nation State is contested
by shared culture, history, language and common
with reference to different contexts. For example,
descent, and whenever shared features were absent,
if in Europe nations are seen as essentially cultural
the nation-state often tried to produce it. construct, in ex-colonies nations are viewed as
 The fundamental parts of the nation state are the political units.
nation and the state.  Postcolonial states encapsulate several nations,
 In the broadest of terms, the state is a body and the process of state formation is not yet
of government. All the rules and laws, the complete. Stability of state is often a challenging
government officials and their titles, the task largely because of their multinational
physical boundaries and those who define composition.
them - these make up the state.  Further, identity assertions based on
 The nation, on the other hand, is the people. religion, language. region, tribe, etc., are
The nation is created by a shared belief that viewed as ‘communal, parochial’ and even
anti-national African nation states emerged
the people inside a country are connected to
through the incorporation of many tribes
each other.
with multiple differences.
 The idea that people of a nation are connected
 In South Asia, virtually every state is
to each other is called nationalism. multireligious and multilingual. Similarly, in
 Nation states must also have a shared national Latin America, the population is multiracial,
culture. This is often achieved through common multilingual, multireligious, or all of these.
language, history, holidays, and education.  In North America and Australia, the national
Sometimes national culture is a result of similar population was created largely by migrants
people living in the same area. from Europe, and differences were so
 On the other hand, sometimes the nation state specific that they not just spoke diverse
begins as a government and later has to try and languages but also followed different
create a national culture. For example, when Christian denominations.
Mexico became independent from Spain, the  This suggests that the meaning of the
country was too large and fragmented for the term nation and the experience of the
people to have developed a national culture. national population vary vastly across the
There were dozens of different identities. It took continents.

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 In fact, in the past many years, states from of nation was essentially cultural, and it compressed a
Western Europe, which were conceived variety of attributes. However, when nations started
and culturally homogeneous, gradually to establish themselves as states, following the maxim
became culturally heterogeneous because ‘one-nation, one state’ primarily in Western Europe,
of migration. This signifies the importance the hyphenated term nation state came into trend.
of context and history that give different As argued by T.K. Oommen, it is often forgotten that
connotations to concepts. the nation state implies a process, and it is possible
 The ‘people’ of the United States did not and historically true that the process can even be
have a preexistent nation (in the European reversed. Not only can a nation be constituted into
sense) to latch onto their nationalism a state, but a state can also dismantle and destroy
and yet American nationalism led to the nations (Oommen).
formation of a state.
 On the other hand, ‘nations’ may not always BRIEF ANALYSIS OF EVOLUTION OF
clamour for their sovereign states as borne STATE IN WEST
out by the experience of India. (Oommen)
 Neera Chandhoke argues that there is  In between the Eighth and Fourteenth centuries,
something vexatious (troublesome) the landmass of Europe was dominated by
about the construction of the hyphen divided/fragmentary authority and this era is
between the nation and the state. referred to as ‘feudalism’ (Held). The economy
 The idea that every nation should have at this time was based on agriculture. There was
its own state, with reference to European no centralized political power
experience is problematic in other contexts.  Even though hundreds of such smaller urban
 Tracing history, it appears probably it is cities developed throughout Europe, the
the state that demands a nation. If we political power still remained fragmented and
hyphenate the nation with the state, the more focused on the local power centres spread
problem of political allegiance to the throughout the rural countryside (Held).
state is solved and establishing effective  Some amount of unity began to be provided
political institutions becomes possible. by the Papacy (the office and jurisdiction of the
The formulation proved so attractive bishop of Rome, the pope) and the Holy Roman
that the hyphen, which connects the Empire with its overarching call for unity on
conceptual worlds of the nation and the the basis of religion. Throughout the Middle
state (the nation state), came to rule Ages there was a constant struggle for power
politics across the world (Chandhoke) between the Catholic Church and the local level
 T.K. Oommen discusses different situations feudal powers centres in the rural hinterland and
represented by nation-states. It could be numerous city states (Held)
one nation, one state, citing this as an ideal
Japan is referred to as an example. There
Early foundations of modern nation state
is a possibility of different nations forming  The challenge to this ‘international Christian
states for geopolitical reasons, for example society’ that was trying to provide an
Switzerland. overarching unity to the fragmentary nature of
 Nation states are also formed when one political authority in Europe came in the form of
nation is divided into two: Germany Reformation in the beginning of the Sixteenth
until 1990 is an important case. Another century.
possibility with reference to history is when  Due to the challenge posed by Reformation, the
part of a nation is established into one religious power and political hold of the papacy
sovereign state, for example, Bangladesh. was greatly reduced.
 A set of migrants drawn from a multiplicity  This directly led to the development of space for
of nations could also constitute a state, for new forms of political power to rise. With this,
example, the United States (Oommen). “ground was created for the development
This discussion makes it clear that the meaning of a new form of political identity- national
and content of nation and state have transformed identity” (Held). This can be called the first stage
substantially over time. The content of the concept in the rise of the modern nation state.

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 Two different forms of political regimes started

specifically the concept of sovereign states,
developing from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth
became vital to international law and to the
century in Europe. These were “the ‘absolute’
prevalent world order.
monarchies in France, Prussia, Austria, Spain,
and Russia, among other places, and the
‘constitutional’ monarchies and republics found Rise of the modern state
in England and Holland”.
 There was increasing centralization of power in
 Political authority hence became completely
Europe under the rule of the absolutist rulers.
centralized in the monarchy based on the theory
Such moves in the practical life of politics were
of the ‘divine right of the king’. Hence, the
backed in the ideational domain by the theories
formation of absolute monarchies became the
of sovereignty, especially state sovereignty at
basis for the further development of the state
this point of time.
system in Western Europe
 Importantly, the concept of sovereignty
underlined the foundation of the modern nation
The origin of a modern nation state is traced
state which was an impersonal structure of
in the Treaty of Westphalia is the thirty Years
governance.
War between Spain and the Dutch Republic where
the major triggers behind signing the Peace of  It is argued that the development of the modern
Westphalia were: state and its evolution into a representative
liberal democracy in Western Europe was a result
 The Thirty Years' War was fought almost all-
of many factors and processes.
over central Europe from 1618 to 1648.
 David Held has outlined three “‘macro
 It was also a war between Protestants and
patterns’: [1] war and militarism, [2] the
Catholics.
emergence of capitalism, and [3] the struggle
Another important development was the war for citizenship.
referred to as The Eighty Years' War or Dutch
 Held posits that the nation states went on to
War of Independence (1568-1648).
become the dominant form of political existence
 This state of affairs of frequent wars and on an international level because of these three
conflict made it clear that a solution should temporally long drawn out and complex processes.
be grounded on a packaged deal' between
Thus, the rise and evolution of the modern nation
different sides. With the Peace of Westphalia,
state needs to be understood as a long drawn out and
war came to an end and certain important
uneven process situated in Western Europe. It needs to
decrees developed.
be understood against the backdrop of the break-up of
 It established the principle of sovereignty that the mediaeval world which was a place of divided and
gave the state power over all essentials of the overlapping authority and religious conflicts. Certain
nation and the state, including religion. developments led to a change in this context. These
 It established an ingrained system of political developments included the Reformation, the rise of
order based upon the notion of coexisting international capital, trade and European expansion
sovereign states. through colonialism, the rise of absolutist monarchies
 With increasing European influence on the and the theoretical discourse of sovereignty. These
world, these Westphalian principles, became the foundational backdrop that led to the
development of modern nation states.

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Chapter - 2.2

State In Comparative Perspective

 The contemporary world was politically CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGING

divided into three major parts: the first world NATURE OF THE STATE IN CAPITALIST/
(Western capitalist countries plus Japan, Australia,
and New Zealand; often including Israel and
SOCIALIST AND ADVANCED
South Africa); the second world (Communist INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES/ECONOMIES
states of Eastern and Central Europe, led by the
former Soviet Union) and the third world (the  Western writers have been trying to demonstrate
newly independent, developing countries of that the course of development in the advanced
Asia, Africa and Latin America). industrial countries is determined by the level
 While the first world and the second world of their industrialization and consequent
were engaged in the ‘cold war’ (ideological modernization, and not by their ideological
propaganda against each other in a bid to prove commitment. This meant that the western
their respective superiority), the third world democracies and the communist states would
preferred to remain ‘non-aligned’ in order to follow a similar course of development.
focus on development and also to contain the  Max Weber, a German sociologist, had observed
intensity of the prevailing ‘cold war’. With the in the early twentieth century that all modern
dissolution of the second world around 1991,
societies were prone to developing a ‘legal-
and the consequent end of the ‘cold war’, this
rational’ model of bureaucracy.
division became partly outdated. However, the
third world still maintained its identity with a  By the twentieth century, James Burnham tried
more vigorous focus on development. to show that the rise of a new class of managers
was common to capitalist, communist and
 Its Identity was reinforced by an alternative
mixed economies. This symbolized the shift of
division of the world on economic basis which
power from the legal owner of the means of
was in vogue along with its political division. The
economic division of the world recognized two production to the effective manager. Burnham
broad categories: the developed world and declared that the war of 1939 (the Second World
the developing world, sometimes identified War) was the first great war of managerial society
as the North-South divide or Global North as the war of 1914 (the First World War) was the
and Global South. last great war of capitalist society.

 The concept of the developing world coincided  Several economists and economic historians
with the third world. Indeed, the aggregate in the 1960s postulated similar patterns of
of the developing countries continued to be development in all industrial societies in spite of
described as the third world even in the context differences in their ideologies. Of these, W.W.
of economic division of the world. With the Rostow (The Stages of Economic Growth),
increasing importance of economic power in J.K. Galbraith (The New Industrial State),
world politics, the economic division of the and Simon Kuznets (Economic Growth and
world has become more significant. Structure) are particularly important.

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 They argued that economic growth constitutes industrial society’, developed by Daniel Bell
a uniform process involving definite stages of (The Coming of Post-Industrial Society; A
growth in all industrial economies irrespective of Venture in Social Forecasting) gives a vivid
their adherence to diverse political ideologies. description of the most highly developed states
 In other words, all industrializing societies are in the western world.
governed by a uniform ‘logic’ underlying this  Bell himself is a votary of the ‘end of ideology’
process. These may be identified by a number thesis which holds that the character of social-
of common characteristics, e.g. the demand economic organization of a country at the
to utilize technology efficiently; the increasing advanced stage of industrial development
specialization of tasks; the necessity for a highly is determined by the level of its industrial
skilled and educated manpower; an increasing development, and not by the prevailing
ratio of workers in industrial and service sectors ideology. His description of ‘post-industrial
in relation to the agricultural sector; the growing society’ throws many hints about the possible
significance of material incentives; evolution of course of development in many countries beyond
more complex organisational structures; and the western democracies.
emergence of similar patterns of management,
planning and policy objectives.  In order to contrast a ‘post-industrial society’
with an ‘industrial society’, Bell observes that
 Then a host of sociologists also sought to in an industrial society, corporation is the chief
identify common tendencies of development economic and social institution, work is machine-
in all ‘modernizing’ societies. Thus Marion J. oriented which leads to conflict between capital
Levy, Jr. (Modernization and the Structure
and labour. On the other hand, in a post-industrial
of Society) and Talcott Parsons (The System
society, corporations have a less central place,
of Modern Societies) asserted that universal
work relations are more people-oriented, and
structural constraints involved in the process
a lesser proportion of the labour force works in
of industrialization lead to the development
industry than in services.
of certain common characteristics in different
types of societies. These include urbanization,  In such a society, scientific and technical elites
expanding educational systems, similar play prominent roles; universities, research
occupational prestige, and mobility patterns, institutes and knowledge in general are held
falling birth and death rates, widespread in high esteem; Merit rather than property
electronic communication networks, etc. is the principle of social stratification; group
 Advanced industrial societies are further competition replaces class warfare, and
characterized by dominance of scientific the social structure has a more rational and
rationalism over superstition, universalism vs efficient basis.
particularism, individualism over collectivism,  The economic function is subordinated to
standards of achievement over nepotism, and the political order because the government
the dominance of a state that defines rights is responsible for planning. Experts and
and obligations, extension of citizenship, the bureaucracy play a leading role in such
increased political participation, and the planning, and the state intervenes in the
expansion of individual liberties. economy for a broad variety of reasons. This
 Critics point out that most of these trend challenges some aspects of democracy
characteristics focus on the western model and constitutes a danger to individual rights.
of development. The theory of universal  In a nutshell, advanced industrial societies
characteristics of developed societies in the contemporary world are characterized
underplays the role of cultural and ideological by the expansion of the service sector. More
factors as well as the strength of leadership people are now employed in hotels, restaurants,
prevailing in different types of political shops, motor garages, transport and tourism,
systems. It would be futile to look for these communication, entertainment, and advertising
characteristics in the course of progress made in jobs, etc. than those in factories. The business
socialist countries and the third world. becomes more people- oriented. Government
 This theory is largely designed to project the planning and regulation is extended to every
‘market society model’ as a universal model of part of public life. This may provide for some
development which would work to the advantage protection to ordinary people, but it may also
of western democracies at the expense of other involve strict vigilance on an individual’s life and
countries. Incidentally, the concept of ‘post- some restriction on his freedom.

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Chapter - 2.3

Post Colonial State/ Post-Colonialism

Post-Colonial Theorist To International  The strength of the postcolonial theory, for him
Relations lies in the fact that it, “focuses on a peculiar
relationship which former colonies historically
 In the context of international relations, the term came to develop with their colonial masters.
‘post-colonial’ is generally used in the popular This relationship has been aptly described as
sense of designating a rupture i.e., a radical that of an ‘intimate enemy’. This relationship,
break from the past. As a result, the two terms much before the enemy is recognized as enemy,
“Third World” and “Postcolonial World” are its values, beliefs, and forms are internalized by
often used interchangeably in the literature of the victim, so that the more the victim opposes
international relations. This is so because most of the enemy the more it acts like the enemy itself,
the Third World countries with a few exceptions producing its mirror images in the name of
are former- colonies. rebellion.
 Several theorists in international relations is  The hegemony of western developmental
increasingly use the term ‘postcolonial’ to depict and modernization project overwhelmingly
the “postcolonial” nature of state, nationalism, gripped the “national elite” in the postcolonial
society, and culture of once-colonized countries,
societies that they could never come out with
or newly independent countries, or the Third
an alternative developmental agenda. Despite
World countries.
their insistence on pursuing the principle
 In a recent perceptive study, Bhupinder Brar of self-reliance, they could never break the
proposes to replace the term ‘’Third World” shackles of Western mind-set. As a result,
by an alternative term, “Post-Colonial World”. they ended up imitating the Western model
According to him: ‘‘the basic problem with the of development, privileging thereby Western
term Third World is that it describes essentially modernity and rationalism.
the starting position at which the newly
independent countries found themselves. It  Post-coloniality argument has given alternative
does not clarify why they continue to be poor interpretation of absolute sovereignty. What
and backward”. Brar argues that the perspective is being argued here is that system based on
of post-colonialist can illuminate certain areas in absolute sovereignty made pursuit of power
international relations which had earlier been legitimate, and thereby legitimized colonialism?
neglected. The more the post-colonial states insist today
on the “principle” of absolute sovereignty, the
 The “post-coloniality” argument in the field
more the unequal and hierarchical international
of international relations can be particularly
system gets perpetuated”.
helpful in discerning a new pattern of
dependency which is social, cultural, and  Postcolonialism examines how societies,
psychological as against the narrow economic governments and peoples in the formerly
focus of the world system and core-periphery colonised regions of the world experience
models. international relations.

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 It highlights the impact that colonial and  Postcolonialism also challenges the Marxist
imperial histories still have in shaping a perspective that class struggle is at the root of
colonial way of thinking about the world and historical change – instead demonstrating how
how Western forms of knowledge and power race shapes history. It analyses that focus only
marginalise the non-western world. on class fail to consider how the identification
 It is not only interested in understanding the of the ‘Third World’ as ‘backward’, ‘primitive’ or
world as it is, but also as it ought to be. It ‘non-rational’ are linked to persistent economic
is concerned with the disparities in global marginalisation.
power and wealth accumulation and why  While mainstream IR theories see the
some states and groups exercise so much international system as an anarchy,
power over others. postcolonial scholars see it as a hierarchy.
 Postcolonialism also demonstrates how Western
Basics of Postcolonialism: Core idea of
views about Islam and its adherents are a
their argument manifestation of the West’s own insecurities. The
 A key theme to postcolonialism is that Western rise of political Islam across the Muslim world
perceptions of the non-West are a result of – watermarked by Iran’s Islamic Revolution
the legacies of European colonisation and in 1979 – not only confronted neo-imperialist
imperialism. interventions but also revealed the impacts of
core cultural and social shifts accompanying a
 Discourses (primarily things that are written or
more interconnected global economy.
spoken) has constructed non-Western states
and peoples as ‘other’ or different to the West,  In the West, however, the view of this resurgence
usually in a way that made them appear to be has been interpreted by prominent policymakers
inferior. In doing so, they helped European and academics as a ‘clash of civilizations’
powers justify their domination over other (Huntington 1993) and worse, as a direct threat
peoples in the name of bringing civilisation or to Western civilization.
progress. Take for example, the issue of global  Edward Said (1997) showed how Western
inequality. Postcolonialism suggests that in order media, film, academia and policy elites rely on
to better understand how global class relations a distorted lens or framework used to describe
emerge and are maintained, we must address the history and culture of Arab peoples and
ideas about why these relations appear normal. adherents of Islam. He called it Orientalism
Postcolonialism argues that addressing and because it constructs a particular idea of the so-
finding solutions to poverty and global inequality called ‘Orient’ that is distinct from the West and
come up against representations of the other its inhabitants’ characteristics that are essentially
that make it difficult for Western policymakers the opposite of the West. For Example: People of
to shed their biases and address the underlying the Orient may be characterised as being exotic,
global structural factors such as how capital and emotional, feminine, backward, hedonistic, non-
resources are accumulated and flow around the rational and so forth. This contrasts with the more
world generating inequality. positive attributes usually associated with the
West such as rationality, masculinity, civilization,
View on key concepts such as power, the and modernity.
state and security
 Frantz Fanon (1967) shows how race shapes the
 In analysing how key concepts such as power, the way that the coloniser relates to the colonised
state and security serve to reproduce the status and vice versa by capturing how some people
quo, postcolonialism proposes a more complex under colonial rule began to internalise – that
view of such concepts than is characteristic of is, identify with – ideas of racial difference that
traditional theories. For example, the concept saw ‘others’ as inferior to white Europeans. He
of sovereignty, and with it the contours of the explains that the ‘black man’ is made to believe
modern state, were imposed on the colonial in his inferiority to the ‘white colonisers’ through
world by European powers. Yet it is a concept psycho- logical aspects of colonisation, such
that is usually taken for granted by scholars of as the imposition of the coloniser’s language,
realism and liberalism. culture, religion, and education systems.

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 Post Colonialism highlights how racialised  Post colonialism reflects globalization from
othering frames not just history, but contemporary the point of view of colonization and discusses
debates such as national security, nuclear politics, the cultural relations between the East and the
nationalism, culture, immigration, international West from the perspective of globalization-the
aid, and the struggle for indigenous rights. orientalization and the cultural hegemony of the
West to the East.
Views on Modernity and Globalisation
Feature of Post-Colonialism
 The rise of post-colonialism is also closely related to
the process of comprehensive western reflection on  One of the main features of post-colonialism
modernity. Postmodernism reflects modernity is orientalism, a western re-explanation and
deeply and comprehensively. It reveals a deconstruction of eastern theoretical discourse.
postmodernist line of thought through a Edward Said uses Foucault’s theory of
thorough deconstruction of modernity. The discourse and power to criticize orientalism
essence is to “rewrite modernity.” as a way of thinking and as a way of theoretical
 The problem is that the development of discourse.
modernization in the western world is closely  He said orientalism is the way in which the
related to the colonization, invasion, and
West controls and rebuilds the East. Whether
expansion of territory. That is to say, no
it is a subject or a way of thinking and a way
colonization and invasion, no modernity in the
of theoretical discourse, orientalism is written,
West. The problems of European modernity
studied, built, and controlled by the west.
always develop within the range of global
colonization. History shows that modernity, in  According to Said, the concept of the East in
the whole world, is a phenomenon that occurs in orientalism is based on an ideological supposition
collusion with colonization. or assumption, but not on a geographical
 In this process, western countries use an concept. It is the historical and cultural relations
unbalanced power to force people of other between Europe and Asia that determine the
areas “to use a language of modernity which existence of the East and the West. The East is
everyone must use whether or not it properly not a natural existence.
expresses their reality”. Post-colonialism  Another main feature of post-colonialism is to
is a response to coloniality in the process of uncover and criticize cultural hegemony as a new
modernity. form of colonization. Post-colonialism uncovers
 Reflection on modernity will certainly lead to and criticizes cultural hegemony through
reflection on globalization. The age of post- an analysis of the political and ideological
colonialism is simply the age of globalization. The characteristics of culture, the combination of
attention paid to globalization and the reflection culture and power, and culture’s participation in
on modernity can never be separated. imperialistic undertakings.
 As Giddens says, globalization is the extension  According to Edward Said, there is no pure
of modernity in the whole world. Historically, cultural form. Culture is the root of national
western bourgeois initiated and led the identity that may lead to war and battles. Culture
globalization movement. In this process, is never adiaphorous (having neither positive nor
western bourgeois tries to create a world negative impact). When talking about culture,
according to their own perceptions, tries to we should first ask whose culture it is and which
subjugate the uncivilized and semi-civilized country and nation the culture belongs to, who
countries to the civilized countries, tries to the main body representing the culture is, who
subjugate farmers to bourgeois, and tries to
the culture serves, etc.
subjugate the East to the West. The process
of globalization itself creates imperialism.  In other words, culture is consequentially
If globalization is unavoidable, it will be “polluted” by the main body’s political system,
realized by way of colonialism. The most ideology, and values. Said says, culture is a
outstanding feature of colonialism is that it is battlefield in which all kinds of forces fight
related to the capitalistic system. This system against one another; culture is a stage on which
nourishes colonialism and makes it a global various politics and ideologies conflict; this gives
phenomenon. culture political and ideological characteristics.

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Postcolonialism: Feminist Perspective  Postcolonial feminists are committed to an

intersectional approach that uncovers the deeper
 There are internal debates among postcolonial implications of how and why systemic violence
scholars and in this case also a significant evident in war, conflict, terror, poverty, social
overlap with feminism – especially ‘third wave’ inequality and so forth has taken root.
feminism that became prominent in the 1990s.
 Postcolonial feminism asserts that women of
Bell Hooks (2000) observed that the so-called
colour are triply oppressed due to their (1)
‘second wave’ of feminism of the mid- to late
race/ethnicity, (2) class status and (3) gender.
twentieth century had emerged from women
An example can be found in the employment
in a position of privilege and did not represent
conditions of the many women in the Global
African American women such as herself who
South who work in factories producing textiles,
remain on the margins of society, politics and the
semi-conductors, and sporting and consumer
economy. She called for an alternative, critical
goods for export to the West.
and distinctive feminist activism and politics.
 For example: does a black woman from a poor Conclusion
neighbourhood on Chicago’s south side experience
sexism in the same way as a white woman from  Post colonialism interrogates a world order
its wealthier suburbs? Women who share the dominated by major state actors and their
same ethnic identity might experience sexism in domineering interests and ways of looking at the
different ways because of their class. The same world. It challenges notions that have taken hold
might be true for women of colour and white about the way states act or behave and what
women from the same social class. Women of motivates them.
colour and white women in the United States  It forces us to ask tough questions about how
experience ‘heteropatriarchy’ – a societal order and why a hierarchical international order has
marked by white male heterosexual domination – emerged and its further challenges mainstream
differently even if they come from the same social IR’s core assumptions about concepts such as
class. power and how it operates.
 Feminist postcolonial scholars like Geeta  Post colonialism forces us to reckon with the
Chowdhry and Sheila Nair call for more everyday injustices and oppressions that can
attention to the intersections of race and/ reveal themselves in the starkest terms through
or ethnicity, nationality, class and gender. By a particular moment of crisis.
doing so they address the ways that different
aspects of one’s identity, such as race, gender,
class, sexuality and so forth, intersect to create NATION STATE IN POSTCOLONIAL
multiple and distinct forms of oppression so that CONTEXT
no one aspect can be privileged over another in
understanding oppression.
 Since the end of the second World War, the
 Postcolonial feminists share a desire to go number of independent states has increased.
beyond simply analysing the impacts of While decolonization in Africa and Asia was the
patriarchy, gender inequality and sexual reason for creation of new entities in the post
exploitation. Instead, they highlight the Second World War phase, the end of communist
need to fight not only patriarchy (broadly domination and integration of the US where
understood as the power of men over the Cold War increased the number of states
women) but also the classism and racism further.
that privileges white women over women of
 Tracing the development in Western Europe and
colour. For example: While Western feminism has
North America, it becomes clear that in most of
often portrayed the veil as a symbol of oppression
of women, many Algerian women adopted the the situations the nation nearly always created
veil, standing alongside men, when protesting the state. However, the reverse of state formation
French rule. To them, it was a symbol of opposition preceding nation-building, is effected from the
to white, colonial patriarchy. In many other parts study of postcolonial states.
of the colonised world, women stood shoulder  The existence of culturally and ethnically
to shoulder with men in nationalist movements separate groups and their political interaction is
to overthrow colonial rule, showing that women often characterized by conflict because they find
in different cultural, social and political contexts it difficult to regard the state as their primary
experience oppression in very different ways. source of political allegiance.

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 In postcolonial states in Africa and Asia, most  Third, it was widely agreed that the
of them inherited arbitrarily created colonial developing state was to reverse the colonial
borders, feeble economies, widespread legacy by playing an interventionist role in
corruption, crumbling administration bringing about social engineering, ethnic
and infrastructure. This has affected their homogeneity, and economic modernization
capability to control means of violence to an as well as nation building.
extent that in some areas different groups vie  Hamza Alavi, writing in the concrete context
with each other for control. of South Asia grounded his state theory on the
 Warlordism, drug trafficking, conflict diamonds, historical specificity of the developing societies.
ethnic conflicts, mass killing, and ethnic cleansing  He attributed this as emanating the structural
emerge in the absence of a legitimate state changes brought about by colonial domination
structure. as well as distant history, culture, and tradition of
 Thus, where European states witnessed a gradual these societies.
monopolization of violence and the gradual  The major contention of Alavi is that the
eradication of armed private actors, some areas state dominates politics as well as civil
in Africa are witnessing the opposite trend society because of its overdeveloped super
(Spruyt). structure.
 Most of the postcolonial states have failed in their  The ideological and coercive apparatus of state
principal task of developing viable economies, being over developed in nature dominates all
controlling law and order within borders, and social forces. The developing states equipped
providing public services to the people. with military, bureaucratic apparatus,
mechanisms of power and institutionalized
 According to Joel Migdal, while the governments practices control and regulate indigenous
of such newly independent countries affected social classes.
many spheres of social life, they lack the ability
 Alavi traces a historical symmetry between the
to direct these societies, weak states confront
nature of colonial and the developing state as
strong societies.
due to a properly developed capitalist class
 These states are facing different challenges in bureaucratic military oligarchy has become an
the process of nation- and state building. To all-too-common phenomenon in developing
follow the Western state model in a mere couple states.
of decades, they have to build a nation state that  He traced out that the state in developing
can play its role in the international community societies is not the instrument of a single
according to internationally adopted standards class. It is relatively autonomous because of
following International Human Rights Laws and the overdeveloped nature of state apparatus
democratic standards) that perform the basic as well as because it mediates as well as acts
functions towards its citizens, so, what they lack on behalf of three dominant proprietary
in the time to sort out internal rivalries to find classes- the metropolitan bourgeoisie, the
new and stable configurations in the power indigenous bourgeoisie and landed classes
sharing (Grotenhuis). having competing interests. Thus, the
developing state is entrusted with the task of
preserving a social order in which the ruling
HAMZA-ALAWI’ NOTION OF
classes’ interests are embedded.
OVERDEVELOPED STATE
 According to Alavi, in developing society’s state
plays a special ideological function of the state
 The main feature of state in developing societies to create territorial unity, legitimacy and a sense
is interventionist state as this notion of an of nationhood. In developing societies, given the
Interventionist State was in line with the colonial artificial nature of territorial boundaries such a
statist tradition. hegemonic position had to be created once the
 Second, since the civil society was under- powerful force of direct colonial fiat was gone.
developed as a result of colonial intervention,  In postcolonial societies like Africa, the
the State assumed centrality to the social state bureaucracy becomes decisive in the
formations. formulation of state policies in the face of the

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apparent inability of indigenous bourgeoisie  There is a general theory of the developing

to emerge as a dominant ruling class, which state. While three classes, namely metropolitan
allows the state bureaucracy to enjoy the bourgeoisie, the indigenous bourgeoisie, and
status of governing class. the landed peasantry may be regarded as
economically dominant and therefore exercising
 Shivji and Mamdani while writing in the context directly or indirectly political dominance
of developing Africa they argued that where the or control, State Personnel/ bureaucratic
indigenous bourgeoisie was unusually weak and bourgeoisie may be judged to be the ruling
the state relatively strong, it was the strong state or governing element being most active in the
bureaucracy that appropriated and accumulated political process and indeed holding the reins of
the economic surplus. government.

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Chapter - 2.4

Characteristics And Changing Nature Of The

State In Socialist Economies

An economic system defines the mechanism of  However, socialism differs from communism
production, distribution, and allocation of goods, in that: It does not favour violent aggression
services, and resources in a society/country with or overthrowing of capitalists by workers. It
defined rules and policies about ownership and does not advocate that all private property
administration. The most commonly followed ownership be eliminated, but rather that the
economic system, modern-day capitalism, was based gap should be narrowed down, preventing
on a framework to secure supply of the key elements accumulation.
required for industry–land, machinery, and labour–as
 The main goal of socialism is to narrow, but
disruption in any of these would lead to increased
risk and loss for the venture. Socialists viewed this not totally remove, the gap between the rich
commoditization of labour as an inhuman practice, and the poor. The government, through its
and that led to the birth of socialist market economies. agencies and policies, takes the responsibility to
Following are some examples of the economies of redistribute production and wealth, making the
North Korea and Cuba, along with China, as a case society fairer and levelled.
study for the key socialist market economies in the
present era. Other Important Characteristics of a
Socialist System
Types of Socialist Economies
 A socialist economy also offers collective
One of the variants is the “socialist economy,” ownership, usually through a state-controlled
which is a financial system based on the public or agency, worker cooperative, or owned by
cooperative ownership of production. A prominent the society as a whole, with delegation to
characteristic of the socialist economy is that the representatives.
goods and services are produced based on usage
 Socialist market economies generally
value. This usage value is subject to the needs of
discourage private ownership. In addition, in
the society, hence preventing under-production and
over- production. This is completely different from socialist market economies, goods and services
the common capitalist economic system, in which are produced for their usefulness, with the aim to
goods and services are produced to generate profit eliminate the need for a demand-based market.
and capital accumulation, rather than based on their  In this way, it discourages accumulation, which
usage and value. is assumed to be the root cause of wealth
imbalance. Interestingly, no pure socialist, pure
Socialism vs. Communism capitalist or pure communist economy exists in
the world today.
 Socialism, similar to communism, advocates that
the means of production be owned by the people,  All economic system changes were introduced
either directly or through government agencies. with a big bang approach and had to make
Socialism also believes that wealth and income “adjustments” to allow appropriate modifications
should be shared more equally among people. as the situation developed.

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TRENDS: How Cuba’s Socialist Market  China’s foreign policy continues to be pro-
Economy Works socialist, but it has essentially become a free-
market economy. In essence, China no longer
 Cuba is one of the most well-known socialist remains a “pure socialist economy.”
economies, having a mostly state-run economy,
 After the U.S China is the second-largest
a national healthcare program, government-
economy in the world and the number-one
sponsored education free for nationals at all levels,
largest manufacturing economy.
subsidized housing, utilities, entertainment, and
even subsidized food programs.  Effectively, China transitioned from a “socialist
 Together, these social programs compensate for economy” to a “socialist market economy.”
the low salaries of Cuban workers, making them The communist regime in China quickly realized
better off than their international counterparts in that it would be to its disadvantage to keep
many other countries. China’s economy secluded from the rest of the
world. Since then, it has been able to successfully
 As a socialist economy, Cuba has a primarily
strike a balance between the “collective” and
planned economy with around 80% of its
“capitalist” approach.
workforce working in state-owned enterprises.
Cuba does not have a stock exchange–a crucial  Policies allow entrepreneurs and investors to
indicator of a capital-free economy. take profits but within the controls of the state.
 President Raúl unveiled economic reforms in Around 2004, the government began to
2010 aimed to shift toward a mixed economy allow a person’s right to private property.
that would allow free-market mechanisms, Establishing a special economic zone and
remove government control of small businesses, opening up to international trade have allowed
lay off unnecessary state workers, and make self- the country to embark on fast-paced economic
employment easier. growth – all courtesy to the right changes to the
 Why was this change - It seemed that state- socialist policies at the required time.
run subsidies had become insufficient to
support numerous social programs. There were TRENDS: How North Korea’s Socialist
high poverty levels, a widening gap between Market Economy Works
the rich and the poor, and a massive burden on
social programs.  North Korea–the world’s most totalitarian
state–is another prominent example of a socialist
 As of today, Cuba seems to be better situated
economy. Like Cuba, North Korea has an almost
with a parallel financial system–one that operates
entirely state-controlled economy, with similar
on the usual social programs in common sectors,
social programs to those of Cuba. There is no
while operating as a free- market economy in
the tourism, export and international business stock exchange in North Korea either.
sectors. Around 20% of Cuban workers are  Around mid-1975, North Korea was better
currently employed in this private sector. educated and more productive than China
 Introducing better reforms through new laws (based on international trade per capita).
aimed to bring in higher foreign investment. However, the economic and social situation has
Tax-free special development zones are being been precarious in North Korea since a massive
introduced for foreign companies to conduct famine hit the country between the years of 1994
business freely and allow the transfer of tariff- and 1998.
free profits abroad, among other benefits.  Today, many world powers have discontinued
This is a significant change from the central
aid and trade with North Korea due to the
“socialist” planning.
many human rights abuse allegations of the
TRENDS: How China’s Socialist Market totalitarian government. These sanctions by
other world powers have significantly restricted
Economy Works
any economic development of the North Korean
 A significant portion of the Chinese economy economy. Apart from the challenges of dynastic
is still government-controlled, although the rule in North Korea, which prevents the country
number of government programs has declined from becoming self-reliant, the campaign of
significantly. Universal health care, for example, “military-first politics” also imposes a heavy
is being discontinued. burden on the economy.

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 North Korea’s only foreign-trade partner for the ones required, farmers selling their
is China, and the business is dominated by produce locally, and an increasing number of
middlemen who broker the deals between firms importing Chinese goods through agents.
Chinese companies and Korean firms.  Lack of credible official information on North
 In May of 2019, the United Nations estimated Korea makes it hard to observe the economic
that ten million North Koreans were facing severe development (or lack thereof), but available
food shortages. information does point to the existence of a
 Due to a lack of self-sufficient manufacturing different financial system.
facilities and markets in the country and  As one scholarly article explains, “No communist
increasing dependency on China, private firms state has ever been able to eradicate private
and businesses are on the rise in North Korea. economic activities completely, and despite their
Irrespective of the existing situations and causal persistent efforts, all Leninist regimes have had
factors, the development of parallel “second” to tolerate the existence of a ‘second economy.’
markets, where citizens and firms trade or barter The second economy operates outside the
for goods and services, are thriving. planning framework, is conducted for private
 Indicating a significant shift from the heavily gain and/or involves ‘knowing contravention
controlled “socialist” economy of North of existing law.’ Entities thus engaged may be
Korea, this parallel system is seeing involvement households, enterprises (including SOEs) or
from all–housewives exchanging unused goods criminal organisations.”

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Chapter - 2.5

Trends In The Third World

 Most third world countries remained politically  This division paved the way for evolving more
‘non-aligned’ in the era of the ‘cold war’, but meaningful relations between rich and poor
most of them have now been economically countries. Issues like North-South dialogue and
‘linked’ with the developed world thanks to South-South cooperation came into prominence
the all-pervading process of ‘globalization’. in pursuance of this idea. However, technically
 Some countries had independently adopted this division was not found correct.
socialist path without seeking alignment with  There are some well-to-do nations, like
the second world. The collapse of socialism in Australia and New Zealand, and even
the Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union South Africa, south of the equator; and
(1989-91) had a profound impact on their mode some poor nations, like India and the rest
of thought. of South Asia (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal,
 Thus Albania, Yugoslavia, Mongolia, and Yemen Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Maldives), most of
relinquished socialist systems on their own. South-East Asia, the Caribbean, Central
China, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba have America, and the northern region of South
retained socialist systems, probably with a America are in the north.
more liberal outlook. China—the largest and  Now with the disintegration of the second world,
the most important among them— has shown and further disintegration of some members of
keen interest in the process of liberalization and the former second world, like Czechoslovakia, the
globalization. category of poor countries is no longer confined
 China gained independence in 1949 and to the third world. Again, there is a wide variety
emerged as a big communist power. It did of levels of development.
not join the communist camp, nor took  Some Middle Eastern countries have a higher
interest in the ‘non-aligned’ movement. per capita income than does the United
 It is true that China did not qualify as a States. Then the first generation of countries
superpower, yet as a country with one like Taiwan, the Republic of Korea (South Korea),
billion people—largest in any country of Singapore and Hong Kong (the ‘Four Dragons’)
the world, bountiful natural resources, and had penetrated Japanese and Western markets;
nuclear hardware is, by any standard, a and the second generation of these newly
great power. industrializing economies is N likely to excel
 Economic division of the world was sought in the competition. (Of these, Hong Kong has
to be formalized by the Report of the Willy merged with China since 1997.)
Brandt Commission, entitled North-South: A  On the other end of the spectrum, sub-Saharan
Program for Survival (1980). It drew distinction Africa is the most marginalized region of the
between two hemispheres: North, which was world. On the political side, a large number of
economically more advanced; and South, which third world countries came under military rule
was less developed. because of their political, administrative, and

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economic instability. It has been superseded by parts of the world. Destruction of the World Trade
popular rule in most of those countries. At one Centre at New York in 2001, involving hundreds
time, most Latin American countries were under of casualties, was one of the most heinous acts of
military rule. terrorism. Third world countries will not only have
 But in the late 1990s democracy had been to solve their economic problems but also ensure
established in the entire region. However, an end to exploitation of vulnerable sections of
Ecuador experienced a military coup in 2000. people both at national and international levels.
In Africa, Nigeria had a pretty long history of
military rule. It returned to civilian rule in 1999.
Conclusion
In Asia, Pakistan returned to military rule in 1999 Socialist market economies across the globe have
followed by democratic elections in 2002. Military existed and continue to progress. However, there
rulers in Myanmar (Burma) have been constantly may not be any standard of a pure socialist economy
evading handing over power to people’s elected remaining. Over time, many world leaders that
representatives. previously identified under the umbrella of
 Finally, ethnic bias and fundamentalist socialist economies have now bent towards
attitude, combined with the widespread capitalist-shifts in programs and policies–China
frustration of the youth on economic front, in being the leader among them. The ones taking a
several parts of the third world have given rise rigid stand are facing severe problems or developing
to terrorism at a large scale, threatening many parallel markets.

Previous Year Questions

1. “The postcolonial state was thought of as an entity that stood outside and above society as an
autonomous agency.” Explain. 2021/20/200
2. Describe the changing nature of the State in the developing societies in the context of inclusive
growth in the 21st century. 2018/10/150
3. “A combination of internal pressures (ethnic and regional forces) and external threats (EU, UN,
TNC, global market, etc.) has produced what is commonly referred to as a ‘crisis of the nation-
state’.” Elaborate. 2016/10/150
4. Do you subscribe to the view that the modern constructs of the State and politics are pre-
eminently Eurocentric and not indigenous and appropriate for the analysis of non-western
societies? 2015 /10/150

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3
Politics of
Representation and
Participation
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Chapter - 3.1

Political Parties

 Political parties are essential for the effective electorate, and also provide stable government
working of modern democratic states. which is responsible, and an opposition which,
Professor Harold J. Laski had underlined the in a responsible manner, keeps the ruling party
importance of parties when he wrote, “There under constant vigil and check. Democratic
is no alternative to party government, save process is not allowed to derail.
dictatorship, in any state of modern size.  However, many countries have multi-party
Government requires leaders, leaders require systems with a large number of parties. These
not an incoherent mob behind them, but an parties provide wider choice to the people, but
organized following able to canalise the issues often lead to instability of government.
for an electorate with a free choice.”
 Political parties are certainly essential to the
 This statement correctly separates dictatorship, functioning of democracy. They perform
which is one person’s arbitrary rule, from different functions within and outside the realm
democracy where people make free choice of
of politics. Their leadership and policies, internal
their representatives to rule, on their behalf. A
practices, and the patterns of interaction with
dictator like Hitler or Mussolini may also lead a
other parties and institutions can have profound
party, but then it is a group of sycophants, not a
consequences for the system of governance.
competitive organization.
 As Zoya Hasan says, a party is “a keystone
 As Laski says, the government requires leaders,
political institution in representative regime”,
who in turn must be supported by organized
and parties regularly fulfil three crucial functions.
people. A mob has no place in a democratic
These are: nominating candidates for public
polity.
offices, formulating and setting the agenda for
 The organized parties identify issues on which the public; and mobilizing support for candidates
they seek popular verdict. Periodic elections and policies in an election.
provide opportunities to the parties to present
 Other institutions also perform some of these
these issues, and if supported by the people
functions, but as A.H. Somjee says, what
they become bases of governance by the
distinguishes parties is their emphasis on
representatives elected by the people.
linkage. Parties are seen, both by their members
 Political parties have multifarious duties and by others, as agencies for forging links
to perform. They are the most significant between citizens and policy- makers. Their
subfactors who participate in and regulate important justification is in creating a substantive
the political process. connection between the ruler and the ruled.
 They put up candidates, canvass support for  But Giovanni Sartori pointed out that it did not
them, and if voted to power they govern the mean that party members are not self-seeking.
state for the specific period. “The power-seeking drives of politicians
 There are different types of party systems, but remain constant. Even if the party politician is
the two-party system is generally found to be in a motivated by crude self-interest, his behaviour
position to offer two clear alternatives before the must depart – if the constraints of the system

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are operative – from the motivation. Parties  The primary goal of the parties is to install its
are instrumental to collective benefits, to an leaders in the government, and to ensure their
end that is not merely the private benefit continuation as long as possible. For this purpose,
of contestants. Parties link people to the they adopt various methods of securing popular
government.” support, including public rallies, distribution of
literature, use of media and even organizing
musical evenings.
DEFINITION OF POLITICAL PARTIES
 Lord Bryce had stated that, “no free large
country has been without them. No one has
 A party may be defined as an organized group
shown how representative government could
of people, having a clear ideology, and based
be worked without them. They bring order out
on certain well-defined policies and having clear of chaos of a multitude of voters. If parties
objectives. A party has a definite leadership, cause some evils, they avert and mitigate
and its ultimate goal is to gain political power others.” Parties alone link the profile with the
and regulate the political process by using the legislature and the executive. Actually, the nature
power acquired, normally through democratic of any political system largely depends on the
elections. features of its party system.
 Edmund Burke had defined the political parties  According to R. Bassett, “... the working of
in 1770 thus: “Party is a body of men united any system of representative government is
for promoting by their joint endeavours in large measure determined by the nature of
the national interest upon some particular the political parties which separate it.”
principles in which they are all agreed.”
 R.M. Maclver defined a party as “an association
 Professor Laski’s definition mentioned in the organized in support of some principle or policy
last section explains the meaning of parties. which by constitutional means endeavours to
These are big or small groups of people which make the determinant of government.”
are organized to establish their legitimate control
 R.N. Gilchrist had written that, “A political party
over the government of the country, through the
may ... be defined as an organized group of
process of elections. Representative government
citizens who profess to share the same political
cannot function without them.
views and who, by acting as a political unit,
 Explaining the meaning of political parties, in try to control the government. “Here it must
the context of Great Britain, Herman Finer had be emphasized that to be a successful party, its
said that “The political parties are the two- members must generally share the same political
way communications that bind 50 million views, so that they may act as a single political
people to the 630, who in the Commons, unit.
exercise omnipotent power.” When finer wrote
this several decades back, the British population
was around 50 million, and membership of the
MARXIST CONCEPT OF PARTIES
House of Commons then was 630. There are now
659 members in the House. According to the Marxist view parties represent
classes. This situation can be remedied only with the
 Politics is the struggle for power, and in this
successful completion of class-struggle resulting in
struggle organized groups can surely be more
the victory of the proletariat.
effective than unorganized mobs. Some of
the parties adopt revolutionary routes, while  According to Lenin, a party (i.e., the Communist
most of them take evolutionary processes and Party) is a well-organized group of chosen
constitutional means. The British responsible elite intellectuals and political activists. It is
government had grown along with the evolution said to be a chosen group of intellectuals in
of political parties. It is in this context that the sense that their intellectual knowledge
Bagehot had said that “Party government is the of Marxism maintains purity of Marxian
vital principle of representative government.” principles and ideology and shows the correct
By way of contrast, Laski had opined that, “... path to the party.
nothing appears to us so definite a proof of  It is a chosen group of political activists in the
dictatorship as when the dictator destroys, as sense that election processes and party training
he is logically driven to destroy, all political enable them to be totally loyal to the party and a
parties save his own,”. cause of revolution.

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 This definition of Lenin is obviously suitable  In capitalist countries, the communist parties
for communist parties. Such a party exists protect the working people against capitalist
permanently in the midst of workers’ movements. exploitation. They propagate revolutionary
It propagates revolutionary ideas and imparts ideas and prepare the proletariat for revolution.
training in the art of revolution. Once the revolution succeeds, the communist
 It assists the working classes in the achievements parties ensure its protection.
of its objectives. Prior to the revolution, during
the bourgeois period, the party must play a vital CONTEMPORARY VIEWS ABOUT THE
role. PARTIES
 The party is required to be instrumental
in the destruction of capitalist order, and  James Jupp
establishment of dictatorship of the proletariat.
 He had said that any group of people,
 According to Lenin, if the party has to play the organized in some manner, with a view to
role of vanguard of working people, then it is establish control over political institutions
essential that it must have full knowledge of of the given society may be described as a
revolutionary ideas and rules. political party.
 The objective of the party is to protect the  Thus, a party requires to be a group of
interests of the proletariat. people, formally organized, and having
 Lenin was of the opinion that the party’s position the goal of fighting and winning elections
is similar to a military organisation in the to control the political institutions of the
proletariat’s struggle to secure power and in its state.
maintenance.  These institutions are organs of government,
at various levels, and organized groups of
 The party is vanguard of the working people
people, we may add, should have clearly
which has a pivotal role in class consciousness
defined policies for governance.
and is ever ready to make sacrifices in the interest
of the proletariat.  Sigmund Neumann
 The Marxist ideology unites the working  Analyzed the political parties on the
people and the party, and its organisation basis of their ideologies. He opined that
makes it all-powerful. in view of sharp differences between the
democratic and authoritarian parties, it was
 Communist parties enjoyed constitutional
impossible to give a single acceptable
sanction in socialist countries. All other parties
definition.
were abolished in these countries. There was
practically no difference between the party  Nevertheless, he said that the purpose of
and the government. This is true even today in setting up a party is uniformity within,
the socialist countries ruled by the communist and distinction from other groups.
parties. Means each party is separated from the
other party on the basis of its particular
 The 1977 Constitution of the former Soviet Union program but has partnership within the
appreciated the role of the party in the revolution party.
(of 1917) and subsequent governance.
 This definition is obviously true in case of
 The 1982 Constitution of the People’s two or multiparty democratic societies. On
Republic of China declares the National the other hand, in a one-party system there
People’s Congress, under the leadership of is total absence of competition and distinct
the Communist Party, as the highest organ policies and programmes.
of state power. It declares the party chief to be
 In fact, many people refuse to accept the
head of the armed forces of the country.
parties, in a single party system, as formal
 According to Marxist interpretation of political political parties. For them a party must
parties, the parties in capitalist countries represent have a second part, or a competitor, which
the class interests. Thus, they are instruments of is missing in one-party states. Thus, in
protection of different classes. They become a one-party system, the party becomes
sources and leaders of class conflict. totalitarian.

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 Once it manages to acquire power, it retains distinct ideologies. These parties came
it by one means or the other. However, into existence as an outcome of the process
Neumann expressed the view that even in of selection of presidential candidates,
one party state opposition does exist in managing their campaign, raising
one form or the other. Even if there is no campaign funds, and selecting candidates
opposition, the authoritarian party always for numerous other electoral offices in the
feels insecure due to fear of possible revolt United States.
or opposition.  These parties are even now more concerned
 A political party is representative of social with electoral processes, rather than
interests which acts as a bridge, a link, ideologies.
between the individual and the society.  Duverger is right in concluding that political
The success of democracy depends on the parties have been established even in those
efficient working of parties. Whether the countries where elections are not held and
government is parliamentary or presidential where even legislatures do not exist.
democracy, it cannot succeed in the absence  Parties are found even in the countries
of parties. An unorganized mob of people which conduct pseudo-elections and
cannot govern the state. Its organized form have pseudo parliaments. The so-called
is a political party. elections are held with only one candidate
in each constituency, who invariably wins
 The first President of the United States,
and consequently all members of the
George Washington had advocated
legislature belong to only one party. These
party-less democracy. But that could not
are called one-party systems.
materialize. Soon, two parties emerged in
that country.  Duverger argues that these ‘parties’ cannot
genuinely be described as parties. The word
 In India, for some time there was talk of ‘party’ is derived from the Latin terms ‘Pars’,
a party less democracy. But this view, which means part. Therefore, where there is
expressed under the leadership of only one party, it is not a part of the whole—
Jayaprakash Narayan, was more idealistic meaning part of many parties.
and hardly practical.
 Nevertheless, parties are used in dictatorial
 Maurice Duverger or authoritarian regimes to create the
 Duverger wrote “... political parties have ‘farce’ of elections and ‘legislatures elected
as their primary goal the conquest of by the people’.
power or a share in its exercise. They try  Duverger says, “... the dictatorship uses the
to win seats at elections, to name deputies single party to establish the appearance of
and ministers, and to take control of the electoral and parliamentary process and
government.” give itself a democratic façade.”
 That is why, the evolution of political  Duverger held the view that in the second
parties coincided with the growth of half of the twentieth century parties
the parliamentary system and electoral were usually associated with ideologies.
processes. The origin of the parties may be Marx and Lenin had seen parties as
traced in the practice of collection of election representatives of conflicting classes, but
funds for candidates and in the committees several contemporary scholars like M.I.
constituted to secure supporters and Ostrogoski, Roberto Michel and Maurice
Duverger emphasize structure of political
workers for the victory of candidates.
parties.
 Gradually, members of the legislatures
 These and other writers lay emphasis on
holding similar views and beliefs in similar
what the parties do, not on what they are.
ideologies came together leading to the
It has become essential for comprehensive
birth and growth of political parties. study of the parties to analyze their
 While common ideology became the ideologies, social foundations, structures,
basis of parties in Britain and other organisations, and strategies. Political
European democracies, that was not the parties can be classified essentially on two
case in the United States. The American bases. These are: structure of parties, and
political parties do not have clearly the party system.

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 From the point of view of structure,  Party whips have a major say in maintaining
Duverger classified study of parties into two discipline in these parties inside the legislative
categories, which are internal organisation bodies. Members of legislatures invariably vote
and external organisation. according to the party whips, and often even
speak according to wishes of party leadership.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES  Those who defy the whips in Britain or India may
be punished by the party which may even include
The classification of political parties that was presented expulsion of defiant members.
by Maurice Duverger in 1951 became popular and  Legislators in many other countries are free
is now generally accepted. He had classified parties to vote as they wish. They do not care for
as (i) the elitist or traditional parties, and (ii) party discipline. The disciplined parties may
mass parties. Later a third category known as be described as ‘rigid’, whereas others can be
the intermediate type of parties was added. This called ‘flexible’ parties.
classification is generally organization-based
categorizations.  It is generally believed that elitist parties are
flexible while mass parties are rigid. However,
elitist parties in Britain, being disciplined, are
THE ELITIST PARTIES exceptions. But in case of large-scale defiance
of party whip, the leadership may look the other
The parties which are not cadre-based and do not side, and take no action.
have their support among the masses may be
 Since generally British parties are far more
described as elitist or traditional parties. These parties
disciplined than in other countries, even
do not throw their doors open to one and all. They
though they are elitist parties, they may be
are selective in admitting members. The elitist
described as ‘rigid elitist parties.’ The British
parties are normally divided into (a) the European
Type and (b) the American Type. parties are symbols of liberal democratic system.
With the growth of mass parties, even British
The European type: parties tried to expand their membership, but
they could not succeed.
 Most of the political parties set up in the
 In modern electoral fights, a large number of
nineteenth century are elitist in nature. Many
workers is required by the parties. Therefore,
contemporary parties who follow the same
they admitted a large number of members,
approach also come in the elitist or traditional
yet they did not change their basic features.
category. Whether these parties are liberal or
conservative or progressive, they are against
admitting anybody and everybody to their
The American Type:
membership.  The parties in the United States are different
 These parties emphasise quality rather than from British parties in several respects. But
numbers. They seek support from prominent the prominent differences are (i) the nature of
and influential persons. The wealthy people presidential government in a federal set-up,
occupy prominent places in these parties. as against British parliamentary democracy in
 The European parties have their bases in local a unitary state and (ii) the U.S. parties have
committees and have minimum control of remained limited to the elite, away from the
central party organisation. masses.
 However, unlike many parties of Continental  The U.S. parties, as mentioned elsewhere, are
Europe, the Liberal and Conservative Parties of essentially election oriented. The system of
nineteenth century Britain had a powerful central party primaries was introduced in the early
organisation. twentieth century.
 Now in the twenty-first century central control  In the primaries, common citizens, who so desire,
is increasing in many parties of European and participate in the selection of candidates for
Asian countries also. various elected offices. This system has adversely
 Similarly, there is a clear distinction in the affected the power of local level party bodies.
working of Britain and other European The primaries have brought party organisation
parties. under the control of the people.

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 At the same time, the highly expensive and  The mass parties tried to enlarge their membership
complicated electoral process has compelled the and took contributions from their members. The
parties to strengthen their organisations. The dual mass parties preferred contributions from
process of strengthened party structure and common men and women, rather than the
increasing influence of the people has moved rich business houses. These parties, therefore,
the American parties closer to the masses, yet did not develop into elitist parties.
they have not become mass parties.
 The British Labour Party was described as the
 American parties are led by professional pioneer of the socialist parties the world over.
politicians, many of whom are not Democratic socialist parties in several countries
democratically elected. Despite this, American followed the British Labour Party. These parties
parties have been able to establish better believe in socialism to be brought about by the
contacts with the masses than most of the peaceful democratic means of parliamentary
European parties. process. They believe in rule of law, rather
 An important feature of contemporary US than violence or revolutionary methods. They
parties is that their local committees have sought to abolish capitalism through legislative
become very powerful; state committees enjoy measures.
lesser powers; and the central organisation is
 Socialist parties accept the superiority of
rather weak.
the parliament. Therefore, they respect their
 Duverger had commented that, “discipline members of parliament. On the other hand,
does not extend to the top of political legislature is ineffective in communist and fascist
hierarchy; although very powerful at the local countries, as the real power is vested in the party
level, it is weaker on state level, and practically concerned. Therefore, party leadership dominates
non-existent at the national level.” over the members. Many countries in the world
 Another feature of the American system is lack had or have socialist parties as important actors
of party discipline among the members of in the liberal democratic processes.
the Congress. They speak and vote according
to their individual decisions. In this respect they The Communist Parties:
are closer to some of the multiparty democracies
rather than the British parties.  The communist parties based on the ideology
of Marx and Lenin seek close contacts with
the masses. Initially, European communist
MASS PARTIES parties were organized on the pattern of socialist
parties, but after 1924, they were reorganized
The system of parties based on common man’s support on the directions of Communist International
began emerging in the early twentieth century. The headquartered in Moscow. They followed the
British Labour Party had its origin in the working people’s pattern of the Soviet Communist Party.
movement. Later, the communists adopted the system of
 The communist parties everywhere are much
mass support. Several parties in the newly independent
better organized and disciplined as compared
third world countries are generally mass parties.
to other parties. These parties attract workers
Some of the parties of European countries, like the
Christian Democratic Parties and the Popular Republican and peasants. But, unlike other parties, their local
Movement (P.R.M.) of France may also be placed in the units are generally not regional in nature; they
category of mass parties. are organized at places of work.
 The primary units, or cells, maintain close
Socialist Parties: contacts with the members in their workplaces.
This makes it easier for them to convey the party
 Initially, masses were contacted to donate funds
directions and to have them implemented.
for the labour candidates. These candidates were
considered revolutionaries, and industrialists  Besides, the problems of members of a
and big business houses declined to give them workplace are common. They enthuse great
any financial contribution. In fact, these elements unity. Communist parties follow the principle
were quite opposed to these candidates. In of ‘democratic Centralism’, which implies
Britain trade unions provided support to these democratic participation of members in party
candidates. Later they organized themselves as structure, but centralized decision making and
the Labour Party. supervision.

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 However, critics say that there is hardly any impart military training to the masses. The
democracy in these parties, as all decisions are fascist youth are not only given military training,
made by a handful of top leaders, who ensure but they even wear military uniform, carry out
strict obedience and discipline. daily disciplined exercises, and are often punished
 At different levels in the party, discussion does for defiance.
take place, but directions of the leadership can  The fascist leader takes the route of force to
never be violated or defied. All information assume power, even as pretension of democratic
about views expressed in these discussions is process may be propagated. Fascism comes
conveyed to the party leadership. to power with the support of capitalists and
 Parties in the former Soviet Union and in East big business houses. It is vehemently opposed
European countries followed this pattern, which to communism, and destructive of democracy.
is also observed in China, Vietnam, and other Violence and wars have been an important part
communist countries. of fascist programmes.

 No other party anywhere in the world, except

perhaps the Fascist parties, is so rigidly based INTERMEDIATE TYPE PARTIES
on ideology as the communist parties are.
They try to strictly follow the Marxist-Leninist According to Maurice Duverger, there is a third
ideology. The Chinese Communist Party had category of political parties that may be described as
its own Maoist interpretation of Marxism- the intermediate type. These are different from both
Leninism. But, in the post-Mao period the party elitist and mass parties; yet they are closer to the
has certainly deviated from the rigidity of Mao. mass parties. These are:
Liberalization and opening up of the economy
in China have altered the pattern, though it still Indirect Parties:
swears by Marxist ideology.
 At times a number of big or small committees
 Communist parties in liberal democracies, as in perform political functions leading to the
India, still keep on insisting on the relevance of setting up of a political party. This may be
Marxism-Leninism. described as an indirect party. The birth of the
British Labour Party in 1906 was somewhat this
The Fascist Parties: situation. At that time, the Labour Party did not
 Fascism is totally opposed to communism. directly admit members of the party.
Unlike the communist parties, fascists advocate  It began functioning with the association
an all-powerful state. of trade unions, cooperative societies, the
 However, there is one similarity. Both believe Fabian Society, and other intellectual bodies.
in one-party rule, and in destroying the entire These bodies selected candidates for election,
opposition. collected funds and carried out their election
campaign.
 They both use force to implement their policies.
The fascist parties support open competition and  Later socialist parties had similar origins
capitalism, but they, like the communists, blindly in countries like Belgium, Norway, and
follow one leader. Sweden. In these countries these parties were
born in the 1940s. Earlier, the same pattern
 The disobedience to the leader may mean was followed in the formation of Christian
elimination of members. The Italian Fascist Democratic parties in Belgium (1919) and France
dictator, Mussolini had himself said that his party (1936). All these parties came into existence like
wanted to follow the communist techniques. traditional parties, but with the difference that
 Fascists talk of mass-base, but they use armed their members came not from rich classes, but
forces to inculcate military discipline and from amongst the workers and intellectuals.

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Chapter - 3.2

Parties In Developing Countries

 In the post-Second World War period a There is one problem with this classification of
large number of political parties have come Duverger. At times it becomes difficult to distinguish
into existence in the third world developing one from the other. In his own words, “In all mass
countries, which Duverger prefers to describe as parties, the leaders form a group quite distinct from
undeveloped countries. the rest of the membership and from the party
militants: this inner circle resembles some with the
 In some of the developing countries, the parties leadership of traditional parties submerged, as it
followed the pattern of the United Kingdom were, in the heart of a mass organization.”
or the United States, while in some others
one party was established following the Soviet
example. HITCHNER & LEVINE’S CLASSIFICATION
 In some of the African countries two parties
 In their classification of political parties, Hitchner
each were formed in their own style. All of them
& Levine opined that normally people are
have been described as intermediate types associated with one party or the other on the
because they were yet to be fully organized basis of their personal views, and that the
as disciplined parties. party membership depends on several other
 In post-independent India many parties have socio-economic forces.
been formed. Some of them could not last long.  Nevertheless, people do associate themselves
The Swatantra Party was a breakaway group of the with one party or the other, considering their
right wing of the Congress, but it disappeared. class, economic interests, hereditary interests,
 Very large number of small parties or regional and interests of a particular group.
parties came into existence. But after a while  Hitchner and Levine classified contemporary
two or more of them merged into one party or political parties into three categories. These
formed their own party. are pragmatic parties, doctrinal parties, and
interest parties.
 In the first category are those who separated
from the Congress, but after a while rejoined  Pragmatic parties- are normally not
committed to any particular ideology.
it. In the second category are those who got
Their policies are adjusted according to the
together as, for example, Janata Party in 1977.
requirements of situations. Most of these
But this experiment did not last long, and many
parties are usually influenced more by the
groups emerged from it. leader of the day and less by the party
 However, one such group, the Bhartiya Janata ideology.
Party (essentially the new avatar of the former  The American parties, the British Conservative
Jana Sangh) has grown into a national party and Party (and now even the Labour Party),
became leader of a ruling coalition of 1998. In Canada’s Conservatives, India’s Congress
India, there are parties that still follow the Soviet Party and Australia’s Conservative party all
pattern of Communist Party. come in this category.

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 It is believed that the parties are more necessary that one must examine the major party
pragmatic in the two-party systems. This is system, and then relate individual parties to one of
so because they have to represent, from these systems or the other.
time to time, different socio-economic
interests.
PARTY SYSTEM
 Doctrinal parties
 The parties that are committed to a Some sort of stability comes to exist, on the basis of
particular ideology and believe in certain the long period of evolution in any country’s political
principles. The policies are often changed parties in respect of their numbers, their internal
or adjusted according to domestic or structure, their ideologies, alliances, and relations
international environmental changes, but with the opposition. This gives rise to what may be
their ideologies remain unaltered. described as a party system. A comparative study of
 Socialist parties may be included in different party systems enables us to understand the
this category. These, for example, are the political systems of the countries concerned. Several
British Labour party, the Socialist parties recent scholars have offered their classifications of
of Belgium and France, United Socialist party systems. There is a lot of similarity between
Party of Chile, or Komei of Japan. It is not some of these classifications. Some of these are given
that the left-oriented parties alone are below:
doctrinal in nature. Almond’s classification follows the following
 There can be even parties of the right pattern:
in liberal democracies that fall in this  Authoritarian Parties. One of its sub-categories is
category. For example, the Bhartiya Janata called totalitarian parties or dictatorships.
Party in India has a definite ideology, but
since 1998 it made several adjustments  Dominant Non-Authoritarian (democratic)
in its policies and programmes to be able to parties.
adjust with its coalition partners. On another  Competitive two parties; and
extreme, the Communist parties and the  Competitive multi-parties.
Fascists are totally doctrinal parties.
James Jupp accepted the above classification
 Interest-oriented generally, but modified it and gave his own
 These parties in the multiparty system and version, which is as under:
smaller parties even in the two-party system  Indistinct (not very clear) bi-partisan system.
generally represent particular interests.
 Distinct bi-partisan system.
 When an interest group converts itself into
a party, either temporarily or permanently, it  Multi-party system.
comes in this category. Nature of interests  Dominant (one-party) party system.
may vary from prohibition-related, to those
 Broad one-party system.
working for farmers’ interests, or those
seeking interests of a caste or community.  Narrow one-party system; and
The Swiss Farmers’ Party, the German  Totalitarian system
Greens, the Irish Nationalist Party of the UK
According to Hitchner & Levine, modern party
are some such parties.
system may be classified as under:
 In India, there are a number of such
 Competitive two-party systems.
interest-oriented parties. These, for
example, include the Jharkhand Mukti  Competitive multi-party systems.
Morcha, the Peasants and Workers Party  Dominant non-authoritarian systems.
of Maharashtra, or even the Bahujan Samaj
 Authoritarian party systems; and
Party committed to the upliftment of the
Dalits.  States without a party system.
The categorization of different parties, as the one Duverger broadly divided all the party systems into
given above, may be very relevant and useful, yet two. These are (i) pluralistic party systems and (ii) one-
the real nature of parties can be analyzed only as party systems and dominant party systems. In the first
actors with a particular party system. It is, therefore, category Duverger included:

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 Multi-party systems; and  The term one-party system was initially

 Two-party systems. used after 1930 by certain Fascist writers.
Prominent among them were Manoilesco
In the second category Duverger included (i) one-party and Marcel Deat. They tried to find similarity
systems; and (ii) the dominant party systems. Keeping between Fascist/Nazi and Communist regimes.
in view these four and some other classifications, However, communist writers strongly opposed
we may broadly classify all the parties as: Two- any such similarity.
party systems; multi-party systems; and One-party
systems. All the three are discussed below.  The western writers place all one-party systems
in one category of non-democratic regimes.
 James Jupp has described three different
ONE PARTY SYSTEM
forms of one-party rule. These are liberal one-
party systems, narrow one-party regimes and
 One-party system implies the existence of authoritarian or dictatorial one-party regimes.
only one party in a country. The countries
committed to certain ideologies such as  In a liberal one-party rule, there is internal
Marxism or Fascism normally do not allow the democracy in the party, leadership is
existence of any opposition party. willing to listen to its criticism, and local
governments enjoy a certain amount
 In one-party states, there is, therefore, no of autonomy. Thus, this may be called
opposition. Parties other than the ruling party democratic one-party system.
are either constitutionally debarred, or they are
crushed by the rulers.  In the rigid or narrow one-party rule,
the party is under absolute control of a
 This system originated with the establishment
leader, and there is no internal democracy.
of the rule of the Communist Party of the
Elections are not permitted even for party
USSR after the Bolshevik Revolution. While
units. The regimes set up as a result of
the critics deplored the system as authoritarian
military coups are also rigid one-party states.
rule of the Communist Party, the USSR claimed it
Actually, the distinction between liberal and
to be the rule of the working classes.
rigid one-party systems is more formal than
 Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s one-party rule in real. The extent of internal democracy, if
Turkey was claimed to be democratic, while any, depends on the party leadership.
Fascist Party in Italy (1922-43) and Hitler’s Nazi
 The third form of one-party rule is simply
rule in Germany (1933-45) were typical examples
authoritarian. The regimes of Hitler in
of the dictatorship of one man who led the only
Germany, Mussolini in Italy and of Stalin
party permitted by him. All other parties were
in the Soviet Union were all described as
banned and crushed. Their leaders were thrown
dictatorial.
in the jails or even executed.
 The Baath Party regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq
 Several countries adopted a one-party rule after
was also dubbed as dictatorship, where people
the Second World War. East European countries,
had no rights or freedoms except to support the
such as Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria, and Hungary
dictator and sing his praises.
came under the rule of their communist parties.
 Several developing countries, who adopted
 In China, Communist Party acquired complete
the one-party system, after decolonization,
power after the success of the revolution in
gradually discarded it in favour of a multi-
October 1949. Later, a one-party communist
party democracy.
regime was set up in North Korea. This example
was followed later by Vietnam and Cuba.  According to Maurice Duverger, there can be
different forms of one-party regimes.
 But certain other countries adopted non-
communist one-party regimes. This was done in  Prior to the Second World War, there
Tanzania, Chad, Ivory Coast, Niger, and Liberia in was strong discipline in the Fascist and
Africa. Communist parties.
 Many western writers refuse to describe  Secondly, they are dictated by certain
one-party rule as a system, for there can be ideologies which generally support
no party system until there are at least two revolutionary methods, and even
competing parties. encourage violence.

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 Nevertheless, there are major differences do they normally influence the outcome of
between Communist and Fascist Parties. elections, though at times smaller parties may
While the former is based in the workers’ associate themselves with one or the other
movements and seek to abolish private major party. At times, a third emerging party
property, the latter have their main may even compete with the major parties, as
support base among the rich, wealthy and was done in the 1970s by the Liberal-Democratic
industrialists. Party in Britain.
 Thirdly, there are differences in one-party  James Jupp has talked about the indistinct
systems on the basis of economic policies two-party system. The most prominent
and level of development. It may emerge example of this type is the United States.
in backward societies as the former Russian
 There are hardly any major differences in the
empire was, or as Tanzania was.
policies of major American parties namely,
 It may even develop in developed and democratic the Republican Party and the Democratic
societies also, as in Eastern Europe in the post- Party. Both the parties have very loose
Second world war period. Besides, the role of a discipline in the Congress. At the local
single party may vary.
level, it is even worse; there is practically
 The communist parties become integral part of no discipline. Normally, in the two Houses
the state machinery as was the case in the former of Congress, members vote of their own
Soviet Union or is the case in China today. The choice; they hardly receive, or obey, the
distinction between the party and state is party line on bills and other issues.
blurred.
 Consequently, the differences, if any, in
 The Fascist Party, on the other hand, was used the two parties are often blurred. Many
only as an instrument of governance; it did not members of both the parties may vote
become part of the state apparatus. in favour of a motion, and many other
 The fascists promote a police state, whereas the members of the same two parties may vote
communists aimed at the withering away of the against.
state. This, however, may never happen.
 As Duverger wrote, “Actually, there is
a different majority and a different
TWO PARTY SYSTEM opposition for each issue. It does not
follow party lines.” Duverger is of the
 In modern democracies, there are two or more opinion that the loose two-party system
competitive parties. There are, obviously, at least of the United States is close to the multi-
two parties. None of these is more stable or party system rather than the two-party
powerful than the other on a permanent basis. system of Great Britain. Their national
 If, however, one party remains in power for a organisation is flexible and central control
very long period of time and the other continues is minimal. In the United States, the two
to occupy opposition benches then it becomes parties take strong pro-leadership
a dominant party system: it ceases to be a lines only on the issue of presidential
competitive two-party system. election.
 The leaders and scholars of the United  Hitchner and Levine go to the extent
Kingdom and the United States consider of saying that, “Actually, they are loose
‘dualism’ as the best system. But it has not organisations of state parties that unite to
become very popular. In the two-party system, some degree for presidential elections.”
there is constant competition between the Election campaigns are usually the concern
two parties for securing a majority of popular of state units.
votes and seats in the legislature.
 There are many occasions when the
 Both the parties keep on occupying either the majority in the two Houses of Congress
treasury benches or sit in the opposition though (or sometimes in one House) is of a party
this may not always be alternate. other than the one to which the President
 Besides, there may be one or more smaller belongs. There are party members, in both
parties also in the two-party system. But the the parties, who sometimes take pride in
smaller parties neither come to power nor campaigning against the party leadership.

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 Party members, who are lifelong  The two-party system is said to be a guarantee
committed to their party, are, of the success of democracy. Power shifts
nevertheless, not committed to all the from one party to the other, and yet stability
programmes of the party. is maintained. One party rule in a responsible
 Some other countries of the American manner and the other offers constructive
continent like Canada, Colombia and Brazil opposition. There is neither instability of the
also follow the US pattern of loose bi-party multi-party system, nor authoritarian rule of one
system. party.

THE DISTINCT TWO-PARTY SYSTEM MULTI-PARTY SYSTEMS

 Technically, the existence of three or more

 Includes two parties with well-defined policies
big parties may be described as a multi-party
and programmes and clear organisations.
system.
Members of both the parties’ function within
the party discipline and obey the leadership.  In Europe, France, Italy, and Switzerland are
Great Britain is the best example of such a two- some of the examples of this system. India has
party system. Both have definite organisation. over 40 political parties, big or small, represented
However, occasionally some members may in the Lok Sabha.
express reservations as happened in 1990 when  In a multi-party system, three, four or more
many Conservative MPs vehemently criticized parties may get together at any point of
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s Europe time to form coalition governments. Such
policy. governments generally adopt a common
 In a very serious defiance in 2003 over 120 minimum programme for governance, as they
Labour Party members of House of Commons do not have commitment to any one ideology.
voted against Prime Minister Tony Blair’s whip on The coalition governments generally do not last
his determination to support the United States in long, but there can always be exceptions.
its war against Iraq. But no action could be taken  In a general election, voters have a wide choice
by Blair against such a large number of his own of candidates. Many of them may belong
partymen. But these are exceptions. to smaller parties committed to regional or
 Normally, the party whips are always obeyed. sectarian interests. The winning candidates may
If a member does not obey the party whip, he not necessarily secure even half of the total
is expelled from the party, and his future is votes cast. In a multicandidate election, the
sealed. It is believed that the Conservative candidate getting the largest number of votes
Party represents traditions and elite groups, is declared elected, whatever percentage of
whereas Labour is representative of masses total votes this may be.
and of progress. Despite these differences,  France was known for its instability of cabinets,
both the parties are pragmatic and moderate. on account of the multi-party system, during the
Britain now has about half a dozen smaller parties Third and Fourth Republics. During the 12-year
also, but they do not play any important role. period of Fourth Republic (1946-58), France went
 Canada, Australia, and New Zealand also have through as many as 24 cabinets – the shortest
two-party systems. The interest-based Labour being a one-day wonder.
Parties of Australia and New Zealand do not  That was the reason why a new Constitution
have a narrow outlook. They are also pragmatic adopted in 1958 provided for a pattern of
and moderate parties. governance in which greater powers rest with
 While a number of parties emerged in West the President, and the mechanism of cabinet is
Germany after the Second World War, two major such that stability can be ensured even with a
parties now constitute the German party system. multi-party system.
These are Christian Democratic Union, and Social  However, Italy is still known for frequent changes
Democratic Party. But there indeed are a number of government on account of multiplicity of
of smaller parties, including the Greens, who are parties. Switzerland has the distinction of having
usually associated with one major party or the a multi-party system but a stable government.
other. Some other countries like the Philippines Swiss parties are essentially organized to protect
have also adopted two-party systems. the interests of Cantons.

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 The multi-party system of Italy has been  The role of political parties in a parliamentary
divided between pro-Communist and anti- democracy is different from the presidential
Communist alliances. However, even the system. In the former the competitive parties
parties of the left participate in the liberal formulate public opinion, select candidates,
democratic political process. Besides, the and seek election to secure maximum number
Christian Democratic Party and several smaller of seats in the Parliament, so that they are in a
socialist groups constitute part of the Italian position to form their governments.
party system.
 The party or parties that fail to secure a majority of
 The Turkish party system has six principal
seats sit in the opposition and offer constructive
parties. As such this is yet another example of a
criticism. Two-party system is best suited
multi-party system.
for the efficient working of parliamentary
 India has the distinction of having such a large democracy.
number of parties that, for some time now, it
is impossible for any single party to be able to  But there are many democracies, like India, where
win a majority on its own. many competing parties offer varied choices to
the voters. Normally, in a multi-party system
 For almost 40 years after independence (with
no single party may secure a clear majority,
the exception of 1977-79 period), Congress
Party dominated the Indian political scene. There but a number of parties enter into coalition
were indeed several parties in post- independent to form the government; the others occupy the
India, but the Congress was mostly in power both opposition benches.
at the Centre and in most of the States.  One-party system is normally found in
 Since the early 1990s the position has changed. totalitarian states. It consists of only one party
Several parties formed the United Front that is often identified with the state. There
Governments in 1996 and 1997, with outside is a lack of opposition which makes the rulers
support of Congress and the CPIM. The elections authoritarian.
held in 1998, and again in 1999 threw up hung
 In the presidential system of democracy,
Parliament, and BJP led several party coalitions
parties have relevance only at the time of
came to power. The 24-party National Democratic
presidential election. They do not count in
Alliance Government led by Atal Behari Vajpayee
provided unique stability for over 5 years, which the formation of government. In the United
is very uncommon for a coalition of so many States, the directly elected President is neither
parties. The NDA included parties of different responsible to, nor removable by, the Congress.
hues.  Members of the Congress vote freely without
 The multi-party system may not be able to affecting the fortunes of the executive. France
provide the stability that is a feature of a two- and Sri Lanka have combined the parliamentary
party system, yet the competitive nature of system with a powerful executive President. This
several parties enables efficient functioning has limited the role of parties in these countries.
of democratic government, with occasional
 The two-party system has several merits. It
hiccups.
ensures stability of government.
 it is relatively easy for the Prime Minister to form
ROLE AND EVALUATION OF PARTY
the Cabinet. Once a person is chosen as leader of
SYSTEMS the majority party, he selects the ministers and
entrusts portfolios to them. In a disciplined two-
Political parties are essential for the working of party system, the task of the Prime Minister is
contemporary political processes. The role of easy, unless there is a weak leader and unless
a party depends largely on the type of polity in the party is faction-ridden. In that case, the
which it functions. Modern democracies are party Prime Minister has to appease various factional
governments. Persons like Jayaprakash Narain had
leaders.
suggested that a party less democracy would make
for peace and stability. Parties, in their view, cause  Secondly, there is no room for violence or
conflict. However, these views may have some merit, revolution to bring about change of government.
but in today’s environment these opinions appear to People can easily withdraw their mandate at the
be too idealistic or utopian. time of the next election.

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 Even in the presidential system, the choice of the  Instability and lack of discipline are major
President is easily made by the people, without shortcomings of the multi-party system. This
resorting to violent means. The task of voters is system is most unsuitable for crises, when quick
easy in a two-party system, as they have only decisions are required, but cannot be taken
two alternatives to make their choice. because of the involvement of several parties,
ideologies, and leaders.
 Since there is a strong opposition, its voice is
carefully heard by the ruling party, and its views  The critics of the one-party system find it
taken into serious consideration. The ruling party totalitarian in which wishes of the people are
remains vigilant, and the opposition knows that it suppressed. Its supporters, on the other hand,
may be called upon to form the next government. hail it as protector of national interests; as quick
Therefore, it makes only workable suggestions. decisions can be taken, time is not wasted, and
even unnecessary expenditure is avoided.
 The critics of the two-party system have their
arguments. They say that this system presents  The Marxists consider parties as
just two alternatives to the voters. Many voters representatives of class interests, and if there
can hold views which are not represented by the are several parties, they lead to class conflicts, a
two parties. They do not get the opportunity to situation in which national interest is sacrificed.
have their true representation in the legislature. One party, according to the Marxists, represents
the working people and protects them against
 Secondly, the majority party can have any
exploitation.
legislation adopted by the legislature on the
basis of its absolute majority. The opposition  Fascists regard their party as the instrument of
does get an opportunity to express its views, but governance assisting the leader, so that prestige
the power of the Parliament is, in effect, limited. of the nation is enhanced. Despite these merits,
the one-party system is criticized for denying
 Thirdly, members of legislature merely carry out
the people an opportunity to have their free will
the wishes of party whips, and their initiative is represented. The people have to obey the party
often checked. and its leader blindly. The system is not only
 The multi-party system is indeed more undemocratic, but also destroys the initiative of
democratic, as it offers wider choice to the the people.
people.  Western writers, such as Finer are of the
 Different sections of people find their voice opinion that an authoritarian one party
through their representatives, who may or should not even be called a party, because
may not ensure proportional representation. rather than being a part of the system, it is
 In most of the cases, coalition governments are the whole, arbitrary, and totalitarian political
formed which are based on compromises on group. Such parties assume all powers and
the policies of various parties. Consequently, destroy the leadership qualities of the masses.
ideology often goes into the background.  Political parties are essential for the working of
 On the merit side, it may be noted that it is more modern democratic states. Professor Laski had
democratic, and none of the parties can become correctly opined that the only alternative of party
arbitrary or authoritarian. government was dictatorship.

 Secondly, the respect of legislature is  To quote Edmund Burke, “Party is a body

enhanced as its decisions are taken after due of men united for promoting by their joint
deliberations on the floor of the House; they endeavours the national interest upon
are not arrived at in the party caucus and then some particular principles in which they all
agreed.” In effect, the parties are a two-way
rubber stamped by the legislature. This system
communication between the electorate and their
ensures representation to all minorities, and also
representatives.
protects their interests.
 However, on the negative side, the multi-
party system breeds indiscipline, and leads CRISIS OF POLITICAL PARTIES
to frequent formation and collapse of coalition
governments. The leadership has to make  Many political parties, both in established
compromises, and the government often suffers democracies and in nascent multi-party systems,
from indecision. are in a state of near crisis.

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 Polls, focus groups and voting behaviour indicate  Centralized decision making, the lack of well-
that society largely views political parties as institutionalized rules and procedures, and
ineffective, corrupt, and out of touch with the decline of ideology or unifying principles
their needs. have eroded public support and discouraged
participation in political party activities.
 Established political parties have experienced
a dwindling membership that is ageing.  An unwillingness to undertake greater citizen
Young people are hesitating to join or become outreach and consultation has diminished the
associated with political parties. At the same public’s support, while the transformation of
time, support has risen for independent campaigning through the mass media has tended
candidates, special interest parties, and anti- to favour candidates over party structures.
party movements. To be fair to political parties, however, this crisis of
 In emerging democracies worldwide, political confidence may more accurately reflect a growing
lack of trust in institutions more broadly. According
parties are either too weak, too personalistic,
to political analysts who have conducted extensive
too constrained by oppressive governments,
public opinion surveys globally, it is not only
or too corrupt and out of touch to earn the
parties that are in trouble. It is the institutions
respect and support of the public.
of democracy that face difficulties because of
 From Russia to Pakistan to Peru to Venezuela, and an underlying culture of mistrust. These surveys’
other countries experiencing political crises, the confidence index of democratic institutions in
troubled state of parties lies at the heart of their Europe, Latin America, and Africa show that religious
political problems. In Russia, anxieties about bodies enjoy the greatest level of trust, followed by
the state of democracy are clearly linked to presidents. Armed forces rank third; courts of justice
the absence of strong, democratic political came in fourth; parliaments rank fifth with political
parties. parties in sixth place. But what is most striking is that
trust in people beyond the family and workplace
 Ten years after the demise of the Soviet Union,
comes in last place. This is not to say that people
Russia has produced political parties that are
do not support democracy. They overwhelmingly
strong or democratic but, regrettably, not many
do. However, the polls show a gap between support
parties that are both. Political parties in Russia
for democracy, satisfaction in the performance of
are weak because powerful politicians have democracy and trust in the institutions of democracy.
deliberately set out to make them, so Vladimir Parties rank at the bottom of these institutions because
Putin is not a member of any party, though a they have tended to act without transparency. Citizens
group supporting him won 25 percent of the do not know how parties make decisions; and having
vote in the Duma elections. He quickly proposed open rules, being accessible and accountable is the
legislation that would make it more difficult for foundation upon which political trust is built.
parties to organize.
 There are also a number of countries where EMERGING TRENDS IN PARTY SYSTEM
political parties have actually lost their
mandate to function through their own
mismanagement of the political system.
National Party System or Local Party
In Pakistan, for example, political parties System
effectively frittered away their credibility to
 The first trend that we witness in the party
the point where the military’s overthrow of
systems in many matured democracies is the
the established political order was accepted, tendency among the parties to become more
if not welcomed, by the citizenry. nationalized.
 In Peru and Venezuela, the collapse of political  Party size is a function of party aggregation,
parties that were viewed as corrupt and elitist, that is, the coordination of candidates or voters
created a political vacuum that was quickly across electoral districts into national political
filled by populist leaders with authoritarian parties’ (Chibber and Kollman).
tendencies.
 The capacity of the party to bring together
 In Bangladesh, despite an abundance of advocacy competitors of different districts under
and citizen action groups, the recurring partisan a single party banner is called party
political stalemate consigns the country and its aggregation. Where aggregation is poor, there
citizens to abject poverty. is a proliferation of political parties, and where

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aggregation is high, there is a trend towards and party system has weakened considerably
nationally oriented parties, that is, there is a (Baseday and Stroh).
national party system. This trend has been  For him, there has been a shift towards
clearly brought out by Pradeep Chibber and regional party formation in Africa. He
Ken Kollman. They have attempted to explain concludes that, in Africa, there is a tendency
why in the United States, two parties dominate towards the regionalization party system in
the political landscape while in a similar situation- the 21st century.
single-member, simple-plurality voting system
the lower house of the parliament in countries Programmatic or Clientelist Party System
like India, Canada and Great Britain, party
systems vary.  In Latin America, in the latter half of the 20th
century, most countries have witnessed the
 They argue that the answer lies in the nature
transition to political democracy. According
of federalism that has an influence over the
to Kitschelt Latin America stands out as the
dynamics and stability of a party system (Chibber
most uniformly democratic region behind the
and Kollman).
established Western democracies.
 For them, while a party system means ‘an enduring
 Latin American parties generate at most
pattern of electoral competition between parties
relations of accountability around clientelist-
for public office’, a national party system is ‘one
selective material inducements’ (Kitschelt).
in which the same parties compete at different
levels of vote aggregation’. In practice, this means  However, with the countries adopting the
that party systems at the constituency level or at liberalization process, the political system has
the state or provincial levels look similar to the changed from ‘clientelist-selective system’ to
national party systems. ‘programmatic alternatives’.
 The party system is highly nationalized when the  The authors argue that the party is structured
vote share of major parties do not vary across around the linkage of programmatic
different provinces. In the case of the weak coordination’ as well as programmatic
national party system, the vote share of national linkages.
parties varies.  Programmatic party system is indicative of
 Hence, the authors conclude that party systems the way the party develops procedures for
at different levels-the constituency or state- formulation and implementation of coherent
show a similar trend to the national party system and alternative policies and deploys this as an
instrument of attracting the masses to vote for
(Chibber and Kollman 2004, 4).
it. The parties are arranged according to their
 Recently, there has been a buckling of trend of preference to the policy and programmes, thus
the national party system in India where at the forming a programmatic party system.
provincial level, the ruling party is being replaced
The nature of the party and party systems are
by the regional parties. Many at regional parties
undergoing tremendous change in the neo-liberal era.
have come to power to challenge the national
The bases of the traditional parties are shifting, as there
parties. At the provincial level, the national party
is movement of people across the world. The stable
has been forced to enter into coalition with the
two-party systems are giving way to multiparty
small parties
systems in some established democracies because
of transformed social and political situations. In
Ethnicism or Regionalization of Party many postcolonial countries, different kinds of party
System systems are evolving. The party system is changing
from regional to national, ethnic to regionalization,
 Horowitz stresses on the ethnic party system
from clientelist to programmatic. There has been
in Africa. For him, ethnic party is a party that
a major shift in the nature of representative form
receives 85 per cent of its support from a
of government in established democracies recently.
single group.
Some of the matured and established democratic
 Taking cue from him, many labelled the African countries, like the United States, Brazil, and India,
party system as an ethnic party system are witnessing Electoral Authoritarianism’, where
(Norris and Mattes). In a recent study, Matthias the party leaders are being elected by manipulating
Basedau challenges this assumption and the established electoral practices and Illiberal
states that though ethnicity matters, recently, Democracy’, where the leaders after getting elected
the impact of ethnicity on formation of party are suppressing minorities of all hues (Slater).

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Chapter - 3.3

Dominant and Distinctive Features of

Non-Western Political Process

Persistent efforts are being made to identify and  Since the leadership and the ruling party are
prescribe generalized models of the political committed to a total change in society or
processes more or less common to non-Western fundamental questions about its destiny or
systems. These might serve as the yardsticks by the interest of the whole nation, the role of
which to measure the particular systems by way of opposition parties is dubbed as obstructive
comparison, and to account for variations. Lucian of progress and hence is considered to be
Pye has given an exhaustive outline of some of revolutionary seeking to disrupt the progress
the dominant and distinctive characteristics of the of the nation.
non-Western Political process. Some of them are:  The political process is fragmented and is
In non-western societies, the political sphere is not characterized by a lack of integration among
sharply differentiated from the social and personal the participants on account of the absence of
sphere but follows from the latter. Power, prestige, a communications system in society. This limits
and influences are based largely on social status. The the types of political issues than can arise in such
fundamental framework of politics is communal, societies. For example, the value and concepts of
and national politics is dominated by an educated the rural element are not effectively represented
urban and upper-class elite. in the national political process.
 Political parties or groups are not oriented to  The political process is characterized by a
a distinct political arena or particular political high rate of recruitment of new elements
principles but tend to take on a world view and into political roles. There is a constant increase
represent a way of life. Successful parties tend in the number of participants and types of
to become social movements so to say. organizations involved in the political process.
Also, the existence of multiple channels of contact
 The political process is characterized by with the national government tends to increase
a prevalence of cliques. Since the social the number of people anxious to participate in
structure is characterized by functionally diffuse national decision making.
relationships, decision making is largely
 The political process is characterized by sharp
influenced by judgements about personality
differences in the political orientation of the
and the particular relations of the various generations. The younger generation, who are
actors to each other. The pattern of political the aspiring elite, put pressure on the current
relationships is largely determined by decisions leaders who took part in the revolutionary
made at the personal level. movement, for inclusion in the circle of national
 Political loyalty is governed more by a sense politics, but are thwarted by them. This results in
of identification with the concrete group than a clash of views and consequent tensions.
by identification with the professed policy  There is little consensus regarding the
goals of the group, and leadership has a high legitimate ends and means of political action.
degree of freedom in determining matters of Since the urban elite and the village peasant
strategy and tactics. live in different worlds and have different

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attitudes, outlook, and orientation, they can  The national leadership have to appeal to an
rarely exhibit a common approach towards undifferentiated public and have no means for
political activity. The relationship of the means to calculating the relative distribution of values
the ends tends to be more organic than rational and attitudes throughout society. They have few
and functional. guides to how the public opinion is divided over
 There is a wide divergence between the level particular issues.
of information and knowledge through  The unstructured character of the non-
discussion of the masses, and their actual Western political process encourages leaders
participation in political decision making. to adopt more clearly defined positions in
They keep themselves informed of the political international issues than on domestic issues.
development without trying to influence such They seek a role in world politics that is out of
developments. proportion to their nation’s power.
 There is a high degree of interchangeability of  The affective or expressive aspect of politics
roles which are not clearly differentiated but are tends to override its problem-solving or public
functionally diffuse. There are no sharply defined policy aspect. Charismatic leaders tend to
divisions of labour in any sphere of life. prevail in non-Western politics because societies
 Following from the above, there are relatively experiencing cultural change are characterized
few organized interest groups with by a confusion over values providing an ideal
functionally specific roles. Trade unions and setting for such leaders. The problem of political
peasant association, for example, are merely communications further reinforces the position
agents of the government or of a dominant party of the charismatic leader.
or movement.  The non-Western political process operates
 Although the process of social change is largely without benefits of political ‘brokers’.
creating the basis for new interests, the The articulation function and the bargaining
formation of explicit interests’ groups rarely operation in the West as performed by the
moves at the same pace. Many interests are influential members of the competing political
not explicitly organized, and when organized, parties or constitutional government have, with
they act more as protective associations than as a few exceptions, found instability to be the
pressure groups. dominant feature of politics.

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Chapter - 3.4

The Characteristics of the Democratic

Regimes of Developed World

The liberal democratic regimes in the developed independent of the control of the government
states have been categorized as oligarchic and of one another is helpful in this regard.
regimes by Robert Dahl in his work ‘Polyarchy: Institutionally guaranteed and protected civil
Participation and Opposition’. The term ‘Polyarchy’ and political.
has been preferred to ‘liberal democracy’ by the  Rights are further strengthened by the presence
western comparative political theorists primarily of the new social movements. It all results into
because of two reasons. First, liberal democracy as a vigorous and democratically conscious civil
a concept has been treated mostly as a political ideal society.
rather than a form of regime and is thus invested with
broader normative implications. Second, the usage of  The democratic regimes accept the presence of
the concept of ‘Polyarchy’ tends to acknowledge that political cleavages due to diversity in the civil
the democratic regimes in the developed countries, society. As such political conflicts are seen as an
mostly western, still fall short. The liberal democratic inevitable aspect of political life. Political thought
or polyarchal regimes are to be found in the states and practice, enshrined in these democratic
of North America, Western Europe, and Australia. regimes accept conflict as a normal and not
However, there are states like Japan and South Africa aberrant feature.
who also exhibit the same characteristics. Some  These democratic regimes derive their
of these characteristics may be identified in a brief underpinnings from the western liberal
manner as given below: individualistic tradition of political thought
 These democratic regimes represent political thus besides guaranteeing the individual rights
institutions and practices which include they also support free competitive market
universal suffrage. Elections of representatives society. The cultural and ideological orientation
for a specified period makes them directly of these regimes likewise is also derived from
responsible to people. western liberalism.
 These regimes also provide equal opportunities  The democratic regimes in the developed World
to the citizens to compete for public office. The are not considered all alike. Some of them tend
political parties and the political leaders enjoy to favour centralization and majority rule
the rights to compete publicly for support. whereas others favour fragmentation and
pluralism.
 Free and fair elections are the basis of the
formation of governments. A competitive  ‘Thus, the comparative political theorists like
party system is supplemented by the pressure Lijphart distinguishes these regimes between
groups and the lobbying organizations. These ‘majority’ democratic regimes and the ‘pluralist’
pressure groups influence the conduct of the democratic regimes.
government by mobilizing the people.  The ‘majority’ democratic regimes are organized
 The democratic regimes reflect a high level of along parliamentary lines in accordance with the
tolerance of opposition that is sufficient to check Westminster model. Such democratic regimes
the arbitrary inclination of the government. The are to be found in the United Kingdom, New
existence of alternative sources of information Zealand, Australia, Canada, and Israel.

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 Some of the significant features these regimes religious, ideological, regional, linguistic, and
share is single party government, a lack of cultural diversities have adopted such regimes
separation of powers between the executive which are also called the consociational
and the legislature, a simple plurality or first democratic regimes.
past the post electoral system, unitary or quasi-  These regimes promote the value of bargaining
federal government, legislative supremacy, etc. and power sharing which can ensure
 The pluralist democratic regimes based on the consensus. The common features these regimes
US model represent the separation of power share is coalition Government, A separation of
and checks and balances. The provisions of the power between the legislature and executive, an
Constitution allow institutional fragmentation. effective bicameral system, a multiparty system,
 The states like Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, Proportional representation.
and Switzerland which are divided by deep

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Chapter - 3.5

Pressure Groups In Advanced Industrial and

Developing Societies

Pressure Groups  Carter & Herz had argued that the modern
pluralist society, full of economic, professional,
 In the words of Alfred de Grazia, the pressure religious, ethical, and other interest groups,
group is “simply an organized social group that is faced with the major problem of how to
seeks to influence the behaviors of political coordinate the activities of different groups on
officers without seeking formal control of the the one hand and government and politics on
government.” the other.
 Every society is divided into a number of groups.  When Interest groups endeavor to influence
With the passage of time, they have become the political process, and thereby get favorable
more and more specialized. While there are decisions in matters such as enactment of
numerous groups like those of industrialists, legislation, imposition of taxes and duties,
bank employees, university teachers, workers in framing of rules and issuance of licences, etc.
then these interest groups transform themselves
industry and commerce, which operate within a
into pressure groups.
country, there are other groups that transcend
national borders.  Writing in the context of liberal democratic
countries, particularly, the United States, S.E.
 There are certain essential features of the Finer had opined that, “...the pressure groups
pressure groups. These are (i) pressure are, by and large, autonomous and politically
groups are part of the political process of a neutral bodies, which bargain with the political
country (ii) they attempt either to strengthen parties and the bureaucracy irrespective of
or change the direction of government policy the political complexion of the government in
and (iii) they do not seek, as pressure groups, power.”
to directly capture political power and run  The groups can adopt various methods of
the government. bargaining, in their interests, including even
 Duverger was of the view that, “Most pressure unconventional or corrupt methods. It is
groups... are non-political organizations’, and obvious that the pressure groups are associations
pressure politics is not their primary activity. of individuals for the promotion of the interests
of their members.
Any group, association, or organization, even
those whose normal concerns are far from  Every individual has numerous interests. One
politics, can act as pressure groups in certain may be an office-bearer of a residents’ welfare
areas and under certain circumstances.” association, father of university-going children,
and a sugarcane farmer, a shareholder in a large
 The pressure groups try to bring about changes business house or industrial establishment and
in policies of the government either by may also be a social activist as also a trustee
influencing its institutions, or even otherwise. of a religious or charitable institution. All the
However, the pressure groups do not enter the interests of one individual cannot be served by
legislature on their own. one group.

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 He or she, therefore, may join several interest  A group may include a large or small number
groups to put pressure on the state for different of people having common social, cultural trade
purposes. Interest groups, or pressure groups, of business interests. There can be no bar on a
are not a new phenomenon in politics. person being a member of two or more groups.
 These groups have existed, in one form or the  Interest groups are not political parties as
other, at all times. But these groups are deliberately they do not participate in electoral politics,
organized and are much more powerful today. and on their own have no direct role in the
This is because modern governments have taken governance of the country.
upon themselves numerous non-traditional
 However, if necessary, in their interest, they may
responsibilities.
support one political party or the other, and try
 According to H. Zeigler, it is “an organized to influence legislation and executive decisions
aggregate which seeks to influence the context by using various methods of exercising pressure
of governmental decisions without attempting on the government of the day.
to place its members in formal governmental
capacities.”  Without being political parties, without contesting
elections in their own name, and without seeking
 Discussing the pressure groups, David Truman
government jobs or entering the legislatures, the
describes them thus, “Pressure groups are
interest and pressure groups do play a vital role
attitude groups that make certain claims upon
in contemporary democracies in the decision-
other groups in the society.” The activities of
making process.
the government have a direct impact on the
lives of people. On the other hand, activities  People having common interests often get
of the individuals cannot help affecting the together. When they organize themselves to
decisions of the government. This work can protect and promote their interest they are
be effectively done only by organized groups known as interest groups. Cell phone operators
of people. in India, oil producers in different countries,
 Lobbying- When a group carries on its function automobile manufacturers in the United States in
of pressurizing members of the legislature by their associational forms are all interest groups.
contacting them in the parliamentary galleries, We in India have a very large group called the
the practice is known as lobbying. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
and Industry. It includes various chambers of
 This term originated in the United States where
lobbying is an accepted practice, and there are commerce and industry. As such it represents a
regular lobbyists who charge fees for influencing large number of interest groups.
the legislators and officers in the interest of  Almond & Powell say that “The process by
certain groups. which individuals and groups make demands
upon the political decision-makers we call
INTEREST GROUPS interest articulation.” These demands may
be of temporary nature like a demonstration
worldwide asking the United States not to
 Interest groups have been defined by a number
wage war against Iraq. Or, the demand may be
of prominent writers. Some prefer to use the term
articulated for a long-term interest, like traders’
pressure groups, while others call them interest
groups. Actually, there is a clear distinction demand for tax relief, or trade unions’ demands
between the two, though it is not always easy for better working conditions.
to lay down clear demarcation.  As Almond and Powell have said the interest
 Another writer V.O. Key was of the opinion articulator may be as varied as an unorganized
that the interest groups are such private mob or a well-organized systematic
organisations who are established to organisation. Admitting that their definition may
influence public policy. They do not take part not be perfect, yet Almond and Powell say: “By
in the selection of candidates or the legislative ‘interest group’ we mean a group of individuals
processes. They devote themselves to who are linked by particular bonds of concern
pressurizing and influencing the government or advantage, and who have some awareness
in order to promote their interests. of these bonds”.

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 The structure of interest groups may be organisations, associations of athletes, and

organized to include continuing role performance cultural committees.
by all members of the group, or it may reflect  The earliest mass groups were set up on the
only occasional and intermittent awareness of the initiative of socialist parties to organize the
group interest on the part of individuals. Thus, working people. Thus, the bases of both the
an interest group is an association of people to trade unions and socialist movements can
achieve certain specific objectives, and for this be traced to the working people.
purpose it may even pressurize the institutions  Today, there are numerous interest groups
of the state.” having a common objective, but operating
 Hitchner & Levine prefer the use of the term in the social sector. Some of such groups,
interest groups. They say that “An interest group according to Duverger, are groups
is a collection of individuals who try to realize concerned with disarmament, abolition
their common objectives by influencing public of nuclear weapons, and those fighting
policy.” They argue that interest groups and against casteism, communalism and
pressure groups are not the same thing. fundamentalism.
The term pressure groups have a negative  However, in the People’s Republic of China
connotation as it implies use of pressure, or and other former and present socialist
unwanted interference, by groups to achieve countries several mass organisations act as
their objectives. subsidiaries of the concerned Communist
 Interest groups can be described as the non- Parties.
state actors, or individuals, or modern states.  Traditional pressure groups
But politics alone is not the objective of their
activities. According to Hitchner & Levine, “The  Traditional political parties are generally
interest group system is thus a part of both associated with elitist sections. Similarly,
the general culture and social framework and traditional pressure groups value quality
the political structure of a particular state.” more than the members. They are relying
more and more on the elitist sections.
 Interest groups are organisations of people for The earliest elitist groups include the
the achievement of certain specific goals, who, intellectuals’ organisations of the eighteenth
if necessary, pressurize the state. They may be century, and the twentieth century political
regularly involved in pressure politics, or may clubs of France.
at times involve themselves in pressure politics,
and at other times perform other functions to  For example, The Jean Moulin Club of
promote their interests. France is one such group. It has only about
500 members. Its members (elite) include
senior government officials, engineers,
MASS AND TRADITIONAL GROUPS university professors and influential
journalists.
 The interest or pressure groups may be  Even in India, there are a number of elite
divided into two categories, on the basis of groups with limited membership. One such
their organisation. These are either mass groups elite group in India is the Association of
or traditional groups. This distinction is similar to Defense Officers’ Wives. Similarly, there
the one between mass and traditional parties. is the Association of Steel Producers. The
 Mass Pressure groups Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
 Like the mass political parties, the mass and Industry (as mentioned earlier) is a very
groups also have large membership. The powerful elite group.
groups having thousands or even lakhs of  Traditional, or elite groups of different
members require an effective organisation. countries include groups of concerned
This category includes well-organized trade country’s industrialists, associations of
unions, and also organisations of farmers, higher administrative service officers,
associations of craftsmen, and associations unions of intellectuals, of writers, of poets,
of small businessmen. These are groups or artisans etc. There are many such groups
related to industrialists or workmen of in the UK, USA, France, Germany, Japan, and
various types. In addition, there are youth India.

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INTEREST/PRESSURE GROUPS AND  The interest/ pressure groups are essentially non-
POLITICAL PARTIES political associations. Their primary functions may
be economic, social, religious, or humanitarian.
Pressure is not their main business. They do so
 A distinguishing feature of interest/pressure
if necessary for the promotion of the interests of
groups is that they seek to influence public
their members. Parties are committed to a wide
policymakers, but without attempting to directly
range of issues and policies; their goal is political
take over the control and conduct of the
power. An interest group, on the other hand,
government. Political parties, on the other hand,
has a narrower focus. It is primarily to articulate
are primarily concerned with governance – to
specific demands that it comes into existence.
contest elections and try to secure a majority
of seats in the legislature, or the office of chief  As Professor S.R. Maheshwari wrote, “It is
executive, and govern the country. the task of a political party to reconcile
and aggregate their competing demands of
 Neumann- Fundamentally, pressure groups are
the representation of homogeneous interests interest groups and put them into coherent
seeking influence. The interest group is strong programmes and action plans. Thus viewed,
and effective when it has a directed specific political parties prevent the interest groups
purpose. Political parties, on the other hand, from directly dominating the decision-making
seeking office and directed towards policy apparatus and process in a country.”
decisions, combine heterogeneous groups. In  The relationship between the parties and
fact, it is one of their major themes to reconcile pressure groups is not the same everywhere.
the diverse forces within political society. Theirs Each political system has a different nature of
is an integrative function which is not the domain parties and groups, as also their relationship.
of the interest groups.
 In the United States and Britain, the interest
 Maurice Duverger- “Political parties strive to groups articulate demands, seeking to transform
acquire power and exercise it—by electing— them into authoritative policies by influencing
mayors and deputies, and by choosing cabinet the political processes. While the groups are
ministers and the head of state. Pressure functionally specific and differentiated, the parties
groups on the contrary, do not participate play the aggregative role. As Almond wrote, “...
directly in the acquisition of power or in its the party system stands between the interest
exercise; they act to influence power while groups system and the authoritative policy-
remaining apart from it... they exert pressure making agencies and screens them from the
on it...” Pressure groups seek to influence the particularistic and disintegrative impact of
men who wield power, not to place their own special interests.”
men in power, at least not officially... It is possible
that sometimes members of a pressure group  Secondly, France and Italy offer a different
may become members of the legislatures or type of relationship. In these two, and some
even the executive; but even if that happens, it other countries, both the parties and interest
is kept secret. groups exist as fairly well organized entities,
but not as autonomous systems. The parties
 Harold R. Bruce wrote: “In their relation to
control the groups in various ways. Thus, one
the political parties’ pressure groups are in
finds communist-controlled or socialist party-
the singular position of being independent
controlled trade unions. In such a situation,
of them and also cooperative with them as a
“the interest groups get prevented from
given situation may dictate. Pressure groups
articulating functionally specific, pragmatic
are normally not partisan in character; they
demands, for their activities have become
disregard party lines; they seek popular
highly political.”
support among the voters or support of
members of legislative bodies and executive  When groups allow themselves to become
authorities...” affiliates to parties, they, in turn, weaken
 Similar views were expressed by Duverger. He the capacity of parties to aggregate various
wrote, “Certain powerful groups actually have interests.
their own representatives in governments  Thirdly, in several third world countries of
and legislative bodies, but the relationship Asia, Africa, and Latin America, neither the
between these individuals and the groups they parties nor the pressure groups stand very
represent remains secret or circumspect.” well differentiated. In the words of Gabriel A.

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Almond, “Associational interest groups such groups are “formal organisations,

as trade unions and business associations may composed of professionally employed
exist in the urban westernized parts of the personnel, with designated political
society, but in the village and the countryside and social functions other than interest
interest organisation takes the form of lineage, articulation. But, either as corporate
caste, status, class, and religious groups, bodies or as smaller groups within these
which transmit pressure demands to the other bodies (such as legislative blocs...). These
parts of the pressure structure by means of groups may articulate their own interests
information communication.” In many of the or represent the interest of other groups
Third World countries, parties tend to be ad hoc in the society.”
arrangements, without clear policies and without  Such groups are very influential and
grassroots organisation. Consequently, adds powerful. In some third world countries,
Almond, “... the significant political groups they are not satisfied only by exercising
are neither the parties, nor the associational influence. They even seize power, as, for
interest groups, but elements of cliques from example, the military clique did in Burma, or
the bureaucracy and the army.” Bangladesh (After Sheikh Mujib’s murder), or
 Whatever pattern is followed in a political system, Pakistan, or Nigeria. These are exceptions.
it is clear that the pressure groups, despite being These groups are generally concerned with
independent of the parties, do still maintain better conditions for their members.
contacts with them, in one way or the other, and  The anomic interest groups
try to influence legislation and decision-making
through these contacts.  Almond said, these groups are “more or
less spontaneous penetrations into the
political system from the society.” These
CLASSIFICATION OF INTEREST GROUP groups often appear when normal means of
expressing dissatisfaction prove ineffective.
Almond’s Classification They may be concerned with linguistic or
ethnic disturbances, or demonstrations,
In detailed analysis of interest groups, Almond says even hijackings.
that there can be four different types of groups.
 They are generally characterized by
This classification has generally been supported by
unconventional, usually violent means.
Hitchner and Levine also. According to Almond, the
Such groups may influence the political
interest groups are of following types:
system in numerous unconventional
 Institutional Interest Groups. ways. They are occasionally found even in
 Anomic Interest Groups. the western developed nations.
 Associational Interest Groups; and  The associational interest groups
 Non-Associational Interest Groups.  These are closely associated with
formally organized institutions. They
 The institutional interest groups
are functionally specialized, and they
 These are closely connected with various articulate the interests of specific groups,
institutions, and even political parties. such as management, labour, business, and
These groups also exist within the agriculture. These groups are found in
legislatures, bureaucracies, churches, those countries where right to association
corporations, and even armed forces. is constitutionally recognized. Some of
 They are very active in the bureaucracy, them have regular paid employees in their
for it is there that most of the decision- roles to influence the concerned institution.
making is done. They are equally close to  These groups are generally concerned
legislatures. They form part of a highly with economic interests. The Federation of
organized structure, but this structure has Economic Organisations, and the Federation
been created for purposes other than what of Indian Chambers of Commerce and
these groups articulate. Industry are some of the examples of
 These groups do not need any other associational groups. The associations
organisation to articulate their demands. of teachers, lawyers, doctors, and other
As Almond said, institutional interest professionals all come in this category.

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 Unlike the well-organised associational  The promotional groups, on the other

system, the non-associational groups are hand, have membership or large
based on factors like kinship, ethnicity, cross-sections of the community. The
status and religious. They articulate the promotional groups may include groups
interests informally and irregularly. They do for disarmament, or the Greens Seeking
not have any permanent organization. promotion of environmental security.
 Besides, the protective groups generally
JEAN BLONDEL’S CLASSIFICATION manage to have greater influence
over policy making process than the
Interest groups have been classified by Blondel on the promotional groups. As Robert Salisbury
basis of factors responsible for their formation. wrote, in the context of British groups,
Broadly speaking there are two categories of groups. the protective groups have “substantial
These are (i) community interest groups; and (ii) influence over policy”, whereas
associational groups. Both the categories are further “promotional pressure, even when they
divided into two sub-categories each. mobilize a large following, tend to be
regarded as having only a minor impact
 The community interest groups on public decisions.”
 Are formed to promote community  Finally, the protective groups generally
interests. The social relations are in the back have more flexible strategies, while the
of their formation. Community life brings promotional groups face the problem of
people together. Most of the community goal adaptation following the change in
groups are informal; only some are political situation. The protective groups
formally organised. They put pressure on
never run out of the agenda, while the
the government to seek state protection
promotional groups are terminal in nature,
and assistance.
at least in conception.
 The community groups are divided
between (a) customary and (b)
institutional groups. The groups that
MAURICE DUVERGER’S CLASSIFICATION
essentially follow the customs and traditions
of the community fall in the category of Maurice Duverger, who prefers to use the term
customary groups. The groups of castes pressure groups, talks of two main problems.
and sub-castes in India are of this type. These are:
 Blondel has described those community  First, whether those groups should be called
groups as institutional who are formed pressure groups whose only function is to exert
by people living together for a long political pressure, or even those can be called
time, and who develop common social pressure groups which have multi- dimensional
relationships. Some of the examples of this activities.
type can be welfare associations of serving  Second, whether the term pressure groups should
or retired soldiers like the veterans’ unions, be used only for non-official groups or even
the civil servant’s welfare associations, or official groups can be brought in this category.
the senior citizens’ welfare bodies. It is in the context of these two questions that
 The associational groups Duverger offered the following classification.
 The associational groups identified by  In the context of his first question, Duverger
Blondel generally follow the pattern of distinguishes between (i) Exclusive Groups;
Almond and Hitchner & Levine. These and (ii) Partial Groups.
groups have two sub-categories (a)  In the first category are those groups whose
protective groups and (b) promotional only function is to put pressure on the political
groups. system. Thus, the French Parliamentary
 The protective groups try to protect the Association for the Defense of Educational
interests of their members like those of Freedom is an exclusive group. There are
trade unions and associations of traders several groups in the United States who are
or professionals. They, thus, have more or whole-time in the business of pressure politics,
less homogeneous clientele. through the device of lobbying (see below).

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 The partial groups, on the other hand, link their membership with community
are essentially set up to be the promoters values. Hence groups are likely to reflect more
of interests of their members, but in that accurately than do other bodies, the concerns
process do occasionally use pressure tactics. of the society in which they operate.”
There are numerous such partial groups in every  Further, where the formal system of representation
democratic country including Britain and India. proves inadequate, interest groups, represent
Several associations of professionals (doctors, community values more realistically than do
lawyers, chartered accountants, and architects), of parties. Interest groups employ all conceivable
university or schoolteachers, or women activists, methods to promote their interests. They
or those concerned with cultural activities also, request and cajole; they bribe and entertain. The
if needed, try to put pressure on civil servants, most popular method of pressure politics, called
legislators, and others. lobbying, was developed in the United States.
 But there can be no rigidity in this classification. Lobbying is only one of the methods of pressure
Any partial group may take the whole time to politics, yet it is the most effective. Lobbying is,
pressure politics. peculiarly American practice, and its practitioners
 On the second basis, Duverger makes a try to directly influence the lawmakers and other
distinction between (i) Private Groups; and officials.
(ii) Public Groups.
Lobbying
 The first country to have experienced pressure
groups was the United States, where private  Lobbyists, in the words of Alfred de Grazia
institution groups had begun to use pressure are “highly organised; they claim large
on the state apparatus. Gradually, even official, membership lists; they have agents who are
or public groups also joined in the process of skilled in persuasion and public relations;
pressure politics. they insist that their purposes are consonant
 The official groups may even include those with the public welfare.”
officials who secretly align themselves with  Lobbying is, as mentioned above, an American
one or more pressure groups to serve certain practice, though it is not the monopoly of the
interests. Duverger also refers to what he calls United States. Lobbying is practiced in many
pseudo-pressure groups. These groups other democratic countries also, yet it will
include specialists who use pressure politics be appropriate to discuss this practice in the
not for themselves, but for others. This is often American background.
done for monetary consideration. Duverger
 The term “lobbying” is used to indicate the
includes in this category, the technical experts
technique of establishing contracts with the
as well as information (mass) media.
members of Congress and state legislatures to
influence them to vote for or against a measure
ROLE OF INTEREST/PRESSURE GROUPS to suit the interest of a pressure group.
 Very often pressure groups engage ex-members
 The role of pressure groups depends to a of the Congress to influence the legislators. They
large extent on the type of government that a are familiar with the lobbying techniques. There
country has. Their role in the presidential system, are several hundred regular ‘lobbyists’ working
as in the United States, is more significant than permanently in Washington D.C. They are paid
that in parliamentary democracies, like Britain employees of interest groups.
and India.  They need not necessarily influence the legislators
 Their role is minimum, or non-existent, in one- in the lobbies of the Congress, although the term
party states, and particularly in authoritarian is derived from that.
systems.  Political parties, pressure politics and lobbying
 Their role is highlighted by Henry Ehrmann, have become parts of the American political
while discussing the merits of pressure groups. system. Most of the American interest groups
He says: “The interests which they represent have been economic in character.

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Chapter - 3.6

Role Of Pressure Groups In Developing

Countries

The objectives of the pressure groups are very working to educate and promote understanding
limited. That is, every pressure group has one special about HIV/AIDS, and to prevent new infections, as
interest which it seeks to promote. For example, well as push for greater access to antiretrovirals.
the Bank Unions fight for their rights, whereas the  Types of Pressure Groups like Trade Union
Kishan Sabhas safeguard the interests of the farmers;
is a very powerful organisation in most
language groups want prominence given to their
of the developing Countries striving for a
respective languages etc.
better work condition and environment for
 Pressure groups assume different dimensions the workers. The Trade Unions in Pakistan are
and play different roles. Since, most of the involved in Collective bargaining for a labour
developing Countries are in a transition towards contract between an employer and employee.
the democratic form of Government pressure
 Pressure groups played a big role in lifting the
Groups pull their countries towards a democratic
conditions of poor women and strengthening
Government.
their status. The Gibraltar Women’s
 Pressure Groups like 88 Generation Students Association.
in Myanmar are still fighting for the re-
establishment of Democracy in a military  Many pressures Groups in Developing Countries
ruled Myanmar. In Cambodia, SMD, Student started to give out their concerns over
Movement for democracy played an important environmental issues and gay, lesbian, and
role in shaping the course of the political transgender rights.
system in the country.  Most of the Developing Countries and in
 Many of the pressure Groups in developing transition from traditional to modern Society
Countries fought against the economic and and such type of pressure groups which took
market policies of the government. Such as such issues became very important. Equality
Trade Union is Nigeria Labour Congress. Rights Group, In Gibraltar is one example of such
pressure groups.
 Some pressure groups played a very important
role in the socio-political and cultural  Many of the pressure groups in the developing
reformation or change in the country. They are Countries often assumes the characteristics
fighting against the evils that be fall the society. of an anomic pressure group because the
Congress of South African Trade Unions played a government is usually irresponsible or in other
leading role in the struggle against apartheid. words soft, and political parties are incapable
of adequately aggregating the interest and
 Pressure groups have achieved success in
demands of all sections of the population that
public health issues such as tobacco control,
anomic pressure groups appear on the scene.
occupational health and safety, air pollution, and
HIV/AIDS. The trade union movement has taken  Pressure Groups have played a more significant
a role in combating this pandemic. COSATU is a role in those developing countries which have
key partner in the Treatment Action Campaign a more stable government and political System,
(TAC), a registered charity and political force or which have adopted democracy as its system.

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The role of pressure groups in a developing PRESSURE GROUPS AS A LINK BETWEEN

country with a stable political system are listed THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PUBLIC
out in the following:
 They balance the national and particular These organizations perform the following functions:
interests. They constitute links of communication Playing a mediating function between the government
between the citizens and the state. and the public that helps build trust and confidence
 They render a necessary service by making on public officials.
much valuable data available to governmental
 Serving as an informed and independent voice in
agencies and to the public in general. They
policy debates.
supply necessary information and accurate
statistics to policymakers.  Identifying, articulating, and evaluating current
policy issues, proposals, and programs.
 A democracy which permits its citizens to express
their varying interests and desires thereby  Transforming ideas and emerging problems into
gaining a sort of ‘Build In’ protection against the policy issues.
emergence of a single, dominant social force.  Interpreting issues, events and policies for the
 Pressure groups keep democracy alive during electronic and print media thus facilitating public
the interval during the elections and constitute a understanding of domestic and international
barrier against interregnums. They supplement policy issues.
the party system and the formal instruments of
 Providing a constructive forum for the exchange of
government by serving as spokesman of special
ideas and information between key stakeholders
interests within society.
in the policy formulation process.
 Pressure Groups have become a legislature
behind a legislature. By their zeal and  Facilitating the construction of ―issue
enthusiasm, their expertise, knowledge, and networks‖;
specialized skills, they influenced law-making on  Providing a supply of personnel for the legislative
the floor of the legislatures and in the committee and executive branches of government.
rooms.
 Challenging the conventional wisdom and
 According to Peter and Susan Culvert, “In the standard operating procedures of bureaucrats
third World Countries interest groups are and elected officials.
distrusted, and when they take the form of
 The new think tanks’ greater visibility reflects
ethnic or community groups, there is a great
fear that they endanger the national Unity.” a more intensive engagement with the
government.
Conclusion
ROLE OF THINK TANKS IN INDIAN
Pressure Groups in Developing Countries have
assumed greater significance in the functioning FOREIGN POLICY
of the state and help to achieve a stable Political
System with the promotion of greater sections  Think tanks have developed networks and set up
of the Society as a whole. In the modern time, new platforms to promote dialogue, including
decision making is not entirely left to the traditional high-profile international conferences, bilateral
governmental agencies, but inputs from non- and multilateral exchanges, and closed-door
governmental intellectual resources like academia and networking events.
think-tanks also have been a part of the process. For
example, foreign policy decision-making is no longer  The growth of foreign policy think tanks in
a confined function of government, discussing the role India has been constrained to two distinct
of think tanks in foreign policy making along with its types: those which are close to Indian businesses
growing role in India. The vibrant research institutes and/or connected to foreign think tanks (and
and professional experts on national security, strategic which tend to promote a liberal worldview) and
policy and foreign affairs play a vital role in shaping those which are close to the Political parties
Foreign Policy of the country. Being independent from in ideological and personnel terms (and which
all sorts of political and bureaucratic authoritative have contributed to mainstream nationalist
influences, these civil society organisations give most ideology in foreign policy and are dependent on
neutral and dependable inputs to the policy makers their close links to the current government for
to make their choices for the policy formation. their influence).

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 In India independent think tanks are much Studies (CAPS) respectively, in addition to the
better placed to take forward a few multilateral Centre for Joint Warfare Studies (CENJOWS).
dialogues. In fact, the MEA has already been  Additionally, TERI and Indian Council for
doing the same via ICWA, IDSA, Research and Research on International Economic Relations
Information System for Developing Countries (ICRIER) have their own focus on issues relating
(RIS), ORF etc. to environment and economy.
 Suhasini Haidar sees think tanks as a factor  Role of ORF in BRICS Policy Formulation is
in checking the Indian Ministry of External exceptional, Raisina Dialogue, Asian Strategic
Affairs (MEA) from being “India’s primary Review are important initiatives.
interlocutor for the world,”. There is significant
If think-tanks have to have maximum impact
extension of think-tanks in India as Global think-
on decision-making, they have to substantially
tanks such as the Brookings Institution and the
improve their inputs. Organizing conferences,
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
dialogues, and hosting dignitaries from outside cannot
(CEIP) have established a chapter in India.
be their primary functions. There have to be “quality”
 All three wings of the Indian armed forces inputs, which are “actionable.” While “research” has
– the army, navy, and air force – have been to be the bedrock of these institutions, they should
supporting their own: the Centre for Land and have “policy” relevance, otherwise there would not be
Warfare Studies (CLAWS), the National Maritime a big difference between a PhD and policy research
Foundation (NMF) and the Centre for Air Power reports.

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Chapter - 3.7

Social Movements and New Social

Movements

SOCIAL MOVEMENT IN ADVANCE  Movements in developing countries continue

INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES VERSUS to depend on political institutions and
suffer from their vested interference while
SOCIAL MOVEMENT IN DEVELOPING
the movement in developed countries have
COUNTRIES an independent existence and usually their
actions have a major influence on the domestic
Social movements are a type of group action. and international politics and not the other way
They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of round as in the case of the former.
individuals or organisations which focus on specific
political or social issues. In other words, they carry
NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN ADVANCE
out, resist, or undo a social change whereas the term
new social movements (NSMs) are a theory of social INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES VERSUS NEW
movements that attempts to explain the plethora of SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN DEVELOPING
new movements that have come up in various western COUNTRIES
societies roughly since the mid- 1960s (i.e., in a post-
industrial economy) which are claimed to depart  NSM in developing countries still continue to
significantly from the conventional social movement focus on issues pertaining to basic needs of life
paradigm. and they have no independent evolution as they
 Social movements in developing countries appear to be a continuance of the conventional
continue to focus on primary issues like social movement, having barely a separate
basic amenities like food, shelter, health, and identity and organization of their own. While
employment while the movements in advanced NSM in developed nations has now concentrated
industrial countries have shifted their focus its focus towards issues of quality of life like clean
on issues like better wages, good working and safe environment for all. They have relatively
conditions, Better and affordable health facilities, moved on to an advanced stage of activism and
and insurance. Since the basic needs of citizens have adopted the latest methodologies to attain
are already fulfilled in the developed countries, their goals.
movements focus on the next stage of demands  For NSM in developing countries, the strategies
and further improvement. of articulating their demands remains almost
 Social movements in developing countries identical to that of social movements, namely
continue to be governed by feudal structures strikes, dharma’s, protests. For e.g., Narmada
and often show violent tendencies. They are still Bachao Andolan and Anti-corruption movement.
influenced by various divisions like caste, religion, But the strategies of NSM in advanced
race, and gender. On the other hand, social industrial countries have become majorly
movements in advanced industrial countries sophisticated in comparison for e.g., they are
have become democratic and secular in nature using the mediums like Research, Conferences
and very progressive in their approach. and Seminars and discussion/ debates.

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 The NSM in developing countries continues their counterparts have also started entertaining
to derive its leadership from either the issues which might not even concern them in
political class or the old, experienced leaders very direct manner like issues concerning global
of the social movement while in case of NSM in
commons like climate change, GHG emissions,
developed countries, the leadership consists
wildlife protection and conservation of the art
of highly educated & elite members of the
society. NSM in developing countries are and culture of developing countries as well. Their
restricting their outreach and interest to only scope is much larger than NSM in the third
those issues which directly affect them while world.

Previous Year Questions

1. How has electoral democracy augmented the participation of people in the democratic process?
2022/20/250
2. Discuss the role of social movements in strengthening the democratic process in developing
societies. 2022/15/200
3. Political parties and Pressure groups are sine qua non of democracy.” Comment. 2021/10/150
4. Explain the impact of electoral systems and cleavages in shaping party systems with reference
to the developing countries. 2021/20/200
5. Has the increased participation of the underprivileged in the political process of the
developing societies strengthened democracy or created political chaos and conflict? Comment
2020/10/150
6. Comment on the decline of political parties and examine whether new social movements shall
be an alternative strategy for establishing link between government and society. 2016 /10/150
7. Do interest groups help to promote democracy or to undermine it? Give your opinion.
2016/15/200

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UNIT

4
Globalization

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Chapter - 4.1

Globalisation: Theories of Globalisation

By the term globalization we mean opening up In the meantime, various countries of the world have
the economy for the world market by attaining adopted the policy of globalization. Following the
international competitiveness. Thus, the globalization same path India had also adopted the same policy
of the economy simply indicates interaction of the since 1991 and started the process of dismantling
country relating to production, trading, and financial trade barriers along with abolishing quantitative
transactions with the developed industrialized restrictions (QRs) phase-wise.
countries of the world.
Accordingly, the Government of India has been
Accordingly, the term globalization has reducing the peak rate of customs duty in its
four parameters: subsequent budgets and removed QRs on the
remaining 715 items in the EXIM Policy 2001-2002.
 Permitting free flow of goods by removing or All these have resulted in open access to new markets
reducing trade barriers between the countries, and new technology for the country.
 Creating environment for flow of capital
between the countries,
THEORIES OF GLOBALISATION
 Allowing free flow in technology transfer
 Creating an environment for free movement of A brief idea of each school of thought on the topic
labor between the countries of the world. has been provided. More scholarly observations
Thus, taking the entire world as a global village, all the on the same are provided in the subsequent sub-
four components are equally important for attaining topics)
a smooth path for globalization.
The concept of Globalization by integrating LIBERAL PERSPECTIVE:
nation states within the framework of World Trade
Organization (WTO) is an alternative version of
the ‘Theory of Comparative Cost Advantage’  Theodore Levitt argues that globalization
propagated by the classical economists for assuming moves the economy towards a new paradigm
unrestricted flow of goods between the countries for from custom-made commodities to worldwide
mutual benefit, especially from Great Britain to other homogenous products, which are -low priced,
less developed countries or to their colonies. advanced, reliable, and functional.
In this way, the imperialist nations gained much at the  Liberalism provided an institutional core under
cost of the colonial countries who had to suffer from which globalization thrived. They believe that
the scar of stagnation and poverty. But the advocates globalization has brought peace and prosperity in
of the policy of globalization argue that globalization the world and widens the scope of opportunity.
would help the underdeveloped and developing
countries to improve their competitive strength and  Francis Fukuyama is of the view that globalization
attain higher growth rates. Now it is to be seen how has opened the market economy which is
far the developing countries would gain by adopting resulting in domination of liberal democracy all
the path of globalization in future. over the world.

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 Jonathan Paraton identified three schools of MARXIST THEORY OF GLOBALISATION:

thought in the study of globalisation namely
the hyper- globalists, the skeptics, and the
 Marxists believe that globalisation is
transformationalists.
another form of colonialism, a new form
 Concept of ‘Borderless world’: Proposed by of Imperialism. They see it as an extension of
Kenichi Ohmae, ‘Globalisation has surpassed
the neoliberal conservative policies practiced
the control of the state and now it is not under
by the advanced western countries to put their
the control of nation states. Globalisation is an
irreversible process, and globalisation is a new own economies in order. These developments
epoch of history in which traditional nation- have led to introduction of competitive market
states have become ‘unnatural, even impossible forces and dismantling of welfarism within the
business units in a global economy’. developing states, leading to greater class and
regional inequalities within them.
SKEPTICAL THEORY OF GLOBALISATION  Globalisation has led to a decline of third world
states and their ability to manage in a world
 According to Ralph Dahrendorf, ‘globalisation of open economies. A.G. Frank has recently
is fully controlled by states and even allowed pointed out that the ‘impact of globalisation
and regulated by states only.’ Hence, he calls has proved Dependency theory correct, but
the approach given by hyperglobalists a ‘myth.’ paradoxically, the theory is hardly used today
 It is not the market that rules, but the state that in studies on globalisation.’
regulates all economic activity. The forces of
globalisation are themselves dependent upon DEPENDENCY THEORY OF
the regulatory power of national governments
to make states globalise and privatise. Thus,
GLOBALISATION
politics and not economics alone are important
determining the relations among states in an  Propounded by Raul Plebisch, Underdeveloped
increasingly interdependent world. countries offer cheap labour and raw materials
 Scholars of this approach also criticize on the world market. These resources are sold to
western domination. The skeptics point out advanced economies, which have the means to
that there has been no re-structuring of the transform them into finished goods.
world economy, most trade and investment  Underdeveloped countries end up purchasing
still favours the North and marginalises the
the finished products at high prices, depleting
South, because of which inequalities between
the capital they might otherwise devote to
the two areas are increasing, and the old
international division (Imperialism and upgrading their own productive capacity. The
Colonies) is becoming stronger. result is a vicious cycle that perpetuates the
division of the world economy between a rich
TRANSFORMATIONALIST THEORY OF core and a poor.
GLOBALISATION  Mick Brooks looks at the different meanings
of globalisation and explains them from the
 This is propounded by Anthony Giddens and standpoint of Lenin’s theory of imperialism. He
Ulrich Beck. They came up with a mean path that
says Globalization is the latest hope embraced
in some way the globalisation is winning and at
by capitalist commentators for the salvation
other the states have their dominance intact.
of their system i.e., ‘Global capitalism.’
 They also believe that globalisation has
impacted the state’s sovereignty at a larger  The gap between poor and rich widened, and
stake and is ‘transforming’ the world and global capitalism is the reason why the institutions
they see it as a driving force behind the rapid that regulate world trade are set up so that big
social, political, and economic changes that are business can systematically mug the world’s
reshaping modern societies and a world order. poor. Example: The domination of developed
 Globalisation is conceived as a powerful countries (especially USA) on world institutions
transformative force, which is responsible for a like WB, IMF, or WTO and their (allegedly) use of
‘massive shake-out’ of societies, economies, these institutions for keeping domination intact
institutions of governance and world order. over developing and underdeveloped countries.

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NEOLIBERALISM AND ECONOMIC state of economic development by fiercely

GLOBALISATION protecting their industries from foreign
markets and investment.

 Neoliberal policies advocate market forces and  For economic growth to benefit developing
commercial activity as the most efficient methods countries, the international community must be
for producing and supplying goods and services. allowed to nurture their infant industries. Instead,
economically dominant countries took the
At the same time, they shun the role of the state
policy of ‘kicking away the ladder’ to achieve
and discourage government intervention into
development by imposing an ideology that suits
economic, financial, and even social affairs.
their own economic needs.
 The process of economic globalisation is
 Many scholars argued that Neoliberal
driven by this ideology; removing borders
ideology embodies an outdated, selfish model
and barriers between nations so that market
of economy. It has been formulated by the old
forces can drive the global economy. The
imperial powers and adopted by economically
policies were readily taken up by governments dominant nations. Given the state of the global
and still continue to pervade classical economic trade and finance structures, wealthy countries
thought, allowing corporations and affluent can maintain their economic advantage by
countries to secure their financial advantage pressurizing developing countries to adopt
within the world economy. neo-liberal policies – even though they
 The policies were most ardently enforced in the themselves do not. Understandably, many
US and Europe in the 1980s during the Regan– commentators have described this process as
Thatcher–Kohl era. These leaders believed economic colonialism.
that expanding the free-market and private  The major failures of these policies are now
ownership would create greater economic common knowledge. Many countries, particularly
efficiency and social well-being. The resulting in Latin America, are now openly defying the
deregulation, privatization and the removal of foreign corporate rule that was forced upon
border restrictions provided fertile ground for them by the international financial institutions.
corporate activity, and over the next 25 years In these countries, economic ideologies based
corporations grew rapidly in size and influence. on competition and self-interest are gradually
Corporations are now the most productive being replaced by policies based on cooperation
economic units in the world, more so than most and the sharing of resources.
countries. With their huge financial, economic,
and political leverage, they continue to further How Economic and neo- liberal
their neoliberal objectives.
globalization is now being interrogated
 There is a consensus between the financial elite,
from inside even in developed countries?
neoclassical economists, and the political classes
in most countries that neoliberal policies will  People has been dissatisfied from neo-liberal
create global prosperity. So entrenched is their modernity. And this dissatisfaction towards
position that this view determines the policies of unprecedented assault of neo liberal
the international agencies (IMF, World Bank and modernity has been manifested in events
WTO), and through them dictates the functioning like Occupy Wall Street movement, yellow
of the global economy. Despite reservations from vest protest, Battle of Seattle.
within many UN agencies, neoliberal policies
are accepted by most development agencies as  It has led to deep interrogation and
manifested in the rise of hard left leaders
the most likely means of reducing poverty and
like Jeremy Corbyn, Bernie Sanders etc. It
inequality in the poorest regions.
caused the “legitimating crisis” (Habermas)
 However, there are huge differences between in developed countries which resulted in rise
the neoliberal dogma that the US and EU of Neo - Fascist and populist leaders (e.g.,
dictate to the world and the policies that they Trump, Boris Johnson, Marine le Pen,
themselves adopt. They fiercely advocated Nigel Farage) etc.
the removal of barriers to trade, investment,  Jeremy Brecher stated that in the context of
and employment. The US economy remains economic consequences “Instead of global
one of the most protected in the world. village it has led to Global pillage”.
Industrialized nations only reached their

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 Globalisation facilitates consumer goods

 Zoya Hasan points out the need of vigorous industries to expand faster to meet growing
social movement to realign the priorities of
demand for these consumer goods which
the state towards people from the market.
would result in faster expansion of employment
 Noam Chomsky points out that Neo opportunities over a period of time. This would
Liberal globalization results in “Market result trickle-down effect to reduce the proportion
fundamentalism” and promotes interest of of population living below the poverty line
1% at the cost of 99%.”
 Globalisation enhances the efficiency of the
 Ramesh Thakur and Prof. Heine points out banking insurance and financial sectors with the
that “Neo Liberal globalization acts as the opening up of those areas to foreign capital,
soft underbelly of modern imperialism” It foreign banks, and insurance companies.
has led to “Globalization from above not
below”.
DEMERITS OF GLOBALISATION
MERITS OF GLOBALISATION  Globalisation paves the way for redistribution of
economic power at the world level leading to
The following are some of the important domination by economically powerful nations
advantages of globalisation for a developing over the poor nations.
country like India:  Globalisation usually results in greater increase in
 Globalisation helps to boost the long run imports than increase in exports leading to growing
average growth rate of the economy of the trade deficit and balance of payments problem.
country through Improvement in the allocative  Although globalisation promotes the idea that
efficiency of resources, Increase in labour technological change and increase in productivity
productivity and Reduction in capital-output would lead to more jobs and higher wages, during
ratio. the last few years, such technological changes
 Globalization paves the way for removing occurring in some developing countries
inefficiency in the production system. Prolonged have resulted in more loss of jobs than they
protective scenario in the absence of globalisation have created leading to a fall in employment
growth rates.
makes the production system careless about cost
effectiveness which can be attained by following  Globalisation has alerted the village and small-
the policy of globalisation. scale industries and sounded death-knell to it as
they cannot withstand the competition arising
 Globalisation attracts entry of foreign capital
from well-organized MNCs.
along with foreign updated technology which
improves the quality of production.  Globalisation has been showing the process
to poverty reduction in some developing and
 Globalisation usually restructures production underdeveloped countries of the world and
and trade patterns favoring labor-intensive thereby enhances the problem of inequality.
goods and labor-intensive techniques as well as
 Globalisation is also posing a threat to agriculture
expansion of trade in services.
in developing and underdeveloped countries of
 In a globalized scenario, domestic the world. As with the WTO trading provisions,
industries of developing countries become agricultural commodities markets of poor and
conscious about price reduction and quality developing countries will be flooded with farm
improvement to their products so as to face goods from countries at a rate much lower than
foreign competition. that indigenous farm products leading to a
 Globalisation discourages uneconomic import deathblow to many farmers.
substitution and favours cheaper imports of  Implementation of the globalisation principle
capital goods which reduces capital-output ratio is becoming harder in many industrially
in manufacturing industries. Cost effectiveness developed democratic countries to ask its
and price reduction of manufactured people to bear the pains and uncertainties
commodities will improve the terms of trade in of structural adjustment with the hope of
favour of agriculture. getting benefits in future.

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Chapter - 4.2

Impact of Globalisation on the Developing

Countries

 Wages and Inequality- As companies outsource  Health Status and Longevity- Another benefit
work to poorer countries in pursuit of cheaper to developing countries is the improvement
labor, many of the poor in these developing of health services and the extension of life
countries are able to find work at wages that are expectancy in the general populace. Increases in
finally able to sustain their families. However, income and resources allow for greater access
as in any job market, it seems that those with
to food, medical services, and health care. Yet,
a higher level of skills are the ones who receive
the most work. Those with less skill may not while things are improving for many developing
receive the benefit of higher paying jobs countries, there are still areas of concern. Access
with a foreign company. As a result, inequity to a greater variety of foods, especially those
develops among the working class creating foods that are processed, have led to increased
a divide within the local economies. The less rates of obesity in many poor countries, which, in
skilled still struggle to gain financial stability turn, can lead to health issues such as diabetes,
while others can rise out of poverty. cardiovascular disease and high cholesterol.
 The Effects of Greater Income- Also, the Unfortunately, many of these countries are unable
opening of trade and development of companies to maintain enough highly trained professionals
in places like China, for example, have led to huge to meet the health needs as professionals often
increases in manufacturing and sales. In general, head elsewhere, in search of a better paying
vast numbers of the Chinese people have been position.
able to rise out of poverty as they have found
better paying jobs and work for both domestic  Spread of Infectious Diseases- Another health
and foreign companies. The country has become concern is the increased risk for the spread of
a big player in the global market and many of infectious diseases. When countries remained
its people have similarly benefited. With greater relatively closed off to trade and interaction with
personal income, individuals have had greater others, they remained isolated from health risks
access to increased opportunities and further as well. As countries opened up, both products
education.
and individuals began to travel, taking diseases
 Increased Opportunities for Education- with them. Some diseases, that had been virtually
As additional money flows into a country’s eradicated in some parts of the world, have
economy, the government has more resources
begun to crop up again.
to fund important initiatives such as educational
advancement. Similarly, individuals become Conversely, globalisation can create new
financially stable and can afford things opportunities, new ideas, and open new markets
that were previously unattainable, such as that an entrepreneur may have not had in their
schooling and vocational training. However, a home country. As a result, there are a number of
potential downside of increased educational positives associated with globalisation:
opportunities is that some of those individuals
who achieve a professional level may emigrate  It creates greater opportunities for firms in less
to other countries in search of higher salaries industrialized countries to tap into more and
and improved lifestyles. larger markets around the world

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 This can lead to more access to capital flows, people to live in the comfort of not having to worry
technology, human capital, cheaper imports, and about food, money, health care or education. They
larger export markets are lucky enough to take such basics for granted and
to be oblivious to the gap of inequality and poverty
 It allows businesses in less industrialized countries
(Bardhan 2006). The IMF’s neoliberal policy of the
to become part of international production
World Bank, the rise of the Green Revolution, and
networks and supply chains that are the main
Structural Adjustment policies created a gap with a
conduits of trade
chasm of injustice in between. While anti-globalists
For example, the experience of the East Asian see globalisation as a producer of inequality, others
economies demonstrates the positive effect of view it as equalizing, democratizing, and expanding
globalisation on economic growth and shows that the horizons of the poor.
at least under some circumstance’s globalisation
decreases poverty. The spectacular growth in East How has Globalization increased Poverty
Asia, which increased GDP per capita by eightfold and Inequality in the third world?
and raised millions of people out of poverty, was
based largely on globalisation—export-led growth  There are two waves of globalisation. The first
and closing the technology gap with industrialized dates from the beginning of the nineteenth
countries. Generally, economies that globalise have century to the First World War and the second
higher growth rates than non-globalizers. was established in the second half of the
Also, the role of developing country firms in the value twentieth century (O’Rourke 2001). Economists
chain is becoming increasingly sophisticated as these usually stand by the belief that globalisation
firms expand beyond manufacturing into services. For makes the world more integrated, as local
example, it is now commonplace for businesses in economies become no longer just individuals.
industrialized countries to outsource functions such as The improvement of development that happened
data processing, customer service and reading x-rays to over the past 200 years has been very supportive
India and other less industrialized countries (Bhagwati for developing countries.
et al, 2004). Advanced telecommunications and the  “When we see the poverty in Sub-Saharan
Internet are facilitating the transfer of these service Africa has risen from 290 million to 415 million
jobs from industrialized to less industrialized and and “at the end of the nineteenth century, the
making it easier and cheaper for less industrialized ratio of average income in the richest countries
country firms to enter global markets. In addition to middle income in the poorest was 9 to 1”
to bringing in capital, outsourcing helps prevent (Martell 2017, 138). “What’s more, the middle-
“brain drain” because skilled workers may choose income family today in the United States is
to remain in their home country rather than 60 times richer than the average family in
having to migrate to an industrialized country to Ethiopia or Bangladesh” (Birdsall 2003).
find work.  Anti-globalists believe the result of
Further, some of the allegations made by critics of globalisation is negative, and the inequalities
globalisation are very much in dispute—for example, in the world instead of decreasing, are
that globalisation necessarily leads to growing increasing.
income inequality or harm to the environment. While  A “movement of movements” emerged in the
there are some countries in which economic late 1990s in opposition to neoliberalism, in the
integration has led to increased inequality— form of organizations like WTO. Movements like
China, for instance—there is no worldwide trend. “Battle of Seattle”, aimed to repeal laws and
With regard to the environment, international lack of democratic accountability, protect public
trade and foreign direct investment can provide health, stop the negative impact of globalisation,
less industrialized countries with the incentive to and try to bring the power back to the people
adopt, and the access to, new technologies that again.
may be more ecologically sound. Transnational
 When showing the negative effect of
corporations may also help the environment by
globalisation, it is important to mention that
exporting higher standards and best practices to
today’s “rich countries” were already rich many
less industrialized countries.
years ago (thanks to the industrial revolution). In
Globalisation according to Luke Martell is “the turn, poor countries, (which were poor from the
integration of poor countries into a world economy beginning) did not gain much from it. For anti-
of open competition”. Its process allows hundreds of globalists, the IMF’s neoliberal policies had

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led to greater indebtedness and even greater SAP, the World Bank, and the IMFs strive towards
inequality. They believe that the neoliberal global liberal integration and liberal trade did not
global economy would only be effective and create an effective solution for the Global South
beneficial if everyone was equal (Martell 2017). to get out of poverty and inequality.
 In the 1980s and 1990s, developing countries  Economic globalisation creates massive surpluses
opened and liberalized their markets by creating of labour, thereby increasing unemployment and
reforms, reducing tariff barriers, privatizing their thus marginalizing unskilled workers (Friman;
economies, and, after time, opening up capital Kaplinsky).
markets. This opportunity to put neoliberal
policies into practice within developing countries
had a huge impact on them and led to sudden GLOBALISATION & HUMAN WELFARE
increase in interest rates. IN DEVELOPING SOCIETIES
 The way in which poorer countries have become
included in world trade has led to the Debt Crisis  Barbieri & Reuveny have noted that increasingly
of the 1980s which played another significant globalised economies face more competition
role when it comes to poverty in the Global and as a result, greater urgency and value is put
South (Martell 2017). on education. Tsai, after conducting empirical
 The IMF’s structural adjustments, loans under studies, has determined that globalisation is
special conditions, aimed to help fight the capable of producing and does produce those
debt crisis and restructure their economies. The things that benefit societies in Developing
neo-liberal policies created a situation where Countries. Tsai determines the presence of
organizations and rich countries provided more capital as having a positive effect on
financial support to poor countries in order to the human development index. Availability
stimulate development (Martell 2017). of more money strengthens the state
while allowing it to engage in more social
 The Structural Adjustment Policies, in fact, led
spending.
to poor, negative growth, a dramatic increase
in external debt, decrease of exports and, in  Figini & Santarelli have found that larger
the end, doubled poverty. The Washington public sectors, denoting greater government
Consensus, its numerous problematic reforms engagement and entailing larger revenues, are
that were implemented in Latin America and also linked to lower levels of absolute poverty.
other countries of The Global South did not Figini & Santarelli found no connection linking
produce the expected effect. financial openness with increasing levels of
 According to Joseph Stiglitz, globalisation and absolute poverty and that trade openness in
more specifically the Washington Consensus fact decreases absolute poverty.
lacked attention to governance and did not  Tsai notes instead that deepening the connections
adequately consider the impact of economic between states improves social and economic
policies on the state and its role, thus failing to conditions and the stability of both while also
address both poverty and inequality. mentioning the converse, that poor economic
 The companies of rich countries in fact benefited development results in limited social spending.
from it because of the easing of tariffs. As well, her research has pointed towards
 Globalist views that Globalization allows fast- alternative causes for these concerns. Of note,
fashion company owners becoming millionaires, she highlights high levels of population growth
while the women working in the factories earn as having negative consequences on the human
3 dollars per 10 hours every day, without any development index. She also interestingly draws
rights, displays inequality. The women working attention to a by-product of increased economic
in fast fashion live on low wages, under unsafe linkages that bear benefit for society. Most
conditions and harassment. Not only do they deserving of recognition is the accompanying
receive less pay than male employees, but they political globalisation that occurs, facilitated by
also are not allowed to ask for more rights or economic globalisation.
better working conditions.  Another benefit of engaging in economic
 As Hans Rosling once said, globalisation is often globalisation is the induction of Developing
accused of the creation of “the West and the Countries into the international community.
rest”. On the whole, The Washington Consensus, Inclusion in the affairs of developed countries

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allows Developing Countries to reap the Developing Countries can obtain these necessary
inevitable gains that the Trickle-Down theory tools for progress and make them available for
predicts; the greater their inclusion, in turn their own populations.
affected by the openness and willingness of  An enlarging wealth of knowledge would translate
Developing Countries to economic integration into higher standards for public education and,
as well as their actual engagement, the greater as aforementioned, economic globalisation will
their gains. increase economic competition, thus increasing
 Developed countries possess the means to assist the value placed on education.
Developing Countries in emerging from the “Third  A better educated labour force would then
World” and this is most easily and effectively make it more plausible for a country to adopt
facilitated by economic globalisation. As the more sophisticated technology and expand its
“vast majority of financing for development economy to include services requiring more
comes not from aid, but from trade and skill.
domestic capital and foreign investment,” (Li
 As well, associations with developed countries, the
& Schaub).
strongest of which being democratic countries,
 Other means by which increased globalised will also lead to a diffusion of democratic ideals,
economic activity aids societies in Developing thus catalyzing democratization in Developing
Countries are through the prior experiences Countries. According to studies by Li &
that are available from developed countries. Reuveny, increased foreign direct investment
Developed countries possess not only money, has a positive effect on the development of
but knowledge and technology. From them, democracy.

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Chapter - 4.3

Impact Of Globalisation On Developed

Countries

Globalisation brings reorganization at the international, evidence indicates that there is a positive growth-
national, and sub-national levels. Specifically, it effect in countries that are sufficiently rich, as are
brings the reorganization of production, international most of the developed nations.
trade, and the integration of financial markets. This
 The World Bank reports that integration with
affects capitalist economic and social relations, via
global capital markets can lead to disastrous
multilateralism and microeconomic phenomena,
effects, without sound domestic financial
such as business competitiveness, at the global level.
systems in place. Furthermore, globalised
The transformation of production systems affects the
countries have lower increases in government
class structure, the labour process, the application
outlays and taxes, and lower levels of corruption
of technology and the structure and organization of
in their governments.
capital. Globalisation is now seen as marginalizing
the less educated and low-skilled workers.  One of the potential benefits of globalisation
Business expansion will no longer automatically is to provide opportunities for reducing
imply increased employment. Additionally, it can macroeconomic volatility on output and
cause high remuneration of capital, due to its higher consumption via diversification of risk.
mobility compared to labour.  Non-economists and the wide public expect the
costs associated with globalisation to outweigh
Beneficial Effects the benefits, especially in the short run. Less
 Some economists have a positive outlook wealthy countries from those among the
regarding the net effects of globalisation industrialized nations may not have the same
on economic growth. These effects have been highly accentuated beneficial effect from
analyzed over the years by several studies globalisation as more wealthy countries,
.These studies examined the effects of several measured by GDP per capita etc.
components of globalization on growth  Although free trade increases opportunities
using time series cross sectional data on trade, for international trade, it also increases the
FDI and portfolio investment. risk of failure for smaller companies that
 Trade among nations via the use of comparative cannot compete globally. Additionally, free
advantage promotes growth, which is attributed trade may drive up production and labour
to a strong correlation between the openness to costs, including higher wages for more
trade flows and the effect on economic growth skilled workforce, which again can lead to
and economic performance. outsourcing of jobs from countries with
higher wages.
 Foreign Direct Investment’s impact on economic
growth has had a positive growth effect in  Domestic industries in some countries may be
wealthy countries and an increase in trade and endangered due to comparative or absolute
FDI, resulting in higher growth rates. Further advantage of other countries in specific industries.

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 Another possible danger and harmful effect are the Political Consequences
overuse and abuse of natural resources to meet
new higher demands in the production of goods.  Referendum in Britain on Brexit first sign of
discontent.
 In developed countries like the US and Japan
 Election of Trump campaigned against openness
output increased but employment stagnated
of trade and immigration reflect it casually.
with monetary easing for longer duration and
fiscal stimulus given. However, the EU went for a  Far right gained prominence in Austria, Italy,
reduced fiscal deficit solution and increased level Poland, Denmark, Sweden are emerging.
of unemployment.  Political Mobilization of economic discontent
reinforced majoritarian nationalism seeking to
“exclude the other”

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Chapter - 4.4

The Response of Developing and

Underdevloped Countries Towards
Globalisation

 The current process of globalisation in terms adverse consequences. In respect of the adverse
of its accent is more towards integration of effects of the current economic globalisation,
national economies across the world, especially many of the developing countries are engaging
integrating their systems of production and their attention on reforming, to the extent
finance. This process is driven by a package of possible, the international trading and financial
policies unleashed by the industrially advanced institutions to cater to their critical Economic
countries seeking liberalization of trade and needs.
investment of capital across the world.  Leading among these are countries such as India
 The impact of the current process of globalisation which have taken initiatives to re-examine the
is extremely uneven, both within and between evolving rules of the WTO in respect of issues.
nations. Consequently, it has resulted in rising Such as intellectual property rights, anti-dumping
income inequalities within as well as between restrictions, subsidies to Agriculture and other
countries. countervailing measures.
 The less developed countries experience a more  Another concern relates to enlarging the
skewed income distribution which is attributed developing countries, market access in the
largely to shifts in labour demand. It has also industrially advanced countries of the world.
led to greater polarization across countries Cumulatively their demands are in respect
because technology – the prime factor of expanding their access to international
responsible for economic globalisation still trade through seeking lowering of tariff, and
remains concentrated with already industrially exemptions on a number of non-tariff barriers.
advanced countries.  In this connection, mention may be made of the
 Most of the policy concerns of the less less developed countries seeking support in the
developed countries are largely a response WTO to seek Revision in the standards of sanitary
to the structural divide between them and the and phytol-sanitary requirements regarding their
industrially advanced countries. Some among exports especially towards the European Union.
the less developed countries feel that the current The less developed countries are also making
globalisation process has led to the worsening of demands in respect of issues relating to foreign
structural poverty in many countries. direct investment.
 Keeping in view the adverse impact of economic  The highly indebted poor countries are seeking
globalisation and the constraints in which the methods that would minimize their debt burdens.
less developed countries are placed, most of They are demanding debt relief measures that
these countries are engaged in devising policy would help reduce the levels of poverty and
measures which aim at engaging with the process economic hardships in their domestic economy.
of globalisation effectively.  Also, they are also making efforts that would
 Policy decisions are being aimed at developing bring about an increasing rate of flow of private
countries having access to the positive benefits of foreign direct investment in order to meet their
globalisation and at the same time avoiding the current economic needs.

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IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON THE protecting role internally in facing the problems

INTERNAL FUNCTIONING OF THE that globalisation has caused, but also from an
authoritative to a dependent figure externally
STATE between the sovereign state age to current
unfailing interdependence.
 Agents of globalisation have been MNCs,
 Globalisation is often seen to have lowered
NGOs, civil society networks which impact the
the importance of the state, but in the end, the
Westphalian state. states that will remain the most successful in the
 Joseph Nye suggests MNCs have exerted face of globalisation are those who adapt to the
direct, indirect, and unintended direct changes their role makes. In the words attributed
pressures on sovereign governments. This to Charles Darwin , ‘It is not the strongest
had led to loss of States control over currency of the species that survives, nor the most
& foreign trade. Neoliberalism with its export intelligent, but rather the one most responsive
led models has changed the economic agenda to change.’
of States.
Justification of Globalization : Key
 P.J. Simmons points that NGOs affect the
domestic and foreign policies of governments, Arguments
by setting the agenda, negotiating outcomes, The era of globalisation is opening many opportunities
and conferring legitimacy. Developing states for millions of people around the world. Increased
have often taken these advocacy groups as the trade, new technologies, foreign investments,
agents of Western governments. expanding media and Internet connections are fueling
 There is also a rise of non-state actors (e.g., economic growth and human advance. All these
terrorist groups) who create security dilemma offers enormous potential to eradicate poverty in the
in sovereign actors and impact larger domestic twenty-first century. As tariff and other barriers are
policies. E.g., terrorist attacks lead to withdrawal being lowered, trade is expanding. Thus, globalisation
of FDI. Civil society networks too have increased is turning the whole world into a common village.
due to the internet and rapid transportation. Hence, it has opened up new opportunities for
Globalisation is said to have forced states to developed as well as developing countries. Explaining
enter into post-sovereign governance. Thus, pointwise, globalisation may be justified on the
individual sovereign regulation is being following grounds :
difficult (soft underbelly of globalisation) -  Globalisation aims to achieve free trade between
Dani the economies.
 National economies have had a downturn due  It allows no restriction in the form of licenses and
to the global economy’s development and controls in taking up any industrial activity.
strengthening interstate relations. Brown and  It allows multinationals to have free access to
Ainley say that ‘when what was being produced investment in enterprises to enable the natural
was things, where they were produced was flow of capital and technology.
crucial and one could possibly think about
a national economy’ but now much of the  It allows no curb on imports and exports.
economy is tied up in intangible assets or goods  It advocates that the customs and tariff should
are imported, therefore not helping our own be based on a sound rationale to encourage free
state’s national economies. The state no longer international trade.
controls currency because of intangible assets  It advocates an enormous increase in direct
and importation as well as online and electronic investment.
banking and a shared currency between many
 It advocates growth of organization and
states, like in much of Europe (Baylis & Smith).
administrative structures to manage resources
 Globalization has changed the role of the state in and risks across sovereign borders.
many ways: politically through interdependence
and independence of states, socially through  It advocates gains in technology and their
the problems and threats of terrorism and transfer from one economy to another.
deadly diseases, technologically through the  It advocates consumer gains, faster rate of growth,
media and internet and economically through specialization, development of infrastructure,
the change from national to global economies. employment generation and above all availability
The state has moved from a controlling to a of capital at competitive rates

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Criticism that the nation-state will evaporate in the course

of time “just as mothball that goes from solid
Globalisation is more criticized in developing countries to gas directly”.
than developed ones. In a developing country like
 Anthony Giddens has felt that “nations have lost
India, the 1990s has seen more retrenchment as firms
the sovereignty they once had, and politicians
downsize or merge to stand the rigors of competition.
have lost their capability to influence events.
This is happening in an environment when Gross
implying that such roles and powers have
Domestic Product (GDP) growth is not generating
been appropriated by forces that are neither
jobs. Trade liberalization has resulted in an increase
nations nor states”.
in cheaper imports which hurt local manufactures.
Further. Globalisation has income levels with the  The countries of the world are not simply
rich getting richer and the poor becoming poorer. interdependent to a large extent but they are
Skeptics doubt that the WTO may not give justice emerging as a single economic system. A large
to the developing countries. Explaining point wise, number of people in the world are no longer
globalisation may be criticized follows: - living in a localized economy; they have become
part of the process where the goods they
 International competition affects domestic
consume and the ideas that influence them, are
industry and leads to unemployment.
multi-sourced.
 Exchange rate may become more volatile due to
 Revolution in telecommunication technology
free flow of capital.
and improved worldwide transportation system
 National resources of developing countries may have helped them to overcome physical and
be exhausted. psychological barriers. Therefore, as Shimko says,
 Global happenings directly affect a country’s “tyranny of location has been done away with as it
economy on account of interdependence of is today cheaper, faster, and easier to move goods,
economies. money, production units and (outsource) people
and jobs from one end of the world to another.
 Globalisation may adversely affect the social,
The state has not much to do with this process as
political, and cultural life of the people of the
organisers and participants are private entities.”
country.
 Mobility of capital on which states do not
 It affects the economic sovereignty of a nation.
have much control has facilitated the process
 The developing states are compelled to be further. In this way, as Shimko points out,
guided by international agencies, like the IMF, “when corporations enjoy this sort of freedom,
World Bank, and the WTO etc. the relative power between governments and
 Globalisation affects local security measures and businesses shifts”. Mobility of capital has enabled
leaves the individual to his lot. businesses to be mobile and go anywhere in the
world where the climate is friendly and profit
 Under globalisation, health and education
margins are more.
become more expensive and they are available
to the rich only.  Irrespective of the fact, whether any
government would like businesses to be
located in their territory, it is on the contrary
IS THE NATION STATE STILL RELEVANT prerogative of the businesses where to
AFTER GLOBALISATION? drop anchor. Therefore, it is viewed that
“businesses are regulating governments” and
According to Omahe, traditional forms of economic not the other way around.
sovereignty over people and regions lying within  Shimko further states that it is no longer
an enclosed geographical area has come to be democratically elected governments which
challenged by the increasing takeover of economic decide the levels of taxes, rather the people who
enterprise and activities by transnational direct the flow of capital and goods themselves
companies who operate from different parts of the establish what contribution they wish to make
world and maintain a global perspective and have to the state expenditure. A business-unfriendly
global outreach. And as such, an accurate national state which may witness “capital flight” from
label cannot be attached to them. its soil, may, in fact, allow businesses to almost
 Omahe’s views have been echoed by scholars dictate what policies, regulations and tax levels
like Nicholas Negropontt who has predicted governments can impose. In this way, this

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shifting of power from the state to a “mobile  Nation states continue to exist along with
capital” has come to not only threaten the nationalistic fervour of their governments and
sovereignty of the state but has questioned people. Nation states have not surrendered
the need of the state itself. themselves to the demands of global economic
and financial force but have conceded
 Everything else being constant, corporations
some autonomy of action to them. It is still
and investors will always prefer to locate their
the nation states that negotiate international
businesses to where the production costs are
bilateral and multilateral agreements and set
the least and profits more. This is “race to
terms and conditions for FDI and FIl investments
the bottom” and it has aroused concerns and operations in its economy and provide a
regarding, one, erosion of state’s power and legal framework for their functioning within their
ability to pursue independently determined territories.
policies; two, that globalization will always
work to the disadvantage of the working  The very fact that the “ease of doing business”
index exists demonstrates that businesses still
class, the poor or the marginalized as due to
have to contend with states, their bureaucracy
intense competition their wages will remain
and local resistance to enter the nations’
depressed, and a neo-liberal state will always
markets. The flow of capital too is not limitlessly
cut social welfare benefits.
unrestricted.
 And lastly, the power of international markets,
 A case in point is India where full FDI in retail and
transnational corporations and international/ insurance sector or free entry and independent
intergovernmental organizations like the IMF operation of foreign universities is yet to be
or the World Bank with their unelected leaders achieved despite India’s WTO commitments.
to shape, influence and even dictate policies to
national governments is seen as a threat to the
fundamental values of democracy). IS GLOBALISATION ESSENTIALLY A
 The Structural Adjustment Programme was PROCESS OF ‘UNIVERSALISATION’ OF
initiated by the IMF as a condition primarily CAPITALIST MODERNITY?
directed towards the developing countries to
qualify for availing loans is a case in point. These Anthony Giddens describes globalisation as
measures amount to slashing social welfare “worldwide intensification of human social
spending by the state, elimination of deficit relationships in such a way that far off events are
spending, large scale privatization of economic influenced by near things and vice-versa.”
activity and opening up of markets to free foreign Argument in favour for “Universalization of
investments. The States are expected to comply. capitalist modernity”
 “Neo liberal consensus” and TINA factor (there
COUNTER ARGUMENTS is no alternative) has been widely accepted.
 Nearly all states follow an international free
 All said and done, the question remains whether trade-based system.
the world has truly become borderless, or it is an  Widespread Acceptance of the nature of
imaginary situation that exists only in a virtual democracy and human rights.
manner. Skeptics have always doubted the
 Theories like “Global village” (Marshall
“end of the state” thesis. So far as economic
Mcluhan), End of history (Francis Fukuyama),
activities are concerned, a lot of things can
End of ideology (Daniel Bell) also support this
take place in the virtual domain by the use
hypothesis.
of the internet, mobile telephony or satellite
communication and facilitated by improved  Atomistic individualism, consumerism, narrow
transportation. utilitarianism etc. all these liberal values becoming
the norm of the day.
 Yet for all practical purposes, the essential
framework of the Westphalian model of state However, in this context Saurabh Mishra
and its sovereignty have not been dislodged.
says
It cannot be as long as states remain exclusive
geographically and politically recognizable units.  If we take globalisation as the expansion of the
Despite politics having become “global”, its core culture of ‘capitalist modernity’, it is a partial and
character still remains “international”. skewed view of globalisation. The same carriers

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of ‘globalisation’ – revolution in transportation

and communication – helping the expansion strategy, not as a task to undertake at a later
of ‘capitalist modernity’ have helped the date.
‘postmodern cultures of resistance’ to become  Put simply, globalisation is a process used
popular and hold ground worldwide. The same by a company to bring its business to new
tools have helped create new divisions on ethnic locales, whereas internationalization refers
and religious lines, the recent example being the to the act of designing a product or service
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). in a way that makes the expansion into
 Spread of religion in pre-modern times had international markets a simpler process.
been a great expression of globalisation. The
spread of ‘communist modernity’ (antithetical Localization
to capitalist modernity) in history has also been
 Localization is the process of adapting a
a process and part of globalisation.
product to a specific target market. This
 Globalisation has created both cooperation usually happens after internationalization
and conflict. Therefore, calling globalisation as has taken place. Where internationalization
essentially a “process of ‘universalization’ of develops a product that’s easy to adapt
capitalist modernity” is a simplistic, superficial, for many audiences in many different
and partial understanding of a holistic countries, localization takes that product
phenomenon in which numerous processes and makes it highly relevant for one
including the ‘universalization’ of capitalist specific market.
modernity become a subset, involved in the  As mentioned, McDonald’s operates over
unfolding dialectics of the whole. Rise of Political 30,000 restaurants in 100 countries. Its
Islam, ethnic conflict, Neo-Fascist forces shows worldwide expansion is an example of
challenge to capitalist modernity. globalisation. By design, the corporation
 Hence, globalisation to a certain extent has creates a menu adaptable to various local
promoted capitalist modernity, however it itself tastes and customs. This policy is an example
has been shaped by numerous different regional of internationalization.
and social forces.  Many of the McDonald’s restaurants in
Israel serve kosher food and drink and close
Globalization & Internationalisation: during the Sabbath and Jewish holidays.
What Role Does Each Play? McDonald’s has also opened a meat-free
restaurant in India, a country in which much
 Internationalization falls under the general of the population does not eat beef or pork.
umbrella of globalisation, as does localization. In both cases, McDonald’s has maintained its
The process of internationalization helps to global brand identity but tailored its products
adapt a product to a specific market easily. and services for local markets. These cases
Internationalization is a strategy used exemplify localization.
in business to make a product or service
adaptable so that entering different
Global Village and its Characteristics
national markets is more seamless.
 In order to go about the internationalization The term Global Village was coined by Marshall
process properly, subject-matter experts, McLuhan in the early 1960s. Marshall McLuhan was
technical experts, or people with a level of a Canadian philosopher who studied media theory.
international experience may be called upon. This concept means that our rural villages are no
In general, any products intended for use by longer separate entities, but interconnected parts
of a large community where knowledge, culture,
consumers across multiple languages will
and even languages and lifestyles have merged
undergo the internationalization process.
into one. The world has become a global village
 When it comes to differentiating between in more ways than one.
globalisation and internationalization, it is
 If we talk about the technological progress
important to remember that internationalization in the world, we can say that the world has
is covered under the umbrella of globalisation. become a global village through the World
Internationalization is typically viewed as a Wide Web revolution.

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 It’s made it possible to connect people  Although the global village harness such
regardless of their geographical location. contemporary characteristics and modality
 The global village isn’t limited to just one media as the internet, world wide web, public
technology but also includes social media. opinion, and social platforms to enhance
 Social media allows us to connect with other the information exchange, as McLuhan
people regardless of their geographical and Dixon highlights, the global village
location. will eventually create divide amongst each
culture due to such media modalities and
 One can use social media platforms to interact
contemporary characteristics that create
with people around the world and discuss
various topics, from politics and sports to cultural domination.
music and movies.  Similar theories like “Borders world “
 It won’t be long before we feel that people in (Kenichi Ohmae) have gained transactions.
other parts of the world are our neighbours. However, the rise of nationalist, populist
forces and events like Covid, Brexit etc.,
 The modern global village has transitioned
into an informative world wherein media shows that the concept of “Westphalian
controls platforms for instantaneous sovereignty” and national borders are still
information sharing from all regions of the strong.
world in an ever-growing expansion. Dixon
(2009) highlights this characteristic of the
global village “This phenomenon of the Globalisation 4.0
world shrinking and expanding at the
same time due to persuasive technological  Globalisation 4.0 was the theme for World
advances that allow for instantaneous Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2019 held
sharing of culture.” in Davos, Switzerland in January 2019.
 However, this high-volume information  Under the rubric of Globalisation 4.0, a series
exchange in the modern global village was of "Global Dialogues" in Davos focused on
predicted by McLuhan to also be the demise the interrelated areas namely geopolitics,
of the great information age, “The Global
future of global economy, global dialogue on
Village ensures for maximal disagreement
industry systems etc.
on all points because it creates more
division and diversity under the increase  Globalisation is a phenomenon driven by
of the village conditions.” (McLuhan & technology and the movement of ideas,
Michel) people, and goods.
 For all cultures to become one in the global  Globalisation 4.0 is the latest stage of
village is a controversial assumption as
globalisation which involves cutting-edge
McLuhan highlights, equal representation,
reciprocal sharing, enriched diversity, and new technologies like artificial intelligence
mutual understanding all condemn the global that powers forward with the explosion of
village with its contemporary characteristics information technology.
and modalities of media as one sided in the  These technologies shrink distances, open
form of Western culture, with third world
up borders and minds and bring people all
countries unable to have the possibility of
such information exchange. across the globe closer together

 “People are afraid that the evolution of a Timeline: Earlier Waves of Globalization
global village will raise conflicts between
cultures, cause a fragmentation of culture,
 Globalisation 1.0
or lead to cultural domination by more
developed countries and possibly create  It was pre-World War I globalisation,
hybrid cultures.” (Dixon)
which was launched by a historic drop
 The global village could possibly be a divide in trade costs.
between cultures with the information
exchange as Dixon highlights as modality  This globalisation came with almost no
media becomes an option of exclusivity government support.
for some cultures above others.  There was no global governance.

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 Globalisation 2.0 based industry to a process which is

the combination of human beings and
 It is the post-World War II phase where electronics. It includes cyber-physical
trade in goods was combined with systems, the Internet of things, big data
complimentary domestic policies. analytics, cloud computing, cognitive
 The market was in charge of efficiency computing, artificial intelligence, 3-D
while the government was in charge printing, and autonomous vehicles etc.
of justice.
 Challenges of Globalisation 4.0
 It saw the establishment of institute-
based, rule-based international  Political crisis and Global level
governance, specifically the UN, IMF, conflict: Globalisation 4.0 could, like
World Bank, GATT/WTO, International preceding waves of globalisation, have
Labor Organization etc. mixed results e.g., even though countries
are globally connected political crisis and
 Globalisation 3.0 global level conflict have also increased.

 It created a new world of manufacturing  Economic exclusion: Economic

in which high-tech was combined with opportunities will be uncertain; many
low wages. may not have the skills needed for the
jobs of the future. If countries and
 This was achieved through establishment communities are not fully prepared
of global supply chains as factories for Globalization 4.0, problems may
crossed international borders. exacerbate.
 It was variously called New Globalization,  Income Inequality: Negative effects of
Hyper globalisation, Global value globalisation have a disproportionate
chain evolution. impact on already marginalized
populations. Globalisation 4.0 may
 Characteristics of 4.0 increase income inequality even if it
can create more wealth.
 Major turbulence for Service
Sector: While Globalization 1.0, 2.0 and  Human Resource: Countries like India,
3.0 were mainly a concern of people if do not step up to meet the skill
who made/manufactured products for requirements of globalisation 4.0, may
a living (since globalisation focused on already be staring at demographic
things that we made), Globalization 4.0 disaster, given its huge population and
is going to hit people in the service low employment generation.
sector  Unintended consequences: Globalisation
 Closely integrated with Industry 4.0: 4.0 in conjunction with Industry 4.0 will
Ever-faster data connection speeds produce many unintended consequences
and new artificial intelligence tools which may not be foreseeable for now and
like machine translation, big data are for which world is vastly unprepared the
opening up services jobs in rich ethical, legal, environmental concerns are
countries like architecture, accounting, yet to be seen for which no framework has
and web design to competition from been laid out.
practitioners in emerging economies.
 Infrastructural challenges: Apart
 Newer modes of Migration: Due to from skilling, India also needs to set up
faster data connection as well as nature required infrastructure and technology to
of work which may involve no physical harness the advantages of globalisation
presence there may be a global 4.0.
tele-migration in which the skilled  Challenges for Developing countries:
migrants never have to leave home. The European continent, North America
 Industry 4.0 : Building on the foundation and some Asian countries have been
given by the Third Industrial Revolution, able to take advantage of the industrial
Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry revolution and globalisation, while many
4.0) is moving from an electronic African, Latin American and some Asian

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countries failed to benefit as much.  Stop climate change: The challenges of

Globalisation 4.0 will create additional Globalisation 4.0 will be compounded
challenges for many African and Asian if resources that could be put towards
nations which were already excluded strengthening local economies and education
from the benefits of earlier waves of are diverted to mitigate climate change.
globalisation. Thus, climate change needs to be dealt with
at global level.
Way Forward  Promote Innovation in educational institution
 Invest in strengthening local and regional and education curriculum:
economies: We should proactively build  By 2022, at least 54% of employees
resilient local and regional systems that can globally will require re- and up-
participate in the next wave of globalisation, skilling.
making sure regions have the right mix of  Not only do we need to support people
education, employment, and infrastructure in getting the training they need for jobs
to create and sustain jobs locally. in the next five years, but we need to
 Prioritizing sustainability and prepare young students with the skills to
Inclusiveness: The need of the hour is to adapt to the types of jobs we will need in
design a blueprint from the ground up that the next 20 years.
can capitalize on new opportunities while  New Zealand is implementing a
prioritizing sustainability and inclusiveness national technology curriculum to teach
more than ever before. students to be digital creators, as well as
 Focus on the most vulnerable consumers.
populations: Global and local institutions  Engagement and imagination: The task
need to advance both universal and targeted of dealing with challenges of Globalisation
strategies to improve outcomes for everyone 4.0 requires two things of the international
ensuring vulnerable population is not left community: wider engagement, participation,
out. and heightened imagination.

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Chapter - 4.5

Globalisation and Human Rights

 The world’s inequalities are constantly growing  Civil, political, economic, social, and cultural
millions of people continue to suffer from human rights establish the right of all people to
forced evictions, inadequate access to education determine their own lives free from oppression
and basic health treatment and appalling and cruelty, social want, despotism, exclusion,
working conditions. Economic actors, especially and exploitation. States and the international
multinational corporations, have acquired community have a duty to respect, protect and
increased power in the past decades. guarantee human rights. That means they also
 Liberalization of trade and investment flows, have to keep an eye out for situations in which
protection granted to foreign investors, the private companies or other actors stand in
high degree of dependency between the world’s violation of these rights. They also have a duty to
economies but also foreign debt and policies guarantee particularly disadvantaged groups are
of international financial institutions have guaranteed their human rights, using whatever
restrained the ability of States to uphold their
resources necessary. In an age of globalization
human rights obligations.
there are, however, an increasing number of
 Human rights defenders and those participating situations in which human rights fall by the
in protests denouncing corporate abuse are being wayside.
increasingly targeted. Communities struggle
to obtain justice for violations of economic,  International contracts as an obstacle :
social, and cultural rights, even more so International contracts may prevent states from
when involving multinational companies that taking the measures necessary to implement
operate across national borders. a right. One example was the government
 There are several gaps in the international getting around patent protection for HIV/AIDS
human rights framework to prevent, sanction medication by issuing licenses to produce
and remedy abuses caused by the activities of cheaper generic products.
business enterprises. Access to justice remains  International organizations can also prevent
particularly difficult for the majority of victims. states from taking the political measures
 Human rights came into being as a form of necessary to ensure rights. Indebted developing
protection against an overpowering state and countries are a case in point. Pointing to
were ultimately adopted in 1948 in the Universal reasons of cost efficiency, the World Bank
Declaration of Human Rights. Human rights and the International Monetary Fund advised
protect the dignity of every individual against a these countries to dismantle their state
state that has gained or taken too much power infrastructure for rural development and
and which tortures or arrests people, makes them
open markets to import food instead.
disappear, discriminates against them on the
basis of their background, skin color, gender,  Direct investment as an obstacle : Private
sexual orientation etc., does not allow them to companies often have the upper hand when it
work, or makes it harder for them to access land comes to foreign direct investment, and most
or credit because they belong to the “wrong” sex investments are only made if they are “investor
or the “wrong” population group. friendly.” In practice that can mean that employee

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rights or protection from forced displacement fall  Kofi Annan, attempted to point to the meaning
by the wayside. For example, thousands of families of human rights for economic actors in 2000 by
are forcibly resettled by mining companies, setting up the “Global Compact,” although it,
especially by those that work in mountaintop too, is falling short of its goals.
removal. Often this is done without adequate
 Extra-territorial state obligations : But whether
compensation. Trade unions and those affected
human rights are respected, protected, and
are rarely able to improve unfair or unsafe labour
guaranteed continues to be largely dependent on
conditions because international companies
are rarely brought to justice in national courts. NGOs, skilled lawyers and human rights activists
Local or regional governments and monitoring making the problems public. That cannot be the
bodies are often tainted by corruption and do only solution. But neither is making voluntary
not pursue reports of abuse. instruments responsible for implementing
economic, social, and cultural human rights.
 Subsidies as an obstacle : Tax law in one
country can have human rights consequences  In order to close these human rights gaps,
on another continent. In recent years, several rules concerning so-called extraterritorial state
NGOs have pointed to the huge impact that both obligations are increasingly necessary. In the
the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy end, all countries ultimately have a duty to make
and the European fisheries policy have had on sure that their conduct - and that includes trade
markets, working conditions, and living conditions and dealings with international organizations like
in West Africa. European imports of chicken made the World Bank - conforms to accepted human
cheap by subsidies, and Europe’s overfishing of rights standards.
its coasts have indirectly contributed to increasing
Richard Falk has spoken of two trends in the
poverty and hunger among certain population
globalisation process:
groups. This constitutes a violation of the right to
food but the governments of countries in West  Globalization-from-above: This involves
Africa lack the power to influence its causes in any economic and political collaboration among
significant way. state actors and agents of capital formation such
 Weak states as an obstacle : The situation can as financial and corporate agents-the World
become particularly problematic for people if Bank, International Monetary Fund, transnational
their national government is barely functioning. corporations, etc. Such collaboration has led
If it is too weak to control or direct international to the institutionalization of such policies and
influences, human dignity falls by the wayside. In strategies which have impacted negatively on
the case of “failed states” and countries embroiled local people’s cultures and economies.
in civil war, the responsibility for standards  ‘Globalization from below’: This refers to
in mines and on plantations tends to lie with social, political, and cultural collaboration among
companies which have operations there. Congo local, national, and international agencies such
is a case in point. Important precious metals are as the United Nations and non-governmental
mined under horrible conditions there. But these organizations.
precious metals come to Europe, where they are
used in the manufacture of mobile phones and Both these levels of globalization are significant. Today
other electronics. international human rights and the phenomenon of
globalization have created an environment that puts
 Numerous examples show that, in the age of
pressure on states to respect constitutional rights and
globalization, a gap is opening when it comes
international human rights, both by state and private
to protecting human rights. This gap could
be closed if international law could bring the actors.
actors to justice. But that is not yet the case. The The globalisation of human rights has been a
victims of human rights abuses rarely sue those revolutionary development in contemporary times.
responsible for the violations and are almost Herbert Morais argues that ‘the formidable body
never compensated. of international conventions and declarations can
 Human rights activists, politicians, and academics truly be said to have finally elevated individuals
all over the world are now calling for private actors to the status of subjects of international law,
to respect and protect human rights in their fields whose human rights are entitled to full protection
of responsibility. Through their campaign work, under both national and international law. Such a
non-governmental organizations are bringing globalised world has manifested itself in a variety of
more and more cases to public attention. ways:

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 The Communist regimes in the former Soviet The positive optimistic model:
Union and Eastern Europe have been replaced
by democratic regimes, with respect for rule  The focus here is on how globalisation might
of law and human rights. These have paved result in economic development and, hence,
the way for free market systems, leading to a better protection of civil, political, and economic
greater recognition of the dignity and rights of rights. The assertion here is that globalisation
individuals. results in the creation of new opportunities for
 The rise of multinational corporations have given growth and development. This is the engine of
private economic actors the possibility to partake development, model.
in the promotion of human rights through their
 David Lerner argued that multinational
investments and operations worldwide. This has
investment, as an engine of economic
also given rise to the rise of various human rights
organizations. development, promotes economic rights
through investment and job creation, and
 Technological globalisation, especially the
civil and political rights through the creation
internet; has; increased the power of the human
of a stable and tolerant environment.
world over. This prevents states from concealing
their human rights violations.  The positive relationship model also argues
 A major factor in the promotion of human rights that nothing needs to be done by social actors
the world over has been the emergence of to promote human rights. Rather, human
human rights NGOs, like Amnesty International, rights will emerge as it were, as societies
Human Rights Watch, Doctors Without Borders, globalise. This is a reference to the trickle-
Asia Watch, etc. down wealth creation model.
 David Held perceives human rights as the  Another dimension of the optimistic model
rights of individuals. Such a perception of draws the link between globalisation and human
Rights itself is contested by many Asian rights, by highlighting the intervening variables
and African scholars, who emphasize the between wealth and human rights. Globalisation
collective rights of individuals and their opens up markets. Markets are the basis of the
responsibilities, over individual human liberal economic order. The liberal economy
rights of western conventions.
is the basis of democracy; and democracy is
 He argues that there would be less resistance the basis of human rights.
to the discourse on human rights if the
developing world has a greater say in the The negative model:
farming and process of global governance.
In this case, rights would no longer be  It focuses on how globalisation could result
perceived as a means of gaining socio- in under-development, de-development, and
economic dominance, but they would lesser protection of human rights. Critics of
rather have universal legitimacy. This globalisation posit an opposite model of the
is because the rights to health, welfare, relationship between globalisation and human
freedom of cultural expression; freedom
rights.
of association and information, right to
participation in public deliberation and  Hence the argument being made is that
elections, etc. are rights which are of globalisation of capitalism may not result in
direct concern to the Third World. Human globalisation of democracy and civil, economic,
rights cannot be taken as established and and political rights: Hence citizens are more likely
it calls for a democratic discussion and a to enjoy their human rights, if they live in a locally,
cosmopolitan approach. rather than globally controlled environment.
 Joseph Stiglitz for example is critical of the way
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLOBALISATION the International Monetary Fund (IMF) encourages
AND HUMAN RIGHTS: THE LARGER hot money; investments, often disregarding the
DEBATE national economic goals. Scholars have argued
that the trend of globalisation, privatization and
In terms of the impact of globalisation on human deregulation of the economy could be at the
rights, two important dimensions/models can be expense of social and economic rights of the
discussed: citizens and hence could weaken human rights.

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 Moreover, it is argued that the rapid globalisation contributes to building environments in which
of markets increases the gap between the people are better able to pursue a broader range
haves and the have not’s, shields capital and of human rights.”
disenfranchises the masses.
Globalization’s proponents and opponents tend to TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS
exaggerate their respective points of view. A wide- AND HUMAN RIGHTS
ranging approach is perhaps called for, recognizing the
challenges and opportunities that globalisation poses.
 The dawn of the 21st century heralded a new
global concern with the power of the transnational
GLOBALISATION & THE RIGHT TO corporations (TNCs) and their lack of appropriate
DEVELOPMENT legal accountability in the field of human rights.
The reality of economic globalisation has brought
 The right to development has been popularly into focus the role of international financial
perceived as a comprehensive economic, social, institutions and transnational corporations.
cultural and. political process, which aims at the  The need for TNCs to have voluntary international
constant improvement of the well-being of the codes of conduct is considered necessary. Serious
entire population. It is a situation in which all issues/objections have been raised about the extent
human rights and fundamental rights are to which the MNCs and TNCs have abused their
fully realized. patent right, in some cases, to the extent of even for
 Development as a concept entered the human example by denying access to life saving drugs. This
rights perspective through the debate over the has resulted frequently in scenarios where there has
right to development. The United Nations had as been the clash between the right to health and life,
early as 1986 proposed the right to development. and the right of pharmaceutical companies to their
This Declaration defined development as an patent rights.
inalienable right by virtue of which every  The international Labour organization has in
human person and all peoples are entitled recent times been consistently highlighting
to participate in, contribute to and enjoy the need for minimum human right standards
economic, social, cultural and political for TNCs, though the challenge is one of
development, in which human rights and imposition.
fundamental freedoms can be fully realized.
 Human rights violations are now subject to
 Human rights ought to play a larger role in the cosmopolitan publicity in a transnational public
process of development. Its importance has sphere. The multinational corporations and
been brought out by Donnelly by referring to transnational corporations are considered to be
the United Nations Development program’s the symbols of globalisation.
work on human development. “Human rights
 Zygmunt Bauman refers to them as the new
and sustainable development are inextricably
‘absentee landlords’ and foreign investors
linked, only if development is defined to make
without obligations to the local communities in
this relationship reiterative. Sustainable
which they make investments.
human development simply redefines human
rights, along with democracy, peace, and  There are situations when states and TNCs
justice as subsets of development. collude in denying rights to citizens particularly
socio-economic rights. Hence there is the need
 Hence sustainable development is an inalienable
for greater regulation of the transnational
human right by virtue of which every human
financial instructions.
person and all peoples are entitled to participate in,
contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural,  Economic globalisation has led to the emergence
and political development, in which all human rights of new human rights abusers, for which
and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized. contemporary human rights conventions and
 Since the 1990s human rights has come to be institutions may be necessary, but not sufficient.
linked to the good governance agenda. The  The issue of corporate responsibility in
World Bank in one of its important reports protecting human rights has been raised in
brings this out by declaring that “by helping this context. Transnational corporations are
to fight corruption, improve transparency and emphasizing human rights, especially to avoid
accountability in governance, strengthen judicial consumer boycott. This raises issues of rights
systems and modernize financial sectors, the bank and obligations.

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Chapter - 4.6

The Globalisation Debate:

Theoretical Aspects

 The nature and impact of globalisation is the claim that globalisation is exacerbating
subject of profound debate within IPE. The term inequalities and giving rise to a more unequal
globalisation is used to refer to at least four and unjust world.
different sets of forces or processes in the world-  To make sense of these different arguments,
economy. and the evidence adduced to support them, it is
 Internationalization describes the increase in worth thinking about the approaches to IPE for
economic transactions across borders which they help to identify key differences in emphasis
has been taking place since the turn of the which give rise to conflicting interpretations of
century but which some argue has undergone a globalisation.
quantitative leap in recent decades.  For example, sceptics who deny that globalisation
 The technological revolution is a second aspect is transforming world politics tend to focus on the
of globalisation, describing the effect of new ‘internationalization’ element of globalisation. They
electronic communication which permits firms can then draw upon evidence which throws into
doubt whether the number of transactions taking
and other actors to operate globally with much
place among states has indeed risen (UNDP 1997)
less regard for location, distance, and borders.
and make the argument that there is ‘nothing new’
 One effect of the technological revolution is to in the growing interdependence of states.
speed up deterritorialization or reduce the
 By contrast, liberal enthusiasts of globalisation
extent to which territorial distances, borders,
focus on technological Innovation and the non-
and places influence the way people collectively
political ‘objective’ forces which are shrinking the
identify themselves and act and seek political world- economy. They argue that this is creating
voice or recognition. a less political, more efficient, more unified world
 Finally, liberalization describes the policies order.
undertaken by states which have made a new  Those who focus on deterritorialization highlight
global economy possible. This includes both that there is also a negative side to globalisation.
the rules and institutions created by powerful Just as technological innovation permits a more
states to facilitate a new scale of transnational active global civil society, so too it permits the
economic activity in certain sectors (but by growth of an uncivil one. Terrorist networks and
no means all) of the world-economy. It also the growth of transnational crime grow easily and
includes the policies of smaller and less powerful are harder to combat in an era of globalization.
states in the system, which, by liberalizing trade,
 This puts an important caveat on a final argument
investment, and production, have integrated into about globalisation—one which prioritizes the
the world-economy. role powerful states play in shaping the process.
 In IPE several competing claims are made about Focusing on liberalization, several analysts
globalisation. For example, while some scholars highlight the role of powerful states in setting
argue that globalisation is nothing new, the rules of the new globalised international
others posit that globalisation is dramatically economy, and their increasing influence over
diminishing the role of the state. Still others less powerful states. Yet this has two faces.

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 On the one hand, powerful states find it driver seat. It prioritizes market integration
relatively easy to set down rules with little or at the cost of fundamental objectives such as
no consultation with less powerful states. This is shared prosperity and economic security.
as true in the global economy as it has been in
recent years in the US (and selected allies) war  Both economic theory and history suggest this
against terrorism and invasions of Afghanistan model was unsustainable and it has proven
and Iraq. Yet in the latter case, the subsequent so. Market integration was done at the cost
challenge of pacifying weakened states through of domestic disintegration deepening of pre-
military occupation highlights how difficult it existing economic special cultural divides
is even for the most powerful states to control between the winners and losers.
other countries.
 It was predicted in unrealistic expectation
that the regulatory approach of countries with
SCHOLAR’S VIEWS ON GLOBALISATION different models will converge over globalisation.
Complete collapse is unlikely, yet we cannot go
Catherine Mann back to status quo ante. We will have to settle for
 Gains of Globalisation have never been widely thinner model of globalisation leaving scope for
shared. Fewer resources to address risk and nations to rebuild domestic contracts
inequalities. The problem is not too much
globalisation rather too less globalization Abhijeet Banerjee
 Needs to reinvigorate in promote widely  We are at the point of inflection. We could
shared pain and resilience to the downside risk.
globalise more. Political economy has
Nonetheless, the theme of the current age is de-
globalisation and fracturing of integration. peaked but not the economy. In his book co-
authorized with Esther Duflo “Good Economy
 Success of globalisation will hinge on how
for Hard Times” he addressed the constraints
well national economic policies address the
downside Unfortunately present approach on globalisation is the unwillingness to invest in
is retreat from globalisation with regressive really target compensation for losers.
domestic politics rather cham the other way  Banerjee and Duflo argue against the idea that
immigrants’ lower wages and take jobs from
Dani Rodrick
native workers. They also argue that people
 Globalisation took a distinctive turn after the in poverty often make more sound financial
1990s. It was a model which placed MNC in the decisions then is normally attributed to them.

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Chapter - 4.7

Globalization’s Impact on State’s Sovereignty

 The list of threats to state sovereignty often financial markets, of technology and of some
includes global financial flows, multinational manufacturing and services bring with them a
corporations, global media empires, Internet, new set of limitations upon the freedom of action
etc. and international interventions. The of nation states. In addition, the emergence
globalists maintain that state authority is of institutions such as the World Bank, and
greatly weakened by these processes which the International Monetary Fund, involve new
lead to boundary transparency – David. constraints and imperatives.
 Globalisation has led to a decline in the  Globalization and Cultural Sovereignty-
power of national governments to direct Cultural globalizations relates to the the
and influence their economies (especially proliferation of individualised values, originally of
with regard to macroeconomic management); Western origin, to even larger parts of the world
and to determine their political structures. population. These values are expressed in social
There is a strong indication that the impact constitutions that recognize individual rights and
of globalization is most felt through the identities and transnational and international
extent to which politics everywhere are now efforts to protect “human rights.”
essentially market driven.  Membership to an international organization
 It is not that governments are now unable to run has a tremendous impact on the sovereignty
their states, but to survive in office; they must of states. This can be appreciated. The activities
increasingly “manage” national politics in such a of international organizations can have quasi-
way as to adapt them to the pressures of trans- legislative, Administrative and Supervisory,
national market forces. as well as Jurisdictional effects. This hinders
the freedom of member states to act as they
 Globalisation is changing the scope of state please. Transnational Non-governmental
control. The reach of the state has increased in Organizations (NGOs) have much influence
some areas and contracted in others. Monetary over state activities. Such groups prompt
policy is an area where state control has questions about sovereignty because they
contracted. With the exception of Great Britain, appear to threaten the integrity of domestic
the major European states have established decision-making.
a single monetary authority. Along with the
 Due to the internationalization of human
erosion of national currencies, we now see the
rights, a state is no longer free to treat its
erosion of national citizenship – the notion that
nationals and aliens the way it pleases. It must
an individual should be a citizen of one and only
conform to international standards laid down in
one country, and that the state has exclusive
the various human rights treaties, most of which
claims to that person’s loyalty. are now regarded as customary law. Persistent
 Globalization and Economic Sovereignty concentration of sovereignty in international
-Now, shifts in economic activity in say, Japan institutions will eventually lead to a state of
or the United States, are felt in countries all subjugation of political sovereignty to the
over the globe. The internationalization of dictates of the institutions.

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 In political science it is realised to a certain borders of goods, services, capital, knowledge,

degree that the doctrine of national sovereignty and people. It also requires new institutions for
has become old-fashioned (Kissinger). negotiating rules and regulations across international
 State sovereignty and decline debate: borders.
Globalization has an impact on state structure  With globalisation, and the internet, billions of
influencing its different aspects. With technological dollars of investment capital can move around
advancement and worldwide trade, the mobility the globe at the stroke of a key.
of people, capital and goods across national
 Globalisation means increased trade among
boundaries has increased. Discussing declining
nations, as well as increased travel, more world
authority of states Susan Strange argues that
art, music, and literature, and new dimensions of
the polarization of states between those who
economic investment.
retain some control over their destinies and
those who are effectively incapable of exercising  New and different social and cultural forms have
any such control does not add up to a zero- arisen. However, globalisation has also led to
sum game. The diffusion of authority away from increasing disparities of wealth between the rich
national governments has left a yawning hole of and the poor, and this disparity has fostered
non-authority, ungovernance it might be called movements opposing further globalisation.
(Strange).  Globalisation means integration of economies
 Therefore, as has been shown above, since the and societies through cross country flows of
end of World War II the tendency is more clearly information, ideas, technologies, goods, services,
revealed that countries gradually delegate a part capital, finance, and people.
of their sovereignty to the world’s international
 Globalisation has made countries to realize that
organizations.
nations can no longer be cocooned in their
 Even a large portion of sovereignty passes to own cultural or economic nests but invariably
regional associations. And the integration of states be part of the larger picture which takes into
in suprastate economic associations is becoming account the competencies, interests and the
a more important part of globalisation. dependencies of economies worldwide.
 Despite the perceived impacts of globalisation
on sovereignty of states, states appear to be Negative effects of Globalization
stronger and more able to address internal
problems and no leader has lost its state yet to  Digital divide
globalisation.  Natural manure is replaced by synthetic
 Egbert Yan, for example, considers that the state’s fertilizers
ethnical-linguistic, cultural, and social functions  Greater threat of spread of communicable
will increase. That is why it is dangerous to be diseases
in too much of a hurry to bury the nation-state,
 Global recession impact on Indian economy
for a long time it will remain the leading player in
international affairs.  Jobless growth
 Besides, as some scholars fairly point out, the  Westernization: valentine day, clothes (low-waist
abrupt reduction of sovereignty and traditional jeans) (can be – or +) no culture is bad
functions of a state may cause chaos (Utkin).  Threat to traditional knowledge system: Rudraksha
and Basmati rice has highlighted the need for
CONTENT BELOW CAN BE USED FOR protecting the base of its indigenous knowledge
PSIR AND GENERAL STUDIES PAPER-I system
BOTH  Urbanization migration (rural to urban)
 Rise of materialism leads to → Consumerism
Effects Of Globalisation On Indian
Society Positive effects of Globalization

Globalisation thrives on the world’s new,  Cultural interaction has helped to overcome
inexpensive transportation and communication cultural barriers.
facilities. It requires freedom of movement across  Tourism

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 Removal of orthodox obstacles → woman several Asian countries faced economic turmoil in the
empowerment late 1990s, the economic impact was felt in Western
 MNC’s BPO KPO → job creation nations at the corporate and individual levels.

 Human rights issues highlighted Debatable question – Different views on

 Woman empowerment / issues highlighted Globalization
 Gender equality  In Economics we have views on pro-
 Increase competition → good product with globalization by Jagdish Bhagwati etc. who
cheaper rates build on the economic notion that free trade
 Economic development & economic independence helps everybody and lift the poor out of
poverty,
of women → increase in self confidence
 While we have the anti-globalization views -by
Technology is an important cause of the likes of Vandana Shiva, Arundhati Roy,
Globalization etc., who see globalisation as a way for
multinational corporations and multilateral
With the advent of globalisation, a nation’s economy institutions (World Bank, IMF) to change
became more connected with and dependent on those the rules all over the world to ensure better
in other countries around the world. For example, when markets for the rich countries.

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Chapter - 4.8

Challenges of Globalisation and its

Effects In India

India was the main mover of globalisation. The and the internet, international enterprises have
government of India made major modifications in its been able to lower their cost base by establishing
economic policy in 1991 by which it allowed direct outsourced knowledge-worker operations in
foreign investments in the country. As a result of this, India.
globalisation of the Indian Industry occurred at large  The foreign companies brought in highly
scale. In India, economic expansion was observed in advanced technology with them, and this
the nineteenth century due to a major crisis led by made the Indian Industry more technologically
foreign exchange. The liberalization of the domestic advanced. Globalisation in India has been
economy and enhanced incorporation of India with beneficial for companies that have ventured in the
the global economy helped to step up gross domestic Indian market. It is recommended by researchers
product (GDP) growth rates which made it a good that India has to focus on five important areas to
position in global scale. Effects of globalisation in enhance its economic status.
Indian Industry are observed as this process brought
 The areas include technological entrepreneurship,
in large amounts of foreign investments into the
new business openings for small and medium
industry especially in the BPO, pharmaceutical,
enterprises, the importance of quality
petroleum, and manufacturing industries. As a result,
management, new prospects in rural areas and
they boosted the Indian economy quite significantly. privatization of financial institutions.
 Benefits of the effects of globalisation in the
Indian Industry are that many foreign companies
TECHNOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL
set up industries in India, especially in the
pharmaceutical, BPO, petroleum, manufacturing, IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION IN INDIA
and chemical sectors and this helped to offer
great opportunities for employment to Indian  With the process of globalisation, access to
people. television grew from 20% of the urban population
(1991) to 90% of the urban population (2009).
 Also, this helped to reduce the level of
Even in the rural areas satellite television has a
unemployment and poverty in the country. It is
grown-up market. In the cities, Internet facilities
observed that the major force of globalisation
are everywhere and extension of internet facilities
in India has been in the development of
even to rural areas. There is an increase of global
outsourced IT and business process outsourcing
food chain /restaurants in the urban areas of India.
services. Since the last many years, there has
Excessive Multiplex movie halls, big shopping
been an increase of skilled professionals in India
malls and high rise residential are seen in every
employed by both local and foreign companies
city. Entertainment sector in India has a global
to service customers in the US and Europe.
market. After economic liberalization, Bollywood
 These countries take advantage of India’s lower expanded its area and showed a major presence
cost but highly talented and English-speaking in the global scale. The industry began to explore
workforce and utilizes global communications new ways to become more global and modern.
technologies such as voice-over IP (VOIP), email In India, modernity is observed with the West.

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 Therefore, Western philosophy began to be  This reduced the amount of profit of the Indian
incorporated into Bollywood films. As these Industry companies. This happened mainly in
new cultural messages began to reach the the pharmaceutical, manufacturing, chemical,
Indian population, Indian movie goers were and steel industries. The negative Effects of
pushed to re-evaluate their traditional Indian Globalization on Indian Industry are that with
cultural ideology. Bollywood movies are also the coming of technology the number of labors
distributed and accepted at international level. required are decreased and this resulted in
Big international companies (Walt Disney, 20th increasing unemployment especially in the arena
Century Fox, and Columbia Pictures) are investing of the pharmaceutical, chemical, manufacturing,
and cement industries. Some sections of people
in this sector. Famous International brands such
in India that are poor do not benefit from
as Armani, Gucci, Nike, and Omega are also
globalisation. There is an increased gap between
making investments in the Indian market with
rich and poor that leads to some criminal
the changing of fashion statement of Indians.
activities.
 Ethical responsibility of business has been
IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION ON reduced. Another major negative effect of
DIFFERENT SECTORS IN INDIA globalisation in India is that youngsters of India
leaving their studies very early and joining Call
centers to earn fast money reducing their social
 There are immense effects observed in the
life after getting habituated with monotonous
educational sector due to globalisation such
work. There is an increase of every daily usable
as literacy rate becoming high and Foreign
commodity. This has an adverse effect on
Universities collaborating with different Indian cultural aspects. The institution of marriage is
Universities. The Indian educational system faces breaking down at a fast rate. There are more
challenges of globalisation through Information people approaching divorce courts instead of
technology, and it offers opportunities to maintaining marital life. Globalisation has a
evolve new paradigms shifts in developmental considerable impact on the religious situation of
education. The distinction between formal, non- India. Globalisation has brought about raising a
formal and informal education will vanish when population who is agnostic and atheist. People
the move from industrial society to information visiting places of worship are reducing with
society takes place. Globalisation promotes new time. Globalisation has reduced nationalism and
tools and techniques such as E-learning, Flexible patriotism in the country.
learning, Distance Education Programs and
Overseas training.
GLOBALISATION AND THE HUMAN
 It is observed in current Indian society that RIGHTS DEBATE IN INDIA
through globalisation, women have gained
certain opportunities for job options and
In the Indian context the human rights debate has
to recognize women’s rights as a part of
been largely contextualized within the framework of
human rights. Their empowerment has given a post-colonial democracy. Aswini K Ray highlights
considerable opportunities and possibilities many historically inherited structural asymmetries
of improving employment conditions through between the post-colonial Indian state and the
global solidarity and coordination. It is found that western nation-states, as well as their interface,
the growth of computers and other technologies especially with civil society. These asymmetries are
enabled women with better wages, flex timings, the following:
and capacity to negotiate their role and status at
 The disjunction between the relatively modern
home and at corporate level.
post-colonial Indian state and its traditional
 There are some negative impacts of globalization social fabric, which is segmented and stratified
such as this process made disparity between around multiple: ascriptive identities.
rural and urban Indian joblessness, growth of  The second asymmetry: is the inherited duality
slum capitals and threat of terrorist activities. within India’s past- colonial state apparatus
Globalisation increased competition in the between its relatively developed coercive
Indian market between the foreign companies component, like the Police, intelligence
and domestic companies. With the foreign gathering, paramilitary institutions, etc. on the
goods being better than the Indian goods, the one hand; and the weak democratic instruments
consumer preferred to buy the foreign goods. of conflict-resolution on the other.

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 A third important asymmetry has been the The argument being made here is that these
relatively: narrow social base of democratic asymmetries impinging on the political process
consciousness around citizens; s rights because have shaped the operational content of the citizens’
of the specific historical trajectory of India’s rights.
political democracy.

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Chapter - 4.9

Overcoming the Risks and Contradiction

of Globalisation

 Today’s global economy appears driven by cross-border markets have deepened on many
contradictions. Steady growth in much of the fronts, governments continue to use product
developing world – enabled by the opening standards, health and safety regulations, tax
of markets to goods, services, investment, and policies and currency intervention to provide
technology – has lifted hundreds of millions preferential treatment to their own citizens and
of people out of poverty. Yet more than 1.2 companies.
billion people still live in extreme poverty, and
 The result is that the winners and losers from
even the better off have profited unevenly from
globalisation are not necessarily determined
liberalizing markets.
by their skill and national endowments. And
 As the global economy prospered between there appears to be a growing divergence of
the mid-1990s and the late 2000s, the median opportunity between those – such as bankers
income of the ‘upper middle class’, in countries and asset managers – who direct global flows of
as diverse as Argentina, the United States and goods, services and capital and those who are
France, stagnated. The current debates over the objects of this globalisation.
‘inequality’ and ‘exclusion’ imply that while
 Critics argue that the first group gets steadily
the wealthy are able to take full advantage
richer in an open global economy, while the
of an ever-integrating global economy, the
second group – from the blue-collar and
majority experience scant returns.
office workers of multinational companies
The contradictions to waiters and taxi-drivers – sees incomes
stagnate.
 Two contradictions in the globalised economy  A second major contradiction in the modern
stand out in particular. The first concerns the way global economy concerns the simultaneously
in which open markets create both benefits and empowering and disrupting effects of
negative distortions for societies. technological progress. Technology can raise
 Openness to trade and foreign investment can productivity and make expensive goods and
break internal oligopolies and weaken vested services cheaper, thus helping economies to
interests. Export markets enable countries to grow and generate wealth. But it can also disrupt
profit from their natural and human endowments. traditional forms of manufacturing or service
In both cases, workers have a greater opportunity provision. The question is whether technological
to move up the value chain by earning, spending, disruption principally releases labour into
and saving more. alternative forms of employment that are more
 However, without a globally level playing field, productive and remunerative. If so, the overall
market opening can just as easily disenfranchise income in an economy will rise.
domestic producers and threaten the jobs they  Yet technology can also open a divide between
sustain. Markets continue to be regulated by those at the top, who are technologically
governments, which have national priorities and integrated and well paid, and those at the
must respond to domestic pressures. Even as bottom of the economic ladder, stuck in low-

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income service provision. Continuing advances men. Developing-country governments also

in computing power also create the prospect need to provide the necessary physical and
that many of the technologically literate – even institutional infrastructure to unlock growth. This
those programming the new internet of things – not only means building roads, railways, and
will be disenfranchised by self-learning machines ports, but also enforcing the rule of law, tackling
or artificial intelligence. corruption and removing economically distorting
price subsidies on staple goods.
The demographic challenge
 Second, investment in technology can open
 Even as governments struggle with the impacts new opportunities for sustainable growth.
of globalisation on their societies, many of In the developed world, new manufacturing
those societies are ageing structurally. And not technologies are driving an ‘onshoring’ of jobs,
just in Europe, where the World Bank expects as producers deliver customized products more
more than a third of people to be aged over rapidly while keeping inventories to a minimum.
60 in ‘less than four decades’; or in Asia, where New technology can replace centralized energy
Japan and South Korea are already experiencing infrastructure with more flexible, distributed
population decline. Emerging economies, from systems that can lower costs while reducing
Mexico to China, are also undergoing a transition carbon emissions. Technological innovation also
from youthful to ageing societies. Demand for has the potential to reduce health care costs
welfare provision will grow in these countries, for ageing societies through self-diagnosis and
just as its burden is already affecting developed treatment, and through robotized caring.
economies.
 In the developing world, technology offers
 Ageing societies make it difficult to generate societies the opportunity to leapfrog expensive
economic growth. They consume more and traditional energy, educational, medical and
produce less. If older people remain in or re-enter communications infrastructures, and to deliver
the workforce (90 per cent of new employment government services at lower cost and with less
in the UK in 2008–14 was accounted for by scope for corruption. Used effectively, technology
those over 50), their presence can depress wage can convert the massive migration of people to
growth. urban centers into an engine for progress rather
 Increasing longevity also makes pensions, than a driver of misery. As Mathieu Lefevre
health care and other social services costlier. argued in the February–March edition of The
Unsustainable social welfare commitments World Today, about 400 mid-sized cities (with
have contributed to rising public debt levels an average of less than 2 million inhabitants)
in Europe and the United States. In developing could generate 40 per cent of global economic
countries, a lack of welfare provision may prompt growth in the next 15 years.
societies to save too much, constraining healthy
 But however competent and far-sighted
economic growth. China is grappling with
governments prove to be, they will still need
precisely this challenge, as it tries to shift from
to collaborate if they are to draw on the full
export- and investment-driven growth towards a
more consumption- and service-led economy. potential benefits of globalisation. This is where
the third policy option comes in.
Options Available for Mitigation?  Faced with the growing protectionist instincts
of populist political movements that reject
Three practical options are available to policymakers to the benefits of globalisation, policymakers
try to mitigate these contradictions and challenges.
need to coordinate their economic policies
 First and most important are microeconomic at multilateral levels in ways that reflect
policies. By providing better education, countries’ economic interdependence.
apprenticeships, career training and less rigid Regional institutions, from the European
labour markets, policymakers in developed Union to the Association of Southeast Asian
economies can help their societies to adapt to Nations (ASEAN), are essential components
the pressures of globalisation and technological in this process, given that they can help
advance. governments to lower barriers and coordinate
 Education can also have a catalytic effect on standards at a pace and within a cultural
developing economies, especially where young context that will be less disruptive than some
women are given equal opportunities to young multilateral initiatives.

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Competent government, acting in partnership and globalisation, even as the world enters an uncertain
unlocking the potential of rapid technological advance period of demographic change and a sharpening
and deepening regional economic integration, can contest between economic winners and losers.
overcome some of the growing contradictions of

Previous Year Questions

1. What are the main challenges faced by the developing countries in the era of globalization?
2022/10/150
2. What is globalization? Why is there an intense debate about globalization and its consequences?
2021/15/200
3. Critically examine the impact of the process of globalization from the perspective of the countries
of the global south. 2020/10/150
4. “Some feel Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are a vital new road to economic growth, whereas
others feel they perpetuate underdevelopment.” Discuss. 2018/15/200
5. Critically examine the Globalization in the past 25 years from the perspectives of the Western
world. 2017/150/ 10
6. Discuss the changing nature of modern state with reference to transnational actors.
2017//15/200
7. Discuss the impact of globalization on the internal functioning of the state. 2016/ 10/150

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5
Approaches to the
Study of International
Relations
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Chapter - 5.1

Approaches to the Study of

International Relations

INTRODUCTION  Third stage: The third stage began during the

interwar period when there occurred a paradigm
The traditional core of IR has to do with issues shift from the historical and contemporary
concerning the development and change of to a moralistic-legalistic approach. Scholars
sovereign statehood in the context of the larger emphasized a war-free world order and suggested
system or society of states. That focus on states and creation of organizations like League of Nations.
the relations of states helps explain why war and However, this approach was too idealistic and
peace is a central problem of traditional IR theory. ignored the hard realities of international life.
However, contemporary IR is concerned not only with  Fourth Stage: The fourth stage commenced
political relations between states but also with a host after the end of the Second World War in 1945.
of other subjects: economic interdependence, human Now there was a shift from merely praising or
rights, transnational corporations, international condemning different states’ behavior but to
organizations, the environment, gender inequalities, discover the causes behind such behavior. The
economic development, terrorism, and so forth. emphasis was now more on understanding. This
shift in international relations in the fourth stage
was the outcome of decolonization, emergence
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF
of new nation-states, rise of new universal values,
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS demographic change etc. This shift gave birth to
the Realist school which believed that power was
As a well-defined academic discipline, International a means, as well as end in itself. International
Relations emerged in the first half of the twentieth politics was nothing but a struggle for power.
century. Kenneth Thompson illustrated a very Morgenthau became its chief proponent.
comprehensive picture of different stages of  Fifth stage: The fifth stage started from the
International Relations which could be enumerated mid-sixties to the seventies when international
as follows: organization, trans-national institutions and
 First stage: The first stage can be termed as multinational corporations were added to
historical approach where more emphasis was the study of International Relations, which
laid on historical analysis rathe r than on the resulted in the coming of Neo-liberal school
political study of international events. However, of thought. Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye
this historical approach could not develop a emerged as its chief proponents who stressed
theoretical core for the discipline. upon interdependence, security communities,
 Second stage: The second stage can be labeled transnational economic cooperation, and
as contemporary stage when more emphasis creation of an international regime.
was laid on contemporary issues rather than  Kenneth Thompson opined that the
on history. It emerged after the end of the First dependency theorists reacted to many of
World War. This approach totally neglected the the same international economic changes as
past, it was also partial. neoliberals, but in a negative sense that was

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dependence not positive interdependence. about these new moves, but later, it responded
These changes resulted in increased intervention positively to this ‘new political thinking’. During
by the US in the affairs of Third World Countries this period, since the realist and liberalist debate
to fulfill her own economic interests. This further disappeared, the postmodernists came to fill the
widened the gap between the world’s rich and vacuum.
poor countries leading to North-South conflict  Post-modernists or reflectivists argued that norms
and thus generating new debate on the global and regimes could not be studied in a positivist
political agenda. framework based on objectivity but had to be
 Thus, for the first time, in this stage, the analyzed as an inter-subjective phenomenon.
South demanded the establishment of a New This new trend in the 1980s was known as post-
International Economic Order (NIEO) which positivism. It contained four major currents:
became a subject of analysis in international Critical theory; Post-Modern Marxism; Post-
relations. Another development of this stage Modernism and Post-Modern Feminism.
was the revival of peace studies. The issues of  Eighth Stage: The eighth stage began with the
global stability, world order and control of global disintegration of the Soviet Union. Republics of the
violence now predominate in international USSR and Yugoslavia became independent states.
relations. The supremacy of the US paved the way for the
 Sixth stage: The sixth stage may be counted unipolar world as it remained the only superpower.
from the late seventies to the first half of the The third world countries and the countries of the
eighties. In this period, the efficacy of detente was erstwhile disintegrated communist bloc started
questioned and ‘New cold war’ emerged which seeking economic aid from the Western countries
changed the whole scenario. On the one hand, and especially from the US. The US started
the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan, on pressuring these countries to accept its terms and
the other, US President Reagan threatened the conditions for economic aid.
world by talking of a star war programme. The
whole world got worried about its effect on the STUDENTS ARE ADVISED NOT TO GET
environment and ecology. Hence, ecological and CONFUSED BETWEEN THE TERM “IDEALIST”
environmental issues now became the dominant AND “LIBERAL”. FOR UPSC SPECIFIC USAGE,
subjects of international relations. In the same BOTH TERMS ARE SAME AND CAN BE USED
INTERCHANGEABLY.
period, Kenneth Waltz formulated the neorealist
theory and transformed the abstract principles of
Idealism (Idealist Approach) and Realism (Realist
classical realism with a more concrete theory of
Approach) have been two competing traditional
realism making it more acceptable much closer
approaches, each of which wants recognition as
to a scientific study of international relations.
the sound approach to the study of international
 Miles Kahler argued that “By the mid – 1980s relations. Each advocates a particular view of the
not only had neorealism claimed a central totality of international reality and believes that it
place in international security theory, but can be adopted as the means for understanding and
also it had, in the form of hegemonic stability explaining all aspects of international relations. Both
theory claimed a central place in international of these represent the classical tradition of the study
political economy, which had been the primary of international relations. Both Idealism and Realism
source of alternative theoretical viewpoints are normative approaches in essence and content.
within international relations.”
The Idealist Approach holds that old, ineffective, and
 Seventh stage: The seventh stage began in 1985 harmful modes of behaviour i.e., war, use of force and
with Mikhail Gorbachev’s new political thinking, violence should be abandoned in favour of new ways
which recognized “balance of interests” in and means as determined by knowledge, reason,
place of the balance of power, co-operation compassion and self-restraint.
instead of confrontation, disarmament in place The Realist Approach regards international politics
of armament, internationalization instead of as struggle for power among nations and justifies
nationalization and détente in place of the cold as natural the attempts of a nation to use national
war.” power for securing the goals of its national interest. It
 With the advent of this ‘new political thinking’, rejects the Idealist Approach as a Utopian approach.
international relations entered into a new era In fact both Idealism and Realism are opposed and
putting emphasis on peaceful coexistence and competing approaches and each offers a particular
equal security for all. At first, the US was suspicious view of international relations.

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Chapter - 5.2

Idealist Approach to International Relations

Idealism stands for improving the course of  As such Idealism advocates the need for improving
international relations by eliminating war, hunger, relations among nations by removing the evils
inequality, tyranny, force, suppression, and violence present in the international environment.
from international relations. To remove these evils is
the objective before humankind. Idealism accepts the Main Features of Idealism:
possibility of creating a world free from these evils by
 Human nature is essentially good and capable of
depending upon reason, science, and education.
good deeds in international relations.
“Political idealism in international relations
 Human welfare and advancement of civilization
represents a set of ideas which together oppose
are the concerns of all.
war and advocate the reform of international
community through dependence upon moral values  Bad human behaviour is the product of bad
and the development of international institutions environment and bad institutions.
and international law.”  By reforming the environment, bad human
“A world full of human happiness is not beyond behaviour can be eliminated.
human power to achieve.” —Bertrand Russell  War represents the worst feature of relations.
 Idealist approach derives strength from the  By reforming international relations, war can be
general idea of evolutionary progress in society and should be eliminated.
and the spirit of liberal idealism, which was at  Global efforts are needed to end war, violence,
the back of American policies, particularly during and tyranny from international relations.
the inter-war years. During the inter-war years
 International community should work for
(1919-39), the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson
eliminating such global instruments, features
became its most forceful exponent. and practices which lead to war.
 The Idealist Approach advocates morality as  International institutions committed to preserve
the means for securing the desired objective international peace, international law and
of making the world an ideal world. It believes order should be developed for securing peace,
that by following morality and moral values in prosperity, and development.
their relations, nations can not only secure their
The main supporters of idealism have been Mahatma
own development, but also can help the world
Gandhi, Bertrand Russell, Woodrow Wilson,
to eliminate war, inequality, despotism, tyranny,
Aldous Huxley, William Ladd, Richard Cobben,
violence, and force.
Margret Mead, and others. They strongly oppose
“For the idealists, politics is the art of good the realist view of international politics as struggle for
government and not the art of possible. Politics power and national interest and advocate the use of
provides for the good life and respect for his fellow reason, education, and science for securing reforms in
humans, both domestically and internationally.” relations and for eliminating war and other evils from
—Couloumbis and Wolfe international relations

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FROM THIS POINT ONWARDS THE of The League of Nations to act as a forum
TERM IDEALIST/IDEALISM IS REPLACED for resolving differences peacefully and as a
mechanism to prevent inter-state conflict.
BY LIBERALISM/LIBERAL
 With the outbreak of a number of major conflicts
in the inter-war period, the onset of economic
 Liberal thought about the nature of international
nationalism as a result of the Great Depression
relations has a long tradition dating back to the
and World War Two, it is not entirely surprising
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. During
these centuries liberal philosophers and political that a much more pessimistic view of world
thinkers debated the difficulties of establishing politics prevailed from the 1940s onwards.
just, orderly, and peaceful relations between However, idealism dominated the academic
peoples. study of International Relations between the
First and Second World Wars with its basic faith
 One of the most systematic and thoughtful in the potential for good in human beings and
accounts of the problems of world peace was in the promise of the rule of law, democracy and
produced by the German philosopher Immanuel human rights and continues to be influential
Kant in 1795 in an essay entitled Perpetual Peace. within liberal IR theory today.
Kantian thought has been profoundly influential
in the development of liberalism in IR.  In the 1970s a liberal literature on transnational
relations and world society developed. So
 In the wake of the destruction of the First World called ‘liberal pluralists’ pointed to the growing
War, there was a sense of greater urgency to importance of multinational corporations
discover the means of preventing conflict. The
(MNCs), non-governmental organizations
senseless waste of life which characterized this
(NGOs), pressure groups, and intergovernmental
conflict brought about a new determination that
organizations (IGOs), as evidence that states
reason and cooperation must prevail.
were no longer the only significant actors in
 While the conflict itself was horrific, International international relations. Liberal pluralists believed
Relations scholars were initially quite optimistic that power, influence, and agency in world politics
about the possibilities of ending the misery of were now exercised by a range of different types
war. A new generation of scholars was deeply of actors.
interested in schemes which would promote
cooperative relations among states and allow the Key Assumptions
realization of a just and peaceful international
order, such as the fledgling League of Nations The main points of the liberal world view or perspective
can then be summarized thus:
 This liberal or idealist enterprise rested on the
beliefs that people in general are inherently  If humans are inherently good and there is a
good and have no interest in prosecuting wars harmony of interests between people, we might
with one another. Furthermore, people suffer deduce that left to their own devices, people
greatly as a consequence of war and thus have no interest in prosecuting wars.
desire dialogue over belligerence. Therefore,  If the centralization of power is bad, political
for idealists all that was needed to end war pluralism and democracy must be a superior
was respect for the rule of law and stable form of political organization.
institutions which could provide some form
 Because cooperation is possible, liberals believe
of international order conducive to peace and
it is thus possible to achieve positive changes in
security. The widespread anti-war sentiment
international relations.
within Europe and North America which existed
in the 1920s seemed to provide the necessary  Similarly, liberals tend to emphasize the
widespread public support for such an enterprise distribution of different forms of power (including
to succeed. military, economic, socio-cultural, and intellectual
 During the late 1930s and following the Second forms) and influence among a range of actors,
World War, idealism fell out of favor for a long rather than focusing solely on the state.
period of time, as realism seemed to provide a  Furthermore, humans are important actors and
better account of the power politics characteristic possess agency to effect change. If reason is the
of the post-war era. The decline in the popularity defining characteristic of the human race, all
of idealism was partly encouraged by the failure people must have inalienable human rights.

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 The liberal concepts of interdependence and  Many liberal peace theorists are of the view
world society suggest that in the contemporary that it is only when an end is put to tyranny
world the boundaries between states are around the globe and when universal liberal
becoming increasingly permeable. democracy and respect for human rights exist
that international peace will prevail. In so far
LIBERAL APPROACH ON PEACE AND as democracy will also check the power of
leaders and states, wars are likely to become
SECURITY
less prevalent when, and if, democracy
flourishes throughout the world.
 As we suggested earlier, liberalism is a paradigm
which has a faith in the capacity of human beings  While, admittedly, there are different forms of
to solve seemingly intractable problems through democracy, democratic governments on the
political action. The notion that human beings whole are representative of the people they
understand moral principles suggests that it is govern and thus take on their characteristics. If
possible to transcend ‘power politics’ and govern humans are seen as inherently good, rational and
relations between people on the basis of legal have more interest in cooperation than conflict,
norms, moral principles and according to what is liberals argue that democratic governments will
‘right’ and ‘just’. However, liberalism should not be peaceful. A peaceful world order is also likely
be confused with pacifism. to be one in which human rights are respected
 While some liberals might indeed be and upheld.
pacifists, it does not necessarily follow that  In addition to the ‘political’ strand of liberal
a commitment to the peaceful resolution of thought, ‘economic liberalism’ has similarly made
disputes entails the rejection of the use of a contribution to our understanding of peace.
force whatever the circumstances. Clearly, Along with the stress on moral reason and the
even ‘peace-loving’ peoples and states could capacity for good in human beings, after the
not be expected to forgo the right to use force First World War liberals were also advancing a
in order to defend themselves from hostile notion of a ‘harmony of interests’ which would
aggression or, perhaps, if there was no other have been familiar to Adam Smith and David
way to right a wrong. Ricardo.
 Peace and security are closely connected in liberal
 Liberal internationalism is based on the idea
thought. The League of Nations was supposed to
of a harmony of interests between the states
guarantee the security of states through a system
and peoples of the world and, in good part,
which identified threats to ‘peace and security’
these mutual interests are rooted in the mutual
and allowed collective action to be taken against
benefits which arise from trade and economic
aggressive states, to deter or stop them.
integration.
 Clearly, since insecurity was itself a possible
cause of war, a system of collective security  However, just as Smith recognized the need for
would strengthen the international order and certain ‘public goods’, liberals acknowledge
make peace more likely. The League of Nations that in order to have peace it is necessary
also had an International Court to arbitrate to establish international institutions which
disputes and so provide a peaceful means can overcome the problem of anarchy and
to resolve conflicts. Although the League of facilitate cooperation.
Nations foundered, the idea that an international
organization was needed to provide some sort
LIBERAL APPROACH ON STATE AND
of system of collective defense and a court of
arbitration lived on in the United Nations, which POWER
was set up after the Second World War.
 Liberals have developed a distinctive ‘peace  Superficially, the liberal view of the nature of
theory’. Liberal peace theory returns to a the state is similar to realism, in so far as liberals
familiar liberal theme that the people have no accept that the defining characteristic of the
interest in war, in the sense that war is not in state is sovereignty. Liberals would also agree
their interests. It follows from this that wars with realists that the basic characteristics of the
are frequently the result of aggression on the state are that it has a territory, a people, and a
part of belligerent leaders or states pursuing government. Liberals regard the state as, at best,
a particular interest. a ‘necessary evil’.

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 liberals also make distinctions between different  Having said that state and (civil) society are clearly
kinds of states. Authoritarian or tyrannical separated in liberal thought, liberals recognize
regimes whose power is unchecked are likely that the state and civil society interact. The state
to be more belligerent, having little respect for provides a regulatory framework in which such
human rights or regard for human suffering. activity takes place. For example, a ‘social club’
In contrast, in liberal-democratic countries the might be required to gain a license to operate.
state is held to be essentially a ‘neutral arbiter’ The police might even monitor certain activities.
between competing interests in an open and Also, in a democracy at least, elements of civil
pluralistic society. The state provides a framework society will try to actively influence the activities
(legal and political) in which it is possible to go of the government – a central arm of the state.
about one’s everyday business in the knowledge
that one will be secure from harm, that contracts  Liberals argue that sovereign states are
of all kinds will be upheld, and that people will important, but they are not the only
be able to pursue their varied aims and interests significant actors in international relations.
without restriction, providing that they do not, in Just as the separation of powers implies that
consequence, harm others. the essence of sovereignty is difficult to pin
down or locate, contemporary liberals argue
 This notion of the need to check the power of the that the state can cede some elements of
state gives rise to the liberal concept of pluralism.
its sovereignty to other bodies, such as, for
In its original usage the term ‘pluralism’ referred
example, the United Nations or the European
to the belief in the need to distribute political
Union.
power through several institutions, none of
which is sovereign.  Furthermore, actors such as multinational
corporations (MNCs), international and regional
 Some liberals believe that the state to some extent
institutions – for example, the United Nations,
reflects the interests and concerns of interest
groups. In political systems dominated by parties FIFA, the Organization of African Unity –
this is to some extent inevitable. Moreover, there international non-governmental organizations
are also powerful élites within the government (NGOs) like Greenpeace or Amnesty International,
bureaucracy, the military and so on which might new social movements and even terrorist groups
work to advance their own interests. can also be said to be influential.

 However, liberals deny that the state reflects the  Liberal pluralists were the first to significantly
interests of one, overwhelmingly dominant social expand the purview of International Relations
class, or any one élite group. It is absolutely theory to ‘actors’ other than states and
central to liberal thought that the state is seen as ‘processes’ other than foreign policy, war,
an autonomous body. or diplomacy, which had dominated realist
scholarship.
 In this context autonomy means that the state is
fair and impartial, functioning as a neutral arbiter  Pluralism implies or denotes a diffusion of
in disputes and policing the citizen body. This power. In liberal democracies power is held to
differs in fundamental ways from realist views, reside with the people, in so far as the people
but also from Structuralist and some feminist can vote periodically to remove political leaders
views, from office. However, the conception of ‘people
 Liberals are careful to distinguish between the power’ goes beyond the ability periodically to
state (which consists of the various arms of elect or remove governments from office.
government, the police force, armed services,  As we noted above, in a developed democracy
and the law courts as well as a given territory with a strong civil society we might also expect
and population) and civil society. to see people more actively involved in politics
 Civil society refers to those areas of human life through their membership of social movements
where individuals engage in collective action or support for the work of NGOs. In Western
and activity, but which are outside the realm of societies it is common for people who feel
state action or not directly within the purview or strongly about an issue to engage in lobbying
control of the state. So, for example, a vibrant activities designed to influence the decision-
civil society might be one in which people form making process. Others prefer to work outside
associations like sports clubs or trade unions, the formal structure of government and take
or engage in social, cultural, or ‘independent’ part in demonstrations. As the modern state has
political activities, such as joining Greenpeace or ‘intervened’ in more and more areas of human
Amnesty International. life, it has greatly facilitated this kind of politics.

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 Liberals take seriously the idea that people, LIBERAL APPROACH ON INSTITUTIONS
sometimes individuals, but more usually AND WORLD ORDER: LIBERAL
acting collectively through pressure groups
INSTITUTIONALISM
or institutions, can exert influence. In so far as
power may be viewed as the capacity to act to
 As is evident from the earlier discussion, one
advance an interest or to influence the outcome
of the ways in which liberalism has contributed
of an event or a decision, liberals believe that
to our understanding of international relations
power is diffused across a range of institutions is through various works on the nature of
and among a variety of states and non-state institutions and world order. Obviously,
actors. the themes of cooperation and complex
 In International Relations the notion of ‘pluralism’ interdependence are strongly suggestive of how
is not used so much to suggest the way power liberals see the regulatory and facilitating role
‘ought’ to be checked and balanced, but rather played by institutions in international relations.
as an empirical observation – it describes the way  In more recent years, neo-liberal Institutionalists
power is actually distributed in the international have developed a fairly sophisticated analysis of
‘system’. the nature of world order and the crucial role
played by institutions and various regimes in
 Liberal pluralists maintain that military power regulating relations between states, as well as
has become increasingly ineffective and so is other actors.
no longer a reliable indicator of how powerful
 Liberal institutionalism argues that emphasis
a state is in world politics. Power need not be should be placed on global governance and
conceptualized in simple zero-sum terms. On international organizations as a way of explaining
the contrary, power might be viewed in positive international relations. Institutionalism places
terms as the capacity to act collectively to realise emphasis on the role that common goals play
a common ‘good’. Moreover, the power which in the international system and the ability of
an ‘actor’ possesses may differ over time and international organizations to get states to
according to the area under consideration. cooperate. Institutionalism therefore rejects
the realist assumption that international
 Liberal pluralists argue that it is impossible to
politics is a struggle for power in which
quantify power simply in military terms. The
military security issues are top priority and
economic wealth of countries such as Japan or argues that instead we can ‘imagine a world
many MNCs, such as Shell, IBM, and Nissan and in which actors other than states participate
so on, is clearly a factor in understanding where directly in world politics, in which a clear
power lies in international relations. Furthermore, hierarchy of issues does not exist, and in which
‘actors’ might also have more or less power force is an ineffective instrument of policy.’
depending on the issue area under consideration.  Liberal institutionalism argues that in order for
For example, Norway is a relatively small country there to be peace in international affairs states
and does not play a particularly prominent role in must cooperate together and in effect yield
organizations like the UN. However, as one of the some of their sovereignty to create ‘integrated
major whaling states, Norway has tremendous communities’ to promote economic growth and
influence in negotiations over the international respond to regional and international security
ban on whaling. issues.

 Indeed, analyzing the world according to  Liberal institutionalism focuses on the idea of
different issue areas gives a very different, complex interdependence as first argued by
Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye in the 1970’s
and perhaps comforting, impression of how
placing emphasis on four characteristics which
power is distributed, compared to approaches
differentiate institutionalism from realism these
such as realism. For example, in international include: multiple channels which allow for
negotiations over the dumping of toxic waste, interaction among actors across national
developing countries – primarily the target for borders and which increases the interaction
such waste – have been able significantly to and links between actors and non-state actors;
affect negotiations and achieve global regulation attention is given equally to all issues, that is
of such activity. there is no distinction between high and low

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politics unlike realism in which the emphasis perceived long-term benefits to be gained
is placed on security issues and the decline of from cooperation, rather than just the short-
military force as a means by which policy is term gains.
determined.  In this view IR was not seen as fundamentally
 Furthermore, within a liberal institutionalism anarchic. States were seen as dominant actors,
model states seek to maximize absolute gains but since cooperation was rational and mutually
through cooperation, states are therefore less beneficial, international organizations and
concerned about the advantages achieved by regimes would endure over time, surviving the
other states in cooperative arrangements. The changing shifts in power and influence among
greatest obstacle to cooperation in world major states.
affairs is non-compliance or cheating by
 Neo-liberalism is built upon the assumption that
states.
states need to develop strategies and forums for
 By focusing on international organizations such cooperation over a whole set of new issues and
as the United Nations, the European Union areas. The fundamental foreign- policy problem
and the World Bank, liberal institutionalism for any policy maker is to construct a policy that
argues for greater emphasis on soft power and allows the state to gain the maximum benefit for
cooperation through ‘the forms and procedures its international exchanges while minimizing the
of international law, the machinery of diplomacy negative costs.
and general international organization.’
 If states were able to retreat into isolation or
 Institutionalists like Graham Allison argue self-sufficiency whenever the costs of dealing
that the rise in globalization and concerns over with others became too great, there would be
terrorism, drug trafficking and pandemics such as no reason to study the effect that interaction
HIV/AIDS/Covid 19 has shown that states can no patterns have on world politics and states’
longer react unilaterally to these threats and that behavior.
it is only through regional and global regimes
that policy responses can be coordinated to deal  However, states simply cannot avoid engaging
with new security threats. in relations with others. In the modern world
autarky is not an option. Furthermore, while
 Whilst the development and growth of the
some members of the international system
European Union raises questions about state
will experience far greater difficulties than
sovereignty and the legitimacy of states claims on
others in either exploiting or coping with this
unilateral action in dealing with world problems,
interconnectedness, all will experience some
liberal institutionalism as a theory remains within
sense of ‘not being in control’ of their own destiny.
the paradigms of a rationalistic and modernist
It is this combination of interconnectedness,
system.
plus loss of control, that is the hallmark of
 Liberal institutionalism still recognizes that states interdependence and leads states to seek
are the key actors in international relations and cooperation with others.
that states seek to maximize absolute gains
 The costs of interdependence can be grouped
through cooperation.
under two headings: sensitivity and vulnerability
costs. Sensitivity costs refer to how quickly
NEO-LIBERAL INSTITUTIONALISM changes in one country bring about changes
in another and the costs of those changes. For
 The basic proposition advanced by neo-realist example, the USA is less sensitive than Japan to
scholars was that international institutions rising oil prices.
depended upon the leadership or dominance  Vulnerability costs refer to the disadvantages
of hegemonic states if they were to function suffered by the state, even after it has changed
effectively. In the absence of such leadership, its policies to try and cope with the actions
they were likely to fail. of another state. The ‘costs’ and ‘benefits’ of
 Neo-liberal Institutionalists contested this cooperation are not necessarily distributed
thesis, arguing that successful cooperation equally. The existence of asymmetries in costs
was not solely dependent upon the existence and benefits allows some members to exercise
of a hegemon, but rather on the number of relatively more power and influence than others
players involved in negotiations and the in an interdependent world.

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 However, since states are largely absolute gains of communication and transactions between
maximisers, not relative gains maximisers, societies. Deutsch argues that a high degree
and absolute gains matter as much as relative of transnational ties between societies leads to
gains and cooperation is rational, given peaceful relations that amount to more than
absolute gains assumptions. the mere absence of war. It leads to a security
 As we noted above, neo-liberal institutionalism community: ‘a group of people which has
is a rather state-centric approach to IR. However, become “integrated”’.
liberals have also contributed to a growing  Integration means that a ‘sense of community’
debate about emerging forms of regional and has been achieved; people have come to agree
global governance. that their conflicts and problems can be resolved
 The term ‘governance’ embraces collective ‘without resort to large-scale physical force’.
processes of rulemaking, monitoring and  Such a security community has emerged, argues
implementation, conducted by diverse social Deutsch, among the Western countries in the
actors and institutions at levels above and below North Atlantic area. He lists several conditions
the nation-state. Thus, governance refers not just that are conducive to the emergence of security
to governmental institutions and policy making communities: increased social communication;
backed by formal authority, but also includes greater mobility of persons; stronger economic
informal, non-governmental organizations ties; and a wider range of mutual human
operating within the public realm, that are transactions.
increasingly involved in decision making and in
 Many sociological liberals hold the idea that
the ‘implementation and monitoring’ of policy.
transnational relations between people from
Liberal approaches to governance are closer to
different countries help create new forms of
the spirit of liberal pluralism in recognizing the
human society which exist alongside or even
key role of NGOs, particularly their potential as
in competition with the nation-state. In a book
agents of social change.
called World Society, John Burton proposes a
‘cobweb model’ of transnational relationships.
SOCIOLOGICAL LIBERALISM  The purpose is to demonstrate how any nation-
state consists of many different groups of people
 Transnational relations are considered by which have divergent types of interest: religious
sociological to be an increasingly important aspect groups, business groups, labor groups and soon.
of international relations. James Rosenau defines In marked contrast, the realist model of the world
transnationalism as follows: ‘the processes often depicts the system of states as a set-of
whereby international relations conducted billiard balls: i.e. as a number of independent,
by governments have been supplemented by self-contained units.
relations among private individuals, groups,
 According to sociological liberals like Burton,
and societies that can and do have important
if we map the patterns of communication and
consequences for the course of events ‘.
transactions between various groups, we will get
 In focusing on transnational relations, sociological a more accurate picture of the world because
liberals return to an old theme in liberal thinking: it would represent actual patterns of human
the notion that relations between people are behavior rather than artificial boundaries of
more cooperative and more supportive of states.
peace than are relations between national
 Burton implies that the cobweb model points
governments.
to a world driven more by mutually beneficial
 Richard Cobden, A leading nineteenth-century cooperation than by antagonistic conflict. In
liberal thinker, put the idea as follows: ‘As little this way the cobweb model builds on an earlier
intercourse between the Governments, as liberal idea about the beneficial edicts of cross-
much connection as possible between the cutting or overlapping group memberships.
nations of the world’. By ‘nations’ Cobden was Because individuals are members of many
referring to societies and their membership. divergent groups. ‘Conflict will be muted if
 Karl Deutsch was a leading figure in the study of not eliminated; overlapping memberships
transnational relations during the 1950s. He and minimize the risk of serious conflict between
his associates attempted to measure the extent any two groups.

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relations. He focused on transnational relations

The Cobweb Model at the macro-level of human populations in
addition to those conducted at the micro-level
 The analogy of a cobweb is often used to
describe the plural complexity of international by individuals.
relations. The image which the cobweb  Rosenau argues that individual transactions
model conveys is an intricate matrix with an have important implications and consequences
enormous number of nodes (that is, points for global affairs. First. Individuals have greatly
of intersection) which represent the way that extended their activities owing to better
the vast number of actors in international education and access to electronic means of
relations are connected to one another. communication as well as foreign travel. Second,
 From a liberal pluralist point of view, a states ‘capacity for control and regulation is
multiplicity of actors interacts in myriad ways. decreasing in an ever more complex world. The
Liberals argue that these relationships are of consequence is a world of better-informed and
different types and need not be characterized more mobile individuals who are far less tied
by conflict. than before to ‘their ‘states.
 Indeed, the spontaneous and voluntary  Rosenau thus sees a profound transformation
nature of such linkages rather suggests that of the international system that is underway:
cooperation based on mutual interests is the state-centric, anarchic system has not
a major feature of international relations. disappeared but a new ‘multi-centric world
Clearly, the cobweb model implies that power
has emerged that is composed of diverse
is widely diffused in international relations.
‘sovereignty-free” collectivities which exist apart
 However, one of the problems with this from and in competition with the state- centric
model and indeed, similar attempts by liberal world of “sovereignty-bound“ actors’ Rosenau
pluralists to convey the complexity of actors thus supports the liberal idea that an increasingly
and interactions in international relations is pluralist world characterized by transnational
that it does not give us any sense of which networks of individuals and groups, will be more
‘threads or nodes are most important or
peaceful.
which ‘actors’ have the most power and
influence.  In some respects, it will be a more unstable world,
because the old order built on state power has
broken down; but only rarely will conflicts lead
to the use of force, because the numerous new
cosmopolitan individuals that are members of
many overlapping groups will not easily become
enemies divided into antagonistic camps.
Sociological  We can summarize sociological liberalism as
Liberal follows. lR is not only a study of relations between
national governments; IR scholars also study
relations between private individuals, groups,
and societies. Overlapping interdependent
relations between people are bound to be
more cooperative than relations between states
Cobweb of groups: because states are exclusive and, according
conflicts muted to sociological liberalism, their interests do
not overlap and crosscut. A world with a large
 James Rosenau has further developed the number of transnational networks will thus be
sociological liberal approach to transnational more peaceful.

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Chapter - 5.3

Functionalism / Functionalist Approach to

International Relations

 Functionalists argued that interaction among integration – the collective governance and
states in various spheres created problems ‘material interdependence’ between states –
which required cooperation to resolve; the develops on its own as states integrate in limited
most obvious examples being areas like functional, technical, and/or economic areas.
telecommunications and postal services. The  There are strong assumptions underpinning
positive benefits, and mutual confidence, which functionalism and they are the process of
arose from cooperation in any one area would integration takes place. Within a framework of
likely ‘spill over’, encouraging cooperation in human freedom, knowledge and expertise are
other more significant areas such as trade. currently available to meet the needs for which
 Functionalists argued that integration was the functional agencies are built. They argue that
necessary because states were unable to mutual trust and habits of cooperation between
cope with the effects of modernization. governments are more likely to develop through
International institutions were thought to be the sharing discrete public sector responsibilities
increasingly necessary as a complement to or functions for example prevention of diseases
states, whose individual capabilities to deal with and promoting successful development and
problems generated by new technologies were growth.
decreasing.  The central feature of the functional
 Also, functionalists believed that, as the level approach is the creation of international
of cooperation and integration increased, agencies with limited and specific power
it would be more and more difficult for defined by the function that they perform.
states to withdraw from the commitments Functional agencies therefore operate only
they had entered into, since their people within the territories of the states that choose
would be aware of the benefits achieved by to join them and so do not threaten state
cooperation. Such functional interaction sovereignty.
would, in turn, have effects on international  Mittrany argues that greater interdependence in
society, enhancing peace and making war so the form of transnational ties between countries
disruptive and costly that it would no longer could lead to peace. He is of the view that
be considered a ‘rational’ means for states to cooperation should be arranged by technical
realise their aims and interests. experts and not by politicians. Some of the
 Functionalist David Mittrany argues that greater other important Functionalists like Joseph
interdependence in form of transnational ties Nye, Ernst Haas, J.P. Sewell, Paul Taylor,
between countries can lead to peace. Functionalists A.J.R. Groom, John Burton, and Christopher
focus on common interests and needs shared by Mitchell.
states (but also by non-state actors) in a process  The main concern of the Functionalists is to
of global integration and the increasing weight develop piecemeal non-political cooperative
of knowledge and hence of scientists and experts organisations, which will not only help establish
in the process of policymaking. International peace and secure prosperity but also render

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the practice of war obsolete eventually. The states. This is achieved initially at regional
Functionalists’ prime concern is with developing level, eventually culminating in the long run
piecemeal cooperative organisations at the in the creation of single world order.
regional level in nonpolitical areas like economic  Ernest Haas the chief proponent rejects the
technical, scientific, social, and cultural sectors notion that technical and economic matters
where the possibility of forging effective can be separated from politics as argued by the
cooperation among the states appears to be functionalists. Neofunctionalism reintroduced
highly practical. territorialism in the functional theory and
 These non-political sectors are collectively downplayed its global dimension.
referred to, in the Functionalist literature, as  In contrast to the Functionalist theory, which
functional sectors where the possibility of seeks to create a New World order in which
opposition or resistance appears minimal. This is the sovereign states take a back seat, Neo-
based on the assumption that efforts to establish Functionalism or the integration theory seeks to
functional organisations at the micro level in non- create new states through the integration of the
political sectors such as energy production and existing states.
distribution, transportation, and communication
control: health protection and improvement,  This is achieved initially at the regional level
labour standards and exchanges etc. are least eventually culminating, in the long run, in
likely to be met with opposition. the creation of a single world state. The idea
that integration between states is possible if
 There is a greater possibility of successful the political process of spillover facilitates it is
functioning of such non-political functional basically drawn from the experience of European
organisations as these can be of mutual advantage Union.
to the participating states. The possibility of a
higher success rate of such functional bodies  The Neo-Functionalists thus prefer to emphasize
gets further enhanced by the fact that they cooperative decision-making processes and elite
do riot appear to pose any challenge, at least attitudes in order to assess the process towards
apparently, to the national sovereignty of the integration.
participating states.  Ernest Haas rejects the notion that technical
 One of the most important assumptions of the matters can be separated from politics. For Haas,
Functionalist school is based on the concept of integration has to do with getting self-interested
what is called “spillover” effect. The concept of political elite to intensify their cooperation.
spillover is similar to that of “demonstration”  Put differently, Haas views integration as a
effect as used in the discipline of economics. process by which the actors concerned begin
‘The underlying belief of the spillover concept is voluntarily to give up certain powers and evolve
that cooperation in one area would open new new techniques for tackling common problems
avenues for similar cooperation in other areas. and resolving mutual conflicts.
For example, successful forging of cooperation  Joseph Nye carries this theme further when he
in the area of coal and steel production would asserts that regional political organisations “have
spill over into other functional areas like made modest contributions to the creation of
transportation, pollution control etc. Such a islands of peace in the international system”.
process of cooperation, the Functionalists argue, These studies suggest that the way towards
would eventually lead to political unification of a peace and prosperity is to have independent
given region.
states pool their resources and even surrender
some of their sovereignty to create integrated
NEO FUNCTIONALISM communities to promote economic growth or
responds to regional problems.
 Unlike the functionalists, which seek to create  What distinguishes the Neo-Functionalists
new world order in which the sovereign state from the Functionalists thus is that they
takes a backseat, and their institutions integrate focus on formal institutions in an attempt
and cooperate, Neo-functionalists are to determine the extent to which national as
integrationist in nature, who seek to create opposed to international agencies carries out
new states through integration of existing important functions.

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DEMOCRATIC PEACE THEORY  The second example can be that of tensions

and almost warlike situation between USA and
India, the worlds most powerful and world’s
 Michael Doyle’s work is particularly associated
largest democracy. 1949 and 1969 shifts in
with democratic peace theory. The basic
relations between India and the United States
hypothesis of this theory is that, as states
become more democratic, they become more can be identified due to the nature of US political
peace- fully inclined. The theory is based on a administration. When the republican Richard
research project called the Michigan Project and Nixon became President, this relationship became
on David Singer’s work which documented in especially turbulent. At this time the US viewed
detail the incidence of wars since 1816. India as an aggressive foreign power rather than
a fellow democracy. On the one side were the
 Researchers sought first to establish empirically US, China, and Pakistan, and on the other, India
how many wars had been fought by liberal states and the Soviet Union. Several events such as the
and against whom. On the basis of this they deployment of a US Navy aircraft carrier to the
claimed to identify a trend: liberal states fought Bay of Bengal and India’s control of East Pakistan
wars, but not with each other. escalated tensions.
 Thus, they concluded, liberal states do not fight  The post-Cold War era, although there have
wars with each other. The implications of such a been three democratic wars (the Croatian War
finding were that there existed in world politics a of Independence, the Fourth India-Pakistan
liberal ‘zone of peace’. War, and the 2006 Israel-Lebanon War)
 Moreover, democratization along liberal lines was
 Realist theorists may also argue that the statistical
a recipe for peace. The prescriptive implication
evidence provided in support of the democratic
was that, in the interests of advancing world peace,
peace theory is inconclusive. This is because until
foreign policies should include democratization
after the end of the Cold War there were not
and human rights as central planks.
many democratic states to base such research
 Democratic peace theory is sometimes held to on. John Mearsheimer, a neorealist, noted that
be the closest IR has come to establishing a ‘law’ “democracies have been few in number over
of international relations (in the scientific sense). the past two centuries, and thus there have
However, it has been much criticised. not been many cases where two democracies
 First, the sample included republics as well as were in a position to fight each other”.
democracies and in some cases 30 per cent male  Therefore, we can safely assume on the basis
suffrage was deemed enough to qualify as a of the above examples that although the
‘democracy’. Doyle also excluded certain types democratic peace theory has held ground for
of wars like civil wars. most of the post war era but there are notable
 In terms of what statistics can tell us democratic exceptions to it and it definitely can’t be called
peace theory can also be criticized. Even if we the final explanation of the behavior of liberal
establish the existence of a liberal zone of democracies and their military decisions.
peace, it may be that: a) the number of liberal
states is quite small; and b) at the same time
COMMUNICATION THEORY
many states that are not democracies are also
at peace with one another.
 Communication theory seeks to measure the
Realist Counterargument to Democratic extent of communication and transactions
Peace Theory between societies by watching the flow of
international transactions, such as trade, tourists,
 Realism dictates that states seek to maximize their letters, and immigration. The central argument
power in relation to their rivals. Unsurprisingly, of the communications approach, as articulated
then, war is a common phenomenon in the realist by Karl Deutsch, is that a high degree of
arena. Layne examines examples of situations transnational ties between societies would lead
when two states came to the brink of war. One of to peaceful relations that would amount to more
these is the Trent Affair, During the War Between than the absence of war. Such transactions,
the States, the conflict between Great Britain and the argument goes, will eventually lead to the
the Union arose due to the action of the USS San development of what Deutsch calls security
Jacinto, which intercepted the British mail ship communities, or integrated socio-political
Trent. systems.

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 Integration in this contest means that a sense of classical liberals, argue that state intervention is
community has been achieved and that people always a threat to individual liberty and justify
have come to agree that their conflicts and the continuing operation of the free market
problems can be resolved “without resort to on the grounds that it increases the overall
large-scale physical force”. level of wealth in society which then ‘trickles
down’ to the poor. It is worth noting that there
 Deutsch identifies two major subcategories
is little empirical evidence to support this
of security communities amalgamated and
contention.
pluralist. He maintains that both of these
are characterized by the absence of intra-  The liberal view can, then, be reasonably criticized
community wars, Among the amalgamated as simply providing a justification of the way
security communities, Deutsch believes that things are the observation that the ‘liberal’ system
United States fits the bill since its unified federal is of benefit to a very narrow section of humanity.
structure enables it to exercise central political For example, liberal pluralists generally provide
control over a continent sized region. a benevolent view of international institutions,
MNCs and the whole liberal free-trade ethos
 Pluralist security communities, on the other hand, which dominates today’s international political
lack such central political authority. However, the economy.
various national Units that together constitute a
pluralist security community tend to refrain from  In recent years there have been
fighting one another and thus do not need to numerous attacks on the notions of
fortify their borders. North American continent universalism found in liberal thought.
Briefly though, it has been argued that the
and Western Europe, relatively larger areas,
characteristics held to be essentially ‘human’
are believed to be good examples of pluralist
are actually specific to a particular group of
security communities.
people at a particular period in history. So-called
 From the perspective of the communications ‘universalism’ actually expresses the particular
approach, Integration is viewed both as a process experience of dominant groups in the West, so
leading toward political unification and as the the argument goes.
end product of that process-amalgamated and
 Liberalism gives us a linear view of human
pluralist security communities.
progress and development. Again, this is
because liberalism tends to universalize Western
CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE experience. In development theory, for example,
LIBERAL APPROACH TO IR liberals have suggested that poorer states are
further ‘behind’ in the development process,
but essentially on the same road and travelling
 One set of criticisms centers around a in the same direction as richer, more developed
fundamental contradiction between economic countries. However, it has been countered that
and political liberty. This criticism is centered much of the wealth of today’s rich Western
on liberal support for the free market and the nations has been based historically on the
institutions of private property, both of which exploitation of the natural resources and cheap
appear to be central to the liberal conception of labour of the global South.
freedom and choice.
 Green thinkers, argue that liberal development
 Critics argue that the operation of free markets strategies are resulting in environmental
and the private ownership of property and degradation, thus adding to the woes of already
resources lead to the progressive concentration poor countries.
of wealth in fewer and fewer hands. This inevitably
 Marxists argue that a pluralist view misses the
leads to a concentration of power among the
fundamental issue, which is inequality between
wealthy, which in turn impinges greatly upon
various groups or classes at the international
the liberty and meaningful choices available to
level. In much the same way as most major
poorer groups.
perspectives in International Relations, liberalism
 Left liberals have taken this criticism on board, can be said to be a Western paradigm. This is
and support a limited form of state intervention to say, the core assumptions of liberalism were
and welfarism in the interests of redistributing formulated by early liberal scholars, such as
wealth. On the other hand, liberals on the those discussed above, who were exclusively
right, often referred to as neo-liberals or neo- from the West.

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 While in contemporary International  Liberal means tolerant and wishy-washy in a

Relations students and scholars from political sense. Sometimes in common usage
all over the world and with very diverse the term ‘liberal’ is used to mean progressive or
interests can be classed as liberals or use left leaning and is used in US politics particularly
liberalism in some form, they are essentially to contrast with ‘conservative’. Liberal tolerance
using a perspective which is founded on Western is paradoxical given its inherent universalism,
assumptions. Thus, liberalism has been criticized and certainly not all view liberalism as politically
by some as being culturally specific as opposed progressive.
to truly international.
FEMINIST CRITIQUE OF LIBERAL
COMMON MISUNDERSTANDINGS THEORY IN IR

 Liberals believe that people are naturally  Feminist critics of the liberal theory accused it
good. This is a somewhat simplified and rather of eliticism and capitalism. They argued that it
old-fashioned view of liberalism. Certainly, incorrectly depoliticizes exchange relationships
liberals regard ‘human nature’ as malleable and and covers latent power structures. Challenging
are optimistic about the possibility of organizing the notion of “economic man”, Nancy Hartsock
human life on a more just and harmonious basis. asserted that primarily, liberal theory was
It is more accurate to say that liberals often dependent on economic exchange.
believe human nature to be inherently good but  Hence, any concept of community in this theory
not necessarily constant. Thus, human beings are was very weak and only of instrumental value.
potentially good. She further questioned the liberal idea that it
 States are insignificant. Certainly not. As we was possible to discuss the conduct of people
saw above, neo-liberal institutionalism is a state separately from society. It was impractical
centric approach to the study of institutions. because people have always been a part of a
Liberal pluralists have not sought to deny the society.
state’s role in IR, but simply to highlight that  Similarly, Sandra Harding asserted that the
other actors also have roles, big and small. highly individualistic behavior of a rational
 Cooperation means no conflict. Far from it. economic man cannot essentially be presumed
Cooperation can be fostered by conflict. The as a standard. If women’s experiences are to be
liberal commitment to limited government is included within human conduct, its standard
based on the belief that, left to themselves, assumption has to be changed. The reason
people will act to further their own interests, behind it was that women conceptualized self on
which can create conflict. This necessitates a the basis of the relationship with others in place
legal framework, but general spontaneity and of being separate from others
freedom is the best way to create wealth and  Further, Esther Boserup argued that in several
growth. Similarly, at the international level, if parts of the colonial and postcolonial countries,
states’ interests coincided exactly (in other words the status of rural women, in fact, went down,
if they were harmonious) they would have no when they were incorporated into the world
need to cooperate. Cooperation takes place in market economy. During the early years of
order to try and resolve conflicts (of interest). development aid, the notion of the male head
Cooperation is one way of resolving conflict. of household was included in the foreign aid
 ‘Greenpeace should be involved in IR’. Many programmes. According to the liberal sexual
students have the impression that acceptance division of labour, the male was considered
of a liberal pluralist perspective automatically as heads and women were perceived as child
implies promoting the involvement in IR of bearers and homemakers. This notion further
non-state actors (such as Greenpeace). Liberal marginalized women’s productive roles.
pluralists may argue that non-state actors are  Moreover, the states that have accepted
increasingly important in IR and even that this booming export-oriented industrial strategies,
is a good thing, but theorists are concerned for example, South Korea, Taiwan and Hongkong
with how and why this is happening rather than have been dependent to a large extent upon
(necessarily) directly sponsoring it. unskilled women laborers.

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 Some countries have caught the attention of  Further, the structural adjustment policies
overseas companies by offering a large number enforced by the International Monetary Fund
of younger women workers. Whenever these on the Third World debtor countries had a
young women tried to escape from these negative impact on women. Generally, they were
situations, such as by marrying someone, raising being seen as providers of basic needs for their
their voices as members of trade unions, they families. But now due to foreign debt, their own
were either killed or brutally tortured by male governments reduced subsidies and benefits
members. provided to women in the sectors of health,
 In this context, Cynthia Enloe argued that nutrition, and housing.
young women working in “export processing  When government funds were no longer available,
sectors” were motivated to perceive themselves women in their role as unpaid homemakers and
as daughters or future wives entitled only for caregivers were compelled to take charge of
marginal payments. As a result, through this the basic welfare needs. For instance, the severe
perception their labor was undervalued, and economic crisis in the 1980s is a testimony of
they had fewer chances to proceed into more the fact that a large number of the Third World
expert areas. women went abroad as domestic servants and
were sending their incomes to their families.

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Chapter - 5.4

Realist Approach to International Relations

 Realism is the most well-established theoretical focus of research in world politics should be on
perspective in International Relations. Realists discovering the important forces that drive the
have traditionally held that the major problem relations between states.
of international relations was one of anarchy.  Realists believed that the pursuit of power and
Anarchy prevailed because, in international national interest were the major forces driving
relations, there was no sovereign authority world politics. Focusing on these important
that could enforce the rule of law and ensure forces, they argued, revealed that leaders had
that ‘wrongdoers’ were punished. far less freedom to organize the world, and
solve its problems, than proponents of idealism
Anarchy: a condition in which there exists no had originally suggested. Although realists
centralised sovereign authority that enforces the accepted that laws and morality were a part of
rule of law. Realists are concerned with anarchy at the workings of world politics, respect for law
the international level where there is no authority would only be achieved if it were backed by
higher than the state. the threat of force. Realists also insisted that
a state’s primary obligation was to its own
 The League of Nations was a poor substitute for citizens, not to a rather abstract ‘international
a truly sovereign power possessing a system of community’.
law and a military under the control of a single,
 Realists argued that, rather than concentrating
sovereign government. However, realists went
on disarmament as a root to peace and security
on to argue that it was impossible to set up a
(a central objective of the League of Nations),
genuine world government, because states
states must, paradoxically, prepare for war.
would not give up their sovereignty to an inter-
Realists believed that conflict was inevitable
national body.
and so the best chance of avoiding war was
 Accordingly, realists argued that war could not to be strong in the face of real or potential
be avoided completely. It is necessary, therefore, aggression. Realists claimed that relying on
to accept the inevitability of war and pursue the reason to resolve the problem of war was utopian
necessary preparations for conflict. Only in this and ignored certain objective truths about world
way can war be properly deterred, or at least politics.
managed.  Although still in its infancy, even at this stage,
 Realists argued that the long history of world International Relations theory was showing signs
politics demonstrated that it was not an exercise of what was to become a central characteristic;
in writing laws and treaties or in creating it ‘evolved’ through a series of debates. The
international organizations. Instead, it was a Second World War effectively settled the first
struggle for power and security carried out great debate of International Relations in favor
under conditions of ‘every country for itself’. of the realists. The Cold War simply reinforced
By way of reference, they called themselves this view and allowed realism to continue to
‘realists’ and labelled the previously dominant dominate International Relations scholarship
approach ‘idealism’. Realists argued that the throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

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 Neo-realism shares many core assumptions  The work of Thomas Hobbes has also been a key
of traditional realism regarding the state, the influence on realist thinkers. Hobbes is influential
problem of power and the pursuit of interests. because he was among the first political thinkers
However, neo-realists place more emphasis on to undertake a sustained discussion on the nature
the anarchic structure of the international system of secular (non-religious) power and authority.
and the impact that the structure has on the For Hobbes, world politics was characterized by
behaviour of states as well as acknowledging, a war of all against all. Only mutual vulnerability
to a certain extent, the importance of non-state and the desire for self-preservation allowed the
actors. setting-up of a sovereign body that would secure
the conditions necessary for civilized life.
EVOLUTION OF REALISM  However, while men might be persuaded to
give up their natural liberty for the protection
 Realists are inclined to trace back their intellectual of the sovereign, the international realm
origins to over 2500 years ago and the writings would remain a war of all against all, since
of Thucydides or even beyond to ancient the conditions which forced men to give
China and Sun Tzu. The thoughts of Niccolo up their natural liberty for security in the
Machiavelli, a sixteenth-century Italian political ‘state of nature’ could never be realised in
thinker, and the seventeenth-century English an international context. Put simply, states
philosopher Thomas Hobbes are also invoked to were not equally vulnerable to attack. Hobbes’
demonstrate how realism is supposedly founded classic work Leviathan remains one of the most
on age-old wisdom. influential writings on the nature of sovereignty
and international anarchy. Indeed, international
 Machiavelli is famous, or perhaps notorious, for relations is sometimes likened to a ‘state of
offering practical advice to the statesman which nature’.
would ensure that they remained in power and
achieved their objectives. He proposed a series of
guides by which states’ leaders might maximize ONE REALISM OR MANY?
their power. His advice included the instruction
that promises must be broken when there is an There is no consensus among theorists of international
interest to do so and that it is better to be feared relations with regard to the taxonomy of Realism.
than loved. The question as to whether Realism constitutes a
 These are two of the many reasons why Machiavelli single coherent theory or there are different strands
is often accused of being an immoral thinker. The within Realism has proved increasingly contentious.
term ‘Machiavellian’ is used in common parlance Nevertheless, different classificatory schemes are
to denote cynical and unprincipled behaviour or often used to separate one strand of Realism from
used to describe people who act in a cunning another. Generally speaking, the Realist school can
and subtle manner, unscrupulously manipulating be divided into two broad categories-classical realism
situations to their own advantage. Perhaps, it is and contemporary Realism or Neo-realism.
more accurate to describe Machiavelli’s thought
as amoral, rather than immoral, since he believed CLASSICAL REALISM
that moral or ethical behaviour was only possible
under certain conditions of human existence
and that the statesman had no real choice other  Classical Realism represents a whole worldview
than to act prudently and with due regard to the of international politics encompassing
fragility of the political and social order. Although ‘several generations of theorists ranging from
Machiavelli was not explicitly concerned with Thucydides, Machiavelli, and E.H. Carr to Hans
ethics or justice, it is clear that he regarded J. Morgenthau, the most famous high priest of
moral principles or justice as simply the stated post-war Realism.
preferences of the already powerful. There is no  The central argument of classical Realism rests
doubt that Machiavelli held an extremely dim on the assumption that international politics is
view of human nature. Realists continue to argue driven by an endless struggle for power which
there is no place for trust or sentiment in politics has its root in human nature. In this framework,
and point to Machiavelli’s wisdom in elucidating justice, law, and society have either no place or
this point. are circumscribed.

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 Classical Realism recognises that principles are  State egoism and conflict: Man is selfish and
subordinated to policies and that the ultimate test competitive; in other words, egoism is the defining
of the state leader lies in accepting and adapting characteristics of human nature. Exactly, same is
to the changing power political configurations in true of the state. Further, state system operates
world politics. in a context of international anarchy. The core
 Classical Realism, as a school of thought, theme of Realist theory can therefore be summed
became fashionable more particularly during up in the equation: egoism + anarchy = power
the inter-war period when a new generation politics. A particular feature of ‘Classical’ Realism:
of scholars got actively engaged in explaining it strongly explains power politics in terms of
new developments in international relations. egoism (unlike Neorealism which explains it
Classical Realists, a term retrospectively used by terms of anarchy). How did this idea of human
later band of Realists, is thus often attributed selfishness and international anarchy shape the
to those theorists who were actively writing on Realist understanding of IR? Three arguments
international relations immediately before and are important: First, Realists accept that no form
after the Second World War. of world government can ever be established; it
means that international politics is conducted
 What distinguishes this genre of scholars from within, what in effect, is an international ‘state
others is their shared belief in an essentially of nature.’ The international arena is therefore
pessimistic view of human nature. Some of the dangerous and uncertain, with order and stability
key figures in this tradition of Realist school always being the exception rather than the rule.
like Reinhold Niebuhr, Nicholas Spykman, Second, taking a cue from Machiavelli’s and
Hans Morgenthau, and others believe that the Hobbes’s description of the nature of individual,
struggle for power is inherent in human nature. Realists view states as rational, calculating, guided
In other words, the drive for power and the will by self-interest, and working as coherent ‘units’;
to dominate are treated as the fundamental traits and regard themselves as the most important
of human nature. actors on the world stage. Realists’ theories
 Following from this, the behaviour of the state of international relation are thus firmly state-
as a self-seeking egoist is thus understood to centric. Third, and crucially, the fact that states
be merely a reflection of the characteristics of are composed of, and led by, people who are
the people that comprise the state. It is human inherently selfish, greedy and power-seeking
nature that explains why international politics means that state behaviour cannot but is inevitably
necessarily power politics is. bound to exhibit the same characteristics. Human
egoism therefore determines state egoism; or, as
 Convinced of the unchanging human nature,
Morgenthau put it, ‘the social world is but a
classical Realists are highly pessimistic with
projection of human nature onto the collective
regard to the possibility of any qualitative
plane.’ Just as human egoism leads to unending
transformation of world politics.
conflict amongst individuals and groups, state
egoism means that international politics is
TENETS OF CLASSICAL REALISM marked by inevitable competition and rivalry.
As essentially self-interested actors, the ultimate
 International politics is power politics: concern of each state is its own survival, which
‘Classical’ Realism (also called ‘Political Realism’) thereby becomes the first priority of its leaders.
claims to offer an account of IR that is ‘realistic’. As all states pursue security through the use of
There is no idealism and no wishful thinking. military or strategic means, and wherever possible
Global politics is, first and last, about power and seek to gain advantage at the expense of other
self-interest. This is why ‘Classical’ Realism is also states, international politics is characterized by
called ‘power politics’ model of international an irresistible tendency towards conflict.
politics. Morgenthau wrote: “Politics is a  A rational statecraft serves national interest:
struggle for power over men, and whatever its Realism as a School puts a lot of emphasis on
ultimate aim may be, power is its immediate statecraft. ‘Classical’ Realists particularly do
goal and the modes of acquiring, maintaining that. E.H. Carr was scathing in his criticism
and demonstrating it determines the technique of the Versailles treaty and the idealism
of political action.” that led to the establishment of the League of

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Nations. Carr said that global leaders allowed latter is that they commonly get in the way
“wishing” to prevail over “thinking” when of the pursuit of national interest. Examples
writing the peace treaties. Revenge and not are defending human rights, promoting
reason dominated the thought processes of the democracy etc.
victorious powers. Further, leaders ignored the  Power politics does not mean endless
importance of power in international politics; conflict and war: Calculations about the
and thus set the world on the inevitable course of national interest, no denying, offer the surest
another world war within 20 years. Morgenthau basis for deciding when, where and why
similarly emphasizes on the ‘art of statecraft’. wars should be fought. Although Realism is
He argued that the practical conduct of politics commonly associated with the idea of endless
should be informed by the ‘Six Principles of war, ‘Classical’ Realists have often opposed
Political Realism’, they are following: war and aggressive foreign policy. In their
 Politics is governed by objective laws which have view, wars should only ever be fought if vital
their root in human nature. national interests are at stake, the decision
to wage war being based on something like
 The key to understanding international
a cost–benefit analysis of its outcomes in
politics is the concept of interest defined in
terms of national strategic interests. Such
terms of power.
thinking, for example, led Morgenthau and
 The forms and nature of state power will most US Realists to oppose the Vietnam
vary in time, place, and context but the War in the 1970s. Realists have also been
concept of interest remains consistent. amongst the most vocal critics of the ‘war
 Universal moral principles do not guide on terror’. As many as 34 leading US Realist
state behaviour, although this does not rule scholars had co-signed an open message in
out an awareness of the moral significance the New York Times opposing war on Iraq
of political action. in 2002. In the end, the organizing principle
of Realism is the anarchic international
 Moral aspirations are specific to a particular system, wherein the actions of sovereign
nation; there is no universally agreed set of states are only limited by power. Realism
moral principles. presents a simplified model of international
 The political sphere is autonomous, meaning behaviour that addresses the persistence of
that the key question in international politics war but fails to capture many other aspects
is ‘How does this policy affect the power of of IR. Finally, and to repeat once again, all
the nation?’ Realists agree on the importance of three
fundamental ideas: statism, survival, and
 Serving national interest is political
self-help.
morality: The key guide to statecraft in the
Realist tradition is the concern about the
national interest. This concern highlights the CONTEMPORARY REALISM OR NEO-
Realist stance on political morality. Critics REALISM
consider Realism as amoral; some say it is
bereft of morality altogether. Realism insists
 Contemporary Realism, also called Neo-realism
that ethical considerations should be strictly
and Structural Realism, is a more recent strand of
excluded from foreign policy decision-
Realism that developed during the 1980s under
making. State policy should be guided
the influence of Kenneth Waltz.
by a hard-headed pursuit of the national
interest; meaning thereby that ultimately,  While Neo-realists continue to acknowledge
the state should be guided by the wellbeing the central importance of power, they tend to
of its citizens. Protecting the life, liberty and explain events in terms of the structure of the
wellbeing of its citizens, Realists claim is international system rather than the goals and
moral. What Realists reject, therefore, is not make-up of individual states. The structure of
nationally based conceptions of political the international system, for the Neo-realists, is
morality, but universal moral principles a major determinant of state behaviour.
that supposedly apply to all states in all  It is through an analysis of the different structures
circumstances. Indeed, from a Realist of the international system-defined in terms of
perspective, one of the problems with the ordering principles, the function at differentiation

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of the Units, and distributions of capabilities-  However, Kenneth Waltz’s theory of Structural
that the Neo-realists tend to explain the varying Realism is not the only version of Neo-realism.
patterns of world politics. This, they believe, A second group of contemporary Realists,
cannot be explained simply in terms of the prominent among whom is Joseph Grieco, have
interests .and policies of individual countries. integrated Waltz’s ideas with the ideas of more
traditional Realists such as Hans Morgenthau,
 Unlike the classical Realists who trace the
Raymond Aron, Stanley Hoffmann, and Robert
causes of war to the innate human nature,
Gilpin to construct a contemporary or modern
the Neo-realists tend to explain international Realist profile.
conflict within the framework of the anarchic
structure of the international system. This  Grieco represents a group of Neo-realists or
basically means that there is no overarching modern Realists who are critical of neo-liberal
institutionalists who claim states are mainly
central authority to enforce rules and norms
interested in absolute gains. Grieco claims that
or protect the interests of the larger global
all states are interested in both absolute and
community. In other words, it is not so much
relative gains and in the question of how such
the innate human nature as the anarchical
gains are distributed in the international system.
system, which nurtures fear, jealousy,
suspicion, and insecurity in the international  Such Neorealists, however, identify two barriers
system. to international cooperation, fear of those who
might not follow the rules and the relative
 The structural Realists insist that conflict can gains of others.
emerge even if the actors have benevolent
 There is yet another version, the third version
intent towards each other. This form of Structural
of Neo-realism, which is increasingly becoming
Realism is most often associated with Kenneth
popular as security studies. This form of Neo-
Waltz’s landmark book, Theory of International
realism is further divided into two sub-groups
Politics. Waltz’s Structural Realism has had
offensive Neo-realism and defensive Neo-
a major impact on scholars in international realism.
relations. Waltz’s popularity as a structural Realist
emanates from his ringing assertion that the  Like traditional Realists, the offensive Neorealists
structure of the international system decisively believe that conflict is inevitable in the
international system and leaders must always
shapes the behaviour of the states.
be wary of expansionary powers. The defensive
 According to Waltz anarchy prevents states Neo-realists, on the other hand, recognize the
from entering into co-operative agreements to costs of war and argue that it invariably results
end the state of war. The condition of anarchy- from irrational forces in a society. Moreover, they
absence of “higher power” over and above the argue that it is the presence of the expansionary
sovereign nation-states to ensure peace among forces in the international system, always willing
them-is often viewed as synonymous to a state to use force, which makes it impossible to co-
of war. exist in a world without weapons. They do,
however, concede that co-operation can take
 By the state of war, structural Realists do not
place but is likely to be successful only among
intend to convey the impression that large-
the friendly states.
scale war is a daily occurrence in international
politics: Rather, the possibility that a particular  However, all this has evoked strong reactions
state may resort to force indicates that the from a number of scholars. Several critics point
outbreak of war is always a likely scenario in out that contemporary Realists like Waltz who
an anarchical environment. Put differently, construct a Realist theory without relying on an
the structure of the international system can assumption about human nature tend to assume
that states are competitive and egoistic entities.
drive states to war even if state leaders desire
peace.
 Structural Realists insist that the form of a state, REALISM: MAIN ASSUMPTIONS AND
for example a democracy or a totalitarian state, THEIR IMPLICATIONS
or the personality of the leader is less important
in accounting for the phenomena of war than  States are the Primary Actors in the
the fact that action takes place within the contest International System This assumption of
of-an anarchical realm. Realism has these expressed meanings:

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 International politics is a domain of conflict  the material resources add to the coercive
between and among sovereign states. Conflictual capacity of a state against its counterparts
interaction among these sovereign states is the which is critical in an anarchic political set
core of international politics. up,
 States in international politics are sovereign, Three principal assumptions have been stated
unitary, and rational actors. At least at conceptual above. What are the implications of these and
level, sovereign states are supremely powerful, other assumptions? Let us have a look at the
unified with fixed political goals and they do cost following:
benefit analyses.  Sovereign states are the only full actors in
 In its interaction with other states, each state seeks international system. Realists draw from the ideas
to promote and guarantee its own ‘interest’. The of Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes had described man
foremost interest of each state is its own security as selfish, rational, and calculating. In a similar
and expansion of its power. fashion, a state is selfish, rational and thinks of
its interests first. It feels insecure and remains
 In order to ensure its own security, each state
distrustful of the intentions of other states who
seeks to secure and accumulate power. Power
think and behave exactly the same way. Such a
alone deters others from attacking it. In other
state has the tendency to prepare for war and
words, every state is out to enhance and expand expand its power at the cost of another state,
its capability at the cost of other states. so as to guarantee its own security.
 IR is Anarchic in Character In Realism, ‘anarchy’  With no supranational authority to impose order,
defines International Relations. Anarchy means international system, inhabited by such rational,
that there is no “central authority” or “world self-centered, and distrustful actors, is anarchic.
government” to manage or put in order the International system is simply a set of interacting
international relations among sovereign states states; each pursuing power in order to ensure
which are distrustful of each other and which, its survival and further aggrandizement. In
out of a sense of insecurity, accumulate more other words, anarchy in the international system
and more power so as to become ‘secure’. produces an inherently unstable condition.
‘Anarchy’ is an assumed political condition in
 The foremost concern of every state is its
which there is no world authority to enforce
security. To ensure its survival and security, a
order. This assumed condition “frees” the state
state tends to accumulate power. As one state
to undertake cost-benefit calculations and act
gathers more power, other states fear it. There
towards its self-interest or “national interest”
is the context of power accumulation by every
by depending solely on its own capability.
state and an atmosphere of mutual distrust.
Capability – military, technological, economic,
and political – must continue to expand and  There is expediency in the behaviour of states.
become formidable; otherwise, the state may States may find it convenient to follow established
risk its life and protection. international ‘rules’ in the short term, they do
so in order to secure their long-term goals viz.
 Control over Material Resources is security and power. Realists argue that states will
Fundamental to World Politics In order to violate these rules as soon as they are no longer
enhance its capability, every state is constantly convenient to the state’s pursuit of power. After
striving to gain maximum control over the all, there is no global government to enforce
material resources and this tendency to control international law and customs.
is fundamental to the world politics. Realism tries
 According to Realism, international system is
to justify this assumption by linking it with other
given shape and stability by the relative power
assumptions that the approach fosters. States
of its constituent states. This means that the
are motivated to have control over material
system’s polarity is an important Realist tool
resources because
when analyzing the nature of international
 there is no central authority to reasonably relations on the global or regional scale.
distribute the resources among its
 Realism’s model of the anarchic international
constituents units. system helps it to explain the persistence of
 the material resources are not in abundance; war – defined as large-scale organized violence
and between two or more international actors in

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pursuit of political ends. Realism is a good guide force can be used as an effective instrument of
in explaining the causes of war in international policy. Globalization represents an increase in
relations. It does so by simplifying the world– interconnectedness and linkages; this mutual
highlighting just those actors and interactions interdependence between states positively
that contribute to its explanation of international affects behavioral patterns and changes the way
conflict. Realists claim that they understand the states cooperate.
world; that their claims are grounded in actual  The realist view on international cooperation
behaviour of the states and the ruling elites; is rather more pessimistic. As man by nature
therefore, Realism is empirical and scientific. has a restless desire for power and self-interest,
cooperation becomes difficult to achieve as this
NEO REALISM VS NEO LIBERALISM strive for power is likely to upset the status-
quo. According to Mearsheimer, the two main
DEBATE
obstructions to international cooperation are
relative gains considerations and cheating,
 The debate between neorealism and neoliberal both of which stem from the logic of anarchy.
institutionalism has dominated IR debate for Since international relations are a zero-sum
decades. The debate is characterized by their game, states compete with each other to ensure
disagreement over specific issues such as: the their own benefits outweigh that of others.
nature and consequences of anarchy, international
 For realists, survival within the anarchic
cooperation, relative versus absolute gains,
international system is paramount. The intentions
intentions versus capabilities, institutions and
of states are unknown and subsequently state
regimes, and priority of state goals.
actors are cautious about the gains of others
 Kenneth Waltz is one of many scholars when cooperating; a friend may gain from
responsible for expanding the ideas of traditional cooperation one day and use it as a threat the
realists such as Hans Morgenthau, who looked next.
at the actions and interactions between states in
 Waltz argues, under global anarchy, “When
the system, in an attempt to explain international
faced with the possibility of cooperating for
politics. Neorealism looks to separate the internal
mutual gains, states that feel insecure must
factors of the international political systems from
ask how the gain will be divided. They are
the external. This separation isolates one realm
compelled to ask not ‘Will both of us gain?’
from another, allowing theorists to deal with
but ‘Who will gain more?’”. For neorealism’s,
each at an intellectual level. Neorealist focus
balance of power is essential to understanding
on the structure of the system, analyzing the
world politics; when states have such concerns
variations, how they affect the interacting units,
about the balance of power cooperation is much
and the outcomes they produce.
more difficult to achieve.
 Waltz claims that the anarchic international
 Neoliberals show more concern as to how a state
system was a force that fashioned the states
benefits overall, as opposed to how a state will
which constitute the system. The structure of
benefit in comparison to others; it is suggested
the anarchic system compelled states to worry
that policy makers will consider absolute gains
about security and take adequate measures
to be made from an agreement, including
achieve it.
potential longer-term gains. Neoliberals argue
 Where neorealist were seen to focus on that to focus on relative gains is misguided
security measures, neoliberal institutionalisms as economic interdependence ensures that
are believed to have placed greater emphasis neither side can effectively exploit the economic
upon environmental and economic issues, relationship and take advantage of the other
with a specific focus on the latter. Keohane politically.
and Nye argue that interdependence,  Neoliberal institutionalisms agree that states
particularly economic interdependence, is act in their own interests yet hold a much
now an important feature of world politics. more optimistic view on cooperation. Keohane
 Furthermore, Keohane and Nye argue that recognized that cooperation is not an easy
states are dominant actors in international feat and can lead to tension, but states could
relations; equally there is an assumption that potentially benefit from cooperative strategies.
hierarchy exists within international politics and Like realists, institutionalisms are concerned

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about cheating, but unlike neorealist, they Kenneth Waltz focused on the ‘structure’ of the
place great faith in institutions themselves. international system and the ramifications of the
Institutions provide a coordinating mechanism structure of international relations. A defining
to help states capture potential gains from feature of the international system is that it is
cooperation. anarchic, with no overarching power governing
 Furthermore, institutions provide an arbitrary states.
body that is able to provide states with  For neoliberals, international order is defined
information preventing states from cheating. by the state of anarchy, but contrary to realists,
States seek to maximize individual payoffs, and this absence of an overarching authority does
so institutions offer a platform through which not mean that we are in a constant state of
greater coordination and cooperation can be war. Although neorealist slightly exaggerate
executed, subsequently benefitting both parties. the importance of anarchy at the expense
 In Mearsheimer’s article The False Promise of interdependence; nevertheless, both
of International Institutions, he purports that neorealist and neoliberals recognize anarchy
institutions reflect the distribution of power as fundamental to shaping the future of world
in the world; moreover, institutions have little politics.
influence on state behavior and offer diminutive
 Although neorealist were primarily concerned
opportunity for holding stability in a post-Cold
with security, and neoliberals focused on the
War period. Where neoliberals believe there
economy, rationalist theories share a common
to be strong correlation between institutions,
economic cooperation and peace, neorealist analytical starting point: i.e., states are in the
doubt the link made between cooperation self-interested main actors within the anarchic
and stability as neoliberal theorists avoid international system. Regardless of their slight
military issues. differences, this self-help approach to anarchy
held by rationalists generates a competitive notion
 Driven by survival, neorealist are sensitive to any
to security and creates an issue for collective
erosion of their relative capabilities as these factors
action. The logic of self-help encourages states to
are the basis for security and independence.
adapt to the system. Although neoliberals have
Similarly, Krasner criticizes the neoliberal school
conceded to neorealist the causal powers of the
of thought for placing too much emphasis upon
anarchic structure, they argue that this process
intentions, interests, and information, paying
of self-help can spawn cooperative behavior
little attention to the distribution of capabilities
between states, even in an self-help system.
 Arguments of collective security recognize the
COMMON ASSUMPTIONS OF BOTH
importance of military force as a characteristic
NEOREALISM AND NEOLIBERAL of international life, but similarly advocates of
INSTITUTIONALISM this theoretical approach believe that there are
realistic opportunities to move beyond the self-
 As discussed, we can see that neorealism and help world of realism. To accept collective security,
neoliberalism have their differences, yet equally one must adhere to three main principles.
they share similar analytical premises. Both are  First, states must surrender the use of
state-centric structural theories, using state actors
military force to alter status quo.
as basic units of theoretical analysis. Through
the state-centric approach both theories try to  Second, in order to take in the interests of
explain the behavior of states with reference the international community states must
to the material structure of the international broaden their conception of national.
system. Whether concerned with relative-gains  Finally, states must look past the fear that
or absolute-gains, there is common agreement encapsulates world politics and begin to
that states act within the rational choice model. trust one another. The preservation of NATO,
 Greco recognizes that for both realists and even since the end of the Cold War and the
neoliberals there is a common understanding of Soviet threat, appeared as confirmation that
international anarchy, an absence of a common international cooperation could outlast the
inter-state government. In his groundbreaking initial realist-inspired conditions for that
book Theory of International Politics institution.

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 Since the end of the Cold War collective  Similarly, Escude’s argument against the notion,
security theorists believe that the international implicit in much international relations theory,
environment is more conducive for states to that states are juridically equal players in the
cooperate, sharing values and interests. international arena will find little objection from
Neither neorealism nor neoliberalism is able to historians. Escude points to GATT, the nuclear
account for the variability of states willingness to Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Missile Technology
take part in collective security institutions as both Control Regime, and, of course, the veto power
theoretical approaches choose to ignore the role of of permanent members of the U.N. Security
domestic politics in shaping the interests and, hence, Council as clear indications that different states
the behavior of states are not only unequal in terms of economic
and military power but are also unequal in
terms of the normal functioning of major
SUBALTERN REALISM international institutions.
 By also alternately assuming that states on
 The subaltern realism theory given by the periphery are of the same general nature
Mohammed Ayoub is a critical rejoinder to
as central states in terms of the correlation
the neorealism of Kenneth Waltz and others,
of economic power to military power, and/or
including the domestic analogies that neorealism
that states are alike in their normative goal
employs. It aims to provide an analytical tool for
of maximizing an ill-defined and all-or-none
grasping the major determinants of Third World
“autonomy,” Escude maintains, only further
state behavior, the dominant concerns of Third
provides the ideological justification for
World state elites, and the root causes of conflict
in the Third World. draining the civilian economy for militaristic
ends.
 The theory emphasizes the divergence of Third
World conditions from those of industrialized core  Escude counters with a call for a foreign policy
states and has gone on to criticize mainstream based on the welfare of the majority of average
International Relations theory for excluding citizens, rather than the issues of national
the Third World. It proposes an alternative “pride” that consistently benefit elites at the
conceptualization of security and emphasizes expense of non-elites. Relatedly, he argues that
the inequality in IR theorizing. governments of less-powerful states should
build foreign policies around the recognition
that their populations suffer significantly more
PERIPHERAL REALISM than those of powerful states in international
confrontations due to the disruptive effects
 For this Argentine political theorist Escude, the of sanctions, the inflation of military budgets,
problem of the lack of foreign policy theory and shaken investor confidence.
relevant to those less-powerful states outside the
 Combining these notions with the concrete
international economic centre is compounded
experience of Argentine foreign policy during
by the relative poverty of foreign policy theory
the Menem administration, Escude presents
in general. “Not only is a theory being
imported (by intellectuals and politicians of five basic guidelines for the development of an
the periphery) that does not correspond to the effective foreign policy--or, a “realist theory
local circumstances, but it also happens to be of damage control”-on the part of peripheral
bad theory”. states:

 Basing his work on the experience of Argentina  A peripheral government should abstain
under the momentous foreign policy shift of from interstate power politics and devote
the Menem administration, Escude attempts to itself to promoting local economic
remedy this double deficiency by articulating a development instead.
foreign policy theory of what he calls “peripheral  It should abstain from costly idealistic
realism”. interstate policies. A peripheral government
 Escude dedicates a considerable portion of should engage in promoting democracy,
Foreign Policy Theory in Menem’s Argentina freedom, ecological conservation, or other
to refuting both the relevance and normative good causes abroad only when it can do so
assumptions of international relations theory without encouraging material costs or risks
developed in the English-speaking world. for itself and its people.

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 It should abstain from risky confrontations  Similarly, Realism’s assumption of IR as anarchic

with great powers when they engage in negates the possibility that there could be a
policies that are detrimental to universal transnational institutional arrangement for
good causes but that do not affect cooperation and even enforcement of international
the peripheral government’s material decisions. It could call the other world-visions as
interests. “utopias” but the very existence of the United
Nations since 1945 and its deterrent role in
 It should abstain from unproductive
preventing another world war did not qualify the
political confrontations with great powers, political condition of anarchy exactly as Realism
even when such confrontations have no had imagined it. The United Nations is not
immediate costs because of great powers’ synonymous to a world government but definitely
reluctance to make use of image-damaging it represents the global aspiration for peace and
issue linkages. Such confrontations generate cooperation. It provides for collective security
negative perceptions within the great and entrusts the Security Council to authorize
powers that can be costly in the long term. ‘use of force’ under Chapter VII which then is left
 And it should study, based on the merits for member-states to implement.
of specific historical circumstances,  Realism is criticized for treating state as the
the possibility of alignment or band sole actor in international politics. Even in the
wagoning with a dominant or hegemonic context of a post-Cold War political environment
power or power coalition. where the actors have become pluralized
with blurred boundaries of participation,
 Such a strategy, Escude maintains, provides
Realism’s state as the sole wielder of power
the greatest possibilities that not only will
was heavily challenged. To defend itself from
external factors become less likely to interfere
the damages from these criticisms, Realism
with the course of economic development, tried to reformulate its theoretical proposition
but that such a conciliatory foreign policy in the light of changing political circumstances.
towards the important economic powers Some Realist reformulations, for example, took
will bring much needed investment and place in the light of idealist/liberal explanations
trade due to greater confidence. The of world politics as the latter’s explanations
guidelines also cannot be reduced to mere of IR were based on an integrated approach
realpolitik, since “peripheral realism is of development and democratic peace. Such
quite different from realpolitik, precisely attempts to reformulate Realism, however, have
because it is a realism for those who are raised further criticisms. Jeffrey Legro and
deprived of power”. Andrew Moravcsik, for example, observed that
the Realist paradigm was degenerating as its
conceptual foundations were being stretched
CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF REALISM beyond recognition or utility. As Realism had
AS AN APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL stretched its conceptual boundaries to other
RELATIONS theoretical approaches, Legro and Moravcsik
thus ask, “Is everybody now a realist?”
 Realist approach puts an overemphasis on the  In explaining the decline of Realism, Thomas
power-centric configuration of international Walker and Jeffrey Morton had the following
relations. Realism stretches the power- to say: “With the end of the Cold War, the
seeking tendency of the states to the extent expansion of democracy, and the increasing
that it makes occurrence of conflict and war importance of global trade and international
inevitable. organizations, Realism the world is no longer
neatly suited to realist concerns. …In effect,
 As power– seekers, states are aggressive in their research in international relations is no
external conduct. This approach denies that longer bound by one paradigmatic vision of
states capable of cooperation and mutual global politics. Evidence…shows a field with a
help. Whereas, the new perspectives, see states plurality of theoretical concerns.”
both as aggressive and cooperative.
 The fact that realism is simple and understandable
 Further, these new approaches make a powerful is presented as a strength of the perspective.
critique of IR and offer alternative views about IR However, an opposing argument would suggest
as well as how to change the IR. that realism is too simplistic, reducing the

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complex reality of international relations to a few universal truths, realism may simply have seemed
general laws which are said to be applicable over the most appropriate way of viewing a short
time and space and which therefore omit much historical phase; the idea of universal truth may
of interest and importance from our analyses. have held back scholarship which would have
 Realism, in emphasising the principle of been better directed at freeing us from realist
power politics and the enduring features of despair.
the international system, fails to allow for the  In emphasising the centrality of the state and the
possibility of real change. Realists accept that national interest, realism encourages people to
great powers rise and fall, and wars come view the world from a very narrow, ethnocentric
and go, but insist that the basic rules of the
perspective. The simplistic view of human nature
game cannot be changed. In failing to embrace
as being inherently selfish and unchanging has
the idea of substantive changes, realism is
been criticised, in particular by more progressive
inherently conservative and anti-innovative,
approaches such as Green Thought and
meaning that it is highly attractive to, and
liberalism. Here it is claimed that the nature of
politically malleable by, those who would
have things continue as they are. Whether the society one lives in can change over time and
intentionally or not, realism may also serve to can thus change human nature or at least allow
justify injustice on the grounds that nothing humans to be less selfish.
can be done to change things.  Realism ignores or significantly downplays the
 By considering states to be the only important degree to which states might have collective
type of actor in international relations and by or mutual interests, and so underestimates
only viewing the agency of non-state actors the scope for cooperation and purposive
such as MNCs as part of state agency, realists change in international relations.
have been criticised for not being able to fully  We should ask if foreign policy really is conducted
account for a range of issues and processes in rationally and indeed what is implied in the idea
international relations.
of rationality. Rationality seems unlikely to be
 While realism has a cyclical view of history the same for the leaders of states with strong
(a repetition of patterns of behaviour) it ideological or religious bases as it is for leaders
has failed to successfully make any specific of liberal democracies. Furthermore, even within,
predictions. Most startlingly, realists failed for instance, liberal democracies, can we be sure
to predict the end of the Cold War; given its that in the hurly-burly world of foreign policy,
pretensions to be, if not scientific, then at least decisions will always be made rationally? The
useful, this is a very serious weakness. decision maker is likely to be bombarded with
 Realism does not help us explain which decisions information, denied sleep, and asked to make
will be made by states’ representatives, but only several choices at once; it seems plausible at least
why they will be made. Thus states people will that rationality will be compromised, affected
make decisions rationally and on the basis of by mood, modified by spur-of-the-moment
national interest. However, how do we know if it decisions and so on.
is the national interest of State A to attack State
B? Perhaps it would serve the national interest  The antecedents of modern realism have
better to delay an attack or to seek an alliance perhaps been selectively read or interpreted in
against State C. Is national interest a self-evident a biased fashion. As people are fond of saying in
thing? After the event, when State A has attacked relation to statistics, if you select your evidence
State B, the realist could say this was based on a care- fully enough it is possible to prove almost
rational calculation of the national interest, but anything. We can simply note at this stage a
the realist offers no way of deciding which option certain selectivity in the historical memory of
is actually in the national interest and simply tells realism.
us that this is the motivation.  The feminist theory brings new perspectives
 If we accept the possibility that the assumptions as Tickner argues that IR is gendered to
of realism are relevant only in a particular context, “marginalize women’s voices,” and stresses
there is possibly great danger in treating them as “that women have knowledge, perspectives
if they were universal truths: that is, applicable and experiences that should be brought to
everywhere and at all times. Far from providing bear on the study of international relations.”

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 Tickner further argued that security, a main  V. Spike Peterson opines that the realist
topic in IR, should not only be understood as emphasis upon national security is contradictory
“defending the state from attack, but should for women, since it masks over ‘women’s systemic
also consider that security for women might insecurity’. Taking feminism seriously requires a
be different because women are more likely radical rethinking of the way in which security is
to be attacked by men they know, rather than framed by a form of sovereignty which legitimizes
strangers from other states.” violence against women and gendered divisions
of resources and identities.
 Another feminist critique of realism concerns
how realists define and emphasize power in IR  Sylvester: From Machiavelli to the early twenty
discussions. Feminists would ask: who defines first century. The qualities ‘men’ have ascribed
power, who has it, and how is it used? If power to ‘women’ such as irrationality, Intuition,
is defined by a patriarchal and realist society, temptation have been regarded as a danger to
which seeks global balances of power, then international affairs. For this reason, historical
power is equated with military and economic realists argue that statecraft should remain ‘man
craft.
strength.
 Vasquez in A statistical analysis of International
Relations literature in the 1950s and 1960:
SCHOLARLY CRITIQUES OF REALIST underscores the dominance of the realist
THEORY paradigm in terms of the overwhelming reliance
on the core assumptions of Realism. However,
 R. Ashley says that Structural realist portray the although Realism dominated the field. It did not
structure of the international system as though adequately explain international politics from a
there is only one structure (that of power) and social science perspective.
its existence is independent of states (rather
than constructed by them). For this reason. SIGNIFICANCE OF REALISM
Contemporary structural realism is a static,
conservative theory.
 While, in its simplified form, realism can present
 Blitz argues that “The analogy between an easy target for criticism, realism’s detractors,
individuals in a state of nature and states in bent on exposing its shortcomings, have often
international anarchy is misplaced for four found it a formidable task. Indeed, after some
reasons. States are not the only actors; the 15 years (or more) of fending off criticisms on
power of states is massively unequal; states all fronts, realists might argue that the post-
are not Independent of each other; patterns 9/11 world is one in which realist propositions
of cooperation exist (even if motivated by are clearly vindicated by current practice. For
self-interest) despite the absence of a global example, the euphoric atmosphere of the
government capable of enforcing rule”. post-Cold War period might have opened up a
space within International Relations to imagine
 K. Boom holds that Realism cannot speak to
other possibilities, including the pursuit of
our world. Survival for the majority of individuals
human security founded in respect for human
in global politics is threatened not by armies rights. However, the security risk to US citizens,
of ‘foreign’ states but more often by their own highlighted by the terror attacks on the twin
governments, or more broadly, structures of towers, the subsequent ‘war on terror’ and the
global capitalism which produce and reproduce unwillingness of the USA to listen sympathetically
the daily round of ‘human wrongs’ such as or seriously to investigate allegations of
malnutrition, death from preventable diseases, human rights abuses in relation to prisoners in
slavery, prostitution, and exploitation. Guantanamo Bay, can on the face of it be used
 For R. Cox Realism is problem-solving theory. to vindicate realist propositions.
It accepts the prevailing order and seeks only  Modifications of realism have been proposed by
to isolate aspects of the system in order to various authors and many differences exist within
understand how it world. The idea of theory the broad category of realism. Moreover, realists
serving an emancipatory purpose—i.e., acknowledge a changing world and are aware
contemplating alterative world orders is not in of ecological threats, gender issues and so on.
the structural realist ‘vocabulary. However, and crucially, realists believe that their

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basic assumptions capture the real essence of  This conception of the state as the central
international relations, and they argue that they actor which exercises power in particular ways
are perfectly entitled to privilege some areas have important consequences for how realists
and issues in international relations, and, indeed, view the relationship between states and other
to marginalise or ignore others. However, it ‘actors’ on the international stage. For example,
would be difficult to overcome the decades of multinational corporations (MNCs) are not
dominance that realism has had in the discipline regarded as independent or autonomous actors
and therefore the tendency to regard it almost in the international economy but seen rather as
an extension of state power or an instrument
as a natural starting point for talking about IR,
of foreign policy. MNCs are not, then, held to
even for those eager to criticise it or offer a more
be a significant economic and political force,
adequate framework for analysis. exercising power and influence, but a measure
 Furthermore, while realism may be under attack and reflection of the power and might of
from all sides in academic circles, it continues particular states.
to find favors amongst policy makers and  A second major theme in International Relations
states people and accordingly is implicit in is that of power. Power can be regarded as an
rationalisations of policy offered by foreign- essentially contested concept – that is, one over
policy decision makers which there are fundamental disagreements.
We shall be focussing here on some of the key Furthermore, it is a word which seems to be very
concepts frequently used in the study of international similar to other words; words such as authority,
influence, and coercion. Realism has much to
relations, which together form the very core of the
say on the concept of power in international
Realist school.
relations.
 Realism does not claim to deal with all types of
REALIST APPROACH ON ROLE OF STATE power, nor all types of power relationships, but it
AND POWER does claim to identify the fundamental essence of
what constitutes power in international relations.
Realists have been fairly careful to provide a
 Perhaps the core theme in realism is the
clear definition of power, and show how it can be
centrality of the state. Indeed, states and inter-
quantified and, crucially, who has it. For realism,
state relations constitute the very definition of the essence of power is the ability to change
the subject. behaviour/dominate and it often takes the form
 The central characteristics of the modern of military or physical power.
state are that it has a defined territory and a  Some realists see power in stark, zero-sum
government which is invested with sovereign terms. Individuals, like states, have power at the
authority and exercises power over a people. expense of others. Traditionally, realists have
Some commentators add a fourth characteristic seen military capability as the essence of power,
– recognition. for fairly obvious reasons. The capacity to act
militarily gives states the ability to repel attacks
 Recognition means that the state’s claims over
against themselves, and therefore to ensure their
that defined territory and its right to exercise
security. Or it enables them to launch attacks
sovereignty over its people are recognized by
against others for specific ends.
other states. Recognition can take many forms,
but typically it involves opening up diplomatic  Realists have assumed that it is military capability
relations or entering into treaty obligations with that counts. It represents the ‘bottom line’; the
another state. ultimate arbiter of international disputes. Power
is both an end and the means to an end in that it
 It follows from this that a central characteristic will deter outside attack or allow the acquisition
of the state is sovereignty. There are two of territory abroad.
types of sovereignty relating to states: internal  In a world made up of independent states, force
sovereignty signifies the holding of authority has been regarded as the ultimate arbiter in the
within a given territory and over a given people; settlement of differences. It follows from this
external sovereignty, meanwhile, involves being that the potential for military capability, and
recognized by other states as legitimate in the hence power, depends on a number of factors
sense of having the right to act independently such as size of population, abundance of natural
in international affairs– that is, to make alliances, resources, as well as geographical factors and
and declare wars and so on. the type of government of a given state.

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 Although such ideas are easy to challenge by nor is it seen as something which should be
reference to many states in the modern world, pursued to ensure security. This latter point
a state is said to have power if it has a large results from the assumption that violent conflict
population, abundant natural resources and a will return.
large area, mountainous terrain or other features
 For realists in IR, security is a concept which
making it hard to attack. There is, at times, an
relates to the state. A state is more or less
almost mathematical idea that adding and
secure to the extent that it can ensure its
subtracting the strengths and weaknesses in
survival in the international system, generally
these areas will lead to an accurate calculation of
through possessing sufficient power capabilities.
a state’s power potential.
With regard to security, instead of pursuing
 In what has subsequently become an influential peace, realists concentrate on the conditions
realist text in IR, Politics among Nations, Hans necessary to prevent war. Here, the relationship
Morgenthau engaged in an elaborate discussion between power, security and conflict is of most
of the sources of state power. However, in fact importance.
it is not easy to quantify power in this way.
For example, population is not always a power  For realists’ security is about (state) survival. For
blessing if such mouths cannot be fed. those states, the majority, unable to guarantee
their own safety through their own military forces,
 As realists readily admit, in practice only putting the balance of power represents a reasonable
power to the test in war can adequately resolve hope of being able to feel secure in international
questions about the relative power of states and, relations.
even then, military power will not be decisive if
there are reasons why it cannot or will not be  Realists argue that unlike in domestic politics
used. For example, few doubt that the USA is a (where governments are responsible for enforcing
more formidable military power than Vietnam; laws), in world politics there is no government
however, the former was unable to defeat the to enforce laws and, as a result, each state has
latter in the conflict in which they were engaged to provide for its own security. Self-preservation
in the 1960s and 1970s thanks to various factors under such conditions demands that a state be
such as the weight of US public opinion and able to protect itself, because it cannot rely upon
differences in the leadership, tactics and morale help coming from other states. Policy makers,
of the two sides. conclude realists, must therefore seek power for
 In addition, the amount of power that a state their country. To do otherwise, it is argued, would
can exert in any encounter may be specific invite war and defeat, as another state or states
to the issue or area under consideration. For would take advantage of this misjudgment.
example, collectively the states that make up the  A key area of discussion in later realist work
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries revolves around the dilemma of increasing one’s
(OPEC) have less ‘military muscle’ than the USA own security at the expense of others. Realists
and some European countries, but they were argue that creating institutions such as the
able, collectively, to exert their will against the League of Nations, which presupposes states
West and raise the price of oil dramatically in the have an interest in cooperation, was foolish and
early 1970s. therefore bound to fail.

REALIST APPROACH ON PEACE AND REALIST APPROACH ON INSTITUTIONS

SECURITY AND WORLD ORDER

 In realism, international relations by their  Given the emphasis on the state, power,
very nature are characterized by conflict and anarchy, conflict, and security, it is not entirely
competition. The existence of war is inevitable and surprising that throughout much of its history
ultimately unavoidable. International relations cooperation has been a secondary concern for
which are characterized by peace are therefore realists. Broadly speaking, realism has tended to
viewed, in a rather pessimistic (or realistic?) way, marginalize areas which are not the ‘real stuff’ of
as being the exception as opposed to the norm. international relations, and therefore contends
 Peace is a condition where conflict and that international cooperation is significant
competition are absent but will in time return. only to the extent that it is engaged in by
Thus, peace is not seen as an enduring condition states for the benefit of states.

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 Realism’s basic assumptions involve the belief that, by securing a broadly liberal, free-market
while much can interest us about the world, these international economy.
should not side-track us from its essential features.
In suggesting that certain facets of international
relations are timeless, the traditional realist
HEGEMONIC STABILITY THEORY
distinction has always been between the ‘high
politics ‘of foreign policy, diplomacy and war  Attempts to fuse an analysis of the growth and
and the ‘low politics of economics. This means expansion of a liberal international economy
that the former has been regarded as much with an analysis of where power lies in the
more important than the latter. international state system gave rise to a theory
of Hegemonic Stability.
 At first sight, then, a perspective based on
assumptions concerning the sovereignty of  The idea of Hegemonic Stability was originally
states, the primacy of national interest and so on advanced by Charles Kindleberger to explain
cannot have very much to say about international the collapse of the international monetary order
institutions. To some extent, institutions have in the early twentieth century and the economic
been something of a subsidiary theme in realist depression that ensued from this.
writings, but this does not mean that realists have  Hegemonic Stability Theory holds that there
no view on the character and role of institutions is always a tendency towards instability in the
in international affairs. international system, but this can be avoided
 English School scholars like Hedley Bull have if the dominant state assumes a leadership
argued that supranational organizations such or hegemonic role. This role involves creating
as the EU can be regarded as ‘states in waiting’. and upholding a system of rules which provide
In other words, they may acquire an identity of a secure basis for international order and
their own such that they become the citizen’s cooperation under conditions of anarchy.
highest source of loyalty. At such a point current  In this way liberal values and norms could be
state, such as Germany or France, simply become fostered and upheld. Hegemonic powers are
regions of a European state even if such a process able to control finance, trade, and so on. The
might take a long time to come about. Bretton Woods System which comprised the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
 In contrast, realists never lose sight of the central
the International Bank for Reconstruction and
importance of states as the predominant actors
Development (World Bank) and the International
of world politics. They believe that states only
Monetary Fund (IMF) is an example of international
join international institutions and enter into
order founded upon US hegemony. It provided
cooperative arrangements when it suits them.
a system of rules, values, and norms, based on
 The point of departure for neo-realists in liberal economic principles which broadly served
answering these questions was an orthodox the interests of the USA, although many other
one: the problems generated by an essentially states were consenting partners in forging the
anarchic international system. However, in this post-Second World War inter- national order.
specific context, neo-realists combined some
 Robert Gilpin developed an analysis of US
fairly traditional realist ideas about power and
hegemony which rested on the premise that there
the centrality of states in international relations,
was a direct relationship between US power and
with certain liberal ideas about rationality and
the stability of the international economic order.
economic cooperation. The Bretton Woods System eventually broke down
 Neo-realists have found the concept of hegemony because of a decline in the power and influence
useful in explaining how an international economy of the USA, a decline reflected in the switch to a
based on fundamentally liberal principles and regime of floating exchange rates from 1971. The
liberal economic practices could be secured in USA could no longer maintain its currency at a high
a world in which political authority was vested rate relative to its economic competitors. Gilpin
in nation-states with competing interests and argued that economic realities would eventually
possibly mercantilist impulses. In the absence of bring about an adjustment in the system and so the
an international ‘public good’ which would allow USA would eventually retreat from its commitment
the international economy to run smoothly, to the multilateralism of the Bretton Woods System
the concept of hegemony was used to explain as US foreign policy adjusted to harsh economic
how a degree of regulation, or governance was realities. This had obvious implications for the
possible. Neo-realists believe that states aim to stability of the international economic and political
maximise wealth and that this is best achieved order.

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Chapter - 5.5

National Interest

 From the perspective of the Realist framework,  Hans Morgenthau has been a systematic
the concept of national interest, notwithstanding and consistent supporter of the premise that
its ambiguity, is considered to be the most diplomatic strategy or foreign policy should be
important analytic category in explaining and motivated by national interest rather than by
predicting the course of international behaviour. ideological considerations. He equates national
Pursuance of national interest as a foreign interest with the pursuit of state power, where
policy goal in the Realist perspective is power stands for anything that establishes and
treated as the primary justification for all maintains control by one state over mother. He
kinds of state actions. Almost all Realists are further adds that this power-control relationship
unanimous on this. can be achieved by coercive as well as cooperative
techniques.
 However, the real problem arises when one asks
conceptual or substantive questions about the  As Morgenthau puts it, “the minimum
national interest. For example: Can there be a requirement of nation-states is to protect
universally acceptable definition of national their physical, political and cultural identity
interest’? Does national interest keep changing against possible encroachments by other
nation-states.” It is this sole objective of
as per time and space’? Who decides what
survival, argues Morgenthau, which justifies
constitutes national interest at any given point
a whole range of cooperative and conflictive
of time and how is it prioritized? Does national
policies such as competitive armaments balance
interest always represent the genuine interests
of power, foreign-aid alliances, subversion, and
of the nationals of a country? Is national interest
economic and propaganda “warfare.”
the sum of the interests of all the citizens of a
country’? Or, is national interest, merely an  However, the Realist understanding of the
expression of the: values of the political elite of a concept of national interest is not free from
country’? And so on. problems. It is, as critics argue, defined in a
rather loose fashion with the consequence that
 A review of history docs reveal that different pursuance of national interest does at times
statesmen have justified their foreign policies in become a license for the countenance atrocities
the name of the national interest. For example, on the weaker nations. As a result, national
Napoleon argued that he was acting in France’s interest more often than not is merely assumed
interest when he initiated the Russian campaign rather than rigorously defined. For example, that
and when, later, he fought a last desperate national interest is a necessary criterion of policy
battle at Waterloo. Similarly, Hitler justified his appears too obvious with the result that no one
expansionist policies, including a mindless multi- would ever argue that the state ought to act
front war in the name of Germany’s national in opposition to its national interest. But then,
interest. In each of these and many other what constitutes national interest? As a matter
instances we find statesmen justifying their of fact, those who rule may not follow policies
diplomatic strategies in the name of national that would necessarily lead to enhancement of
interest. national interest but their own or class interest.

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 For Morgenthau, there is no escape from power automatic signal commanding state leaders
which is ubiquitous in every aspect of life and when and where to move.”
the “concept of interest is defined in terms  The difference here is: Morgenthau believes
of power.” Thus, power politics can be used that state leaders are duty bound to conduct
as another name for Morgenthau’s realism. their foreign policies by reference to the
Morgenthau argues that “interest is the guidelines laid down by the national interest,
perennial standard by which political action and they may be condemned for failing to do
must be judged and directed” because the that. Waltz`s neorealist theory hypothesizes
“objective of foreign policy must be defined that they will always do that more or less
in terms of the national interest”. Although he automatically. Morgenthau thus sees states
recognized that at any particular point in time the as organizations guided by leaders whose
interest of a nation should be informed by the foreign policies are successful or unsuccessful,
“political and cultural context within which depending on the astuteness and wisdom of
foreign policy formulated”, defining interest their decisions. Waltz sees states as structures
in terms of power would largely overcome the that respond to the impersonal Constraints
problem of subjectivity. and dictates of the international system.
 The relative power of nation-states can be  According to Waltz, the statesman is not an
assessed and measured and is therefore an actor with high agential power to change or
important objective reality. The national interest regulate the international structure as he wishes
is normally defined in terms of strategic and because of the systemic constraints imposed on
economic capability because international him. These systemic constraints are the anarchy,
politics is seen primarily as a struggle for the distribution of capabilities and functional
power between states. However, Morgenthau similarity.
concedes that the definition of power
 The state is still the most important actor; but
will change over time: on some occasions
it operates under the conditions of anarchy and
economic power will be crucial, at other times
must obey the competitive logic of the system,
military or cultural power will be decisive.
acting in line with the systemic signals in order
 Although morality cannot be the basis of to ensure its survival. Neo-realism argues that
forming national interests, Morgenthau refers to the state must adapt itself to the anarchical
the “moral dignity of the national interest”, international system in order to fulfill its
implying that at the very least the term is morally national interests. If the state ignores the
defensible guide to foreign policy formulation. systemic constraints and the competitive
However, he emphasizes over and over, the nature of politics, it can be punished because
detachment of the national interest from the system demands uniform behavioral
political and ethical perspectives: “The national patterns. Thus, the national interest of the
interest of great powers and in good measure state, for neo-realism, can be described as
the methods by which it is to be secured are to adapt to the international structure and
impervious to ideological and institutional defend its position in the system.
changes”.
 Kenneth Waltz parts company with what he NATIONAL INTEREST: MEANING,
calls the “traditional realism” of Morgenthau by COMPONENTS AND METHODS
arguing a different conception of the national
interest to Morgenthau. Like most foreign
“The meaning of national interest is survival—the
policy, he regards the national interest as a
protection of physical, political and cultural identity
product of the structure of the international
against encroachments by other nation-states”—
system rather than something which is the
Morgenthau.
personal responsibility and management of
political leaders.
Definition of National Interest:
 According to Jackson and Sorensen: “For
classical realists the national interest is the  National Interest means: “The general, long
basic guide of responsible foreign policy: it term and continuing purpose which the
is a moral idea that must be defended and state, the nation, and the government all see
promoted by state leaders. For Waltz, however, themselves as serving.” —Charles Lerche and
the national interest seems to operate like an Abdul

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 National Interest is: “What a nation feels to Non-vital or Variable Components of

be necessary to its security and well being National Interest:
… National interest reflects the general and
continuing ends for which a nation acts.”  The non-vital components are those parts of
—Brookings Institution national interest which are determined either by
 “National Interest is, that which states seek to circumstances or by the necessity of securing the
protect or achieve in relation to each other. It vital components. These are determined by a host
means desires on the part of sovereign states.” of factors—the decision-makers, public opinion,
—Vernon Von Dyke party politics, sectional or group interests and
political and moral folkways.
 “The meaning of national interest is
survival—the protection of physical, political  “These variable interests are those desires of
and cultural identity against encroachments individual states which they would, no doubt,
by other nation-states”. —Morgenthau like to see fulfilled but for which they will not
 National Interest means: “The values, desires and go to war. Whereas the vital interests may be
interests which states seek to protect or achieve taken as goals, the secondary interests may
in relation to each other” “desires on the part of be termed as objectives of foreign policy.”
sovereign states”. —V.V. Dyke  These objectives have been listed by and
his list includes Prosperity, Peace, Ideology,
COMPONENTS OF NATIONAL INTEREST Justice, Prestige, Aggrandizement and Power.
Though each state defines these objectives in
a manner which suits its interests in changing
In describing the national interests that nations seek circumstances, yet these objectives can be
to secure a two-fold classification is generally made: described as common to almost all states. Thus,
 Necessary or Vital Components of National national interest which a nation seeks to secure
Interest and can be generally categorized into these two
 Variable or Non-vital Components of National parts.
Interests
CLASSIFICATION OF NATIONAL
Necessary or Vital Components:
INTERESTS
 According to Morgenthau, the vital components
of the national interests that a foreign policy In order to be more precise in examining the interest
seeks to secure are survival or identity. He sub- which a nation seeks to secure, Thomas W. Robinson
divide’s identity into three parts: Physical identity, presents a sixfold classification of interests which
Political identity and Cultural identity. nations try to secure.
 Physical identity includes territorial identity.  The Primary Interests: These are those interests
Political identity means politico- economic in respect of which no nation can compromise.
system and Cultural identity stands for historical It includes the preservation of physical,
values that are upheld by a nation as part political, and cultural identity against possible
of its cultural heritage. These are called vital encroachments by other states. A state has to
components because these are essential for the defend these at all costs.
survival of the nation and can be easily identified
and examined. A nation even decides to go to  Secondary Interests: These are less important
war for securing or protecting her vital interests. than the primary interests. Secondary Interests
are quite vital for the existence of the state.
 A nation always formulates its foreign policy
This includes the protection of the citizens
decisions with a view to secure and strengthens
abroad and ensuring of diplomatic immunities
its security. The attempts to secure international
for the diplomatic staff.
peace and security, that nations are currently
making, are being made because today the  Permanent Interests: These refer to the relatively
security of each state stands inseparably linked up constant long-term interests of the state. These
with international peace and security. Security is, are subject to very slow changes. The US interest
thus, a vital component of national interest. Each to preserve its spheres of influence and to
nation always tries to secure its vital interests maintain freedom of navigation in all the oceans
even by means of war. is the examples of such interests.

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 Variable Interests: Such interests are those national interests and in doing so they adopt a
interests of a nation which are considered vital number of methods. The following are the popular
for national good in a given set of circumstances. methods or instruments which are usually employed
In this sense these can diverge from both primary by a nation for securing her national interests in
and permanent interests. The variable interests international relations:
are largely determined by “the cross currents of
personalities, public opinion, sectional interests,  Diplomacy as a Means of National Interests:
partisan politics and political and moral folkways.” Diplomacy is a universally accepted means
 The General Interests: General interests of a nation for securing national interests. It is through
refer to those positive conditions which apply to a diplomacy that the foreign policy of a nation
large number of nations or in several specified fields travels to other nations. It seeks to secure the
such as economic, trade, diplomatic relations etc. To goals of national interests. Diplomats establish
maintain international peace is a general interest of contacts with the decision-makers and diplomats
all the nations. Similar is the case of disarmament of other nations and conduct negotiations for
and arms control. achieving the desired goals and objectives of
 Specific Interests: These are the logical national interests of their nation.
outgrowths of the general interests, and these
 The art of diplomacy involves the presentation
are defined in terms of time and space. To secure
of the goals and objectives of national interest
the economic rights of the Third World countries
through the securing of a New International in such a way as can persuade others to accept
Economic Order is a specific interest of India and these as just and rightful demands of the nation.
other developing countries. Diplomats use persuasion and threats, rewards,
and threats of denial of rewards as the means for
International Interests: exercising power and securing goals of national
interest as defined by foreign policy of their
 Besides these six categories of national interest,
nation. Diplomatic negotiations constitute the
T.W. Robinson also refers to three international
most effective means of conflict-resolution and
interests—identical interests, complementary
interests, and conflicting interests. for reconciling the divergent interests of the state.
Through mutual give and take, accommodation
 The first category includes those interests
and reconciliation, diplomacy tries to secure the
which are common to a large number of states;
desired goals and objectives of national interest.
the second category refers to those interests,
which though not identical, can form the basis  As an instrument of securing national interest,
of agreement on some specific issues; and the diplomacy is a universally recognized and most
third category includes those interests which are frequently used means. Morgenthau regards
neither complementary nor identical. diplomacy as the most primary means. However,
 However, this classification is neither absolute all the objectives and goals of national interest
nor complete. The complementary interests cannot be secured through diplomacy.
can, with the passage of time, become identical
interests and conflicting interests can become  Propaganda: The second important method
complementary interests. The study of national for securing national interest is propaganda.
interest of a nation involves an examination of all Propaganda is the art of salesmanship. It is the
these vital and non-vital components of national art of convincing others about the justness of the
interest. The six-fold classificatory scheme goals and objectives or ends which are desired to
offered by T. W. Robinson can be of great help be secured. It consists of the attempt to impress
to us for analyzing the national interests of all upon nations the necessity of securing the goals
nations. Such a study can help us to examine the which a nation wishes to achieve. “Propaganda
behaviour of nations in international relations. is a systematic attempt to affect the minds,
emotions and actions of a given group for a
METHODS FOR THE SECURING OF specific public purpose.” —Frankel
NATIONAL INTEREST  It is directly addressed to the people of other
states and its aim is always to secure the
To secure the goals and objectives of her national self-interests—interests which are governed
interest is the paramount right and duty of every exclusively by the national interests of the
nation. Nations are always at work to secure their propagandist. The revolutionary development

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of the means of communications (Internet) Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation

in the recent times has increased the scope of with the (erstwhile) Soviet Union. Alliances and
propaganda as a means for securing support for Treaties are thus popular means for securing
goals of national interest. national interests.
 Economic Means: The rich and developed  Coercive Means: The role of power in
nations use economic aid and loans as the international relations is a recognized fact. It is
means for securing their interests in international an unwritten law of international intercourse that
relations. The existence of a very wide gap nations can use force for securing their national
between the rich and poor countries provides a interests. International Law also recognizes
big opportunity to the rich nations for promoting coercive means short of war as the methods
their interest’s vis-a-vis the poor nations. The that can be used by states for fulfilling their
dependence of the poor and lowly- developed desired goals and objectives. Intervention, Non-
nations upon the rich and developed nations intercourse, embargoes, boycotts, reprisals,
for the import of industrial goods, technological retortion, retaliation, severance of relations and
know-how, foreign aid, armaments and for pacific biocides are the popular coercive means
selling raw materials, has been responsible for which can be used by a nation to force others
strengthening the role of economic instruments to accept a particular course of behaviour or to
of foreign policy. In this era of Globalization, refrain from a course which is considered harmful
conduct of international economic relation has by the nation using coercive means.
emerged as a key means of national interests.
 War and Aggression have been declared illegal
 Alliances and Treaties: Alliances and Treaties means, yet these continue to be used by the
are concluded by two or more states for securing states in actual course of international relations.
their common interests. This device is mostly Today, nations fully realize the importance
used for securing identical and complementary of peaceful means of conflict-resolution like
interests. However, even conflictual interests may negotiations, and diplomacy as the ideal methods
lead to alliances and treaties with like-minded for promoting their national interests. Yet at the
states against the common rivals or opponents. same time these continue to use coercive means,
 Alliances and treaties make it a legal obligation whenever they find it expedient and necessary.
for the members of the alliances or signatories Military power is still regarded as a major part
of the treaties to work for the promotion of of national power and is often used by a nation
agreed common interests. The alliances may for securing its desired goals and objectives.
be concluded for serving a particular specific The use of military power against international
interest or for securing a number of common terrorism now stands universally accepted as a
interests. The nature of an alliance depends natural and just means for fighting the menace.
upon the nature of interest which is sought to Today world public opinion accepts the use of
be secured. war and other forcible means for the elimination
 Accordingly, the alliances are either military or of international terrorism.
economic in nature. The need for securing the  All these means are used by all the nations for
security of capitalist democratic states against securing their national interests. Nations have
the expanding ‘communist menace’ led to the the right and duty to secure their national
creation of military alliances like NATO, SEATO, interests and they have the freedom to choose
CENTO, ANZUS etc. Likewise, the need to meet the requisite means for this purpose. They can
the threat to socialism led to the conclusion of use peaceful or coercive means as and when
Warsaw Pact among the communist countries. they may desire or deem essential. However,
The need for the economic reconstruction of in the interest of international peace, security
Europe after the Second World War led to the and prosperity, nations are expected to refrain
establishment of European Common Market from using coercive means particular war and
(Now European Union) and several other aggression. These are expected to depend upon
economic agencies. The needs of Indian national peaceful means for the settlement of disputes
interests in 1971 led to the conclusion of the and for securing their interests.

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 While formulating the goals and objectives to protect and promote common interests in
of national interest, all the nations must make the larger interest of the whole international
honest attempts to make these compatible with community. All this makes it essential for every
the international interests of Peace, Security nation to formulate its foreign policy and to
environmental protection, protection of human
conduct its relations with other nations on the
rights and Sustainable Development. Peaceful
basis of its national interests, as interpreted and
coexistence, peaceful conflict-resolution and
purposeful mutual cooperation for development defined in harmony with the common interests
are the common and shared interests of all the of the humankind. The aim of foreign policy is to
nations. As such, along with the promotion of secure the defined goals of national interest by
their national interests, the nations must try the use of the national power.

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Chapter - 5.6

National Power

 The concept of power has conceptually proved to  Contemporary structural Realists have in recent
be an elusive category lacking unanimity among years sought to bring more conceptual clarity
scholars over its precise meaning. However, to bear on the meaning of power in the Realist
from the days of Thucydides to the present, discourse. Kenneth Waltz, for example, tries to
the concept of power has been identified with overcome the problem by shifting the focus from
political action. power to capabilities.
 Morgenthau for example, defines politics as the  He suggests that capabilities can be ranked
struggle for power. In other words, power for according to their strength in the following
Morgenthau symbolizes a relationship between areas: size of population and territory, resource
two political actors where actor A has the ability endowment, economic capability, military
to control the mind and actions of actor B. As he strength, political stability, and competence.
puts it power is, “man’s control over the minds However, as critics point out resource strength
and actions of other men”. need not always lead to military victory. For
 The Realists make two important points about example, in the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel
the concept of power. First, power is a relational and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, the distribution of
concept in the sense that one does not exercise resources clearly favored the Arab coalition and
power in a vacuum but always in relation to yet the supposedly weaker side annihilated its
another entity. And second power is seen as a enemies’ forces and seized their territory. The
relative concept. definition of power as capabilities has proved
even less successful at explaining the relative
 What it means is that in the international system it economic success of Japan over China.
may not be enough to calculate one’s own power
capabilities, but also the power of other states.  Yet another problem with the Realist treatment
However, the task of accurately assessing the of power relates to its exclusive focus upon state
power of states presents a serious challenge. The power. For Realists, states are the only actors
challenge gets further aggravated as it is merely that really “count”. As a result, transnational
calculated in terms of the number of troops, corporation, international organisations, and
tanks, aircraft, and naval ships that a particular religious denominations are rarely taken seriously
country possesses. Calculation of power in this in the Realist framework. Moreover, it is not clear
purely physical sense leads to further build up that these non-state actors are autonomous
of physical force with a view to outstripping the from state power, whether this be Italy in case of
power of the perceived enemy country. This the papacy or the US in case of corporations like
is done with the belief that it might enhance Microsoft. The extent to which non-state actors
the ability of one actor to get other actors do bear the imprint of a statist identity is further
something they would not otherwise do. This endorsed by the fact that these actors have to
one-dimensional view of power, as understood make their way in international system whose
by the Realists, has been criticized on a number rules are made by states.
of grounds.

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Chapter - 5.7

National Security

 From the Realist viewpoint, the concept of  This controversy which primarily takes place
national security or national survival is treated between the defensive and offensive Realists,
as a fundamental value in the foreign policy has significant implications for the prospects of
of all states. Particularly classical Realists like international peace and co-operation.
Machiavelli, Meinecke, and Weber attach top  Defensive Realists such as Waltz and Grieco
priority to national security or survival. argue that it is security which is the principal
 They stress that the task of ensuring national interest of the states and that they seek to obtain
security/survival must be considered as the only as much power as it is sufficient to ensure
supreme national interest to which all political their own survival. According to this view: states
leaders must adhere. On other words, national are primarily defensive actors and will not seek
security is viewed as a precondition for attaining to gain greater amount of powers if that means
all other goals, whether these involve conquest jeopardizing their own security.
or merely independence.  Offensive Realists like Mearsheimer on the
 In the words of Henry Kissinger, other hand, argue that the ultimate goal of all
“a nation’s survival is its first and states is to achieve a hegemonic position in the
ultimate responsibility; it cannot be international system. States, according to this
compromised or put to risk”. As also noted by view, always desire more power and are willing,
Waltz-”beyond the survival motive, the aim if the opportunity arises, to alter the existing
of states may be endlessly varied”. All other distribution of power even if such an action may
goals such as economic prosperity belong to the jeopardise their own security.
domain of what is called “low politics” and hence
are considered of secondary importance. THIRD WORLD SECURITY
 The primary concern of the Realists is
unambiguously with “high politics”-the security  In the international system nearly all the states
of the state. Given the obsession of the Realists are concerned about their security against the
with the preservation of security they emphatically other power, to remove those vulnerabilities, the
recommend the leaders of their state to adopt security they need strengthen and when they try
all ethical code which would help them judge to achieve it, this process creates insecurity for
all action according to the outcome rather than other because insecurity of one is insecurity of
in terms of a judgement about whether the other, and thus the vicious cycle of security and
individual act is right or wrong. power begins. One of dilemma is that no state
 Despite the near unanimity among Realists on the is sure whether the security measure of other is
centrality of the issue of national security recent just for security or for aggression.
developments in the Realist thinking indicate a  Mohammed Ayoob in The Third World
raging controversy over the question of whether Security Predicament defines the term Third
“states are in fact principally security or power World as describing the underdeveloped, poor,
maximisers”. weak states of Asia, Africa, and Latin America that

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together make up a substantial numerical majority  Most of the third world countries are dependent
among the members of the international system. over great power for protection of their
Ayoob cites Robert Gilpin in claiming that what economics, technological gains, and financial aid.
characterizes the Third World is its weakness Mohammad Ayoob defines it as “the security
towards “the two organizing principles of and developments concerns of individual
international social life - the sovereign state Third World states make most if not all of
and the international market.” them dependent on varying degrees on the
superpowers and its allies for arms, political
 Mohamad Ayoob has levied the particular
support, capital, and technology. These ties
claim that traditional security studies lack
are in most cases strong enough to neutralize,
the adequate theoretical tools to analyze the
for all practical purposed save occasional
Third World and that it requires an alternative
rhetoric, the confrontational tendencies of
frame of analysis that takes into account its
Third World ruling elites.”
(Third World’s) particular historical, political,
social, and cultural context.  Another important source of instability in
the Third World is also not directly linked or
 Amitav Acharya in “The Periphery as the attributable to the end of bipolarity or the Cold
Core: The Third World and Security Studies”, War. This is the closely inter-related problems
sees the emergence of the Third World as the of overpopulation, resource scarcity and
dominant understanding of security in three environmental degradation, viewed by many as
important respects the chief source of what Kaplan has called the
 Its focus on the interstate level as the point “coming anarchy”
of origin of security threats  Homer-Dixon, in a particularly sophisticated
 Its exclusion of non-military phenomena analysis of such conflicts, identifies three
from the security studies agenda. categories: “simple scarcity conflicts” (conflict
over natural resources such as river, water,
 Its belief in the global balance of power as
fish, and agriculturally productive land), and
the legitimate and effective instrument of
“relative deprivation conflicts” (the impact of
international order environmental degradation in limiting growth
 Thomas claims that unlike the West where and thereby causing popular discontent and
society is often seen as coherently structured to conflict), and “group-identity conflicts” (the
be compatible with the boundaries of the state, problems of social assimilation of the migrant
in the Third World context this process has been population) in the host countries.
particularly problematic. The author notes that  It can be safely argued that in the post-Cold
owing to arbitrary creation of state boundaries War era, essentially local factors related
by European colonizers the resulting territorial to weak national integration, economic
boundaries pay insufficient attention to underdevelopment and competition for
ethnicity, indigenous historical divisions or political legitimacy and control, rather than
even at times geography, leading to Security the changing structure of the international
conflicts. system from bipolarity to multipolarity,
 Amitav Acharya argued that Cold war Era heavily would remain the major sources of Third
armed third world without democratic filters. The World instability
“security dilemma” of Third World states is the  Peripheral Realist view that major security threat
core concept. This is applied to states without to third word come from within third word,
cohesive nationalism, with weak institutional developed nations remain mere facilitator.
capacitates to maintain peace and order, with a
preoccupation with internal threats rather than
A SHORT NOTE ON EMERGING
external ones and with legitimacy problems, all
these elements make the survival of third world
CHALLENGES TO THE IDEA OF SECURITY
countries vulnerable. IN POST COLD WAR WORLD: DEBATE
 Limited resources, poverty, need for modernization
ON “HUMAN SECURITY”
and weak political institutions, lack of consensus
on national issues, expectations of dignity and  The post-Cold War international system is beset
respect, contribute towards security dilemma of with greater instability and lesser predictability.
third world. Threats to international peace and security today

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are more diffuse and multidimensional. Nature of  International networks dealing in illicit trades
threats and sources of threats have changed. The in arms, narcotics, and money laundering are in
challenges and dangers in today’s world threaten some complex ways linked to these seemingly
more and directly, the safety and wellbeing of local conflicts. Even the support of diaspora
individuals and communities. communities has been enlisted to carry out
 Some old threats and conflicts, which the campaigns of ‘ethnic cleansing’, terrorist violence,
arms procurement, and money transfers.
overarching rivalry between the two superpowers
had kept under covers during the Cold War,  A second source challenging the safety of
have resurfaced with greater intensity. These are human beings is the current unbridled process
ethnic, racial, and tribal animosities which, in the of economic globalization. Globalization has
both positive and negative aspects. What is
post-Cold War World, have taken the form of
being witnessed today is perhaps more of the
intrastate conflicts and civil wars. Not separated
negative aspects of globalization. Particularly
from the above, rather making them deadlier, the developing economies are getting adversely
are some new types and sources of violence and affected. As national economies integrate with
conflict such as those emanating from terrorism, the global market forces, traditional productive
religious fundamentalism, narco-trafficking, and structures are getting destroyed and distorted,
money laundering activities. causing deprivation and displacement of large
populations.
 Besides, one also witnesses as intensity in these
conflicts, reflected in ‘ethnic cleansings’, ‘hate  Patterns of investment and mega-development
campaigns and nationalist xenophobia, etc. It projects, such as hydro-electrical projects, and
hardly needs to be stressed that many of such economic policies of ‘export promotion’ are
directly responsible for the degradation and
conflicts threaten not only the safety of human
destruction of environment. Large populations,
beings but also the security of the states.
particularly the indigenous communities in many
 Significantly, such conflicts of today are more countries, have lost their livelihood and, were
often intra- than inter-state. Then there are other forced to migrate elsewhere including across
features too of such conflicts. Such as, they affect national borders. Large volume of speculative
the civilian populations more than the armed capital now operates through the international
combatants. Of the total 86-armed conflicts financial system. The new international banking
practices allow the speculative capital rapid
recorded in 1997, as many as 84 were intra-state.
mobility across national borders and financial
Eight out of ten casualties in recent conflicts have
barriers.
been civilians. More people have died in local-
often intra-state-conflicts than in wars between  The pressing needs for foreign investment and
the liberalization of financial markets in most
states. Also, more casualties have been on the
of the developing countries have facilitated
account of the use of small weapons that are
the movements of speculative capital in and
easily available and have remained beyond all out of the national economies almost at will.
discussions on disarmament. Consequently, national stock markets soar one
 Today, about 500 million small weapons, which day only to bottom out the next day. Countries
have an unusual longevity of life, are in use. Or, such as Mexico in 1994, Indonesia and other
some such weapons are cheap and available countries of Southeast Asia in 1997 and Brazil
in 1998 have experienced the onslaught of the
in abundance, for instance the anti-personnel
speculative capital which shook their economies
landmines, which are used by the terrorists,
to its foundation and has rendered the notions
insurgents, and all kinds of groups. Worst, these of national sovereignty and national control
‘wars’ are often being fought with ‘child soldiers. pointless.
In intra-state conflicts during the 1990s, the
 Admittedly, the financial crises of this type have
world has remained a mute spectator to the use
‘contagion’ effect for the health of the regional
of children as armed combatants and as suicide and international economies. Human security
bombers. Another notable aspect of today’s is an attempt to respond to the new global
conflicts is that while they may be local in nature, realities. It takes the individual as the nexus of its
they have wider regional and international concerns, as the true lens through which to view
dimensions. politics, economy, environment, and the society.

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It is an effort to construct a global society where  One of the interesting aspects of this new
the safety of individual is the priority, and where articulation of security is the extent to which it
global, regional, and bilateral institutions are has been embraced by some middle powers.
built and equipped to enhance human security. Canada, for example, has developed the idea
 Assessment of the character of international of human security into a major foreign policy
relations leads realists to offer several prescriptive objective. Whether this is ultimately compatible
insights. If states are to survive, they must with Canadian sovereignty is something that
maintain large standing armies, they must be realists would undoubtedly question. But for
vigilant about their defense, never trust the word those who believe that this way of thinking
of other states, and always act in the national about security promises much, the fact that some
interest. In essence, realists believe that threats states are beginning to take it seriously must be
to the security of the state are usually posed by a satisfying development. Within intellectual
circles, however, the story is far less clear-cut.
other states.
 Fierce debate is under way between those who
 With the end of the cold war, there has been
argue that security can only be meaningfully
something of a revolution in the field of security
discussed in terms of interstate behavior who
studies, with scholars and policymakers beginning
seek to push our understanding of security in
to move away from the traditional state-centric a more universal direction. Regardless of the
approach to more expansive understanding of outcome of this debate, there is no doubt that
the concept of security. Some regime theorists, many of the threats that affect states today are
for example, are beginning to examine emerging global threats that require a global effort to
regional security arrangements in Asia and overcome them.
Europe.
 Many security scholars are now accepting that our
 A more radical perspective, however, suggests understanding of what national security means,
that security should be conceived in such a what constitute threats to national security,
way as to embrace all of humanity, not just and how best to achieve national security,
states, and should focus on sources of harm is changing in important ways. The concept
other than just military threats to states. remains ambiguous, having originated from
The rationale for this shift in perspective relies on simpler definitions which initially emphasized
two main arguments. the freedom from military threat and political
coercion to later increase in sophistication and
 First, while interstate war is still possible, the include other forms of non-military security as
most violent conflicts in the world today are suited the circumstances of the time.
within states. It is not the national interest that
 Initially focusing on military might, it now
is at stake in many of these conflicts but group
encompasses a broad range of facets, all of
identity and culture. This perspective suggests
which impinge on the non-military or economic
that the realist view of security is too narrowly
security of the nation and the values espoused
formulated.
by the national society. Accordingly, in order
 Second, the capacity of the state to provide to possess national security, a nation needs to
security for its citizens has been eroded possess economic security, energy security,
by a range of non-military threats such as environmental security, etc.
environmental problems, population growth,  Security threats involve not only conventional
disease, refugees, and resource scarcity. foes such as other nation-states but also non-
This more radical approach to the issue of human state actors such as violent non-state actors,
security reflects holistic concern with human life narcotic cartels, multinational corporations,
and dignity. The idea of human security invites and nongovernmental organizations; some
us to focus on the individual’s need to be safe authorities include natural disasters and events
from hunger, disease, and repression, as well causing severe environmental damage in this
as protected against events likely to undermine category.
the normal pattern of everyday existence. It  In present scenario human security and
also implies need for a significant redistribution environmental security have become major
of wealth from the rich to the poor at a global components of national security. Human security
level. is affected by poverty, health issues, communal

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tensions etc. and in turn makes national  On one hand it makes existing security
security vulnerable as it radicalizes civil society infrastructure non-functional and also poses
and makes it prone to terrorism, crime, and threat to the land etc., for e.g., the climate
other threats for e.g., IS has posed a threat of change today puts the whole nation of Maldives
radicalization of society. Environmental security at risk. Nature disasters like tsunami jeopardize
basically undermines military and technological the surveillance and protection capabilities of
capability. the modern navies.

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Chapter - 5.8

Security Dilemma: A Catalyst For Insecurity?

 This concept rests on the assumption that states. This structural basis is exacerbated by
security is something for which states compete. the understandably conservative inclinations
In an anarchical international system lacking any of defense planners to prepare for the worst
authority capable of ensuring order, states have and focus on the capabilities of their rivals
to look to their own efforts for protection. Striving rather than rely on their benign intentions.
to obtain this, they are driven to acquire more  Ignorance and competition among different
and more power in order to escape the impact branches of the armed forces for government
of the power of other states. This, in turn, makes funds can fuel worst-case analysis. Thus, while
the others more insecure and encourages them the structure of the international system must
to prepare for the worst. Since no state can ever be seen as a fundamental precondition for the
feel entirely secure in such a world of competing security dilemma, its intensity is a consequence
states, competition follows, and the result is a both inherently violent nature of military
rising spiral of insecurity among states. capabilities and the degree to which states
 The security dilemma describes a condition perceive others as threats rather than allies.
in which efforts to improve national security Since these two factors are variable over space
have the effect of appearing to threaten and time, the intensity of the security dilemma is
other states, thereby provoking military very unevenly distributed among states.
countermoves. This in turn can lead to an  It is worth noting how each of them can vary.
decrease in security for all states. The security First, the intensity of the security dilemma varies
dilemma encapsulates one of the many difficult depending both on the degree to which one
choices facing some governments. On the one can distinguish between defensive and offensive
hand, they can relax defense efforts in order weapons, as well as the relationship between them.
to facilitate peaceful relations; the problem Other things being equal and acknowledging
here is that they may make their country more that weapons can be used offensively and
vulnerable to attack. On the other hand, they defensively, some types of weapons are more
can strengthen defense preparations, but suited to defense than offence. Defensive force
this can have the unintended consequence configurations emphasis firepower with limited
of undermining long-term security by mobility and range (e.g., anti-tank missiles), and
exacerbating international suspicions and offensive configurations emphasis mobility and
reinforcing pressures for arms racing. range (e.g., fighter-bombers).
The result can be military conflict, and many
commentators have argued that a paradigmatic  Advocates of what is called non-offensive defense
example of the security dilemma led to the First believe that the security dilemma can be muted
World War (1914–18). by the adoption of force configurations that are
least likely to provoke countermeasures by other
 It is important to note that the security states. In part this depends on the degree to
dilemma arises primarily from the alleged which defensive military technology is superior
structure of the international system rather to offensive capabilities. If potential enemies
than the aggressive motives or intentions of

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each believe that the best form of defense over 250, 000 (and counting), it is time to examine
(and deterrence) is preparing to attack, it is not the threat not just from health or medical point
difficult to see how they could be locked into a of view but from a larger perspective of national
vicious circle of mutually reinforcing suspicions. security.
 Second, the intensity of the security dilemma  The growing COVID-19 pandemic and the
varies depending on the political relationship outbreak of HIV/AIDS, Influenza H1N1 and SARS
between states. Capabilities should not be in recent past are just a few examples of diseases
examined in a political vacuum. The degree that can profoundly threaten the physical
of trust and sense of common interest in the integrity of a state.
international system is neither fixed nor uniform.
 The pandemic poses not only a greater level of
There is no security dilemma between Australia
severity in its threat to the highly afflicted
and New Zealand because neither state considers
states but also substantially endangers the
the other a threat to its national security.
security of the less affected states. The
 At the end of the twentieth century there remains pandemic presents a range of challenges to
no consensus about the severity of the security the integrity of a state and may best be tackled
dilemma, particularly between states that by various states through different institutions,
possess nuclear weapons. On the one hand, the diplomatic instruments, economic schemes, and
phenomenon of mutually assured destruction public health strategies.
on the basis of a secure second-strike capability
 The inevitable connection of pandemics and
would seem to ensure the supremacy of defense
security was best explained by the then UN
over offence.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan. He emphasized
 On the other hand, there remains doubt over on the increasing need of “collective security”
the credibility of defensive capability that offers and “biological security.”
little choice between suicide and surrender.
 Looking at the present situation, national
Some scholars argue that the security dilemma
security needs to be redefined as conventional
is particularly amongst the great powers, simply
war is no longer the primary physical threat to
because the strategic and economic gains from
a state; rather, the focus must shift to include
expanding one’s territorial control are very few.
threats from the disease that challenge the
 In an age of economic interdependence and interests of states both internally as well as
considering the degree of economic integration externally.
that exists today, it could be argued that what
is called a security community exists, at least How national security of a state can be
in North America, Western Europe, Australasia,
threatened by a pandemic?
and among some states in East Asia. A security
community is one whose members are confident  Increased rates of illness and mortality putting
that the likelihood of force being used to resolve huge strains on public health and the nation’s
conflicts between them is extremely low. Other workforce, leading to political instability, class
parts of the world, however, particularly in sub- strife, and economic recession. For example,
Saharan Africa and the Middle East, the dynamics HIV/AIDS has led to numerous problems in many
of the security dilemma remain potent danger. African countries.
 The most direct threat posed by a pandemic
COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND NATIONAL to the international community arises
SECURITY from its vulnerability to biological warfare.
It is important to note that the result of a
 The past experiences shows that pandemics not naturally spreading disease and something like
only destroy immune systems but also undermine bioterrorism is one and the same.
the social, economic, and political systems that  The failure to prevent the biological weapons’
underpin entire nations and regions. There has attack results in the same outcome – infection of
been considerable debate regarding the linkage the population – and requires the same solution.
between the pandemic and the national security. The preparation for the widespread disease
As Coronavirus or the COVID-19 reaches over 200 should, therefore, be a key focus of national
countries infecting millions of people and killing security.

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 The pandemics pose more indirect threats to Coronavirus and Migration

national security which include “the health of
the armed forces and most significantly, to  The issue of migration and refugee poses a
the social, economic, and political stability of serious security threat to the affected countries.
certain key regions.” This is because of the fact that refugees and
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) often don’t
Coronavirus and Human Security have fixed places to live, and authorities might
not know how to contact them or have the
 The scope of human security could be expanded capacity to coordinate a response.
to include not only traditional, political, and
military security but also economic, educational,  The international community so far has responded
food and health security among others. On in two distinct manners to the problem of
the economic front, the Corona pandemic has migration and Coronavirus. Both the responses
plunged the world economy into a recession with bear a strong concern for national security.
the potential of deep consequences and historical  The first response to the contentious issue
levels of unemployment and deprivation. of migration and Coronavirus forms a more
 The closure of the education sector due to the humanitarian approach. Given the condition in
spread of Coronavirus is adversely affecting the which the refugees live in the camps of Syria,
children and young people. It is disrupting the Myanmar – Bangladesh border, it would really
process of learning and human interaction which be disastrous if the Coronavirus reaches there.
is essential to social and behavioral growth. The human rights approach critically comes
 In the absence of specific anti-viral therapy, within the broad framework of national
Coronavirus has seriously damaged the security as human rights and human security
prospects of global health security. Despite are inseparable components of national
apparent decisive actions by the governments, security.
it is evident that it has affected people from all  On the other hand, the issue has taken a more
over the world – rich as well as poor countries. ominous turn in Europe, where right-wing
 The food security, another important component populists are renewing calls to crack down on
of human security, is also seriously threatened immigration, even making unsubstantiated
because of the global pandemic of COVID-19. claims that migrants from Africa brought the
It is clear that COVID-19 will have significant virus to the continent. Such a claim is bound
negative effects on people along the food to have an adverse impact on the international
supply chain involving producers to processors, relations of which national security is the most
marketers, transporters, and consumers. crucial component.

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Chapter - 5.9

Balance of Power

 The balance of power theory in international nations as will prevent any one of them from
relations suggests that states may secure their becoming sufficiently strong to enforce its will
survival by preventing any one state from upon others.” -Sidney B. Fay
gaining enough military power to dominate all  “Balance of Power is an equilibrium or a
others. If one state becomes much stronger,
certain amount of stability in power relations
the theory predicts it will take advantage of its
that under favorable conditions is produced
weaker neighbors, thereby driving them to unite
by an alliance of states or by other devices.”
in a defensive coalition. Some realists maintain
-George Schwarzenberger
that a balance-of-power system is more stable
than one with a dominant state, as aggression is  “Balance of Power is such a system in which
unprofitable when there is equilibrium of power some nations regulate their power relations
between rival coalitions. without any interference by any big power.
As such it is a decentralized system in which
 When threatened, states may seek safety either
by balancing, allying with others against the power and policies remain in the hands of
prevailing threat; or bandwagoning, aligning constituting units.” -Inis Claude
themselves with the threatening power. Other  “Balance of Power is nearly a fundamental
alliance tactics include buck-passing and chain- law of politics as is possible to find,”-Martin
ganging. Wright
 Realists have long debated how the polarity of  “Balance of Power is a basic principle of
a system impacts the choice of tactics; however, international relations.”-Palmer and Perkins
it is generally agreed that in bipolar systems,
each great power has no choice but to directly
confront the other. WHAT GAVE RISE TO BOP THEORY?
 On the one hand, a de facto unipolarity
characterized by American hegemony has been As per Waltz, here two assumptions are of central
around for much longer than the end of the Cold relevance:
War. On the other hand, the current economic First, the international system is considered to be
and political status of China places it in a pseudo- anarchic, with no system-wide authority being
superpower position vis-à-vis the United States. formally enforced on its agents. Because of this “self-
Both of these mean that the degree of unipolarity help” nature of the system, states do not have a world
that we observe today relative to the bipolarity of government to resort to in a situation of danger, but
the Cold War is, if any, weak. Therefore, much of they can only try to increase their capabilities relative
BOP’s relevance in the bipolar world will continue to one another through either internal efforts of self-
to be in today’s international system. strengthening, or external efforts of alignment and
realignment with other states.
Popular Definitions of Balance of Power:
Second, states are the principal actors in the
 “Balance of Power is such a ‘just equilibrium’ international system, as they “set the terms of the
in power among the members of the family of intercourse”, monopolize the “legitimate use of

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force “within their territories, and generally conduct

 It is safe to say that in practice, states are
foreign policy in a “single voice”. This assumption
concerned with both relative and absolute
is important because if non-state or transnational
gains to different degrees under different
actors are powerful enough to challenge state actors, circumstances. Scholars like Duncan Snidal
power configuration in the world may no longer be and Robert Axelrod have rigorously
considered in terms of polarity but, instead, in terms demonstrated the complexity of situations
of the number of layers of policy “networks.” in which these two competing interests
dynamically interact and change over time.
PREFERENCE OF RELATIVE GAIN OR  In general, though, a prevalent preference
for relative gains and, more specifically,
ABSOLUTE GAIN AND BALANCING military positionality among states
increases the likelihood of balancing
 Balance of power is closely related to the states’ relative to collective security.
preference for relative versus absolute gains.  If states tend to favor absolute gains instead,
 From an offensive realist point of view, John we are more likely to see phenomena such
Mearsheimer contends that states concerned as deep international institutions and
with balance of power must think in terms of pluralist security communities.
relative rather than absolute gain – that is, their
military advantage over others regardless of how Why is BOP conditional even if there
much capability they each have. existed a evil hegemon that other states
 The underlying logic here is at once intuitive given wanted to balance against, and the states
a self-help system and self-interested states, all pursued relative gains ?
“the greater military advantage one state
has…the more secure it is” (Mearsheimer).  Balance of power is not given without knowing
The logic is also problematic since the auxiliary the specific contingency factors unique to each
assumption that every state would then always situation.
prefer to have maximum military power in the  One additional implication of an anarchic
system) is practically meaningless. system is widespread uncertainty resulting
 Joseph Grieco points out that with the ever- from the scarcity of information since all states
present possibility of war in an anarchic system, have an incentive to misrepresent in order to
states may not cooperate even with their allies further strengthen their position in event of war
because survival is guaranteed only with a (Fearon).
“proportionate advantage”.  This explains why, historically even in periods
 The concern for relative gain predicts that states of multipolarity, and bipolarity characterized by
will prefer balance of power over collective intense suspicion and tension, balancing did not
security because the latter requires that states happen as often as BOP would predict.
trust one another enough to completely forgo  The unexpected availability of new information
relative gain through unilateral disarmament,
which leads to a change in the course of action
which is inherently at odds with the idea of
by altering pre-existing beliefs and preferences.
having a positional advantage for self-defence
(Mearsheimer).  The European states’ collective decision to
buttress the rising challenger Prussia in the 1800s
despite the latter’s clear expansionist tendency
RELATIVE GAINS OR ABSOLUTE GAINS
shows that neither intention nor preference
 The neoliberal institutionalism cooperation can be taken as a given, but both are subject to
theory essentially presumes the pursuit of circumstances (Goddard).
absolute gain over relative gain for states to
 In short, the more rapid and unpredictable is
achieve cooperation (Keohane).
the flux of information in a given situation, the
 Therefore, the pursuit of relative gain would less likely that the balance of power contingent
undercut international cooperation in general,
on existing beliefs and preferences will occur as
in both high and low politics.
predicted.

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BALANCING VERSUS BANDWAGONING involving major powers than any other part of
the world, now that detente has stabilized the
situation in Europe
 States choose to balance for two reasons. First,
they place their survival at risk if they fail to curb  There is further agreement that China and
a potential hegemon before it becomes too growing nationalism among the Asian societies
strong; to ally with the dominant power means will be the foci around which tension and conflict
placing one’s trust in its continued benevolence. are likely to build up.
 Secondly, joining the weaker side increases the  China’s rise poses a strategic challenge to India
likelihood that the new member will be influential on multiple fronts. They are:
within the alliance.  China is a direct military threat to India,
 States choose to bandwagon because it may be particularly in light of the two countries’ border
a form of appeasement as the bandwagoner disputes. Though India has considerable military
may hope to avoid an attack by diverting it power, China’s forces are already stronger and
elsewhere—a defensive reason—or because it better funded.
may align with the dominant side in wartime to  Chinese influence in both established international
share the spoils of victory—an offensive reason. organizations like the United Nations gives it
 Realists claim that balancing is when states opportunities to hamper Indian interests and
ally against the prevailing threat and goals in multilateral forums, especially when it
results in a more secure world whereas in a comes to reforming these institutions and giving
bandwagoning world security is scarce as India a greater voice in global affairs.
rising hegemons are not kept in check.  China’s alignment with Pakistan and deepening
relations with other South Asian countries
 With bandwagoning, the threatened state
represents a significant challenge to India’s
abandons hope of preventing the aggressor
position in the region.
from gaining power at its expense and instead
joins forces with its dangerous foe to get at  Balancing becomes progressively more difficult
least some small portion of the spoils of war. as the power disparity between a leading
power in a region and its neighbours grows.
 The weaker the state the more likely it is to
At a certain point, when the leading power
bandwagon than to balance as they do little to
accrues close to a majority of the region’s total
affect the outcome and thus must choose the
military expenditures, balancing becomes nearly
winning side.
impossible. In short, other things being equal,
 Strong states may change a losing side into a the greater the disparity in power, the greater
winning side and thus are more likely to balance. the difficulty of balancing.
 States will be tempted to bandwagon when allies  China’s 2016 defense budget (approximately
are unavailable, however excessive confidence in $145 billion) was already almost as much as
allied support encourages weak states to free ride the combined 2016 budgets of Australia, India,
relying on the efforts of others to provide security. Japan, the Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam
 Since bandwagoning “requires placing trust (about $147 billion). For India to rely solely or
in the aggressors continued forbearance” predominantly on regional balancing to ensure
its security, then, would be exceedingly difficult
some realists believe balancing is preferred to
and risky.
bandwagoning. According to Stephen Walt,
states are more likely to balance in peacetime  Harsh Pant and Yogesh Joshi’s book The US
but if they are on the losing side of a war they pivot and Indian foreign policy: Asia’s evolving
may defect and bandwagon in the hopes that balance of power is a comprehensive study on
they will “share the fruits of victory”. India’s responses to China’s rise and the transition
of power from an extant hegemon, the United
States (US), to the rising challenger, China.
ASIA’S BALANCE OF POWER: INDIAN
 This book examines in detail how India keeps
CONTEXT its foreign policy options viable (hedging), by
growing closer to the United States with its
 There is general agreement among those pivot in Asia, by building bridges with China
concerned with international relations and and through local balancing with other regional
strategy that for the coming years Asia is more powers in Southeast and East Asia, as part of its
likely to be an area of tension and conflict Act East policy.

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 The authors set the context by explaining the

power transition in Asia, with the progressive The concept of Internal Balancing
decline of the United States and the rise of China.
Internal balancing focuses primarily on building
This power transition is often accompanied by up independent military capabilities to counter
uncertainty and instability, as history has shown. external threats in a way that ideally obviates the
 In the case of Asia, this uncertainty is need for external alignments. Internal balancing
aggravated by the rise of various ‘swing is a corollary to nonalignment, in that the latter
states’ who hedge ‘as a means of minimizing presumes that a country has sufficient capacity for
or mitigating downside risks associated with internal balancing.
one or the other action’.
 China’s challenge to the post-Cold War liberal OFFSHORE BALANCING
order and to the ‘established patterns of Asian
security’ has not evoked a ‘coherent response’
 In his book The Tragedy of Great Power Politics,
from US. The authors use the analogy of the three
John Mearsheimer presents a unique and, in
pillars of the post-Cold War Asian security order
many ways, compelling theory about the workings
to lead us into an interesting discussion about
of the international system. In Mearsheimer’s
the United States’ lack of a coherent response to
view, the anarchic structure of world politics
China’s challenge of this order.
engenders fierce security competition among
 The Obama administration started out wooing states.
Beijing with the creation of a great power
 Indeed, because the primary goal of every state
condominium, a G-2, but later did a volte-face
is to ensure its own survival, great powers seek to
by announcing the Pivot in Asia strategy in
November 2011. gain as much power as possible. “Great powers
are primed for offense” because the most
 Renewed American focus has led to India effective method for ensuring their security is to
achieving its ‘most important foreign policy gain additional power whenever possible.
goals: dehyphenation of India and Pakistan,
parity with China in terms of great power  Thus, there are few status quo powers in
potential and recognition of India’s nuclear international politics since only “a misguided
weapons’. state would pass up an opportunity to be the
hegemon in the system because it thought it
 The authors then move to the ‘crucial already had sufficient power to survive.”
question … how would India respond to China’s
growing power: should it resort to internal  One of the distinctive components of
balancing or follow the policy of external Mearsheimer’s theory is his argument that
balancing by engaging other powers such as although every state would like to ultimately
the US?’ become a “global hegemon” and dominate the
entire world, such an achievement is not currently
 India’s inability to internally balance China’s rise
possible.
(through economic and military power) has led
to external balancing, with the help of the United  Due to the fact that no state has or is likely to
States. achieve “clear-cut nuclear superiority,” as well
as the “stopping power of water,” states instead
 India’s core belief in strategic autonomy
view the attainment of “regional hegemony” as
(non-alignment) and unwillingness to make
their foremost objective.
commitments has led to American frustration
over the ‘slow pace of transformation in the  According to Mearsheimer, however, states
US-India strategic relationship’. do not stop competing for security even if
they do become dominant in their region of
The authors have increasingly portrayed China as the
the world; to the contrary, regional hegemons
aggressor that is dissatisfied with the current world
“seek to prevent great powers in other regions
order, and which wants to promote its core interests
from duplicating their feat.”
at the cost of other states. An examination of China’s
attempts to work with the Global South, on matters  The reason for this behavior is that regional
like climate change and restructuring of existing or hegemons “fear that a rival great power that
creation of new multilateral organizations like BRICS dominates its own region will be an especially
bank and Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, would powerful foe that is essentially free to cause
have filled out the picture. trouble in the fearful great power’s backyard

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 Hence, “regional hegemons prefer that there must devote to defense, allow for greater
be at least two great powers located together investment and consumption at home, and
in other regions, because their proximity will put fewer American lives in harm’s way.
force them to concentrate their attention  Offshore balancing would also reduce the
on each other rather than on the distant risk of terrorism. Liberal hegemony commits
hegemon.” the United States to spreading democracy in
 Consequently, if a regional hegemon believes unfamiliar places, which sometimes requires
another state is likely to gain dominance in military occupation and always involves
its own area of the world, “it would no longer interfering with local political arrangement.
be a status quo power” and “would go to For example: It is worth remembering that
considerable lengths to weaken and maybe Osama bin Laden was motivated in good
part by the presence of U.S. troops in his
even destroy its distant rival.
homeland of Saudi Arabia.
 According to Mearsheimer, the United States
 Offshore balancing would alleviate this
is the only great power in modern history
problem by eschewing social engineering
to achieve the status of regional hegemon.
and minimizing the United States’ military
In Mearsheimer’s view, the United States footprint. U.S. troops would be stationed on
intervened in great power wars on four foreign soil only when a country was in a
separate occasions after it achieved regional vital region and threatened by a would-be
hegemony in the Western Hemisphere at the hegemon. In that case, the potential victim
end of the nineteenth century; in all four cases, would view the United States as a saviour
he contends, it did so “to prevent a dangerous rather than an occupier.
foe from achieving regional hegemony.”
 And once the threat had been dealt with,
 United States chose to enter the First World War U.S. military forces could go back over the
in Europe in order to keep Imperial Germany horizon and not stay behind to meddle in
from becoming dominant in the region. Likewise, local politics. By respecting the sovereignty
the Americans came in again during World War of other states, offshore balancing would
II, both to check Imperial Japan in Northeast Asia be less likely to foster anti- American
and to put a stop to Nazi Germany’s quest for terrorism.
hegemony in Europe. Finally, America provided
security guarantees to its allies in Western Europe CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF BALANCE
and kept troops in the region throughout the
OF POWER
Cold War to ensure the area was not overrun by
the Soviet Union.
Balance of Power has been strongly praised as well
 Thus, Mearsheimer refers to the United States as severely criticized. Richard Cobden criticizes it as
as an “offshore balancer” and points to four unreal, inadequate and uncertain system.
cases (given above) as evidence of the power of
offensive realist theory. Balance of Power: Arguments Against:
 Offshore balancing may seem like a radical
 Balance of Power cannot ensure Peace: Balance
strategy today, but it provided the guiding logic
of Power does not necessarily bring peace. Even
of U.S. foreign policy for many decades. The aim
during its golden days, it failed to prevent the
is to remain offshore as long as possible, while domination of small states by the big states. It
recognizing that it is sometimes necessary to was not successful in preserving the security of
come onshore. small states. The three periods of stability—one
starting from 1648, the second from 1815 and
How Offshore balancing would apply to the third from Treaty of Versailles (1918), were
the present situation? preceded by continuous warfare and by the
wholesale elimination of small states starting
 Virtues of Offshore balancing with the destruction of Poland and followed by a
large number of isolated acts of a similar nature.
 By limiting the areas, the U.S. military  States are not Static Units: Each state always
was committed to defending and forcing tries to secure more and more national power. It
other states to pull their own weight, it does not really belong to any balance of power
would reduce the resources Washington system.

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 Preponderance of One State in the world can criticized on the ground that it wrongly assumes
also secure Peace: A preponderance of power that nations are free to make or break alliances
in the hands of one state or group of states as and when they may desire for the main
does not necessarily threaten world peace or the consideration of balance of power.
independence of any nation. The unipolarism  Uncertainty of Balance of Power: Morgenthau
resulting from the collapse of one super power criticizes Balance of Power for its uncertainty.
(USSR) and the continued presence of the other Balance of Power is uncertain because its
super power (USA) has not in any way disturbed operation depends upon an evaluation of power
international peace and security or power of various nations. In practice it is not possible to
balance. have an absolutely correct evaluation of power
 Narrow Basis: The concept of Balance of Power of a state.
is based upon a narrow view of international  Balance of Power is Unreal: Since the evaluation
relations. It regards power relations as the whole of the national power of a nation is always
of international relations. It gives near total uncertain, no nation can afford dependence
importance to preservation of self and national upon the balance of power. Each nation always
interest as the motives of all state actions. It fails keeps a secret about its power. Since all nations
to give proper weight age to other ends—social, keep safe margins, the balance of power at a
economic, cultural and moral, that provide strong particular time is always unreal.
motives to international relations.
 Inadequacy of Balance of Power: Balance
 A Mechanical view of Peace: Balance of Power of Power in itself is an inadequate device of
wrongly takes a mechanistic view of world peace international peace and security. It even accepts
as a situation of balance or equilibrium in power war as a means for maintaining a balance. Fear
relations. Peace does not depend upon balance cannot be a real basis of international relations.
in power relations. It really depends upon Finally, the critics argue that now Balance of
international consciousness and morality. Power it is not a relevant principle of international
 Equality of a number of States is a Myth: relations.
Balance of Power presupposes the existence of  The big changes in the international system as
a number of equally powerful states. In practice well as in the balance of power system have
no two states have or can have equal power. It made it almost an obsolete system. Undoubtedly,
involves the conception of equilibrium which is in in contemporary times the balance of power has
fact disequilibrium and is subject to continuous lost its utility and much of its importance due
change. to changes in the international system. This calls
 Nations are not free to break Alliances: The for an emergence of an alternative in form of
theory of the balance of power can also be collective security.

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Chapter - 5.10

Deterrence Theory

 Deterrence theory is the idea that an inferior force,  Frank C. Zagare made the case that deterrence
by virtue of the destructive power of the force’s theory is logically inconsistent, not empirically
weapons, could deter a more powerful adversary, accurate, and that it is deficient as a theory. In
provided that this force could be protected against place of classical deterrence, rational choice
destruction by a surprise attack. scholars have argued for perfect deterrence,
 This doctrine gained increased prominence as a which assumes that states may vary in their
military strategy during the Cold War with regard internal characteristics and especially in the
to the use of nuclear weapons and is related to, credibility of their threats of retaliation.
but distinct from, the concept of Mutual assured  In a January 2007 article in the Wall Street Journal,
destruction, which models the preventative veteran cold-war policy makers Henry Kissinger,
nature of full-scale nuclear attack that would Bill Perry, George Shultz, and Sam Nunn
devastate both parties in a nuclear war. reversed their previous position and asserted
 Deterrence is a strategy intended to dissuade that far from making the world safer, nuclear
an adversary from taking an action not yet weapons had become a source of extreme risk.
started by means of threat of reprisal,or to  Their rationale and conclusion was not based on
prevent them from doing something that the old world with only a few nuclear players,
another state desires. but on the instability in many states possessing
 The strategy is based on the psychological the technologies and the lack of wherewithal
concept of the same name. A credible nuclear to properly maintain and upgrade existing
deterrent, Bernard Brodie wrote in 1959, must weapons in many states: The risk of accidents,
be always at the ready, yet never used. misjudgments or unauthorised launches, they
 In Thomas Schelling’s classic work on deterrence, argued, was growing more acute in a world
the concept that military strategy can no longer of rivalries between relatively new nuclear
be defined as the science of military victory is states that lacked the security safeguards
presented. Instead, it is argued that military developed over many years by America and
strategy was now equally, if not more, the art of the Soviet Union. The emergence of pariah
coercion, of intimidation and deterrence. states, such as North Korea (possibly soon
to be joined by Iran), armed with nuclear
 Schelling says the capacity to harm another
weapons was adding to the fear as was the
state is now used as a motivating factor for
declared ambition of terrorists to steal, buy or
other states to avoid it and influence another
build a nuclear device.
state’s behavior. To be coercive or deter another
state, violence must be anticipated and avoidable
Conceptual Analysis
by accommodation.
 It can therefore be summarized that the use  The concept of deterrence can be defined as
of the power to hurt as bargaining power is the use of threats by one party to convince
the foundation of deterrence theory and is another party to refrain from initiating
most successful when it is held in reserve. some course of action. A threat serves as a

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deterrent to the extent that it convinces its and the benefits of compliance it can offer to,
target not to carry out the intended action another state are greater than the benefits of
because of the costs and losses that target noncompliance and the costs of compliance.
would incur. In international security, a policy  Deterrence theory holds that nuclear weapons
of deterrence generally refers to threats of
are intended to deter other states from attacking
military retaliation directed by the leaders
with their nuclear weapons, through the promise
of one state to the leaders of another in an
of retaliation and possibly mutually assured
attempt to prevent the other state from
destruction (MAD). Nuclear deterrence can also
resorting to the threat of use of military force
be applied to an attack by conventional forces;
in pursuit of its foreign policy goals.
for example, the doctrine of massive retaliation
 As outlined by Huth, a policy of deterrence can threatened to launch US nuclear weapons in
fit into two broad categories being (i) preventing response to Soviet attacks.
an armed attack against a state’s own territory
(known as direct deterrence); or (ii) preventing  A successful nuclear deterrent requires that a
an armed attack against another state (known as country preserve its ability to retaliate, either
extended deterrence). by responding before its own weapons are
destroyed or by ensuring a second-strike
 Situations of direct deterrence often occur when capability. A nuclear deterrent is sometimes
there is a territorial dispute between neighboring composed of a nuclear triad, as in the case of the
states in which major powers like the United
nuclear weapons owned by the United States,
States do not directly intervene. On the other
Russia, the People’s Republic of China, and India.
hand, situations of extended deterrence often
Other countries, such as the United Kingdom
occur when a great power becomes involved.
and France, have only sea- and air-based nuclear
 It is the latter that has generated the majority of weapons.
interest in academic literature. Building on these
two broad categories, Huth goes on to outline
that deterrence policies may be implemented in SPECIAL REFERENCE: THEORETICAL
response to a pressing short-term threat (known ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION
as immediate deterrence) or as strategy to AND NUCLEAR DETERRENCE
prevent a military conflict or short-term threat
from arising (known as general deterrence).
 Nuclear weapons are the most powerful and
 A successful deterrence policy must be destructive weapons held in the arsenals of any
considered in not only military terms, but also in modern states. Since the creation of the nuclear
political terms; specifically International Relations bomb, many have feared that a nuclear war could
(IR), foreign policy and diplomacy. In military lead to the end of life on earth as we currently
terms, deterrence success refers to preventing know it.
state leaders from issuing military threats and
actions that escalate peacetime diplomatic and  The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
military cooperation into a crisis or militarized Weapons (NPT) is the central organization
confrontation which threatens armed conflict working towards maintaining nuclear peace
and possibly war. and preventing the further spread of nuclear
arms. The NPT’s main focus is preventing further
 The prevention of crises of wars however is
nuclear proliferation.
not the only aim of deterrence. In addition,
defending states must be able to resist the State Survival Theory
political and military demands of a potential
attacking nation. If armed conflict is avoided  Realists generally believe that states must
at the price of diplomatic concessions to the fight for their own survival; this is due to their
maximum demands of the potential attacking theory that the world is in a state of anarchy
nation under the threat of war, then it cannot (Mearsheimer). During WW2, the US, United
be claimed that deterrence has succeeded. Kingdom (UK), Germany, Japan and the USSR all
 Furthermore, as Jentleson argue, In broad had nuclear weapon programs at various stages
terms, a state wishing to implement a strategy of development. The side to ‘develop a nuclear
of deterrence is most likely to succeed if the bomb first would have the ability to win the war
costs of non-compliance it can impose on, and survive’.

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 Carranza argues that using nuclear weapons to  After China’s first nuclear tests in 1964, India started
defend a state can be a positive action, as other pushing forward with nuclear development, with
states are less likely to be aggressive towards a their program starting in 1967, and first test in
nuclear-armed state. This highlights the benefits 1974. There are many arguments for why India
of proliferation and supports the survival theory. wanted nuclear weapons, mainly focused on the
 Another reason for less potential aggression from concept of state survival. For example, Riedel
other states is due to the fear that just one single believes that the 1962 Himalayan border war
between India and China was the most influential
nuclear exchange between two states could lead
factor in India’s decision to develop a nuclear
to devastating effects. However, a downside to
arsenal. This can be seen to emphasize India’s
one state having nuclear weapons is that other
desire for nuclear weapons as a decision based
states may feel threatened by this and actively
on the state’s survival. Furthermore, in 1972
seek nuclear weapons themselves.
Pakistan started working towards obtaining a
 The Cold War saw an acceleration of states that nuclear capability due to India’s nuclear program
sought to gain nuclear weapons in the interest and, in particular, the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War
of their survival. In particular, for the UK and that cost Pakistan a lot of territory. These tensions
France, this was due to their doubts that the US’s led Pakistan to nuclear development in fear of
guarantee of nuclear protection to North Atlantic their state’s survival in case of further war with
Treaty Organization (NATO) member states could India. It could be argued that China, India, and
be relied upon. A secondary argument relates to Pakistan all had very reasonable grounds to seek
‘great power’ status as the reason for both the nuclear weapons, due to past wars and ongoing
UK and France seeking nuclear weapons. Because security concerns.
of doubts relating to NATO, the UK and France
moved forward with their own nuclear weapons
programs to have better control over their own. NATIONAL PRESTIGE THEORY
 The necessity for the UK’s nuclear weapons
 It has been argued that many authoritarian
program has been questioned on numerous
regimes seek nuclear weapons for national
occasions. For example, Hill argue that the UK’s
prestige, often thought to be a way of becoming
nuclear weapons had absolutely no influence at
an international player. For example, North
all during the Cold War and did not deter any
Korea’s recent nuclear weapons proliferation
potential enemies. This highlights that a state’s
and tests are believed by some to be for national
survival by means of nuclear weapons is not
prestige, both internationally and domestically.
always necessary, but this does not necessarily
Kim argues that the domestic factor in North
remove the desire for proliferation. This could at
Korea’s case is a way for Kim Jong-Il and, since
times be seen as the state survival theory being
his death, Kim Jong-un to show the military
used as an excuse or a fear campaign to gain
and citizens their strength. Ji states that ‘the
public support for nuclear development.
interests of the military and Kim Jong-Il
 In Eastern and Southern Asia, China started a are inevitably concentrated on the nuclear
nuclear arms survival race, involving India and weapons program to assure the survival of
Pakistan. In the face of the Korean War and the his regime’. ‘Survival of his regime’ can be
Taiwan Straits Crisis, China started developing seen to extend gaining national prestige from
nuclear weapons in 1954. This was seen as a proliferation through continued power.
deterrent for the US and later the USSR.
 However, many disagree with the national
 Robert argues that China is often forgotten in the prestige theory in the case of North Korea’s
nuclear weapons world, and that China’s nuclear motivation for nuclear weapons. For example,
program ultimately led to India and then, in turn, Faulkner argues that North Korea’s nuclear
Pakistan developing their own nuclear arsenals. program is centered on their Military First Policy
The survival theory in this case is supported by and rewarding loyal military leaders with the
China’s No First Use Policy, whereby they have funding and resources necessary to produce
pledged to only use their nuclear arsenal in nuclear weapons. This could imply that Kim
retaliation to nuclear attack from another state. Jong-Il/ Kim Jong-un sought nuclear weapons as
However, China’s credibility as to whether they a means to maintain power, by keeping military
would honor their No First Use Policy has been leaders happy. For North Korea, it can be argued
questioned, placing their defensive/survival that national prestige maybe an internal prestige,
intentions in question. one based on keeping the regime in power.

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 Many also see North Korea’s nuclear program  Waltz’s idea is simple in the fact that he assumes
as at least partly due to state survival. This no state would ever attempt an action that cancels
argument is in line with North Korea’s official out the potential gains from it. Waltz supports
reasoning behind its nuclear program. The US nuclear proliferation because the notion of
and South Korea have been cited by the North Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) logically
Korean government as the biggest threats to makes nuclear war unacceptable and entirely
their survival. preventable. “States are not likely to run major
risks for minor gains within international
 Gebru believes that no one theory explains North
relations,” Waltz argues.
Korea’s intentions; rather a mixture of reasons
are most likely behind their ongoing nuclear  Another factor of the rational deterrence theory
program. This includes national prestige theory, is the idea of a ‘second strike’ capability where
which could be being used to support the North a state can still respond with a nuclear strike
Korean government’s public projection of their against an enemy even if they suffer a massive
attack. The notion of a second strike causes the
state’s world power status to the North Korean
conception of MAD as a state can still respond
people.
against an aggressor that would culminate in the
nuclear destruction of both states.
‘GREAT POWER’ STATUS  Waltz’s argument continues because the
possession of nuclear weapons by states makes
 Gowing has argued that both the UK and France them ‘exceedingly cautious’ and they will not fight
entered their respective nuclear programs if they can’t win much and stand to lose everything.
because of ‘great power’ status theory. Furthermore, another prominent neorealist John
Gowing describes ‘great power’ status as the Mearsheimer agrees with Waltz by saying that
phenomenon of past powerful states looking “nuclear weapons are a superb deterrent”
to regain/retain at least a minimal amount and he argues that proliferation actually makes
of their past or current power. The two world the world safer. He refers to the potential that
wars saw the end of both France and the UK’s Germany, Ukraine, Japan and possibly Brazil have
former ‘great power’ status, and each are argued in successfully developing a nuclear weapons
to have seen nuclear weapons as a needed factor program with their advanced economic, social,
of current and future ‘great powers.’ and political infrastructure. However, Waltz is
quick to stipulate that nuclear weapons can only
 Pifer believes that there were genuine fears be possessed and safely controlled by states that
about NATO’s reliability, but the desire to retain have strong leadership over its citizens and that are
some power was also a factor in seeking nuclear deemed “politically reliable” and therefore resistant
arms. to potential coup d’états.
 Another factor was that the US was seen as having  The direct opposition to Waltz’s debate is the
too much control over NATO which, considering argument put forward by Scott Sagan and his
both states’ previous levels of military power, left analysis of how the spread of nuclear weapons
them feeling powerless. would affect international relations. Sagan believes
nuclear proliferation and the search states conduct
to develop nuclear weapons is based on three
THE DEBATE BETWEEN WALTZ AND
models that he has developed from past history
SAGAN ABOUT NUCLEAR DETERRENCE and evidence collected since the creation of nuclear
weapons and the original atomic bomb.
 Waltz’s belief in a strong defence to deter an  Sagan deduces that “nuclear weapons programs
attack is underpinned with the notion that the are not obvious or inevitable solutions to
action will be strongly punished against by the international security problems; instead,
defending state. The basic principle of deterrence they are solutions looking for a problem to
is that it is built upon the principle of “inducing which to attach themselves so as to justify
someone to refrain from unwanted action by their existence.” With Sagan looking from an
putting before him the prospect that taking organisational perspective, his analysis leads to
it will prompt a response with disadvantages a pessimistic outlook regarding preventative
to him outweighing the advantages of the nuclear war because it draws attention to military
action.” biases that could encourage such attacks.

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 Sagan observes that the military are solely focused  Peter Lavoy believes that “nuclear weapons will
upon military victory which “means defeating the prevent future war between India and Pakistan”
enemy in a narrow military sense but does not but in modern international relations we have
necessarily mean achieving broader political seen increasing tension in the region from both
goals in war.” From this perspective, Sagan sides. The 2001-2002 Indian-Pakistani standoff
views nuclear proliferation as a tool to enforce occurred when both sides mobilised a large
military power because from an organisational number of military forces on the Line of Control
approach, “military bureaucracies, like other in Kashmir in preparation for a war. The dispute
organisations are usually interested in having was eventually diplomatically resolved with help
more resources: they want more weapons,
from the United States, but the threat of nuclear
more men in uniform, more of the budget
war was still prominent because of the fearful
pie.” This reasoning explains the reason behind
nature that a conventional war could quite easily
nuclear arms races where unchecked nuclear
turn into a nuclear one. However, recently India
proliferation would lead to a widespread increase
and Pakistan have been seeking to improve
of nuclear weapons around the world which
forms the basis of the theory behind the security relations with each other, but Kapur suggests this
dilemma. is from the shift of domestic priorities, politics,
and non-nuclear strategic calculations within the
 The concept of security dilemma within IR can also
region rather than from nuclear deterrence.
cause nuclear proliferation where intensifying
international tension, be it either regional or on  There is no question that nuclear weapons allow
a global scale can create arms races particularly a state that is conventionally weak in this case
focusing on nuclear as a motivation to protect Pakistan, to challenge territorial status quo with
their own interests. less fear of a full Indian military response. However,
 Sagan believes that the cost benefit logic of the the relationship between the two states which in
total destructive nature of nuclear war cannot this case is embodied by a border dispute does
be relied upon to prevent conflict in the future have a significant risk of catastrophic escalation.
in contrary to what Waltz believes and that  Sagan believes that if this would ever happen
this can be used as a positive force for peace. within international relations, it would not only
“Nuclear weapons are not controlled by critically de-stable regional security of South-
states or statesmen; they are controlled by East Asia but also drastically increase the
organisations,” Sagan adds. non-proliferation agenda. Through a realist
 In his view, organisations have biases and perspective, they are acting rationally, moving to
parochial interests where if they are not strongly balance out each other’s perceived advantage so
controlled by a civilian institution can potentially that they remain on an equal basis, maintaining
lead to deterrence failures. “Nuclear weapons the status quo. The danger of nuclear proliferation
do not produce perfect nuclear organisations; is that using rational logic, if a states pursues a
they only make their inevitable mistakes nuclear weapon development policy then this will
more deadly. Because of the inherent limits force other regional states to do the same having
of organisational reliability, the spread of potentially dire consequences where it would
nuclear weapons is more to be feared than
be “dangerous and detrimental to the interests
welcomed.”
of the international community,” increasing the
 One example of proliferation endangering, prospect of war and conflict.
and destabilising international security is the
 Looking at current international relations, Waltz
relationship between India and Pakistan. Since
is not too concerned by the insecurity of smaller
May 1998, both India and Pakistan have held
nuclear weapons; however, this by no means states that pursue nuclear proliferation because
for sure that South Asian security is stable and from a realist assumed perspective because of
rules out the possibility of war if we follow the the safety and security that will be used to guard
rational deterrence theory. Kapur argues that them. “We do not have to wonder whether they
nuclear weapons in the region have destabilised will take good care of their weapons. They
it for two reasons: firstly, that Pakistani nuclear have every incentive to do so. They will not
weapons protects it against Indian retaliation want to risk retaliation because one or more
and secondly can actually encourage Pakistani of their warheads accidentally struck another
aggression within the region. country. “

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 However, Sagan is far more pessimistic where  Pakistan’s acting UN ambassador, Raza Bashir
he suggests that the emergence of new nuclear Tarar responded by saying that “no country can
powers may “lack the organisational and be expected to compromise on its fundamental
financial resources to produce adequate security interests for an instrument that is
mechanical safety devices and safe weapons ‘cost free’ for all other concerned countries,”
design features.” In Sagan’s opinion, the spread referring to the ban of nuclear fissile material
of nuclear weapons will unnecessarily increase imposed by the nuclear powers upon non-nuclear
the chance of war as this will inevitably increase states to pursue their own nuclear development
the chance of ‘pre-emptive’ and preventative programmes. This indicates that major nuclear
attacks on proliferating states such as the 2007 states are not just concerned with the spread of
Israeli example against the Syria. Such action nuclear weapons but also the safety of nuclear
will unquestionably destabilise regional security
material which utilised in the right way can be
as states will look to secure their own security,
just as dangerous as a nuclear weapon.
national borders, and protection of its citizens
from neighbouring states, particular those who  In 2009, newly elected president Barack Obama
are nuclear proliferating. on a state visit to Prague, Czech Republic
outlined his vision for a ‘nuclear free world’
 Sagan uses the example of the Cold War and the
‘nuclear peace’ between the United States and calling for a global summit on nuclear security
the USSR by saying that “this should be a cause and international cooperation asserting US non-
of celebration and wonder; it should not be an proliferation policies directing attention to Iran
excuse for inaction with either arms control or and North Korea. “The existence of thousands
non-proliferation.” of nuclear weapons is the most dangerous
legacy of the Cold War,” Obama said where
 Both scholars and theorists from the liberal
he outlined American foreign policy of non-
and realist schools of thought within IR believe
proliferation and stronger international support
that the future of non-proliferation rely on long
where he said the American government would
term approaches of strengthening the NPT by
eventually reducing the existing stockpile and ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
possibly abolishing them altogether. Thomas and support the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
Schelling believes that major nuclear powers (START) with Russia.
such as the United States should continue to deter  However, in the past, the United States for
other states from developing and potentially example has failed to fully support and provide
using nuclear weapons in the future and this funding for anti-proliferation efforts which have
should be the goal of international organisations been criticised by the international community
within the 21st century. and most notably from Scott Sagan. In his view,
 Security of nuclear weapons remains of critical the US has paid little attention to multilateral
importance within modern international security assurances that are aimed to give
relations and the United States in recent years positive reassurance for states more than the
has been concerned regarding the acquisition of proliferation and acquisition of its own nuclear
fissile material which can then be used to create weapons would have.
nuclear weapons. American policy has been to
 Sagan identifies that through non-nuclear
buy Russian highly enriched Uranium over a
means, if states can improve their own security
period of 20 years for total cost of $12 billion to
and feel safe within a region then this would not
prevent the dispersal of theft of nuclear material
push states towards proliferation as a reason to
because of the START-II and future START-III
bilateral nuclear decommission treaties. increase their own security from either external
or internal threats.
 One of the most important aspects of nuclear
safety is the security of the excess of weapon  Stronger international cooperation is important
grade material from the stockpiles of huge nuclear especially involving the IAEA because the access
arsenals may fall into the possession of potential and privilege given to the IAEA is seen as an
‘rogue states and non-national groups. According important step towards global non-proliferation.
to the United States Enrichment Corporation The IAEA are constrained by its budget and
(USEC) it is entirely possible to make a nuclear limited to inspecting publicly declared nuclear
weapon from reactor grade plutonium as it is very weapons sites, without the authorisation to find
similar to weapon grade material and not a myth as clandestine and secretive sites within states that
it was previously thought. are suspected of nuclear proliferation

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TEN SERIOUS FLAWS IN NUCLEAR  It requires rational decision makers. Nuclear

DETERRENCE THEORY deterrence will not be effective against a decision
maker who is irrational. For example, side A
may threaten nuclear retaliation for an attack
 It is only a theory. It is not proven and cannot be
by adversary B, but the leader of side B may
proven. A theory may posit a causal relationship,
irrationally conclude that the leader of side A will
for example, if one party does something,
not do what he says. Or the leader of side B may
certain results will follow. In the case of nuclear
irrationally attack side A because he does not care
deterrence theory, it is posited that if one party
if one million or ten million of his countrymen die
threatens to retaliate with nuclear weapons, the
other side will not attack. That an attack has not as a result of side A’s nuclear retaliation. Do all
occurred, however, does not prove that it was leaders of all states behave rationally at all times,
prevented by nuclear deterrence. That a nuclear particularly under conditions of extreme stress
attack has not happened may be a result of any when tensions are very high? Can we be assured
number of other factors, or simply of exceptional that all leaders of all states will behave rationally
good fortune. at all times in the future? Most people believe
the answer to these questions is an unqualified
 It requires a commitment to mass murder.
No.
Nuclear deterrence leads to policy debates
about how many threatened deaths with nuclear  It instils a false sense of confidence. Nuclear
weapons are enough to deter an adversary? Are deterrence is frequently confused with nuclear
one million deaths sufficient to deter adversary “defense,” leading to the conclusion that
A? Is it a different number for adversary B? How nuclear weapons provide some form of physical
many deaths are sufficient? One million? Ten protection against attack. This conclusion is
million? One hundred million? More? There will simply wrong. The weapons and the threat of
always be a tendency to err on the side of more their use provide no physical protection. The
deaths, and thus the creation of more elaborate only protection provided is psychological and
nuclear killing systems. Such calculations, in once the weapons start flying it will become
turn, drive arms races, requiring huge allocations clear that psychological protection is not physical
of resources to weapons systems that must protection. One can believe the weapons make
never be used. Leaders must convince their him safer, but this is not the same as actually
own populations that the threat of mass murder being safer. Because nuclear deterrence theory
and the expenditure of resources to support provides a false sense of confidence, it could
this threat make them secure and is preferable lead a possessor of the weapons to take risks
to other allocations of scientific and financial that would be avoided without nuclear threats
resources. The result is not only a misallocation in place. Such risks could be counterproductive
of resources, but also a diversion of effort away and actually lead to nuclear war.
from cooperative solutions to global problems.
 It does not work against an accidental use.
 It requires effective communications. In effect, Nuclear deterrence is useful, if at all, only against
nuclear deterrence is a communications theory. the possibility of an intentional, premeditated
Side A must communicate its capability and nuclear attack. Its purpose is to make the
willingness to use its nuclear arsenal in retaliation leader who contemplates the intentional use of
for an attack by adversary B, thereby preventing
a nuclear weapon decide against doing so. But
adversary B from attacking. The threat to retaliate
nuclear deterrence cannot prevent an accidental
and commit mass murder must be believable to
use of a nuclear weapon, such as an accidental
a potential attacker. Communications take place
launch. There is no such thing as a “fool proof”
verbally in speeches by leaders and parliamentary
system, and when nuclear weapons are involved,
statements, as well as news reports and even by
it is extremely dangerous to think there is.
rumors. Communications also take place non-
verbally in the form of alliance formations and  It doesn’t work against terrorist organizations.
nuclear weapons and missile tests. In relation to Nuclear deterrence is based upon the threat
nuclear deterrence, virtually everything that each of retaliation. Since it is not possible to
side does is a deliberate or inadvertent form of retaliate against a foe that you cannot locate,
communication to a potential adversary. There the threat of retaliation is not credible under
is much room for error and misunderstanding. these circumstances. Further, terrorists are

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often suicidal (e.g., “suicide bombers”), and are TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES TO

willing to die to inflict death and suffering on an THEORY OF DETERRENCE
adversary. For these reasons, nuclear deterrence
will be ineffective in preventing nuclear terrorism. 2020 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT)
The only way to prevent nuclear terrorism is to Review Conference raised important increasing
prevent the weapons themselves from falling nuclear risks. Nuclear risks are changing for the worse
into the hands of terrorist organizations. This because of geopolitical and technological, as far as the
will become increasingly difficult if nuclear geopolitical dynamics are concerned, the shift in the
weapons and the nuclear materials to build them global balance of power equations has meant that rule
proliferate to more and more countries. making, and enforcement have become the victims of
great power politics because both rule making and
 It encourages nuclear proliferation. To the enforcement require some consensus among powers.
extent that the theory of nuclear deterrence is But a second significant factor should be noted that
accepted as valid and its flaws overlooked or could also lead to possible breakdown in nuclear
ignored, it will make nuclear weapons seem to deterrence: The impact of new technologies.
be valuable instruments for the protection of  Emerging technologies such as Artificial
a country. Thus, the uncritical acceptance of intelligence (AI) and Hypersonic weapons,
nuclear deterrence theory provides an incentive among others, are posing new questions to the
for nuclear proliferation. If it is believed that traditional understanding of deterrence.
nuclear weapons can keep a country safe, there
 These new technologies could increase regional
will be commensurate pressure to develop such and global nuclear insecurities and therefore it is
weapons. necessary to discuss this more seriously in order
 It is not believable. In the final analysis, it is to manage the risks associated with nuclear
likely that even the policy makers who promote weapons and application of deterrence.
nuclear deterrence do not truly believe in it. If  The development of hypersonic could potentially
policy makers did truly believe that nuclear have a big impact on nuclear stability. A key
deterrence works as they claim, they would not problem here is that such weapons can increase
need to develop missile defenses. The United the possibility of surprise attacks because of the
States alone has spent over $100 billion on difficulty of detecting and countering them.
developing missile defenses over the past three  At same time they present the possibility of
decades and is continuing to spend some $10 offering a temptation to attack first in the hope
billion annually on missile defense systems. Such of decapitating the enemy leadership or even
attempts at physical protection against nuclear destroying second-strike nuclear retaliatory
attacks are unlikely to ever be fully successful, but capabilities.
they demonstrate the underlying understanding  An additional problem is that hypersonic weapons
of policy makers that nuclear deterrence alone is potentially blur the line between conventional
insufficient to provide protection to a country and nuclear weapons, which will also increase
instability because of the discrimination
 Its failure would be catastrophic. Nuclear
problem.
deterrence theory requires the development and
deployment of nuclear weapons for the threat  Another evolving technology is Ballistics Missile
Technology (BMD), which also has similar
of retaliation. These weapons can, of course, be
problems. Nuclear deterrence and stability
used for initiating attacks as well as for seeking
are based on mutual vulnerability, and BMDs
to prevent attacks by means of threatened threaten to undo this key source of stability, with
retaliation. Should deterrence theory fail, such unpredictable consequences.
failure could result in consequences beyond our
 A third area is outer space, which Russia has
greatest fears. For example, scientists have found
been raising repeatedly in the NPT platforms. The
in simulations of the use of 100 Hiroshima-size
increasing use of and reliance on space for
nuclear weapons in an exchange between India national security missions has led states to
and Pakistan, the deaths could reach one billion develop counter-space capabilities to disrupt,
individuals due to blast, fire, radiation, climate deny, degrade, or destroy space systems. These
change, crop failures and resulting starvation. A include both kinetic and non-kinetic means, the
larger nuclear war between the US and Russia greater reliance on space assets increases nuclear
could destroy civilization as we know it. vulnerabilities.

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Chapter - 5.11

Collective Security and Collective Defense

COLLECTIVE SECURITY Ideal Conditions for The Success of

 Collective Security is currently regarded as Collective Security
the most promising approach to international
peace. It is regarded as a valuable device of crisis  Consensus on the definition of Aggression.
management in international relations.  Broader based and more powerful International
 It is designed to protect international peace Organization United Nations.
and security against war and aggression in any  More powerful role of UN Security Council and
part of the world. Collective Security postulates strong commitment of its permanent members
a commitment on the part of all the nations to in favour of collective security of international
collectively meet an aggression that may be peace and security.
committed by any state against another.
 Existence of a permanent international peace
 Collective Security is also regarded as a deterrent keeping force.
against aggression in so far as it lays down that
the collective power of all nations will be used to  An established procedure for termination of
repel aggression or war against any state. every collective security action.
 It is based on the principle, ‘Aggression  Popularization of peaceful means of conflict
against any one member of the international resolution.
community is an aggression against  Sustainable socio-economic development of all
international peace and security. As such it the nations.
has to be met by the collective efforts of all
the nations. In other words, Collective Security  Strengthening of peaceful means of crisis-
has been ‘One for All and All for One. management and international peace keeping.

 In simple words, Collective Security system Morgenthau states that three prerequisites must
guarantees the security of each state of the be met for collective security to successfully
world against any war or aggression which may prevent war:
be committed by any state against any other  The collective security system must be able to
state. assemble military force in strength greatly in
excess to that assembled by the aggressor(s)
Definitions thereby deterring the aggressor(s) from
 George Schwarzenberger - “Collective attempting to change the world order defended
Security is machinery for joint action in order by the collective security system.
to prevent or counter any attack against an  Those nations, whose combined strength would
established international order.” be used for deterrence as mentioned in the first
 Palmer and Perkins - “Collective Security prerequisite, should have identical beliefs about
clearly implies collective measures for dealing the security of the world order that the collective
with threats to peace.” is defending.

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 Nations must be willing to subordinate their threaten peace, thereby avoiding any conflict.
conflicting interests to the common good defined
in terms of the common defines of all member
COLLECTIVE DEFENSE
states. Sovereign nations eager to maintain
the status quo, willingly cooperate, accepting
a degree of vulnerability and in some cases of  Collective defense is an arrangement, usually
minor nations, also accede to the interests of formalized by a treaty and an organization,
among participant states that commit support
the chief contributing nations organizing the
in defense of a member state if it is attacked
collective security. Thus, unlike BOP, it will meet
by another state outside the organization.
the issue of international peace and domination
NATO is the best-known collective defense
of one power. It too ensures equality in states. organization; its famous Article 5 calls on (but
 Collective Security is achieved by setting up an does not fully commit) member states to assist
international cooperative organization, under the another member under attack. This article was
auspices of international law and this gives rise invoked after the September 11 attacks on the
to a form of international collective governance, United States, after which other NATO members
albeit limited in scope and effectiveness. provided assistance to the US War on Terror in
Afghanistan.
 The collective security organization then
becomes an arena for diplomacy and exercise  Collective defense has its roots in multiparty
of soft power. The use of hard power by alliances and entails benefits as well as risks.
states, unless legitimized by the Collective On the one hand, by combining and pooling
Security organization, is considered illegitimate, resources, it can reduce any single state’s cost of
reprehensible, and needing remediation of some providing fully for its security. Smaller members
kind. The collective security organization not of NATO, for example, have leeway to invest a
greater proportion of their budget on non-
only gives cheaper security, but also may
military priorities, such as education or health,
be the only practicable means of security
since they can count on other members to come
for smaller nations against more powerful
to their defense, if needed.
threatening neighbours without the need of
joining the camp of the nation’s balancing  On the other hand, collective defense also involves
their neighbors. risky commitments. Member states can become
embroiled in costly wars benefiting neither the
Organski lists five basic assumptions underlying direct victim nor the aggressor. In World War I,
the theory of collective security: countries in the collective defense arrangement
 In an armed conflict, member nation-states will be known as the Triple Entente (France, Britain,
able to agree on which nation the aggressor is. Russia) were pulled into war quickly when Russia
started full mobilization against Austria-Hungary,
 All member nation-states are equally committed
whose ally Germany subsequently declared war
to contain and constrain the aggression,
on Russia.
irrespective of its source or origin.
 All member nation-states have identical freedom
of action and ability to join in proceedings against DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLLECTIVE
the aggressor. SECURITY AND COLLECTIVE DEFENCE
 The cumulative power of the cooperating
members of the alliance for collective security  A collective defence arrangement is made
will be adequate and sufficient to overpower the by a group of nations who have a common
might of the aggressor. perception of threat to their security from a
common enemy. Usually, a collective defence
 In the light of the threat posed by the collective system is organized as an alliance involving a
might of the nations of a collective security coalition, regional defence system. Collective Security
the aggressor nation will modify its policies, or if stands for a universal system in which all states
unwilling to do so, will be defeated. of the world participate. It is designed to act as a
The term “collective security” has also been cited as deterrent against any aggression against any
a principle of the United Nations, and the League nation.
of Nations before that. By employing a system of  Collective Defence is a limited or group system,
collective security, the UN hopes to dissuade any whereas Collective Security is a global system.
member state from acting in a manner likely to CD involves only some states who come forward

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to join hands against a common enemy. CS  Basis of Balance of Power is Mutual Fear, while that
involves all the states of the world. of Collective Security is Mutual Cooperation
 In Collective Defence possible threat is  Balance of Power operates in the Absence of a
known not in Collective Security. In Collective Global Organization.
Security threat to security is sudden. Any war
 Collective Security essentially involves the
or aggression by any one state against any
existence of an International Organization.
other state is covered under the system of
collective security.  The operation Collective Security necessitates
the existence of an international institution, like
 In Collective Defence enemy is known in
the United Nations, for organizing the creation
advance, Collective Security the enemy is every
of a global preponderance of power necessary
aggressor.
to meet an aggression in any part of the system.
 Collective Defence admits Advance Planning, In contrast, a state can pursue a Balance of Power
Collective Security does not. unilaterally, and if it makes alliance, relatively
simple rules and institutional arrangements are
COLLECTIVE SECURITY AND BALANCE likely to suffice.
OF POWER
UN COLLECTIVE SECURITY SYSTEM
Similarities:
 In this Charter “International Peace and Security”
 Similarity in Method - Both accepts utility of have been used 32 times. Collective Security
war, force although CS is more about smart system has been laid down in Chapter VII of
Power the U.N. Charter and its title reads: “Action with
 Both are defensive in nature-Both stand for respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of
the creation of a preponderance of power as a the Peace, and Acts of Aggression.” It contains
means for preventing or for defeating aggression 13 Articles, from Art. 39 to 51, which together
against any member of the system. provide for a collective system for preserving
 Both believe in Military Cooperation among international peace and security.
States for ending Aggression: Finally, both  Art. 39 makes it the responsibility of the Security
have faith that mutual cooperation including Council to determine the existence of any
military cooperation among the members of threat to the peace, breach of peace, or act of
the system can be turned into a military action aggression and to decide about measures that
against aggression. are to be taken for managing crisis for restoring
international peace and security.
Dissimilarities:
 Art 40 lays down that as the first step towards
 Balance of Power is a Competitive System, preventing the aggravation of the situation
Collective Security is a Cooperative System: involving a threat to or breach of international
peace and security, the Security Council can take
 In Balance of Power only Major States are Actors,
provisional measures like cease fire and call upon
in Collective Security all States are Actors
the concerned parties to comply with these.
 In Balance of Power, the Alliances are Definite, In
 Art. 41 refers to the enforcement actions, other
Collective Security, the Cooperation is General
than the collective military action. The Security
 In Balance of Power enemy is either from within Council can recommend to the members of the
or from outside, in Collective Security the enemy United Nations for compelling the concerned
is always from within. parties to end the violation of peace and security.
 Balance of Power is a Group System; Collective It can recommend sanctions against the state
Security is Global System. involved in aggression.
 Balance of Power admits Neutrality, Collective  Art. 42 empowers the Security Council to take
Security rules out neutrality. military action for securing or maintaining
 Balance of Power involves a general alliance international peace and security.
among some states, Collective Security system is  Arts 50 lays down the ways in which non-
a general agreement covering all States. member states can adjust their policies and

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actions towards the decision that may be taken Karl Mannheim, collective security is a “relative
up by the Security Council under Articles 41 and utopia”—one that tries to be realistic but
42. retains elements of fantasy.
 Art. 51, however, accepts the right of the states  An army under the direct control of the international
“to individual or collective self defence if an organization, one that could be used without asking
armed attack occurs against a member, until permission of the various member states, seems
the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to collective security; otherwise, as has
necessary to maintain international peace and been the case, it must make ad hoc requests for
security.” military contingents, which the various governments
may or may not choose to honour, depending on
their interests. If it had its own army, the United
CRITICISM AGAINST COLLECTIVE Nations would already be a world government,
SECURITY possessing sovereign powers over the subordinate
member units.
Collective security is a ‘relative utopia’-one  One of the illusions of collective security, as was
that tries to be realistic but retains elements of observed, seems to be that conflict is relatively
fantasy. rare, is a product of criminality, and can readily
 Collective security failed to find a compromise be recognized as “aggression” and as such
between national and world sovereignty because suppressed by the great majority of law-abiding,
sovereignty is inherently indivisible. Sovereign peace-loving peoples. But conflict is both much
states cannot be fully bound by pledges more endemic in the world and much less
to act in some hypothetical future case, possible to categorize as good and evil than this
especially where such pledges involve the risk theory concedes.
of war. Plans for collective security demand such  Aggression has proved much more difficult to
ironclad commitments, or the system decays into identify and to define than collective security
just another instrument of national policy (as the plans foresaw. In such clashes as those between
United Nations has tended to become). Israel and the Arab states, North and South
 United Nations actions do not supersede politics Vietnam, North and South Korea, India and
among nations; they become a branch of Pakistan, and perhaps most others, there is great
these politics. The United Nations only mirrors difficulty in ascertaining who in fact struck the
the existing international society. National first blow, as well as a certain aridity in making
sovereignties remain the basis of world politics, this the crux of the matter. Does aggression
and in the last analysis these sovereignties will include indirect attacks such as subversion and
agree to cooperate only so far as that serves propaganda? How far back in time should one
their interests. Such cooperation may indeed carry the feud? What states were ever at war, and
accord with their interests at times, but there is did not each charge the other with the aggression?
no assurance that it will. Historians still debate the responsibility for World
 The larger powers (who, after all, must bear War I and most other wars. In this respect, Hitler’s
the major burdens of enforcing peace under unashamed Realpolitik from 1936 to 1941 was a
a collective security system) have never been rarity in the history of wars.
willing to give an unconditional commitment  Although some have argued that any “breach
to carry out the commands of the world of the peace” ought to be a signal for a “police
organization; they have always reserved for action” by the world organization, regardless of
themselves some escape hatch. They have who is responsible, or have suggested formal
never been willing to set up an international tests such as willingness to submit the dispute
army of any significant strength, under direct to an arbitrator or mediator, in fact the validity
control of the League of Nations or the United of the theory seems to depend on clear criteria
Nations without strings attached. of aggression.
 This is to say that it still is a world of nationalism  But attempts to reach a satisfactory definition
and national states. If a world superstate could of aggression failed in long years of debate,
somehow be set up, this would obviate and first in the League of Nations and then in the
supersede collective security, which in theory United Nations. Some argued that a definition
is a hypothetical stage somewhere in between. is undesirable, because it could not cover all the
In the terminology of the German sociologist contingencies and would be “a signpost for

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the guilty and a trap for the innocent.” States impinge upon arguments against pure pacifism
might find themselves in the position of having and confront again the nonexistence of world
to act against a friend or defend a foe. government.
 The reality of international relations in a world  It may be noted that support for wars of
of particular sovereignties thus again confuses revolution and “liberation” runs counter to
and thwarts the ideal of a pure collective security collective security’s immobilism. Those who
system. (After twenty-four years of effort, the believe that there is indeed a “just war” for
United Nations Special Committee in 1974 national independence, recovery of a region
did finally agree on a tortuous definition of forcibly seized in the past by another state,
aggression, but one too full of exceptions to be overthrow of an oppressive government,
very helpful.) or some other such compelling cause will
 There is also the argument of redundancy. A defend the right to resort to it rather than
workable collective security order is one in which submit indefinitely to an unjust peace. (In the
most of the powers are in harmony, and which late 1960s and early 1970s the United Nations
has enough unity to agree on basic definitions, General Assembly, with a Third World majority,
for example, of justice and aggression. It is voted that nations should wage war on the
significant that the idea has come into play in “racist” government of Rhodesia, not for violating
state systems marked by considerable underlying any frontier, but for being unjust.)
cultural unity, as in ancient China or modern  Insofar as it is based on guaranteeing frontiers,
Europe. collective security assumes not only that these
 But if there is this much unity, there is hardly any frontiers are just but also that they are well-
need to install a system of collective security, for defined. Collective security was more suited
the problem will virtually solve itself. To create to the classical European state system than to
the formal institution of a League of Nations or much of the world today, where boundaries
United Nations does not alter the existing order are ill defined or even non-existent, and
of power and international relations. where civil wars, wars of secession, and wars
of “liberation”—sometimes with outside aid—
 Insofar as collective security is based on a firm
are the most usual types of violent conflict.
defines of existing borders, it is open to criticism
on the ground that this freezes the status  Finally, the basic dilemma of collective security
quo. This raises the problem of justice. Many is—assuming its efficacy—that of waging of
states will not accept the justice of existing war to prevent war. War by any other name,
boundaries, which probably reflect the results including “police action,” is still war. Of course,
of recent war and may contain arrangements the advocates of collective security hoped that
clearly unacceptable to the losers. Many vigilant international police work performed in
groups fervently advance claims for the revision time would nip a potential war in the bud—stamp
of frontiers at all times, as, for example, at the out the brush fire before it became a raging
beginning of the twenty-first century with the inferno. But experiences such as Vietnam
Arabs and Pakistanis. suggest that well-intentioned interventions
of this sort may result not in diminishing war
 Collective security thus was in danger of
but intensifying it. Intervention by outside
being labelled the selfish policy of satiated or
powers, even if acting in the name of an
victor states. (Germany consistently viewed
international organization, is, after all, not
it in that light between the world wars.) One
usually apt to reduce a conflict.
must allow for some method of revising
existing boundaries or one has condemned a  In principle, collective security abolishes neutrality;
dynamic world to immobility, which clearly is no state may stand aside and observe, all must
impossible. Proponents of collective security become involved to stop a war. (The 1930s saw
may urge “peaceful change,” but how is this a considerable debate on the implications of the
to come about? Their theory contains no new doctrine for traditional neutrality.) But the
specific answer. venerable principle of neutrality may be valuable
 In a world without a single government in confining the scope of a war. To abandon it
possessing laws and courts that are binding may involve the risk of widening wars.
on and acceptable to all, war must remain a  In this connection, “limited war” theorists and
possible last-resort remedy for injustice. Here we strategists advise accepting the inevitability

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of war while seeking to keep it as confined  Recognizing the existence of nationalism as a

and limited as possible, rather than trying powerful fact not likely soon to be extinguished,
vainly to abolish it. Collective security has followers of collective security conceded to realism
been accused of unrealistically demanding the that dreams of a world state are as yet wholly
total suppression of war, and in its anxiety to premature; they tried to build on the foundation
achieve that goal, blowing up every skirmish of independent sovereignties a society or league
of nations to which these sovereign powers
into an international crisis.
would offer their voluntary cooperation, in the
 The criticisms have called seriously into question common interest of suppressing war.
the workability of collective security, perhaps the
 In the last analysis such a compromise between
chief idea of the twentieth century addressed
national and international sovereignty seems
to the problem of war. It was born of the shock impossible—the gulf is unbridgeable. Those who
of 1914 and nourished by the further horror of are unprepared to accept continuing prospects of
World War II. Its goal was to bring an end to the rivalry between nations and peoples, mitigated only
“international anarchy” of blindly competing by diplomacy and leading intermittently to war,
states, acknowledging no limitations on their must face the formidable task of creating a world
powers except those of brute force. community able to support a world government.

Previous Year Questions

1. What is the realist prescription to states to ensure their survival in anarchical world. [2022/200
/15]
2. Discuss the emergence of Neo-Realism and its basic tenants. [2021/200/ 15]
3. What are the core assumptions of idealism as an approach to international relations? Explain its
continuing relevance in peace building. (2020/ 150/10)
4. Bring out the major differences between the Classical Realism of Hans Morgenthau and the
Neorealism of Kenneth Waltz. [2018/150 /10]
5. Is Realist Approach the best method to understand International Relations? Examine this in the
context of Classical Realism. [2017/250 /20]
6. Discuss the conceptual dimension of collective security. [2022/ 200 /15]
7. Explain the concept of Balance of Power. What are the various techniques of maintaining Balance
of Power. [2020/ 250 /20]
8. “The notion of balance of power is notoriously full of confusion.” In the light of this quotation,
do you think that the concept of balance of power is relevant? [2016/200 /15]
9. Discuss the theory of Nuclear Deterrence. Did Nuclear Deterrence prevent a superpower war?
[2015/200 /15]
10. National interest is an essentially contested concept. Comment [2022/150 /10]
11. What, according to Joseph Nye, are the major sources of a country’s soft power? Discuss its
relevance in the contemporary world politics. [2018/150 /10]
12. Why does global human security need to be emphasized along with economic security? Explain
with examples. [2016/250 /20]
13. Explain the instruments and methods devised for the promotion of national interest. [ 2016/250
/20]

**********

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Chapter - 5.12

Marxist Theory in International Relations

MARXIST THEORY IN IR  However, Marxism suffered a setback after the

disintegration of the Soviet Union. It paved the
 Marxist Theory had a significant contribution way for the emergence of neo-Marxists. This
in comprehending International Relations as it new school included all dissident theories that
helped in understanding the correlation between did not rigidly follow the conventional Marxist
politics, economy, social forces, and structures of theory. Neo-Marxists called for a revision of
order. The writings of Karl Marx and Fredrick some of the elements of Marxism while retaining
Engels constituted the core ideas of this theory. the core of it: class struggle as the motor behind
history. Georg Lukacs, Karl Korsch, Antonio
 Further, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Mao Tse
Gramsci, Max Horkheimer and Theodor W.
Tung and other scholars developed this theory.
Adorno emerged as a prominent neo-Marxists.
In the Communist Manifesto, Marx argued that
One of the leading neo-Marxists, Antonio
capitalism divided people on the basis of control
Gramsci underscored the concept of hegemony
over the means of production.
for dominance.
 Hence, a clash was inevitable between the
capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and workers (the
proletariat); from that class struggle would NEO-MARXIST PERCIEVED:
emerge a new social order which, in turn, would
bring about substantial changes in the structure  International law and organizations as by-
of states resulting in an altogether different products of a dominant group of states which
world order. ensured the interests of the capitalists.
 According to Marxists, the hierarchical structure  Capitalist structure and mode of production as
of the world system was the result of an expansion exploitative; and
of world capitalism which benefited only a few
 The importance of major structural changes in
states and organizations and relegated many
international politics for addressing inequalities.
others to the background.
Further, a variant of neo-Marxism, under the title
 Conventional Marxists like Lenin and Bukharin
‘Dependency Theory’ emerged with great fervor in
adhered to this view only and perceived
the 20th century extending its domain from northern
imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. In
states to southern states. Dependency theorists such
this stage, new mercantilist states would emerge
as Raul Prebisch, Euzo Faletto, Fernando Henrique
who would use coercive forces to achieve their
Cardosa and Andre Gunder Frank tried to explain
economic and political ends, they believed.
why rich northern countries benefited from the
Further, it would bring acute disappointment
development process.
in the proletariat class. These factors would
jeopardize the ideal of peace and cooperation  They suggested that there was a need for major
among states. Thus, the Marxist theory challenged changes in international economic relations
the liberal theory of state promoting capitalism among states so that the unequal distribution of
and protectionism. power and resources could be rectified.

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 Similarly, the world system theory is another 1960s much of the developing world found that
significant variant of the Marxist theory, its relative economic performance was extremely
propounded by Immanuel Wallenstein. He disappointing. The economic and political climate
elucidated three classes of states- core, periphery of the late 1960s and early 1970s was such that
and semi-periphery. developing countries were receptive to critiques
 Core represents the advanced developed of Western-led development models.
countries, while periphery symbolizes developing  A key idea of modernisation theorists was
countries with cheap and unskilled labor, from that all states would pass through stages
where raw materials were extracted by core of development and that sooner or later all
countries. In between core and periphery, there would become advanced, high-consumption
exist the semi-periphery states representing the countries. However, modernisation theory
newly industrialized countries with cheap skilled rejected/ignored the possibility
and semi-skilled labour. that deep structural factors might
 The world system theory was further developed prevent economic progress and,
by Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, and more important, that the nature of the
Giovanni Arrighi. They pointed out that World international system itself might be an obstacle
Wars were the result of clashes between the to development.
core states for domination and exploitation of
 Accordingly, dependency theory developed
the periphery countries. Though Marxist theory
a critique of modernisation theory which
emerged as the voice of the people at the margin,
emphasized the structural constraints to
it was also critiqued by several scholars.
development in Latin America. Key writers in the
Dependencia School, including Andre Gunder
DEPENDENCY THEORY Frank, Raul Prebisch, Henrique Fernando
Cardoso, and Enzo Faletto, undertook a detailed
 Dependency theory came to prominence in historical analysis of the pattern of growth and
the 1960s. It developed as a critique of liberal development in Latin America and claimed to
modernization theory. During the 1950s and find that Latin America actually achieved its most
1960s developing countries threw off the yoke impressive levels of growth and development
of colonialism/imperialism; they demanded at times when there was a slow-down in world
and achieved independence. However, this was trade and trading links with developed countries
happening in the context of the Cold War Western were disrupted.
countries were keen to ensure that former
 Taking this empirical observation as a starting
colonial (or Third World) states did not fall into
point, dependency theorists suggested this was
the hands of communist regimes and encouraged
because the basic structure of the global economy
newly independent states to develop capitalist
economies. was such that it worked to further the interests
of the already rich, developed economies of the
 Walt Rostow’s influential text on economic growth/ West (or North) and to progressively impoverish
modernization was subtitled ‘a non-communist already poor countries (the South or Third
manifesto’. Developing countries were encouraged World).
to allow free enterprise to flourish and to engage in
free trade with the rest of the world to encourage  The basic structure of the world economy, the
competition, economic dynamism and growth. trading regimes that existed, the nature of
the markets for basic commodities and so on
 The Dependencia School emerged from the efforts
fundamentally determined the development
of Latin American intellectuals to account for
their societies’ demonstrable inability to ‘catch trajectory of individual countries.
up’ with the rich countries of North America and  Therefore, even as large parts of the world
Western Europe, even though they had largely emerged from imperialism and colonialism,
followed the advice of the West and endeavored the West continued to dominate the Third
to ‘modernize’ their societies and move to free- World – hence the terms neo-imperialism and
market economies. neo-colonialism. Dependency theory can be
 Dependency theory attacked modernisation considered a variant of structuralist thought
theory, because it was severely misleading in because it suggests that we can only understand,
terms of its predictions about the development in this example, the Latin American part of the
prospects of the Third World. Indeed, with the world economy in terms of its relation to the
notable exception of parts of East Asia, by the mid- world economic system as a whole.

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 Dependency theory can also be considered  World-systems analysis builds upon but also
a form of economic determinism, in so far as differs fundamentally from dependency theory.
Dependencia scholars frequently suggested While accepting world inequality, the world
that the political institutions and social relations market and imperialism as fundamental features
which characterized developing countries were of historical capitalism, Wallerstein broke
a reflection of the economic ‘base’ – dominated with orthodox dependency theory’s central
by élites who actually benefited from this proposition.
exploitative economic system. For Wallerstein, core countries do not exploit
 Liberal economic theory suggests that successful poor countries for two basic reasons.
modernisation depends to some extent upon  Firstly, core capitalists exploit workers in all zones
the growth of an indigenous entrepreneurial of the capitalist world economy (not just the
class. Accordingly, development strategies periphery) and therefore, the crucial redistribution
frequently targeted resources at a ‘modernizing between core and periphery is surplus value, not
élite’, believing that as countries underwent “wealth” or “resources” abstractly conceived.
industrialization and economic growth, wealth  Secondly, core states do not exploit poor
would ‘trickle down’ from this élite to the masses. states, as dependency theory proposes,
 They also believed that this élite would imbue because capitalism is organised around an
liberal social and political values, and these would inter-regional and transnational division of
gradually spread from the ‘advanced’ middle labour rather than an international division
classes to the rest of society. of labour.
 Dependency theorists contended, to the contrary From a largely Weberian perspective, Fernando
that, while élites did indeed benefit from their Henrique Cardoso described the main tenets of
particular position in the system, the promised dependency theory as follows:
‘trickle down’ did not materialize and was  There is a financial and technological penetration of
unlikely to do so. In fact, as a country ostensibly the periphery and semi-periphery countries by the
‘advanced’, the masses became progressively more developed capitalist core countries.
impoverished.  That produces an unbalanced economic structure
within the peripheral societies and between them
WORLD-SYSTEMS THEORY and the central countries.
 That leads to limitations upon self-sustained
growth in the periphery.
 “World-system” refers to the inter-regional and
transnational division of labour, which divides  That helps the appearance of specific patterns of
the world into core countries, semi-periphery class relations.
countries, and the periphery countries.  They require modifications in the role of the state
 Core countries focus on higher skill, capital- to guarantee the functioning of the economy
intensive production, and the rest of the world and the political articulation of a society, which
focuses on low-skill, labour-intensive production contains, within itself, foci of inarticulateness and
and extraction of raw materials. This constantly structural imbalance.
reinforces the dominance of the core countries. Dependency and world system theory propose that
the poverty and backwardness of poor countries are
 Nonetheless, the system has dynamic
caused by their peripheral position in the international
characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions
division of labour. Since the capitalist world system
in transport technology, and individual states
evolved, the distinction between the central and
can gain or lose their core (semi-periphery, the peripheral nations has grown and diverged. In
periphery) status over time. recognizing a tripartite pattern in division of labour,
 Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the world-systems analysis criticized dependency theory
best-known version of world-systems analysis, with its bimodal system of only cores and peripheries.
beginning in the 1970s. Wallerstein sees the Wallerstein defines four temporal features of the
development of the capitalist world economy as world system.
detrimental to a large proportion of the world’s  Cyclical rhythms represent the short-term
population. World-systems thinkers include fluctuation of economy, and secular trends
Samir Amin, Giovanni Arrighi, Andre Gunder mean deeper long run tendencies, such as
Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein. general economic growth or decline.

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 The term contradiction means a general Enormous profits from direct capital
controversy in the system, usually concerning investments, A market for exports and Skilled
some short term versus long term trade-offs. For professional labour through migration of
example, the problem of under consumption, these people from the non-core to the core.
wherein the driving down of wages increases the
profit for capitalists in the short term, but in the Core Nations
long term, the decreasing of wages may have a
crucially harmful effect by reducing the demand  Are the most economically diversified, wealthy,
for the product. and powerful (economically and militarily)
 The last temporal feature is the crisis: a crisis  Have strong central governments, controlling
occurs if a constellation of circumstances brings extensive bureaucracies and powerful militaries
about the end of the system.  Have stronger and more complex state
 World-systems analysis argues that capitalism, institutions that help manage economic affairs
as a historical system, has always integrated internally and externally
a variety of labour forms within a functioning  Have a sufficient tax base so state institutions
division of labour (world economy). Countries can provide infrastructure for a strong economy
do not have economies but are part of the world
economy.  Highly industrialised and produce manufactured
goods rather than raw materials for export
 Far from being separate societies or worlds, the
world economy manifests a tripartite division  Increasingly tend to specialise in information,
of labour, with core, semi peripheral and finance and service industries
peripheral zones. In the core zones, businesses,  More often in the forefront of new technologies
with the support of states they operate within, and new industries
monopolise the most profitable activities of the
 Has strong bourgeois and working classes
division of labour.
 Have significant means of influence over non-
 Proponents of world-systems analysis see
the world stratification system the same way core nations
Karl Marx viewed class (ownership versus  Relatively independent of outside control.
non ownership of the means of production) Throughout the history of the modern world system,
and Max Weber viewed class (which, in there has been a group of core nations competing
addition to ownership, stressed occupational
with one another for access to the world’s resources,
skill level in the production process).
economic dominance and hegemony over periphery
 The core nations primarily own and control the nations. Occasionally, there has been one core nation
major means of production in the world and with clear dominance over others.
perform the higher-level production tasks.
According to Immanuel Wallerstein, a core nation is
 The periphery nations own very little of the dominant over all the others when it has a lead in
world’s means of production (even when they are three forms of economic dominance over a period of
located in periphery nations) and provide less- time:
skilled labour. Like a class system with a nation,
class positions in the world economy result in an  Productivity dominance allows a country to
unequal distribution of rewards or resources. The produce products of greater quality at a cheaper
core nations receive the greatest share of surplus price, compared to other countries.
production, and periphery nations receive the  Productivity dominance may lead to trade
smallest share. dominance. Now, there is a favourable balance
 Furthermore, core nations are usually able to of trade for the dominant nation since more
purchase raw materials and other goods from countries are buying the products of the
non-core nations at low prices and demand dominant country than buying from them.
higher prices for their exports to non-core  Trade dominance may lead to financial
nations. dominance. Now, more money is
 Chirot lists the five most important benefits coming coming into the country than going
to core nations from their domination of periphery out. Bankers of the dominant nation tend to
nations: Access to a large quantity receive more control of the world’s financial
of raw material, Cheap labour, resources.

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Military dominance is also likely after a nation reaches core nations. Therefore, they tend to apply
these three rankings. However, it has been posited protectionist policies most aggressively among
that throughout the modern world system, no nation the three categories of nations.
has been able to use its military to gain economic  They tend to be countries moving towards
dominance. Each of the past dominant nations
industrialization and more diversified economies.
became dominant with fairly small levels of military
Those regions often have relatively developed
spending and began to lose economic dominance
and diversified economies but are not dominant
with military expansion later on. Historically, cores
in international trade.
were found in North-western Europe (England,
France, and Netherlands) but were later in other  They tend to export more to peripheral nations
parts of the world (such as the United States). and import more from core nations in trade.
 According to some scholars, such as Chirot,
they are not as subject to outside manipulation
Peripheral Nations as peripheral societies; but according to others
(Barfield), they have “peripheral-like” relations
 Are the least economically diversified
to the core.
 Have relatively weak governments
 While in the sphere of influence of some cores,
 Have relatively weak institutions, with tax bases semi peripheries also tend to exert their own
too small to support infrastructure development control over some peripheries.
 Tend to depend on one type of economic activity,  Further, semi-peripheries act as buffers between
often by extracting and exporting raw materials cores and peripheries and thus “partially deflect
to core nations the political pressures which groups primarily
 Tend to be the least industrialised located in peripheral areas might otherwise
 Are often targets for investments from direct against core-states” and stabilise the
multinational (or transnational) corporations world system.
from core nations that come into the country to
exploit cheap unskilled labour for export back to
core nations
 Have small bourgeois and large peasant classes
 Tend to have populations with high percentages
of poor and uneducated people
 Tend to have very high social inequality because
of small upper classes that own most of the
land and have profitable ties to multinational
corporations
 Tend to be extensively influenced by core
nations and their multinational corporations
and often forced to follow economic policies
that help core nations and harm the long-
term economic prospects of peripheral
nations.
 Historically, peripheries were found outside
Europe, such as in Latin America and today in
sub-Saharan Africa.

Semi peripheral nations

 Semi peripheral nations are those that are
midway between the core and periphery. Thus,
they have to keep themselves from falling to
the category of peripheral nations and at the
same time, they strive to join the category of

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 Semi-peripheries can come into existence from  However, the frequent use of the two terms--
developing peripheries and declining cores. colonialism and imperialism-interchangeably
In the 21st century, nations like Brazil, Russia, adds to a general confusion over their precise
India, Israel, China, South Korea and South Africa meanings. While ‘colony’ is a people detached
(BRICS) are usually considered semi peripheral. from a larger entity and settled in a distant
place implying emigration, imperialism derived
CRITICISMS from the term “imperium” connotes exercise
of command or domination of one people by a
stronger people without implying emigration. In
 World-systems theory has attracted criticisms
other words, imperialism describes the relations
from its rivals; notably for being too focused on
between a dominant and subservient society
economy and not enough on culture and for
without the latter being necessarily reduced to
being too core-centric and state-centric.
a formal colony.
 The positivists criticise the approach as too prone
to generalization, lacking quantitative data and  J. A. Hobson, an English economist, is universally
failing to put forth a falsifiable proposition. accredited with the task of formulating the
scientific concept of imperialism in his seminal
 Orthodox Marxists find the world-systems work Imperialism: A Study in 1902. Hobson’s
approach deviating too far from orthodox study focused on late-19th Century imperialism,
Marxist principles, such as by not giving enough
which could be distinguished from previous forms
weight to the concept of social class.
of imperialism in in two ways: the existence of
 The state autonomists criticize the theory for several empires in competition with one another,
blurring the boundaries between state and and the predominance of finance capital over
businesses. mercantile capital.
 Further, the positivists, the orthodox Marxists and  The central argument of Hobson was that the
the state autonomists argue that state should be accumulation of capital and saturation of internal
the central unit of analysis. markets led to a situation whereby it became
 Finally, the culturists argue that world-systems urgent to seek outlets for investment abroad.
theory puts too much importance on the economy The process of excessive accumulation of capital
and not enough on the culture. leading to a search for investment abroad is
 RobertBrennerhaspointedoutthattheprioritization termed by Hobson as the “economic taproot
of the world market means the neglect of local class of imperialism”. Hobson believed that excessive
structures and class struggles. accumulation of capital took place primarily
because of over saving which in turn got a fillip
 Another criticism is that of reductionism made by
from the unequal distribution of wealth.
Theda Skocpol: she believes the interstate system
is far from being a simple superstructure of the  Following from this, Hobson prescribed the need
capitalist world economy: “The international for social reforms. He believed that equitable
states system as a transnational structure distribution of wealth in society would increase
of military competition was not originally the purchasing power of the people, which in turn
created by capitalism. Throughout modern would expand the markets. Expansion of markets
world history, it represents an analytically thus would not only provide for increased internal
autonomous level of world capitalism, but is capital investments but would also greatly ease
not reducible to it.” the pressure for investment abroad.

What are the divergent views of key  Several Marxist theorists, however, have expressed
strong reservations to Hobson’s prognosis.
Marxist scholars on Imperialism? Different theories of imperialism as articulated by
 In the Marxist tradition, imperialism is seen as an several Marxist theorists like Rudolf Hilferding,
economic phenomenon that typically results from Rosa Luxembourg, and V. I. Lenin question and
the pressure to export capital. Neo-Marxists draw challenge the Hobsonian assumption that social
attention to a more subtle form of imperialism reforms can resolve the contradiction created
termed as neo-colonialism, through which by imperialist expansion. For example, although
industrialised powers control foreign territory Hilferding in his Finance Capital: A Study of
by economic domination while respecting the the Latest Phase in Capitalist Development
territory’s formal political independence. agreed with Hobson that imperialist competition

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led inevitably to violence, he vehemently rejected imperialist tendencies, he rejected such notions
the possibility of expanding internal markets by insisting that imperialism was the inevitable
through wage increases. He was of the view that “highest stage “of capitalism, which could only
such an alternative would necessarily reduce be defeated by revolution.
profits.  “Imperialism”, wrote Lenin, “is capitalism
 Noting the dominant role of finance capital and in that stage of development in which the
the concentration of capital under monopoly dominance of monopolies and finance capital
ownership of an oligarchy, Hilferding concluded has established itself; in which the export of
that this extreme polarisation of wealth under capital has acquired pronounced importance;
imperialism presaged the “last stage” of the fight in which the division of all territories of the
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. globe has been completed”.
Once most of the means of production were  Lenin thus distinguished modern imperialism
concentrated in few hands, the expropriation from the old by pointing out that the special
of the “capitalist oligarchy” would give rise to feature of modern imperialism was the export of
socialism. Hilferding thus linked the fight against capital rather than export of ordinary commodities
imperialism to the fight for socialism, and the and/or a desire for new investments rather than
fight for political power to the fight for economic new markets for goods as naively believed by
power. The relationship between imperialism Hobson. As he observed: “Imperialism is the
and national oppression was acknowledged but direct continuation of fundamental properties
subordinated to a class analysis and the class of capitalism in general”. He viewed it as a
struggle. special stage of capitalism that developed by
 Rosa Luxemburg also viewed imperialism as “the about 1900.
last stage in the historical race of capitalism”.
Proceeding from a Marxist class analysis, she IDEA OF NEO-COLONIALISM OFFERED
described the crucial role played by the unequal
BY NKRUMAH
exchange between imperialist (capitalist) and
colonised (pre-capitalist) countries in the
accumulation of capital. In The Accumulation of  At the time he published Neo-Colonialism, the
Capital, she also emphasised the historical role last Stage of Imperialism, Kwame Nkrumah was
played by militarism in capital accumulation, and the President of Ghana, the first African country
pioneered the study of the relationship among to achieve independence from colonial rule. One
political domination, military occupation, and year later he would be deposed by a military
external debt. coup that was supported by the American CIA.
The name of Nkrumah’s book is a variation on
 Moreover, in addition to describing how Lenin’s own study of imperialism written 50 years
militarism is used to ensure the conditions before and named Imperialism: The Highest
of accumulation (through the subjection of Stage of Capitalism. This is fitting because
colonies, as a weapon in the competitive struggle Nkrumah’s contribution remains the best single
between capitalist countries, etc.), Luxemburg update on imperialism since Lenin.
argued that militarism “is a pre-eminent means
for the realisation of surplus value; it is in itself  Nkrumah explains in great detail how the West,
a province of accumulation”, which would later and especially the United States, was responding
form the basis of the ‘military-industrial complex” to the success of national liberation movements,
such as the one he led in Ghana, by shifting its
of the great empires.
tactics from colonialism to neo-colonialism.
 Lenin is perhaps the first Marxist to offer a
systematic analysis of modern imperialism. In  The neo-colonial powers pursue their actions in
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, the name of the United Nations by using two UN
Lenin began his discussion of imperial ism by agencies that they established after World War
asking what he called “the main question”: and that they fully control without any pretext of
“whether it is possible to reform the basis of democracy, the World Bank and the International
imperialism, whether to go forward to the Monetary Fund.
accentuation and deepening of the antagonisms  Still another neo-colonialist trap on the economic
which it endangers, or backwards towards front has come to be known as ‘multilateral
allaying these antagonisms”. Pessimistic of aid’ through international organisations: the
the possibility of reforming capitalism of its International Monetary Fund, the Inter-

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national Bank for Reconstruction and  Maria Mies, a prominent feminist scholar
Development (known as the World Bank), the asserted that in the 19th century Europe, the
International Finance Corporation and the processes of imperialism and “housewifization”
International Development Association are were causally interrelated. The housewifization
examples, all, significantly, having U.S. capital as created the Victorian icon of the superior woman
their major backing. withdrawn from combat, politics, and money-
 These agencies have the habit of forcing would- making.
be borrowers to submit to various offensive  Whereas the Third World women’s labor became
conditions, such as supplying information about a natural reserve that was without restraint
their economies, submitting their policy and available outside the salary-based economy.
plans to review by the World Bank and accepting Mies attached all these historical practices to the
agency supervision of their use of loans. workings of the contemporary exploitative world
 Among the “innumerable ways” of neo- economy. In this economy, earlier colonies were
colonialist exploitation, Nkrumah describes the still manufacturing consumer items for the First
following. “There are conditions which hedge World countries. These manufacturing works
it around: the conclusion of commerce and were frequently carried out by inadequately
navigation treaties; agreements for economic remunerated women. What was most degrading
co-operation; the right to meddle in internal for women was the fact that their low payments
finances, including currency and foreign were validated as additional returns for future
exchange, to lower trade barriers in favour mothers and wives.
of the donor country’s goods and capital; to
protect the interests of private investments;  Further, critics argued that economic
determination of how the funds are to be used; development to a certain extent resulted in the
forcing the recipient to set up counterpart relative deterioration of the rate of women’s
funds; to supply raw materials to the donor; continued existence. It was a naked reality that
and use of such funds a majority of it, in fact women did not share the benefits of progress in
to buy goods from the donor nation. These medical and social sectors evenly.
conditions apply to industry, commerce,  Calling it as one of the “most important and
agriculture, shipping and insurance, apart ignored problems facing the world today”,
from others which are political and military. Amartya Sen claimed that seeing the extent of
So-called ‘invisible trade’ furnishes the this crisis, it was shocking that this matter has
Western monopolies with yet another means obtained little notice.
of economic penetration. Over 90 per cent
of world ocean shipping is controlled by me  Another criticism against the Marxist theory
imperialist countries.” by feminists was that conventional Marxism
perceived women’s access to labour force as a
freedom. But women in the former Soviet Union
FEMINIST CRITIQUE OF MARXIST have perceived it not as freedom but as an extra
THEORY load besides performing household duties which
had never been recognized as a contribution in
 Feminists argued that Marxist theory requires this state-centric, male- centric industrial age.
substantial revision if it has to represent diverse  Hence, feminists argued that the freedom of
interests of women. They criticized Marxist theory women would only be possible when women are
for overlooking women in their reproductive and treated equally with men in both the public and
domestic roles. private realm.
 Marxist theory wrongly presumed that class-
based capitalist oppression was the only factor
VIEWS OF ROBERT COX
responsible for women’s exploitation. It was the
support given to stereotyped division of labor
where women were primarily responsible for  Canadian Scholar Robert Cox has developed
the caring of children, and men were for earning a Gramscian approach that involves both a
wages. The later was always given priority over critique of prevailing theories of International
the former and hence the women in the family, Relation and International Political Economy and
remarked Engels, became the proletariat and the development of an alternative framework for
men the bourgeois. the analysis of world politics.

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 In his 1981 article, ‘Social Forces, States, and  The degree to which a state can successfully
World Orders: Beyond International Relations produce and reproduce its hegemony is an
Theory’, he says “Theory is always for someone, indication of the extent of its power. The success
and for some purpose’. If ideas and values are of the USA in gaining worldwide acceptance for
ultimately a reflection of a particular set of social neo-liberalism suggests just how dominant the
relations, and are transformed as those relations current hegemon has become.
are themselves transformed, then this suggests
 But despite the domination of the present world
that all of knowledge must reflect a certain
order, Cox does not expect it to remain unchallenged.
context, a certain time and a certain space.
Rather, he maintains Marx’s views that capitalism is
 He subjects realism, and in particular its an inherently unstable system, riven by inescapable
contemporary variant neo-realism, to contradictions. Inevitable economic crisis will act
thoroughgoing critique on these grounds. as a catalyst for the emergence of the counter-
According to Cox, these theories are for – or hegemonic movements
serve the interests of – those who prosper under
the prevailing order that is the inhabitants of the
developed states, and in particular the ruling VIEWS OF ANDREW LINKLATER
elites.
 Their purpose, whether consciously or not, is to  New forms of political identification and
reinforce and legitimate the status quo. They expressions of transnational ‘community’ have
do this by making the current configuration prompted Critical Theorists to pose questions
of international relations appear natural and about the extent to which human beings owe
immutable. When realists (falsely) claim to be obligations to the people of the world rather
describing the world as it is, as it has been, and than simply fellow citizens. Andrew Linklater
as it always will be, what they are in fact doing is argues that Critical Theorists remain committed
reinforcing the ruling hegemony in the current to the creation of ‘the good society’, which is not
world order. limited to the nation-state.
 Cox contrasts problem solving theory that  His point of departure is the need for a return to
is theory that accepts the parameters of the the classical understanding of politics as orientated
present order, and thus helps legitimate an towards the emancipation of people. The first stage
unjust and deeply iniquitous system, with critical in this project is to understand the way people learn
theory. Critical theory attempts to challenge the how to exclude those deemed to be ‘different’
prevailing order by seeking out, analysing, and from the moral community. This necessarily involves
where possible, assisting social processes that moving beyond a conventional Marxist concern
can potentially lead to emancipatory change. with social class to consider how people of different
 According to Cox, successive dominant powers races, ethnic backgrounds and gender have been, or
in the international system have shaped a world continue to be, discriminated against.
order that suits their interests , and have done so  As well as understanding the dynamics of
not only as a result of their coercive capabilities social exclusion, however, it is also important to
but also because they managed to generate recognize that these practices are challenged by
broad consent for that order even among those groups involved in both national and transnational
who are disadvantaged by it. political action.
 For the two hegemons that Cox analyses  Moreover, there are many arenas where people
(the UK and the USA), the ruling, hegemonic
think about and debate moral and political
ideas has been ‘free trade’. The claim that
issues. Drawing upon Habermasian ideas about
this system benefits everybody has been
the importance of communication and dialogue
so widely accepted that it has attained
in achieving an emancipatory politics, Linklater
‘common sense’ status. Yet the reality is
highlights the multiple ‘public spheres ‘in which
that while ‘free trade’ is very much in the
these kinds of debates take place.
interest of the hegemon which is the most
efficient producer in the global economy , can  He claims that political communities are already
produce goods which are competitive in all being transformed by, for example, struggles over
markets, so long as they have access to them, its equality, rights, claims to resources and notions of
benefits for peripheral states and regions are far obligations to others, and how they might change
less apparent. more radically in the future.

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Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the commonalities between Marxist and Realist approach to the study of international
politics. 2020/150 /10
2. Marxist approach to the international relations has lost its relevance in the post-cold war era.
Comment.” 2021/150/ 10
3. Explain the relevance of the Marxist approach in the context of globalization. 2019/250 /20

**********

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Chapter - 5.13

System Theory- Mortan Kaplan Model

According to Jay Goodman the renowned professor According to Kaplan International action takes place
of political science, the word system has been used between National actors whom he regards as elements
in context of international theory very often, yet the of international system. Kaplan has constructed six
word carries varying meanings and there was always models of international system. Within each model
a possibility that the contribution of the word to the he has developed 5 sets of variables which are:
theory might have been exaggerated. He postulated  The essential rules
that the word “system” is used in three ways  The transformation rules
basically:
 The actor classification variables.
 Descriptively as in providing explanation for
 The capability variables
a group of bonded units interacting with each
other  The information variables.
 Explanatively as in where the system itself is Models of system theory
assumed to have an impact on the elements of
the system According to Kaplan, international system could be
divided into six models on the basis of functions and
 And in the last methodologically i.e., where stability.
a theorist is claiming to utilize or improve a
 The Balance of power system: The actors who
particular system of investigation.
worked within this system are international actors.
For Kenneth Waltz and other structural realists, the There would be 5-6 essential actors in the system.
word system is always used explanatively. The nature The balance of power system is subject to change
of the international system affects the interactions of and remains unstable. The conditions which may
the elements within it and understanding of the nature make the balance of power unstable are.
of the system is essential to theorizing, describing,  Any national actor who does not play
explaining, and predicting events within the system. according to the rules of the game.
Mortan Kaplan believes that the most important  If international actors are oriented towards
system is the international system. Mortan Kaplan the establishment of some form of super
has made the greatest effort to specify the rules national organization.
and pattern of interactions within his models of
international system. He holds that the physical force The balance of power system according to
is necessary at least as the last resort to keep the Kaplan has six important rules.
political system intact. The role of decision making in  Each essential actor increases its capabilities
the international system is subordinate to their role through negotiations and not through wars.
in the national actor system. He divides the set of
 Actors stop fighting rather than eliminating an
international action into two categories:
essential actor.
 National Actors – The US, France, Italy
 Actors must fight rather than pass upon
 Super national actors : NATO, WARSAW, UN opportunities to increase their capability to other
etc. actors.

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 The national actor should oppose any grouping will perform the judicial, economic, political and
of actors. administrative functions. National actors will try to
 The national actors should prevent other actor achieve their objectives only within the framework of
the universal actor. This system will be a system within
from subscribing to super national principles.
which prestige and reward will be allocated to the
 Defeated essential national actors should be national actors and also to individual human being.
permitted to re-enter in the system.
If the balance of power system becomes unstable, The hierarchical international system:
it is bound to be transferred into a different system.
The 5th model of Kaplan’s scheme of international
A world war or the rise of totalitarian block may
alter the balance. According to Kaplan, the most system is the hierarchal international system in which
likely transformation of balance of power is bi-polar a universal actor absorbs practically the whole would
and only one nation is left out. This hierarchical
system. international system can be both directive and non-
 Bi-polar System/Model: - The bi-polar system directive. It will be directive e if it is formed as a
has two categories i.e., the loose bi-polar system consequence of world conquest by a national actor
and the tight bi-polar system. system and it is be non-directive if it is based upon
political rules generally operate in democracies.
 The loose bi-polar system is that which
corresponds roughly in which two superpowers
The Unit Veto System: -
are surrounded by a group of smaller powers
and non-aligned states and in which existence The 6th and the last international system in Kaplan’s
of non-aligned states makes the power of two scheme is the unit veto system in which the weapons
major actors loose. that exist are of such a nature that any national actor
This system can be transformed into a tight bi- can destroy any other before being destroyed itself.
polar system into a hierarchical international The essence of this system will be that each state will
system into a universal international system or be equally able to destroy the other. Universal actors
into a unit–veto system. According to Kaplan, cannot exist in such a system. The unit veto system
the loose bi-polar system is most likely to be can develop from any other international system.
transformed into tight bi-polar system. Besides these categories Kaplan later on added 4
new categories of international system which are as
 The tight bi-polar system: - In the tight bi-polar
below:
system the non-aligned actors disappear. Most
likely, they will align themselves with any of t  The very loose bi-polar system: It is
two blocks. The structure of blocks affects the characterized by an ever-going search for arms
stability of a system. In this system, block actors control and for accommodation between the
are non-hierarchically organized. This system various blocks.
could transform itself either into loose bi-polar  The Détente System: - It means that one
or into the universal international system. superpower becomes more open and less
aggressive and the other one becomes less
Universal International system: - defensive.

The universal international system could develop  The Unstable Block System: It refers to highly
as a result of the extension of the essential actors conflict situation of power blocks. Areas of conflict
in a loose bi-polar system. In other words, essential could increase, and the policies of the super-
actor’s average power gets declined. In this system, powers would become too interventionist.
the universal actor, the UNO is sufficiently powerful to  The incomplete Nuclear Diffusion system:
prevent tension among national actors, but national This system exists due to diffusion of nuclear
actors retain their individual and sovereignty. The technology. There would be 15-20 Nuclear
universal international system to be int6egrated powers having minimum deterrence except two
system, it will possess integrated mechanism and super-powers.

Previous Year Questions

1. “Morton A. Kaplan’s system theory is contrary to the fundamental precepts of systems approach.”
Comment. [2014/200/ 15]

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Chapter - 5.14

Feminist Understanding of
International Relations

FEMINIST UNDERSTANDING OF How gender relations were always integral

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS to international relations?

 Breaking with the powerful bond among Example given by Feminists:

manly men, states and war, feminist theories of  Diplomatic wives smooth over the workings of
international relations have proliferated since power among states and statesmen; trustworthy
the early 1990s. These theories have introduced marital contracts facilitate transnational money
gender as a relevant empirical category and laundering and sex trafficking; Global icons
analytical tool for understanding global power such as Cosmopolitan conquer foreign cultures
relations as well as a normative position from
and prepare them for the onslaught of Western
which to construct alternative world orders.
capitalism; Women and men organize in kitchens,
 Feminism shifts the study of international churches and kin-communities to overthrow
relations away from a singular focus on authoritarian regimes and make peace in the
inter-state relations toward a comprehensive
face of brutal conflict (Cockburn; True).
analysis of transnational actors and structures
and their transformations in global politics.
Understanding basics of feminism
 With their focus on non-state actors, marginalized
-Making Women Visible:
peoples and alternative conceptualizations of
power, feminist perspectives bring fresh thinking  If we start with feminism’s first contribution –
and action in the post-9/11 decentred and making women visible – an early contribution of
uncertain world.
feminist theorists is revealing that women were
 International relations have had great and are routinely exposed to gendered violence.
significance for patterns of gender For example, former UN Secretary General Ban
relations, just as gender dynamics Ki-moon’s ‘UNiTE’ campaign to end violence
have influenced global processes of militarization
against women estimated that up to seven out
and economic globalization.
of ten women will experience violence at some
 Cynthia Enloe suggests that ‘the point in their lives that approximately 600 million
personal which is political’ is also, women live in countries where domestic violence
quite likely, ‘international’. In Bananas,
is not yet considered a crime.
Beaches and Bases (1989), she exposed how
international politics frequently involves intimate  Many societies are thought of as predominantly
relationships, personal identities, and private peaceful or stable despite high levels of violence
lives. against a particular portion of the population. It
 These informal politics are altogether less also presents a very different image of violence
transparent than the stuff of official politics and insecurity to that viewed through the
and they are typically ignored by International security agendas of states, which is characteristic
Relations scholars. of traditional IR viewpoints.

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 Feminism has also highlighted women’s absence  Traditionally, the military and war making have
from decision-making and institutional structures. been seen as masculine endeavours, linked with
For example, in 2015 the World Bank estimated that the idea that men are warriors and protectors,
globally women made up just 22.9% of national that they are legitimate armed actors who fight
parliaments. The traditional focus on states to protect those in need of protection – women,
and relations between them overlooks the fact children, and non-fighting men. For Example: The
that men are predominantly in charge of state issue of sexual and gendered violence in conflict
institutions, dominating power and decision- has only recently entered the international
making structures. agenda. It was ignored before. Comparatively,
the mass rape of women during and after the
 It also ignores other areas that both impact Second World War was not prosecuted as the
global politics and are impacted by it. This is occurrence was either considered an unfortunate
a gendered exclusion as women contribute in by-product of war or simply ignored. However,
essential ways to global politics even though with the 2002 Rome Statute recognising rape
they are more likely to populate those areas not as a war crime. However, this recognition has
considered high politics and their day-to-day not led to the curtailment of conflict related
lives may be considered peripheral. sexual violence and this form of violence remains
endemic in many conflicts around the world, as
Exposing and deconstructing socially does impunity for its occurrence.
constructed gender norms :  IR is shaped not only by gender but also by other
identities, such as class, race or ethnicity. We can
 Feminist theorists have worked to demonstrate
call it intersectionality.
that this distinction between private and public is
false. It is important to understand the distinction  Intersectionality refers to where these identities
between ‘sex’ as biological and ‘gender’ as socially intersect, and in turn how different groups of
constructed. Gender is understood as the socially people are marginalised, suggesting that we must
constructed assumptions that are assigned to consider each in tandem rather than in isolation.
either male or female bodies – that is, behaviour In examining wartime rape, Lori Handrahan has
that is assumed to be appropriate ‘masculine’ shown the intersection of gender and ethnic
(male) or ‘feminine’ (female) behaviour. identities, where the enemy’s women become
constructed as ‘other’ and violence against them
 These socially and politically produced gender
consequently comes to represent the ‘expansion
identities shape and influence global interactions,
of ethnic territory by the male conqueror’. This
and IR as theory – and global politics as practice – also
rests on gendered constructions, which occur
produces such gendered identities in perpetuating
at the intersections with other forms of identity,
assumptions about who should do what and why.
such as ethnicity or race.
Gender identities are also imbued with power, in
particular patriarchal power, which subordinates  Gendered constructions that see women
women and feminine gender identities to men and characterised as protected mean that conquering
masculine gender identities. them – through rape or sexual violence – is
representative of power and domination over
 What this means is that socially constructed one’s enemy.
gender identities also determine distributions
of power, which impact where women are What have feminists exposed in traditional
in global politics. Where are the women
global politics?
in Global politics? Cynthia Enloe asked the
question ‘where are the women?’, encouraging  Feminism has not only exposed gender violence
IR scholars to see the spaces that women inhabit and women’s marginalisation in global politics
in global politics and demonstrating that women but also challenges gendered constructions of
are essential actors in the international system. women as inherently peaceful, as in need of
 She focused on deconstructing the distinctions protection or as victims.
between what is considered international and  Feminists see these constructions as further
what is considered personal, showing how global evidence of gender inequality and also as
politics impacts on and is shaped by the daily contributing to the exclusion of women from
activities of men and women – and in turn how traditional IR perspectives in the first instance. If
these activities rest on gendered identities. women are assumed to be victims rather than

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actors or as peaceful rather than aggressive and restrictions on women’s access to political,
or as only existing in the domestic or private economic, and social resources post-conflict. The
realm (rather than the public sphere), then restriction of women’s access to such resources
their experiences and perspectives on global such as basic food, housing, and education
politics are more easily ignored and justified as – makes them more susceptible to gendered
marginal. violence.
 Accounts of women disrupting
 This often begins with women’s exclusion from
these gender identities, such as
peace negotiations and deals, which instead
being agents of political violence for
focus on elite actors who are predominantly
example, have challenged these assumptions.
This is an important contribution of feminism men, often militarised men. In peacekeeping
and one that challenges the construction of missions, women are also under- represented.
gendered identities that do not reflect the In 1993, women made up only 1% of deployed
diversity of women’s engagements with IR and personnel. That figure had only risen to 3% for
in practice perpetuate women’s limited access to military and 10% for policy personnel by 2014.
power.  In October 2000 the UN Security Council devoted
 Therefore, taking feminism seriously is not simply an entire session to Women, Peace, and Security
about upending the historical marginalisation of adopting Resolution 1325 as a result. This
women, it also provides a more complete picture resolution called for a gender perspective
of global politics by considering a broader range to be ‘mainstreamed’ throughout peace
of actors and actions. operations and for women to be included in
peace agreements and post-conflict decision-
Understanding Peace: Is Women’s’
making – in addition to the protection of
Security Central? women and girls during conflict.
 Building peace after conflict is an increasingly  A United Nations study by Radhika
central concern of IR scholars – especially as Coomaraswamy found that gender in
conflicts become broader and more complex. peacekeeping continues to be under-resourced
Peacekeeping missions are one way that the politically and financially, and the gendered
international community seeks to institute elements of post conflict reconstruction are still
sustainable peace after conflict and the United marginalised in missions. Women still experience
Nation’s traditional peacekeeping role.
high rates of violence post- conflict, are still
 Feminist theorists have demonstrated the excluded from peace processes, and still ignored
ways that peacekeeping, as security-seeking in peace- building policy.
behaviour, is shaped by masculine notions of
militarised security.  This is demonstrated, for example, in national
and inter- national attempts to disarm former
 Feminist IR scholars have shown, violence
combatants after conflict and reintegrate them
against women often continues in the post-
into post-conflict society. Megan Mackenzie
conflict period at rates commensurate to or
has attributed this to constructed gender
even greater than during the conflict period.
This includes rape and sexual assault, domestic identities that minimise the idea that women
violence and forced prostitution, as well as those are agents in conflict or involved in war-making,
selling sex to alleviate financial insecurity. instead constructing them as victims with limited
agency.
 The dominant approach to keeping peace often
obscures these kinds of violence. Issues like  In other words, they are subject to war rather than
gender equality and domestic violence (and war’s actors. This means not only that women
human rights) are considered ‘soft’ issues as are excluded from disarmament programmes
opposed to the ‘hard’ or real issues of military because of socially produced gender norms but
security. This understanding of peace, then, is also that they are unable to access the material
one in which women’s security is not central. and economic benefits that may flow from such
 Donna Pankhurst has theorised what she terms programmes – or the political and social gains
a post-conflict backlash against women, one that they could make from being recognised as
is chiefly characterised by high rates of violence legitimate veterans in post-conflict societies.

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Gendered international division of labour rights emanating from the Security Council in
Resolution 1325 on Gender, Peace and Security,
 In the global context, a gendered international and Resolution 1820 on the recognition of rape
division of labour has emerged as migrant Third as a weapon of war. Liberal feminist figureheads,
World women become a cheap and flexible like US Secretary of State Hilary Clinton, have
source of labour for MNCs in free trade zones. been instrumental in situating women in policy
 Saskia Sassen’s research shows how global cities, in the US, and the UK Government has identified
the nodal points for global financial markets the prevention of sexual violence in conflict as a
and economic transactions, are dependent on a main foreign policy objective.
class of women workers. Like ‘intimate others’
of economic globalization, domestic workers, Role of State from Feminist Perspective
typically immigrant women of colour, service
 Critical of state yet accept state’s role: The
the masculinized corporate elite in these urban
patriarchal nature of state was despised by the
centres (Boris and Prugl; Stasilius and Bakan;
feminists in the early phase i.e., during 1970s.
Chin; Chang and Ling).
But subsequently, they were ready to accept the
 Feminist research reveals an even darker intervention of state in the key areas of concern
‘underside’ of globalization, in the phenomenal like abortion, anti rape legislation, pornography,
growth of sex-tourism, ‘male-order’ brides and and such other issues against which women were
transnational trafficking of women and girls getting organized. They realized that state has a
for prostitution (Pettman; Prugl and Meyer; role in curbing such practices, and it cannot be
Berman). left to the social and market forces.
 For subordinate states in the world  State as a reflector gendered power relation:
system, these economic activities the radical feminist and the socialist feminist are
are key sources of foreign exchange critical about the liberal state as they felt that it
and national income (Jeffrey; Hanochi). For is thorough the mechanism of state, patriarchal
example, Chin shows how Malaysian political system is strengthened and the domination of
elites maintained the legitimacy of their export- man over women established and legitimized.
oriented development strategy in the 1980s and Catharine Mackinnon in Toward a Feminist
1990s by importing female domestic servants Theory of State writes: “Liberal legalism is a
from the Philippines and Indonesia. medium for making male domination both
 Feminism is the advocacy of the rights of women. invisible and legitimate by adopting the male
It explains that women have been disadvantaged point of view in law at the same time as it
compared to men and are subordinated to men enforces that view on society”.
because of a system of patriarchy. Patriarchy is a  Relook at the negative role of the state: This view
system of social structures and practices through held by thinkers hailing from Scandinavian countries,
which men dominate and exploit women. who accepts the notion of welfare state, but with
Feminists’ emphasis the process of democracy some reservations. They argue that the welfare
as integral for gaining rights. Most feminists schemes of the state are beneficial to women as
challenge the doctrine of essentialism that they have an impact on domestic gendered power
casts women with fixed identity, i.e., women as relations. Helga Hernes holds that a woman friendly
essentially peaceful and men as aggressors. Such society is that where there is no unjust treatment
projections are used in ultranationalist projects for women on the ground of sex.
and dangerous political agendas. Feminists  She asserts, the welfare state’s support for
have critiqued the state, concept of power and women in the public spheres an employee has
theories of International Relations and national changed the nature of dependency. Women
security doctrines. are employed by the state; therefore, employer
 Liberal feminists have been particularly employee relationship comes into being. The
successful in disseminating their arguments dependence on male member of the family gets
in favour of including women in politics, using replaces by dependency on the state for the
popular advocacy to get gender on the agenda. job and wages. Drude Dahlerup argues that
‘Gender mainstreaming’ has become a well- the change is not solely because of the welfare
known concept within the United Nations, with state rather industrialisation and socioeconomic
some of the most symbolic advances in women’s change are greatly responsible for it.

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 On the contrary, Birte Sium feels that the gender is sexualized.” Further she asserts:
dependence still continues, only the nature of it “Feminism distinctively as such comprehends
has changed, now it is on the state – a patriarchal that what counts as truth is produced in the
structure. She is apprehensive about the fact that interest of those with power to shape reality,
the suppression may continue. Thus, the feminist and that this process is as pervasive as it is
who have accepted the positive role of the necessary as it is changeable.”
welfare state are suspicious about dependence  According to feminists, knowledge and reality
on state, doubts are being expressed as to the are the constructions of power. Men can
desirability of complete faith in the state which manipulate it to their advantage to hold on to
they claim is patriarchal. power. Feminism is critical and resistant to this
form of power. Hence, feminist political theory is
OTHER STATEMENTS BY FEMINISTS constructed around the existing power relations
 Dianna Thorburn: “There can never be a as represented by the state.
truly singular voice of feminist foreign policy  Furthermore, feminist critiques of conventional
simply because of diversity of use within conceptions of power and the identity of the state
feminist itself”. lead to a revaluation of the meaning of security.
 Lorraine Code: She explained International Realists are occupied by the state security in the
System by identifying patriarchal structure. “It is international realm, subsequently overlooking
right and purpose for men to command and security within state boundaries.
women to obey”  Feminists disagree with this arbitrary division
 C.Ann Tickner: “IR is gendered to marginalized of national/international and focus instead
women’s voice and stresses that women have on the individual. Women’s experiences
knowledge, perspective and experiences that undermine the argument that the state is
should be brought to bear on study of IR.” the best mechanism for ensuring the safety
of the individual and suggest that the state,
 The feminist scholars are critical of a particular
as currently conceived, and the militarism it
type of power, the power that disempowers
often inspires are actually reasons for some
and subjugates women. Patriarchal power is
forms of insecurity.
challenged as it leads to gender inequality,
powerlessness, and submissive status of women.  Unequal gender relations leave women in a
State power that gives privileges to the male vulnerable and exploited position, dependent on
at the cost of the female is rejected. Feminists men and the state for protection and welfare.
have also looked at the use of military power by  Arguments highlighting the negative impact
the state with suspicion, as women become the of war on women, or the particular economic
victims of war and violence in many cases, when hardships women experience, debunk the myth
atrocities are committed on women. that the state provides adequate security for
 Hannah Arendt, although not a professed civilians.
feminist scholar herself but much drawn on by  Feminist discourse thus challenges mainstream
feminists in IR theory, contends that power is understandings of security and opens up a
the ability to act in concert with others. This kind multifaceted definition of security that includes
of thinking shows a distinction between “power the diminution of all forms of physical, structural,
over” and “power with”, crafting awhile new and ecological violence.
perspective on power as a collaborative effort
rather than an ability to dominate. This view of Third world perspective:
power is particularly pertinent for addressing
the challenges of the twenty first century when  Feminist scholars depicted those ideas of state
economic interdependence is crucial to stability, is mainly power state, power relations are
and security threats like ecological degradation, organized on the basis of gender. In fact, the
international crime, and terrorist networks concept of power is given masculine traits. Power
require more than military power to be properly is constructed through possessing force and the
addressed. ability to influence others.
 Catherine A. MacKinnon succinctly puts it:  Those without power, especially during conflict
“Feminism has no theory of state. It has a are termed as “impotent” or “wimps” and their
theory of power; sexuality is gendered as weakness is associated with femininity. For

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example, in South Asia, men who oppose  Modern Wartime sexual violence against women
military action are asked to wear bangles. has occurred in almost all wars through history.
Men are naturally associated with leadership It is used as an instrument of coercion against
and women are accepted as leaders if they the enemy in war, intercommunity conflict as
accept masculine notions of power. well as during ethnic and sectarian conflicts. The
 State institutions and associations are relationship between conflicts and the violation of
organized around the central idea of power women’s bodies has been repeatedly established
and women have been considering powerless in all wars and conflicts. ‘This phenomenon was
and not fit for these institutions. Masculinity widespread whether it was the partition of India
had become a base for these institutions. in 1947, or when the fleeing Pakistani army
raped 200,000 Bengali women in Bangladesh in
 Wars are seen as the activity of men and 1971 or, more recently during ethnic conflicts
women are positioned as secondary during that marked the emergence of the breakaway
war. For instance, the opening sentence of the republics of former Yugoslavia
UNESCO Charter that states since wars are made
in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men  So, feminists in IR do not argue for women’s
that peace should be made. This assumes that equal rights to be part of the military or for
those who make war are the ones who make the right to dominate. But they want the right
the peace and the nation. Since wars are seen as to speak for peace and be in positions where
“nation building” exercises, it is men who appear they call put this point of view.
to be most involved in this task.  Feminists want a change in the theory of Realism
 Feminists see war as a gendering activity. and argue for broadening the very concept of
War marks the gender of all members of society security, to decrease the military aspects and
whether they are or not combatants. Men and to valorise the democratic aspect instead. Real
women suffer war but as unequal’s they suffer security should be less stale centric, and more
unequally under the state oppressive system. society centered for more equitable economic
Feminists see war not just as the impact on needs and geared to social justice, political
women approach, but as a system where the liberty, and egalitarian democratization. This
gender stereotypes are reinforced, and gender broadening of the concept of security, beyond
relations restructured. During wars women’s the assumptions of Realism based security must
identities get coded in a system of nationalist take place.
and gender politics (like mothers of the nation)  The feminist critique of the state, power and
and their status and rights gets linked to their international politics is more relevant for third
nation. world. Political theory and International Relations
 Women have participated in wars in different give a central role to men and place women as
ways. Women are concerned with war and secondary actors within state systems.
militarization for a number of reasons. First,  The international political system is hegemonic
because women and children are victims of and has hierarchies of power that bind states
policies that they did not plan or execute. It is together. States tend to use similar strategic
men who participate in and define public life concepts. Postcolonial states like those in South
and take decisions about war and militarization. Asia are vulnerable to the international political
Even today, there are less than ten percent of system and thus tend to follow the traditional
women in most parliaments. In many countries, discourse of international relations. Feminist
especially in the Third World, there are no women approach provide as alternative understanding
at all in the higher decision-making bodies of the that could be beneficial for developing societies.
executive like the cabinet.  Patriotic discourse in all of South Asia refers to
 War impacts men and women differently. the nation as the “Mother” and the symbol of
Military training and military casualties in mother/women has been used interchangeably
conventional wars have been men. Women with the nation. Women have been signifiers of
too constitute direct casualties of war. Wars identity and identity politics is marked on the
increasingly are carried out in civilian areas and bodies of women who are victims of rape and
current statistics show that more than 75per abuse during conflicts. The feminist critique
cent of the causalities are non-combatants that helps deconstruct the security policy of the state
include large number of women and children. and shows its impact on larger social issues.

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 For feminists, peace is when women can control conventional ends of maintaining military power
their autonomy and peace is not restricted to a and guaranteeing Western economic interests in
public peace. For women, peace is an absence of the Middle East.
domestic, social, and public violence. Security for  There are scholars who dismiss feminist theory,
women is security outside and within the home. questioning whether feminists are even ‘doing’
Developing societies are more prone to war and international relations. Traditional IR has
violence. developed around a self-contained, rationalist,
research agenda, situating questions about
LIMITATIONS: states and the state system as the central focus.
Conversely, feminists employ an ethnographic
approach that underlines the importance of
 Despite their practical success, liberal feminists
individual experiences and social relations
have been accused of having a simplistic attitude
rather than state behavior and abstraction, thus
to women’s empowerment, labelled as an “add
concentrating on people, places, authorities,
women and stir” approach. They have also
and activities that are outwit the scope of
been accused of imperialism, particularly in the
traditional IR. These epistemological differences
context of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan,
mean that mainstream theories are concerned
where some post positivist feminists contended
with completely separate questions to feminist
that while these wars were couched in the
theorists, making it seem although feminist
language of women’s rights and liberation, in
analysis is ill fitted for the study of IR in the
reality this language was used to mask more
conventional sense.

Previous Year Questions

1. “The Feminist approach to international politics is biased.” Comment (2014/150 words /10
marks)

**********

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UNIT

6
Key Concepts in
International Relations

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Chapter - 6

Key Concepts In International Relations:

Transnational Actors and Collective Security
(The Rest Of Concepts Have Been Already Discussed In
The Preceding Pages)

TRANSNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS governmental representatives is an example

AND THEIR VARIOUS CLASIFICATIONS of such an organization. Trans-governmental
organizations are those where relations between
governmental actors are not controlled by the
 International organizations often contain central foreign policy organizations.
members that are not states or governmental
 A broader definition of governmental actors
representatives but are drawn from groups,
include anyone engaged in the governmental
associations, organizations, or individuals
process of a country-legislative judiciary, the
from within the state. Thus, there are non-
executive or local governments. Although such
governmental actors on the international stage
contracts, relations may be informal and not
and their activities give rise to transnational
institutionalized, there are some which exist-the
interactions.
International Council for the Exploration of the
 These interactions are defined by Keohane and Sea (ICES), Inter Parliamentary Union, and the
Nye as covering “the movement of tangible Interpol etc.
or intangible items across state boundaries  The fourth category of TNOs is Business
when at least one actor is not an agent of a International Non-Governmental
government or an international organization”. Organizations (BINGOs) or Multinational
When a formal and continuous structure is Enterprises or Corporations (MNCs).
formed in order to pursue the common interests However, it is argued that these MNCs are not
of the participants and one which is not an agent really international or multinational as their
of government or an international organization, management is not recruited internationally nor
then a Transnational Organization (TNO) is their decision-making. The Group of Eminent
comes into existence. Persons of the UN argued that ‘transnational’
 In contrast to an inter-governmental organization, conveyed better the notion that these firms
a TNO must have a non-state actor as at least operate from their home bases across national
one of its members. Three kinds of TNOs are borders without any form of state control.
identified.  A distinction is made between ‘transnational
 The genuine INGO is an organization with only corporations’ that operate from their home
nongovernmental members or representatives base across national boundaries and the term
of likeminded groups from more than two ‘multinational corporations established by
countries (e.g., the World Council of Churches or agreement between a number of countries
the Salvation Army). The hybrid INGO has some and operating in accordance with prescribed
governmental and some non-governmental agreements.
representation. If such a hybrid organization  The MNC comes closer to the definition of an
has been established by a treaty or convention international organization. However, the UN and
between governments, it should be counted as The Yearbook of International Organization
an IGO. The International Labor Organization exclude profit making organizations
which has made unions, management from the definitions and description of
(nongovernmental) representatives as well as international organizations.

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 The non-inclusion of MNCs should not deny their states, but by certain group of individuals,
role in international relations and commonalities businessmen and other societal forces. This
with international organizations. The role of group has no legal bonds with nation-states;
corporations in manipulating, influencing therefore, they are truly transnational.
economic policies of developing countries, and
even intervening politically and militarily needs
INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL
to be underscored.
ORGANISATIONS (NGOS) IN
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
TRANSNATIONAL ACTORS AND
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS  Non-governmental organizations are institutions
that are established by private enterprises
 Principal actors of the world politics are under state laws. There are many kinds of
nation-states, but they are not the only NGOs such as transnational, government
actors. The international system consists of organized, government-regulated and initiated,
nation-states, international organizations’, business and industry, donor-organized, donor-
and private actors. The increasing number of dominated, people’s organizations, operational,
international organizations’ is parallel to the advocacy, transnational social movements etc.
increasing levels of economic, political, social, S. Brown in his book New Forces, Old Forces,
and cultural transactions between individuals, and the Future of World Politics, said They
societies, and states. The growth of so many have become “crucial participants in the
kinds of transnational actor’s challenges and international policy process”.
even weakens the “state-centric” concept of  NGOs create and/or mobilize global networks by
international politics and replaces it with a creating transnational organizations, gathering
“transnational” system in which relationships are information on local conditions through contacts
more complex. around the world, alerting global network of
 Miller, L. H. In Global Order: Values and supporters to conditions requiring attention,
Power in International Politics argued that creating emergency response around world, and
these organizations changed the international mobilizing pressure from outside states.
environment. The proliferation of transnational  Mingst, K. In his book Essentials of International
state actors has recently led some observers Relations argued that they participate in IGO
of international relations to conclude that conferences by mobilizing transnational social
states are declining in importance and that movements organizations around issues in
transnational and non-state actors are gaining IGOs, building transnational social coalitions,
status and influence. raising new issues, supporting IGO development,
 New theories of international relations such as addressing IGO meetings, submitting documents
the “complex interdependence” of Robert to governmental organizations’ meetings,
Keohane and Joseph Nye were formed in improving skills in conference diplomacy, and
order to explain new developments. Kegley increasing expertise on issues.
and Wittkoph accurately point out that “as the  They facilitate inter-state cooperation by
world grown smaller, the mutual dependence preparing background papers and reports,
of nation-states and other transnational educating delegates and representatives of
political actors on one another has grown”. states to narrow technical gap, serving as third
 Following the traditional classification, party source of information, expanding policy
transnational actors are divided into two options, facilitating agreements, and bringing
categories: international intergovernmental delegates together in third party fora.
organizations (IGOs) and international  NGOs conduct many kinds of activities within
non- governmental organizations (NGOs) states such as linking to local partners, linking
(Brown; Miller). The first group consists of the to transnational social movements with
transnational that are created by nation-states. complementary skills, working in national
They are officially documented by government arenas to harmonize state policies, providing
agencies. The second group of transnational humanitarian aid, and protecting accompaniment
international actors is established not by nation- of persons in danger.

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 They also enhance public participation within  They have become a major factor in national
states by reminding government delegates economic decision-making process (Peterson).
that they are being watched, enhancing public As mentioned by Miller, the activities of MNCs
understanding, increasing transparency of “may seem evidence of the growing inability
international negotiations and institutions, and today of the sovereign state to control and
provoking public protest. regulate effectively economic activities within
the private sector. If that is so, then one of the
As a by-product of intensified globalization process,
traditional rationales for modern sovereignty
NGOs which operate at transnational level have
is undermined”.
become more significant determinants of foreign
policies of nation-states. Like their counterparts  They have enormous “flexibility in moving
that operates at domestic level and lobby in their goods, money, personnel, and technology across
respective countries, they lobby at international and national boundaries, and this flexibility increases
transnational levels. Human rights advocates, gender their bargaining power with governments”.
activists, religious movements, developmentalists, Dozens of MNCs have annual sales of tens of
and indigenous peoples have invaded the territory of billions of dollars each. Many of them have more
nation- states. As pointed out by S. Brown, “as the economic activity than the GDPs of the majority
countries and sectors of world society have become of the states in the world. For instance, MNCs
more and more interdependent, it has become such as General Motors, Exxon, Royal Dutch
commonplace for nongovernmental groups Shell, General Electric and Hitachi outranked the
representing similar communities in their various GDP of nation-states like Taiwan, Norway, Turkey,
countries to closely coordinate their policies Argentina, Pakistan, Malaysia, and Nigeria.
and to constitute (or reconstitute) themselves as  MNCs challenge the state sovereignty of host
international nongovernmental organizations countries. Host countries may lose control over their
(INGOs)” economies. They may create political and social
division and prevent the development of domestic
industries in host countries. They may produce
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS specialized products of which the buyer is usually
(MNCS) IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS the parent company. They may manipulate prices
of imports and exports in host countries (Brown).
 S. Krasner outlined ‘The most prominent For instance, generally Turkey has to accept the
contemporary NGOs are multinational price set by US MNCs specializing on military
corporations (MNCs)’. They are huge firms that equipment parts, since Turkey has no choice to
own and control plants and offices in at least buy component parts of American made weapons,
more than one country and sell their goods which it has already bought.
and services around the world. They are large  MNCs serve national interests of home countries
corporations having branches and subsidiaries as instruments of global economic development,
operating on a worldwide basis in many countries a mechanism spreads ideology, and a tool of
simultaneously. Peterson, E. R said ‘MNCs are diplomacy.
“major driver of global economic integration”
and “establish unprecedented linkages among Theoretical Understanding of MNCs
economies worldwide”. The biggest and the
most effective industrial corporations are based  Different economic schools of thought treat
MNCs differently. J.S Goldstein, in his book
in the United States, Europe, and Japan.
International Relations out lined that according
 MNCs can be classified according to the kinds of to liberalism, MNCs are vanguard of the new
business activities they pursue such as extractive world order since they possess the most efficient
resources, agriculture, industrial products, means of production.
transportation, banking, and tourism. The
 Liberal economists argue that “the global
most notable MNCs are industrial and financial
efficiency and the increased generation of the
corporations (the most important being banks).
wealth result from the ability of MNCs to invest
Naturally the primary objective of MNCs is profit
freely across international borders”. Some
maximization.
economists even welcome the replacement of
 They are very effective in directing foreign policy the nation-state by MNCs as the main economic
of states, including that of the most powerful unit (Barnet, R. J. and Cavanagh, J. Global
ones, and they set agenda for international Dreams: Imperial Corporations and the New
politics. World Order).

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 Realist and nationalist perspective argue that communities according to their interests.
MNCs are instruments of home states. For them, Epistemic communities influence states as well
MNCs either serve national interests of the state as each other.
or become a threat to the state.  They play a key role in the transformation of
 The Marxist tradition considers MNCs as the information independently. According to Ernst
instrument of exploitation and as an extension Haas, epistemic communities bring learning
of the imperialism of strong capitalist states in international politics because they produce
(Mingst). Their monopolistic power causes new theories and develop new understandings
uneven development and inequality in and paradigms, which are able to solve the real
international division of labor. They bring mal- international problems.
development into host countries. Dependency  Peter Haas uses the case of the Mediterranean
theorists, consider MNCs as instruments for Action Plan (Med Plan), a regime for marine pollution
colonization. control in the Mediterranean Sea initiated by the
 In today’s world, it could be argued that the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)’s
combination of these three perspectives, that is Regional Seas Program, to show implications of
an eclectic approach, seems to be more relevant epistemic communities. In the Mediterranean Sea
regarding MNCs as well as other economic environmental regime, an epistemic community,
issues. comprised of UNEP officials, some secretariat
 Bennett calls the relationship between MNCs members from other specialized agencies, regional
and host countries as “a ‘love-hate’ syndrome” marine scientists, and like-minded governmental
that is, host countries may have both advantages officials of regional states, played a considerable
and disadvantages in its relations with MNCs. role in changing the policies of states, especially
that of Algeria.
In order to minimize the negative impact of MNCs
 UNEP officials forged transnational alliances with
 Government interventions through regional marine scientists who persuaded their
nationalization, governments to support the UNEP measures to
 Government participation and government control as many sources and sorts of pollution
initiation of joint development projects. as possible, to take stronger measures, and to
abide by Med Plan policies.
 Furthermore, governments have to maintain
control over tax revenues, inflation rate, credit
Role Of Religious and Humanitarian
policies, trade balances, balance of payments,
trade restrictions, monetary values, employment, Organizations In IR
and economic planning to decrease their
 Human rights are traditionally understood to
dependence on MNCs.
regulate certain relations between individuals
 Host countries may place restrictions on the and nation-states of which they are nationals.
ownership and behavior of subsidiaries and on Even though the state-centric and sovereignty-
the freedom of businesses. Because only by based conception of the world system remains
controlling these fields a host country may have the norm for international human rights, nation-
an upper hand vis-à-vis MNCs. states are now obliged to obey transnational
and international formal and informal legal
and political constraints on their human rights
EPISTEMIC COMMUNITIES AND THEIR
practices. Nation-states have to take into
ROLE IN IR consideration international and transnational
public opinion since there are dozens of
Epistemic communities are specific communities of transnational organizations that monitor human
experts sharing a belief in a common set of cause- rights practices of nation-states and examples of
and-effect relationships as well as common values to coercive foreign interventions.
which policies governing these relationships will be  The most notable example of international
applied. They are comprised of a group of experts human rights regime is constituted by the
and scientists who contributed to the development of Council of Europe. The European Commission of
state policies in compliance with the regime. Human Rights receives, reviews, and evaluates
 Epistemic communities provide technical complaints from individuals living in the member
knowledge to increase international cooperation. states, and the European Court of Human Rights
Even though states may use epistemic makes legally binding decisions.

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 Member states turned over their sovereignty to in terrorism for different political, economic,
the organization on these issues. Practices of social, religious, cultural, and even personal
the organization have a significant impact on reasons (Mickolus).
national decision-making.  Their goals are to publicize their grievances
 These Transnational actors mainly concern about and aspirations to international community
morality, human rights, environment, and social by hijacking, assassination, kidnapping and
values. attacking on embassies. International terrorism
is “the most conspicuous and threatening
 International Red Cross, International Red form” of low-intensity violence (Kegley and
Crescent, and Amnesty International (AI) are the Wittkoph). As long as the state system and the
most well-known and influential NGOs among world system leaves some groups or states out
humanitarian international organizations that of the system, terrorism will continue to be an
monitor human rights worldwide. The first two instrument of those who are weak.
gives assistance to wartime prisoners and send
help in areas affected by natural and man-made Changing Techniques
disasters in peacetime. They mainly work along
with the UN and related organizations lines.  Terrorism has moved from the national to
transnational level and from plane hijacking
 Amnesty International monitors human rights to a wider range of terrorist techniques since
violations worldwide. It mobilizes international the 1960s.
community against oppression, torture,
 The transnational dimension of terrorism
and individual and group rights. It initiates
is established when there is collusion and
worldwide campaigns against states because
cooperation between different terrorist
of human rights violations. Some IGOs such as groups and when some countries serve as
European Parliament (EP) use AI’s reports to sanctuaries and training-centers for terrorists of
develop policies, like EP’s policies toward Turkey, various nationalities.
for instance, regarding human rights issues.
Therefore, AI gets results from its activities. Globalized form and its impact
 In cooperation with many other transnational
 Terrorism is now globalized like other
factors, NGOs that function in the field of human
transnational state actors as was witnessed
rights have “produced an impressive array of
during the attacks directed toward the
new machinery for protecting human rights” heart of the American state and the US-led
(Miller). international system on September 11.
 Green Peace emerged as one of the major actors  September 11 incident showed the world the
of global environmental policies. It is known for horror of terrorism, the vulnerability of all
its protests against environmental problems nations-states including the strongest one, and
caused by some states, i.e., France among others. its paramount effect on international politics
It prevented many initiatives of many states and the world order. Terrorism demonstrated
regarding environment. It makes public illegal or that the powerlessness and vulnerability of the
harmful environmental policies of states. only hegemon of the world, the US, against
terrorism (Clemons).
Terrorist Groups and Drug Traffickers  After the dramatic events of September 11,
(Narco-Terrorists) as Transnational Actors plane hijackings have been a cause of much
and its Impact on IR more concern to governments, airlines and to
the public.
Although national liberation movements and ethnic
groups sometime use terrorism, terrorist organizations Narco-terrorist: How are they similar to
are different from NLMs since terrorism is their main terrorist organization?
means of struggle.
 Even though drug traffickers are engaged in
Terrorism as the main instrument: profitable “transnational business,” they are
similar to terrorist organizations because they
 Terrorist groups use terrorism as the main use illegal means, including assassinations and
instrument and largely lack large-scale support kidnappings, and deal with products banned by
from the public. Individuals and groups engage international community.

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 Therefore, they are known as narco-terrorists. since they are not territorial actors. They are
One of the most well-known drug trafficker “enemies without an address” (Bishara).
organizations was the Medellin of Colombia that  Now, there is “asymmetric wars” in which
caused many social and political problems in the there are no rules and whose sides are nation-
Latin American world. states and non-state actors such as international
 Non-state actors, in an interconnected globalized terrorists, mafia, and narco-terrorists (Bishara)
world, pose a significant threat to nation-states These actors use unconventional ways in waging
wars against their enemies.

Previous Year Questions

1. What is complex interdependence. Discuss the role of transnational actors in the international
system. 2021/200 /15

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7
Changing International
Political Order
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Chapter - 7.1

The Cold War Era and its Politics

After the Second World War, the Allies of the war-  The Cold War was a bi-polar confrontation
the United States of America and Soviet Russia- between the United States of America and the
were engaged in what has been described as the Soviet Union but it also involved allies or satellites
‘Cold War’. During the War the two countries were of the two superpowers.
on the same side with Britain and France to defeat  The Cold War has also been understood as the
the Fascist dictatorships (Germany and Italy) and the clash between two ideologies and two differently
empire of Japan. The two countries also signed a five- organised systems of economy and society-
year non-aggression treaty in 1941, and even as late communism and liberal democracy, and socialist
as the Yalta Conference in February 1945 there was command economy and capitalism.
some harmony among the two countries. But soon
 Although there have been many bi-polar
the situation changed completely and the USA and
confrontations in history, this was the first time
the Soviet Union stood against each other in a “war
that two different forms of social organisation
like situation” which has generally been described as
were competing for implementing alternative
the Cold War.
visions of the world.
 From the beginning of the 20th century both
MEANING OF THE COLD WAR the USA and the USSR were on their way to
becoming superpowers. A comparison of the
 The Cold War has been described as “peace time share of various countries in manufacturing
unarmed warfare” between new superpowers. It in 1932, just after the Great Depression shows
was a “diplomatic war” and not an armed conflict America the indisputable leader with nearly
among the superpowers and was based on 32%, and the Soviet Union which came next with
ideological hatred and political distrust. 11.5%. But other leading countries were not far
behind-Britain (10.9%), Germany (10.6%), France
 Flemming described the Cold War as “a war
(6.9%).
that is fought not in the battlefield, but in the
minds of men; one tries to control the mind of  After the Second World War, however, the armed
others.” strength of Germany and Japan stood defeated
and of Britain and France stood exhausted. Now
 The Cold War was very different from an open
it was the two countries-America and Soviet
war where the enemies are well known and the
Union-which emerged as superpowers. Soviet
war is fought in the open.
Union, despite phenomenal losses in war made
 In the Cold War, war was never declared and rapid strides because of its socialist command
diplomatic relations were maintained among the economy.
countries.
 The phenomenal rise of these two countries led to
 The Cold War did involve some military a competition between the two which ultimately
confrontation and loss of life, but it was also a resulted in the Cold War. The Soviet Union set
psychological warfare aimed at reducing the up the Cominform (the Communist Information
enemy’s area of influence and increasing the Bureau) , ‘Radio Moscow’ and supported some
number of one’s camp followers. communist parties in other countries.

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 The United States of America set up a Radio  During the war, both the sides encouraged
News programme called ‘Voice of America’ and opposite elements in the countries liberated
supported the anti-communist political parties from the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and a few
and movements in other countries. smaller states). After the fascist dictator Mussolini
 The conflict between the two countries turned out was removed from power in Italy, Italy was
to be the conflict between different ideologies supported by the Western powers and received
that both the countries adopted. ‘aid for reconstruction’ (grants of money totaling
hundreds of millions of USA dollars). Since Italy
 One of these ideologies was political and had one of the largest communist parties outside
economic liberalism which was adopted by of the USSR, USSR leaders saw this as an attempt
America and the other was Marxism-Leninism to strengthen the capitalist camp or bloc of
adopted by Russia. countries. There were similar problems in Greece
and Poland. The USA helped defeat communist
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLD forces in Greece.
WAR  After 1945, both superpowers took some steps
to lessen mutual suspicion. The USA agreed to
 After World War II, the USA and the USSR, the occupy only the western zones of Germany and
new superpowers, wanted to establish the Austria and to stay out of Poland, Czechoslovakia
supremacy of their position and ideology, and this and other eastern European territories that had
conflict became the focal point of international been liberated by the Soviet Red Army. The Soviet
relations. Union dissolved the Cominform (Communist
Information Bureau) and allowed capitalist forces
 There was formation of opposing blocs, to control Greece. The Soviet Union in 1952
intensifying the rivalry of these two powers. vacated Finland and by 1955 had removed all its
Most western countries tended to side with the troops from Austria.
USA and were firmly opposed to communism.
 There remained differences of opinion between
America’s rise to the status of superpower was
the USA and USSR regarding the future of Europe
complete with the possession of the nuclear
and other areas. Soviet Union wanted to install
weapons.
‘friendly’ governments in the East European
 Very soon Russia emerged as a challenger and countries liberated from the Nazi Germany. By
rival to America’s position and in 1949 she also friendly governments, the Soviet Union meant
developed nuclear weapons and ended the the communist governments, with which America
American supremacy. and Britain did not agree. The Soviet Union also
 There had been a long period of suspicion tried to establish her domination in Turkey and
and distrust between the Soviet Union and delayed the withdrawal of her troops from Iran,
the western countries. The Soviet Union could much to the dislike of the western countries.
never forget that Western states (Britain, France  Both sides were responsible for the Cold War.
and the USA) had tried to undo the Bolshevik The temporary truce between the two parties
revolution and intervened (along with Japan) in during the World War II was just a bright patch in
the civil war. the otherwise strained relationship between the
two, before and after the war.
 The western countries also did not forget that
the declared objective of the Soviet Union was
the overthrowing of capitalism worldwide. DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE COLD WAR
 During World War II, mutual suspicion increased
further. After Germany invaded the USSR in  It is very difficult to find an exact date for the
1941, the Western democracies delayed opening start of the Cold War since the war was never
a second front against Germany. Britain and declared and even the undeclared aggression
the USA promised that they would do so, but was of a long-term kind.
the delay confirmed the Soviet suspicion that  After the initial phase (1945-47) which has been
the west wanted a prolonged struggle between called the ossification phase, the Cold War began
Germany and Russia so that both would be in earnest and at its centre was the creation of a
eliminated. European post-war order.

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 The onset of the Cold War reflected the failure of and weak Germany so that its interests did not
the different powers to consistently respect the get threatened by Germany. The Soviet Union
principles agreed on at wartime conferences of also demanded US$ 20 billion from Germany as
Yalta and Potsdam. reparation fees. But the western allies did not
agree to these proposals.
 In the early phase the fate of Poland turned
out to be a crucial issue. All the countries had a  Later the British, American and French zones
special interest in Poland. France and Britain had were merged into one and Federal Republic of
declared war on Germany when Hitler’s army had Germany (West Germany) came into existence.
crossed the Polish border in September 1939. After the election in the new state a pro-west
For Russia, Poland had been a historic enemy: government came to power. It started getting
on the other hand Polish lands had been the heavy financial aid from America. Soon, with
traditional gateway for invasion of Russia from the Soviet help the other zone also created a
state called German Democratic Republic (East
the west. When the Soviets entered Poland in
Germany). The western allies wanted to introduce
1944, they formally handed over power to the
monetary reforms in Germany, but the Soviet
Lublin government, pro-communist committee
Union did not and responded by what is known
of National liberation. The future of Poland was
as the Berlin Blockade.
discussed at length at the Yalta Conference of
Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt. No agreement  The Soviet Union imposed a total ban on all
could be reached on the exact boundary of traffic between Berlin and the western zones, be
Poland. But Poland ultimately came into the it road, rail or waterways. This Blockade was also
Soviet camp. The sovietisation of Poland became in protest against the Brussels Pact which was
a landmark in the origin of the Cold War. formulated as a mutual defense treaty between
Britain, France and Belgium. The Pact directed
 The second crucial area of conflict was the the signatories to extend military assistance to
Balkan. Britain and the Soviet Union had decided any member state in case of attack by Germany
to have their own spheres of influence in the or any third party in Europe. Though the name of
Balkan areas. But in all the countries except the Soviet Union was not mentioned in the text it
Greece communist regimes were installed, and was mainly aimed against the Soviet Union and
once the communist governments were installed not against Germany.
they were openly supported by the Soviet  In Iran a crisis developed when Soviet troops
Union. Except Greece, which came under British failed to withdraw by March 1946. Iran had been
control, all other East European countries fell the main thoroughfare for western aid to the
under Soviet domination. Churchill’s formulation Soviet Union during the war. Iran was also rich
of this situation was that an ‘iron curtain’ had in oil. The Soviet Union demanded privileged
descended over Europe. This led to an intensely access to Iranian oil and refused to allow Iranian
strained relationship between the East and the troops in the Soviet held areas. US then mounted
West, including between the USA and the Soviet pressure in the United Nations Security Council
Union. forcing the Soviet forces to leave Iran.
 After the unconditional surrender to the Allied  In Turkey, the Soviet Union demanded the
forces, Germany was divided into four occupation internationalisation of the Bosporus Strait. The
zones-each one under the control of the Soviet western allies resisted that.
Union, the USA, Britain and France. Berlin, the  In Greece, the USA and the Soviet Union backed
capital of Germany, fell in Soviet occupation rival factions. The Greek conservative forces
zone but Berlin itself was divided into four had called upon the USA for support. It was
occupation zones on the same pattern as the in this backdrop that the US President Truman
whole of Germany. The military occupation was formulated his policy which came to be known
a temporary arrangement till the time the Peace as Truman doctrine.
Treaty was concluded. The Potsdam Conference
 The Truman doctrine was a policy of ‘containment’
was convened to finalise the peace treaty with
i.e., to limit or contain communism to areas where
Germany. it had already triumphed, but to not let it spread
 The Allies were not clear on critical issues, any further. Thus, the American foreign policy
such as whether Germany should be disarmed, changed from one of isolationism to become
demilitarised and partitioned. To what degree was interventionist. This intervention was aimed at
the reconstruction of the German industry to be containing the spread of communism anywhere
allowed? The Soviet Union wanted a pauperised in the world.

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 There was a significant rise of communism in (‘Nationalist’ China) was recognized. The United
some of the western European countries also. States used its power of veto to keep communist
The war-torn countries of Europe had hoped for China out of the U.N. and the Soviet Union
improvement in their lot after the war but that effectively boycotted the U.N. because of this.
did not happen. European national economies  However, this did not mean the establishment
and industries were struggling and the members of friendly relations between the USSR and PRC:
of the communist parties in these countries were after 1950 their relations took a turn for the worse.
increasing. It was in this background that U.S. After the defeat of Japan in the World War II,
Secretary of State, Marshall, put forward his plan Korea was divided into North Korea under Soviet
for European economic reconstruction which is control and South Korea under American control
known as ‘The Marshall Plan’. in accordance with the Potsdam Conference.
 The Plan envisaged American transfer of more  South Korea was effectively a dictatorship with
than ten billion dollars to Europe over a period direct support from the USA. In North Korea a
of twenty years. It was hoped that such massive pro-Soviet Government was set up. Neither
monetary infusion would help Europe recuperate the Soviet Union nor the U.S.A. recognised the
from the ravages of the war and thus stabilize its governments which were opposed to them. In
material condition and political climate. It was 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea.
also believed that only a stable Europe would
 The United Nations, whose permanent Security
be able to resist the indigenous and external
Council was dominated by capitalist states,
communist challenges. Significantly, the offer of
declared North Korea the aggressor and set up a
aid was made to East European countries also. unified UN command to repel the North Korean
 On its part the Soviet Union revived the attack. General MacArthur of the USA was named
‘Cominform’ (Communist Information Bureau) its commander. The UN troops pushed North
in response to the Truman Doctrine and the Korean forces out of South Korea and entered
Marshall Plan. It was founded with the intention deep into the North Korean territory, reaching
to bring the communist governments in the the Chinese border. China then joined the North
Soviet sphere of influence in line with Moscow’s Korean troops to push the UN troops into South
policies. Thus, it was an attempt to further Korea.
consolidate Communism in Eastern Europe.  Ultimately an armistice was signed in 1953
 The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was bringing to an end the threat of an open war.
signed on April 4, 1949. This treaty was signed in The Korean crisis was the first military struggle
pursuance of the policy of “containment”. It was of the Cold War. The USA and USSR and PRC
between the US and other European countries– did not engage in much direct combat with one
Britain, France, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, another (although North Korean aircrafts were
Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, actually flown by Soviet pilots) but they fought
Norway and Portugal. The treaty was a military each others’ client powers (the Republic of Korea
alliance against the Soviet Bloc. and the Democratic Republic of Korea: neither
was actually a democracy!).
 Article V of the NATO treaty is the central
provision which states that an attack on any
member of NATO would be considered as an SECOND PHASE OF THE COLD WAR :
act of aggression against all others. However, POST TRUMAN-STALIN ERA
every member state had the right to decide on
the kind of support it wanted to offer to other
 In the second phase, tensions eased considerably
member states. Later, Greece and West Germany
but there was no end to the Cold War. In both
also joined the NATO.
the countries, there was a leadership change at
 Post-1945 developments in China and Korea led the highest level. In the USA President Truman’s
to the intensification of the Cold War. In China, tenure came to an end in 1953 and in the Soviet
the Communists gained power in 1949 under Union Stalin died in 1953.
Mao Tse-Tung and People’s Republic of China
 Stalin was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who
was established. retreated on many of the policies of Stalin. On
 The United States refused to recognise the the policy front, Khrushchev stood for the policy
People’s Republic of China, which was also of relaxation of tension in Europe and admitted
denied entry into the United Nations; only Taiwan Soviet responsibility for some problems there.

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 On the other hand, he openly suppressed anti- (Peoples’ Republic of China). But after the Korean
Soviet leaders and ideas in Poland and Hungary War in 1950, the U.S. policy changed and after
and denounced as ‘fascist’ the activities of 1953 US President Eisenhower agreed to massive
liberals and Catholics who expressed Polish and American rearmament of Taiwan.
Hungarian nationalism.  In 1954, the PRC (China) declared that Taiwan had
 Soviet leaders during this period also commented to be liberated and accordingly started military
critically on racial conflicts in the USA, which they operations. The US on its part threatened to use
said were inevitable consequences of capitalist nuclear weapons and war between the PRC and
inequality. the US seemed imminent. Communist China
 For its part, the USA and its clients tried to stir showed an inclination to back down and the
up anti-Soviet feelings in the East European NATO states declared they would not support
countries. The change of leaders in the USSR and American use of nuclear weapons.
Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalinism inspired  During this period the PRC leaders believed
revolts in Poland and Hungry. that the advances made by the USSR in the
 In 1956, revolt broke out in Poznan city of Poland development of long range delivery systems for
but was suppressed. The Communist Party of nuclear weapons, ICBMs, had tilted the European
Poland became divided into two factions, one balance of power in favour of the Eastern bloc.
Stalinist and the other owing allegiance to PRC leaders were not sure what USSR military
Gomulka. Gomulka’s faction succeeded and the resurgence would mean for them; perhaps it
Communist Party of Poland decided to pursue would make the USA less likely to threaten the
a “national road to socialism”. This meant that PRC. When the PRC bombarded Quemoy in 1957,
Poland would have more control over its affairs it was the USSR that pressured the PRC to stop.
as long as it respected Soviet hegemony (for  Ultimately direct Sino-USA war was avoided, but
instance, in economic and military affairs) Chinese Communist suspicion of the USA and
throughout Eastern Europe. Thus, Poland became USSR increased.
the second country after Yugoslavia to follow the
 The Suez Canal was constructed in the mid 19th
path of “Nationalist Communism”, which most
century by the British and the French. The Suez
Soviet leaders accepted within limits.
Canal Company enjoyed the right to operate the
 In Hungary people rose in revolt in 1956. The canal and earn profits for a period of 99 years
Soviet Union initially agreed to some reform, commencing 1869. The Egyptian decision to
but when Hungarians demanded complete nationalise the Suez Canal–that is, make it part
withdrawal of the Soviet troops and Hungary’s of Egyptian national territory–in 1956 led to a
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact (which was set series of crises. Britain, France and Israel decided
up by the Soviet Union in response to NATO), to initiate a concerted military campaign against
the Soviet leadership got annoyed with the Egypt. America was against the use of force. But
‘New Course’. The final declaration of Hungary’s Israel attacked Egypt in collusion with Britain and
neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact France. This forced the USA to condemn its own
led to the execution of Imre Nagy, the then ruler allies and for the first time since the Cold War,
of Hungary and the attack on Hungary by the the USA and the Soviet Union came together on
Soviet Union. Thus the Soviet Union made it this issue. Britain and France had to accept a UN
clear that it was not ready to accept a liberalised peace keeping force for the canal. The imperial
communist regime or a multiparty democracy in decline of France, which had tried to remain
Poland. independent of the USA security bloc, speeded
 The US did not do much about it as any action up after the ‘Suez Crisis’. Britain too was now
on its part would probably have led to direct generally recognized as being only a second-
confrontation between the Soviet Union and the rate power and junior partner of the USA.
USA.  In Cuba Fidel Castro came to power after many
 After the Chinese Revolution, General Chiang Kai- years of struggle in 1959. He brought Cuba
Shek led his followers across the Taiwan Strait and closer to the Soviet Union within a few years.
set up the Republic of China which continued to The USA cut off diplomatic relations with Cuba,
represent China in the UN till 1971. The American refused to purchase Cuban sugar and supported
policy before 1950 was not to interfere in Taiwan an ‘invasion’ of Cuba in 1961 by anti-Castro
in the event of attack by the Communist China Cubans who were living in exile in the USA. The

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exiles attempted a landing at the Bay of Pigs. The  During the second phase of the Cold War, there
‘invasion’ turned out to be a complete failure as was a thaw between the two super-powers but
the exiles got no support from the people of on certain occasions, as during the Cuban Missile
Cuba. The Soviet Union then decided to install a crisis in 1962, the tension ran very high. The
nuclear bomber and ground-to-ground missiles possibility of a nuclear war and its catastrophic
in Cuba (some of them only 150 km. from the effects was an important factor that forced the
USA). The Soviet Union also dispatched dozens two superpowers to change their attitudes.
of long range missiles to Cuba. (Since 1949, the In both the countries there were pressures to
USA had put bomber and missile bases in Norway, reduce military expenditures. Some grounds
Turkey and other places directly adjacent to the for improved relationship between the two
USSR.) The USA in turn announced a blockade superpowers had already been made.
of Cuba. There was a strong possibility of war  In 1963 the Soviet Union, the USA and Britain
between the superpowers. Initially the Soviet had signed a nuclear test ban treaty and agreed
Union denounced the blockade but later agreed to carry out their nuclear tests underground only
to withdraw the missiles on the condition that to avoid polluting the atmosphere any further.
the Americans would not invade Cuba and In the same year a telephonic link (the so called
would remove their medium-range nuclear hot line) was introduced between Moscow and
missiles from Turkey. The USA agreed to the Washington to ensure swift consultations.
first condition; they soon removed missiles from
Turkey with the excuse that they were outdated.
This was probably the closest the superpowers
THE DETENTE
came to nuclear war during the Cold War.
 The Soviet Union and the USA relationship now
 The Soviet Union virtually gave an ultimatum to
entered a new phase which has been described
the western powers demanding demilitarisation
as Detente, a term that was used for relaxation
of all of Berlin within six months; the USSR
in East-West conflict. The Detente was also to
would remove its occupation troops if the other
take into account China.
occupiers did the same. If agreement was not
reached within six months, the Soviet Union  The relationship between the USA and China had
was to transfer its occupation rights in East been tense for past few years. The Detente with
Berlin to the German Democratic Republic (‘East China was a notable achievement. The Cold War
Germany’). When Soviet troops surrounded the did not end during this period but there were
city, the West Berliners and foreign occupiers improved levels of understanding.
were supplied by an ‘air-bridge’; eventually Soviet  Henry Kissinger, described Detente as “a mode
leaders decided they could not easily force the of arrangement of adversary power”. Leonid
Western powers out of Berlin, the city they had Brezhnev, who succeeded Khrushchev as Soviet
lost 300,000 troops in occupying at the end of leader after the Cuban missile crisis, described
the Second World War. The ‘Berlin Crisis’ was not Detente as “willingness to resolve differences
so much defused as won in favor of the Western and disputes not by force, not by threats and
occupation forces. The Soviet Union continued to saber rattling, but by peaceful means at the
be worried during the 1950s by the flight of many conference table. It also means a certain trust
workers and professionals from East Germany to and ability to consider each other’s legitimate
West Germany via Berlin. When they resumed interests.”
pressure against the Western occupiers over the  President Nixon of the USA has been described
Berlin question, the latter changed some of the as the “author of Detente”. But this is more
terms of occupation to prevent being drawn into appropriate in the context of U.S.-China relations.
a major conflict over Germany. Although Nixon had based his political career
 West Germany, the German Federal Republic, during the 1940s-60’s as an anti-communist
was being rearmed after 1955 and given effective ‘hardliner’, when elected President in 1968 he
control over most of the western occupation took steps to improve US relations with China.
zones, where the communists were outlawed  Several steps were taken by both the countries
for some time. In 1961 the Soviet occupiers of to ease the tension. In 1968, a nuclear non-
East Berlin built a concrete wall to prevent East proliferation treaty (NPT) was signed by U.K.,
Germans from fleeing to the West German state. USA and USSR. A major area of conflict between
The Berlin Wall became a symbol of Cold War the two superpowers was the two Germanys and
politics until Germans tore it down in 1989–90. Berlin.

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 In 1969, the government of West Germany  The New Cold War was marked by the efforts
initiated the policy of Ostpolitik which means of both the countries to spread their influence
a “policy for the East”. West Germany renewed mainly outside Europe. Conflicts outside Europe
normal relations with East European countries. assumed greater significance than ever before.
Both the Germanys recognised each other and Detente for the Soviet Union meant acceptance
were recognised as separate and legitimate of status quo in Europe only.
states by the superpowers; the two Germanys
joined the United Nations in 1973.  In Indo-China, Africa, Afghanistan etc. both the
countries supported opposing groups.
 In 1972 USA and the Soviet Union signed
the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT-I).  The Soviet Union replaced the President of
The agreement did not reduce the amount of Afghanistan by one favourable to it. Nearly
armaments but did slow down the arms race. 1,00,000 Soviet soldiers were stationed in
Afghanistan. America regarded the positioning
 The then Presidents of the Soviet Union and the
of Soviet soldiers in Afghanistan as a threat to
USA met thrice (Brezhnev and Nixon respectively).
The USA also started exporting wheat to the Iran and moved her warships in the Gulf.
Soviet Union.  Both the countries were deeply involved in
 In July 1975, 35 countries assembled for the developing the new weapons of destruction.
Helsinki (Finland) Conference. The signing of The US President, Ronald Reagan, approved of
its final act was regarded, for the time being, as the plan to develop a new weapons system, the
burying the Cold War. The final act contained ten Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) which was also
principles, most important of which was that all known as Star Wars.
the Nations were to accept the European frontier
which had been drawn after the Second World
THE END OF THE COLD WAR
War. Thus the division of Germany was accepted.
The communist countries promised to allow
their peoples “human rights” including freedom  The New Cold War came to an end with the
of speech and freedom to leave the country collapse of communism in various East European
 During the period of detente USA-China relations countries. The pace of collapse was very fast
improved considerably. President Nixon and and ultimately communism collapsed in its birth
Secretary of State Henry Kissinger made special place i.e., the USSR.
efforts to ease the tension with China.  The process began in Poland in 1988 when the
 In 1971, China was admitted to the UN and Solidarity trade union organised huge anti-
Taiwan was expelled. In 1978 the USA withdrew government strikes forcing the government to
the recognition of Nationalist China and in 1979 allow free elections in which the communists
the USA gave recognition the People’s Republic were comprehensively defeated. The same
of China, and ambassadors were exchanged. happened in Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and
Czechoslovakia.
NEW COLD WAR  In East Germany the communist leader Eric
Honecker wanted to disperse the demonstrators
 After the Helsinki Conference the process of by force but was overruled by his colleagues. By
detente lost its momentum. Relations between the end of 1989, the Communist Government
the USA and the Soviet Union became so sore had to resign in East Germany and the Berlin
that by 1980 it appeared that Cold War had come Wall, the symbol of Cold War, was pulled down
back. The new tensions came to be described as in 1989 with much public enthusiasm. The fall of
the New Cold War. the Berlin wall was taken to be the end of the
 The New Cold War was different from the Cold War as its erection had been taken as the
Cold War in the sense that it was not based on start of the Cold War. In 1990 the West German
ideological conflict but on balance of power. In currency was introduced in East Germany and
the New Cold War a new power bloc, namely finally the two Germanys were reunited.
the PRC, emerged as a power that could not be  The Chancellor of Federal Republic of Germany
defeated or ignored. was chosen as the head of the Government of the
 The intervention of the Soviet army in Afghanistan united country which adopted market economy
in 1979 was the turning point. and western type of democracy.

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 In the Soviet Union also communism collapsed. in the Korean War and Vietnam War. Although
Mikhail Gorbachev made efforts to transform and the loss of life among Soviet soldiers is difficult
revitalize the country by his policies of glasnost to estimate, as a share of their gross national
(openness) and Perestroika (restructuring-which product the financial cost for the Soviet Union
meant economic and social reforms). was far higher than that of the United States.
 But the measures did not succeed and by the end  In addition to the loss of life by uniformed
of 1991 the USSR split into separate republics, and soldiers, millions died in the superpowers’ proxy
Russia alone was not in a position to command wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast
the same influence that the old Soviet Union did. Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for
The Cold War came to an end. local conflicts ended along with the Cold War;
 Many political commentator argued that with the the incidence of interstate wars, ethnic wars,
end of the Cold War the world problems would revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and
disappear but new problems and new areas of displaced persons crises has declined sharply in
conflict have now emerged. the post–Cold War years.
 The legacy of Cold War conflict, however, is not
EFFECTS OF THE COLD WAR always easily erased, as many of the economic
and social tensions that were exploited to fuel
 The Cold War has had many effects on society, Cold War competition in parts of the Third World
from the end of the war up until today. In remain acute. The breakdown of state control in
Russia, military spending was cut dramatically and a number of areas formerly ruled by Communist
quickly. The effects of this were very large, seeing governments has produced new civil and ethnic
as the military-industrial sector had previously conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia.
employed one of every five Soviet adults and its  In Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has
dismantling left hundreds of millions throughout ushered in an era of economic growth and a large
the former Soviet Union unemployed. increase in the number of liberal democracies,
 After Russia embarked on economic reforms while in other parts of the world, such
in the 1990s, it suffered a financial crisis and a as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied
recession more severe than the United States by state failure.
and Germany had experienced during the Great
 Many nuclear legacies can be identified from
Depression. Russian living standards have
the Cold War, such as the availability of new
worsened overall in the post–Cold War years,
technologies for nuclear power and energy,
although the economy has resumed growth
since 1995. and the use of radiation for improving medical
treatment and health. Environmental remediation,
 It wasn’t until 2005 that the average post- industrial production, research science, and
communist country had returned to 1989 levels of technology development have all benefited from
per-Capita GDP, although some are still lagging the carefully managed application of radiation
far behind. The legacy of the Cold War continues
and other nuclear processes.
to influence world affairs. After the dissolution
of the Soviet Union, the post–Cold War world is  On the other hand, despite the end of the Cold
widely considered as unipolar, with the United War, military development and spending has
States the sole remaining superpower. continued, particularly in the deployment of
nuclear-armed ballistic missiles and defensive
 The Cold War defined the political role of the
United States in the post–World War II world: systems.
by 1989 the United States held military alliances  Because there was no formalized treaty ending
with 50 countries, and had 1.5 million troops the Cold War, the former superpowers have
posted abroad in 117 countries. The Cold War continued to various degrees to maintain
also institutionalized a global commitment to and even improve or modify existing nuclear
huge, permanent peacetime military-industrial weapons and delivery systems. Moreover, other
complexes and large-scale military funding of nations not previously acknowledged as nuclear-
science. weapons states have developed and tested
 Military expenditures by the US during the Cold nuclear-explosive devices. The risk of nuclear and
War years were estimated to have been $8 trillion, radiological terrorism by possible sub-national
while nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives organizations or individuals is now a concern.

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 The international nonproliferation regime  Although the Cold War has ended, domestic
inherited from the Cold War still provides basing and overseas deployment of nuclear
disincentives and safguards against national weapons has not ended. Moreover, the nuclear-
or sub-national access to nuclear materials weapon states remain in various reduced but
and facilities. Formal and informal measures palpable conditions of defensive alert.
and processes have effectively slowed national  Risks of deliberate, accidental, or unauthorized
incentives and the tempo of international nuclear devastation remain. Moreover, terrorists
nuclear-weapons proliferation. and hackers continue to interfere with nuclear
stability and confidence.
 Numerous and beneficial uses of nuclear
energy have evolved such as the use of nuclear  World inventories of weapons-grade fissile
materials are substantial, much greater than
energy to create electricity. Commercial nuclear-
now needed for military purposes. Until these
reactor operation and construction have persisted,
materials can be demilitarized, they need to be
with some notable increase in worldwide energy securely safeguarded. Many production facilities
production. The management of nuclear waste are yet to be shut down.
remains somewhat unresolved, depending very
 In the meantime, sensitive materials have to
much on government policies. However, the
be safely and securely stored, pending their
quantity of waste produced from nuclear power
conversion to non-military use. In particular,
plants is relatively small, and nuclear waste has the successor states of the former Soviet Union
been proven to be recyclable. Several countries, were generally not in a position to finance and
including France, Japan, and Finland, currently maintain secure safeguards when the Cold War
reprocess nuclear waste. came to such an unprepared and relatively
 As nuclear weapons are becoming surplus to sudden end.
national military interests, they are slowly being  National security and defence for nuclear-
dismantled, and in some cases their fissile weapons states must be frequently reevaluated.
material is being recycled to fuel civilian nuclear- The international arms-control treaty and
reactors. verification regime inherited from the Cold War is
only slowly being updated to reflect the realities
of a broken international security environment.
IMPACT ON THE SECURITY SCENARIO  Internal national-security military postures still
dominate behavior among sovereign nations.
 Because of potential risk to national and The former superpowers have not formally
international security, nuclear-weapons states consummated their stand-down from Cold War
have inherited substantial responsibilities in military equipoise.
protecting and stabilizing their nuclear forces.  Strategic and tactical nuclear and conventional
 Not only must nuclear weapons and their forces remain at levels comparatively high for
a peacetime environment. Localized conflicts
delivery systems be secured and protected, other
and tensions have replaced the former bilateral
nuclear facilities and devices, such as reactors
nuclear confrontation.
and propulsion systems, must be safeguarded.
An appropriate continuing level of security is  As a lingering result, large inventories of nuclear
necessary through all life-cycle phases, from weapons and facilities remain. Some are being
recycled, dismantled, or recovered as valuable
production to decommissioning. In addition,
substances. As well, some chemical and biological
the entire military nuclear infrastructure requires
weapons that were developed during the Cold
protection, and that requires a commensurate War are still in existence, although many are
allocation of funding. being demilitarized.
 Having once had widespread overseas nuclear  Military policies and strategies are slowly being
bases and facilities, both the United States and modified to reflect the increasing interval without
the former Soviet Union have inherited major confrontation.
particular responsibilities and costs. Moreover,  Because of large extant inventories of
all nuclear-weapons states had developed not weapons, fissile materials, and rapid-response
only production and servicing facilities, but delivery systems, a mutual danger coexists for
also sometimes extensive military staging and accidental, misjudged, or miscalculated incidents
storage. or warfare.

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 Other Cold War weapons states, are slowly  The United States, having become the only
reducing their arsenals. In the meantime, they global superpower, was also able to use this
have not abandoned their dependency on ideological victory to reinforce its leadership
nuclear deterrence, while a few more nations position in the new world order. It was claimed
have attempted or succeeded in carrying out that, “the United States and its allies are on
nuclear-explosive tests and thus creating their the right side of history”. The US also became
own nuclear deterrence. the most dominant influence over the newly
 During the Cold War, an international fabric connecting global economy.However, this
of arms-control constraint had evolved, much unipolar international system was in tension with
of it carried over as a beneficial heritage with the emerging potential for a multipolar world
institutional mechanisms for multilateral or as India, China, and Japan developed to a point
international function and verification. where they might challenge US hegemony. This
created new potential for worldwide conflict,
ending the balance, from mutually assured
CONSEQUENCES OF THE END OF COLD
destruction in the case of nuclear war, which
WAR had held the world in a state of “long peace”
throughout the Cold War.
 The collapse of the Soviet Union caused profound
 The People’s Republic of China, already having
changes in nearly every society in the world.
moved towards capitalism starting in the
Much of the policy and infrastructure of the West
late 1970s and facing public anger after the
and the Eastern Bloc had revolved around the
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 in Beijing,
capitalist and communist ideologies respectively
moved even more quickly towards free market
and the possibility of a nuclear warfare.
economics in the 1990s.
 The fall of Communism formed an existential
 The move to capitalism has increased the
threat for many institutions. The US military was
economic prosperity of China, but many
forced to cut much of its expenditure, though
people still live in poor conditions, working for
the level rose again to comparable heights after
companies for very small pay and in dangerous
the September 11 attacks and the initiation of
and poor conditions.
the War on Terror in 2001.
 After the end of the Cold War, Communism
 The end of the Cold War also coincided with
the end of apartheid in South Africa. Declining would also end in Mongolia, Congo, Albania,
Cold War tensions in the later years of the Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, and Angola, today there
1980s meant that the apartheid regime was are only five remaining Communist countries in
no longer supported by the West as a bulwark the world, China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea and
against Communism and they were condemned Vietnam.
with an embargo. In 1990, Nelson Mandela was  Many other third world countries who had seen
freed from prison and the regime made steps to involvement from the United States and/or the
end apartheid, which were on an official basis Soviet Union were also able to resolve political
completed by 1994 with the new election. conflicts with the removal of the ideological
 Socialist and Communist parties around the world interests of these superpowers.As a result of the
saw drops in membership after the Berlin Wall apparent victory of democracy and capitalism
fell and the public felt that free market ideology in the Cold War, many more countries adapted
had won. Libertarian, neoliberal, nationalist and these systems, which also allowed them access to
Islamist parties on the other hand benefited from the benefits of global trade, as economic power
the fall of the Soviet Union. became more prominent than military power in
the international arena.
 As capitalism had “won”, as people saw it,
socialism and communism in general declined  However, as the United States maintained
in popularity. Social-Democratic Scandinavian global power, its role in many Regime Changes
countries privatized many of their commons during the Cold War went mostly officially
in the 1990s and a political debate on modern unacknowledged, even when some, such as El
institutions re-opened. Scandinavian nations are Salvador and Argentina, resulted in extensive
now more seen as social democrat. human rights violations.

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 The end of the Cold War allowed many the Cold War, many nations found it necessary
technologies that were formerly off limits to the to discuss a new form of international order and
public to be declassified. The most important internationalism, where countries cooperated
of these was the Internet, which was created as with one another instead of using nuclear scare
ARPANET by the Pentagon as a system to keep in tactics.
touch following an impending nuclear war. The  The period has seen the United States become
last restrictions on commercial enterprise online by far the most powerful country in the world
were lifted in 1995. and the rise of China from a relatively weak
 In the approximately two decades since, the developing country to a fledgling potential
Internet’s population and usefulness grew superpower. Reacting on the rise of China,
immensely. Only about 20 million people (less the United States has strategically sought to
than 0.5 percent of the world’s population at “rebalance” the Asia-Pacific region. It has also
the time) were online in 1995, mostly in the seen the merger of most of Europe into one
US and several other Western countries. By the economy and a shift of power from the G7 to the
mid-2010s, more than one third of the world’s larger G20. Accompanying the NATO expansion,
population was online. Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) systems were
installed in East Europe. These marked important
steps in military globalization.
POST COLD WAR ERA
 The end of the Cold War intensified hopes
for increasing international cooperation and
 Post-Cold War era is the period after the end strengthened international organizations focused
of the Cold War. Because the Cold War was not on approaching global issues. This has paved way
an active war but rather a period of geopolitical for the establishment of international agreements
tensions punctuated by proxy wars, there is such as the Organization for the Prohibition of
disagreement on the official ending of this Chemical Weapons, the Universal Declaration
conflict and subsequent existence of the post- of Human Rights, the Convention on the
Cold War era. Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
 Some scholars claim the Cold War ended when Genocide, and the Paris Climate Agreement.
the world’s first treaty on nuclear disarmament  Environmentalism has also become a mainstream
was signed in 1987, the end of the Soviet Union concern in the post-Cold War era following
as a superpower amid the Revolutions of 1989 the circulation of widely accepted evidence
or when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. for human activity’s effects on Earth’s climate.
Despite this ambiguity, the end of the Cold The same heightened consciousness is true of
War symbolized a victory of democracy and terrorism, owing largely to the September 11,
capitalism, giving a boost to the rising world 2001 attacks in the United States and their global
powers of the United States and China. fallout.
 Democracy became a manner of collective  The term “post-Cold War” was criticized for its
self-validation for countries hoping to gain ambiguity: “Even though it has been ten years
international respect: when democracy was seen since the Berlin Wall came down,” wrote Paul
as an important value, political structures began Wolfowitz in 2000, “we still have no better
adopting the value. name for the period in which we live than the
 The era has mostly been dominated by the rise of post-Cold War era.” The name means that this
globalization (as well as nationalism and populism new era “does not yet have a name.”
in reaction) enabled by the commercialization of  It was suggested that Pax Americana or “clash
the Internet and the growth of the mobile phone of civilizations” would more reflect the reality of
system. the era but the former term would be “offending
 The Post-Cold War era has enabled renewed for many.” The same dilemma expressed
attention to be paid to matters that were Condoleezza Rice: “That we do not know how
ignored during the Cold War. The Cold War has to think about what follows the US-Soviet
paved the way for nationalist movements and confrontation is clear from the continued
internationalism. Following the nuclear crises of references to the “post-Cold War period.’

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Chapter - 7.2

Changing International Order

WHAT IS AN INTERNATIONAL ORDER? supported by extensive rules and institutions,

a web of security alliances, and a series of
environmental and human rights norms that
 In international relations experts conceive
stand.
order as the body of rules, norms, and
institutions that govern relations among the
key players in the international environment. EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD ORDER
In the world affairs, order brings a certain method
in the way one country conducts its affairs with  From the Concert of Europe to the League of
other states which can be noticed in the form of Nations to the post- war liberal order, order has
a set of rules and principles, which are commonly taken many different forms in practice. Order in
accepted and respected by governments. These the sense of patterned relations can be further
rules and principles include equality of all understood as either an input that can affect state
countries, that one country should not interfere behaviour or an outcome of a stable, predictable
in the internal affairs of another state, that force state of affairs between states, in contrast to
should not be used or even threatened in the disorder or a state of war and violence.
bilateral relations, that prisoners of wars and
 Order as input can be the rules and norms
refugees should be treated humanely, etc.
surrounding the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation
 An order is distinguished from chaos, or random of nuclear weapons, for example, shape state
relationships, by some degree of pattern and preferences and, ultimately, behaviour. In this
structure. (Ikenberry) Therefore an order as sense, the mechanisms of order are tools of
a set of “governing arrangements between statecraft.
states, including its fundamental rules,
 But order also is viewed commonly as a goal
principles, and institutions” (Ikenberry), Well-
or outcome in itself; that is, the ultimate
established theoretical concepts of institutions
policy goal of using ordering mechanisms
and regimes can be constitutive of order but are
is a more ordered international system. U.S.
not synonymous with it.
strategy has understood order in both of these
 An order is a stable, structured pattern of senses. Primarily, the United States has viewed
relationships among states that involves mechanisms of order as tools to achieve narrow
some combination of parts, including U.S. self-interests.
emergent norms, rulemaking institutions,
 In the modern era, the foundation of
and international political organizations or
international order was built on the bedrock
regimes.
principles of the Westphalian system, which
 For assisting countries to make and implement reflected fairly conservative conceptions
these rules, they often establish common of order while building on pure balance-of-
institutions like the United Nations. International power politics in order to uphold the equality
order is well managed through ordering and territorial inviolability of states. The
mechanisms, including a global economic system Westphalian system led to the development of

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the territorial integrity norm, which is the norm unnecessary conflict, and enabling it to prevent
against outright military aggression against unchecked aggression or abuse.
neighbors to grab land, resources, or people,  In so doing, the security order should
which was once common in world politics. incentivize regional and middle powers to
follow the “rules of the game,” minimizing the
WORLD ORDER POST WW2- LIBERAL use of force as a tool for managing inter-state
INTERNATIONAL WORLD ORDER relations. An effective order also should be able
to punish violations of that central rule (Jones
and Wright).
 However, a more optimistic liberal conception
of order has been evident since the mid-  The result is a broad-based and intersecting set
1940s or post WW2 which assumes a potential of norms, institutions, organizations, networks,
harmony of interests among states and views and other mechanisms that reflect two dominant
categories (economic and polit-ical-military) and a
the instruments of order as mechanisms for
host of other supporting categories and issues.
cleaning up the marginal barriers to cooperation,
such as uncertainty and transaction costs.  This order has been different from previous
ones because of its liberal and institutionalized
 The postwar international order is composed
character. The postwar order came to embrace
of many elements, each mutually reinforcing.
goals of democratization and the protection
Those elements include U.S. power and
of human rights, which have become deeply
sponsorship; a set of legitimate global
embedded in the U.S. and global vision for
institutions, including the UN and the World
order.
Trade Organization (WTO), as well as many
issue-specific organizations in such areas as
air traffic control, and; a set of international WHAT WERE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR
legal conventions, from arms control regimes THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF COLD
to the laws of war, that constrain the actions
WAR BIPOLARITY?
of states; and an emerging set of starting but
often powerful shared norms.
For realists in particular, bipolarity is biased in favour
 The postwar version of international order is an of stability and order. This occurs for a number of
especially complex and extensive set of norms, reasons.
institutions, treaties, and other mechanisms that
has been created in service of the following core  Due to balance of terror- First, and most
principles: economic stability, nonaggression, importantly, bipolar systems tend towards a
coordinated activity on shared challenges, and balance of power. Military equality between
the advance of liberal values. the USA and the Soviet Union inclined both
of them towards a strategy of deterrence
 Ikenberry has defined the postwar order through which the two superpowers effectively
as a combination of “economic openness, cancelled each other out, albeit through a
reciprocity, [and] multilateral management,” ‘balance of terror’. Fewer great powers reduced
which he refers to as the “organising the possibilities of great-power war, but also,
arrangements of a distinctly liberal Western crucially, reduced the chances of miscalculation,
order” that reflected larger ambitions than making it easier to operate an effective system
merely countering Soviet power. of deterrence.
 The postwar liberal order was grounded most  Stable power relationships in the Cold War
powerfully on two architectures that reflected system because each bloc was forced to rely on
the order’s dominant points of consensus. The inner (economic and military) resources, external
first was the trade regime that contributed to (alliances with other states or blocs) means of
the liberalization of global economies and linked expanding power not being available. Due to
the world community together in expanding and the division of the world was developed, shifting
deepening networks of interdependence. alliances that may have destabilized the balance
 The second dominant component of the order of power were largely ruled out. Bipolarity
has been in the security realm. The functions of therefore led to the ‘long peace’ between
this security order were not merely to obstruct 1945 and 1990, in particular bringing peace to
large-scale aggression but also to shape the a Europe that had been the crucible of world war
use of force— limiting it, so as not to trigger twice before in the twentieth century.

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However, not all theorists had such a Its features included US leadership to ensure the
positive view of Cold War bipolarity. international rule of law, a partnership between
the US and the Soviet Union including the
 It strengthened imperialist tendencies in integration of the latter into the world economic
both the USA and the USSR as, discouraged bodies, and a check on the use of force by the
from direct confrontation with each other, each promotion of collective security.
sought to extend or consolidate its control over  However, many were quick to dismiss the ‘new
its sphere of influence. world order’ as little more than a convenient
 In the capitalist West, this led to neocolonialism, catchphrase and one that was certainly not
US political interference in Latin America and the grounded in a developed strategic vision.
Vietnam War, whereas in the communist East it  Much of how this ‘new world’ would work
resulted in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Hungary remained vague. For example, how and how
(1956) and the Soviet invasions of Czechoslovakia far should the UN be strengthened? What
(1968) and Afghanistan (1979). institutional arrangements were required to
 Superpower rivalry and a strategy of nuclear ensure that the US–Soviet partnership would
deterrents produced conditions of ongoing be enduring? How could the renunciation of
tension that always threatened to make the the use of force be squared with the USA’s
Cold War ‘hot’. In other words, the Cold War emerging role as the ‘world’s police officer’?
may have remained ‘cold’ more because of  For that matter, the advent of superpower
good fortune or the good sense of individual cooperation was only a manifestation of Soviet
leaders, rather than through the structural weakness and, anyway, owed much to the
dynamics of the system itself. personal relationship between Bush Sr and
Gorbachev.
POST-COLD WAR GLOBAL ORDER-  Moreover, alternative interpretations of the
EMERGENCE OF UNIPOLAR WORLD post-Cold War world order were not slow in
emerging. Some heralded the rise not of a new
world order, but of a new world disorder.
 There is considerable agreement about the
shape of world order during the Cold War  The release of stresses and tensions that
period. Its most prominent feature was that two the Cold War had helped to keep under
major power blocs confronted one another, a control.
US-dominated West and a Soviet-dominated  By maintaining the image of an external
East. Their status was characterized by their threat (be it international communism
preponderant military power (particularly in or capitalist encirclement), the Cold War
terms of their nuclear arsenals) and their span had served to promote internal cohesion
of ideological leadership. The bipolar model of and given societies a sense of purpose
the Cold War, however, became increasingly and identity.
less accurate from the 1960s onwards. This
 The collapse of the external threat helped to
was due, first, to the growing fragmentation
unleash centrifugal pressures, which usually
of the communist world and secondly to the
took the form of ethnic, racial and regional
resurgence of Japan and Germany as economic
conflicts eg. the prolonged bloodshed
superpowers.
in the 1990s amongst Serbs, Croats and
 The idea that the post-Cold War era would be Muslims in the former Yugoslavia, and by
characterized by a ‘new world order’ was first the war between Russia and the secessionist
mooted by Gorbachev in a speech to the UN republic of Chechnya that broke out in
General Assembly in December 1988. He called 1994.
for a strengthening of the UN and the de-  The greatest weakness of the idea of an
ideologization of relations amongst states to emerging liberal world order was a failure to
achieve greater cooperation and proposed that take account of the shifting role and status
the use or threat of force should no longer be of the USA. The main significance of the
considered legitimate in international affairs. end of the Cold War was the collapse
 In his ‘Towards a New World Order’ speech to of the Soviet Union as a meaningful
Congress in September 1990, Bush outlined his challenger to the USA, leaving the USA
vision for the post-Cold War world in more detail. as the world’s sole superpower.

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 The ‘new world order’ may have been  China’s growing influence is the extraordinary
nothing more than an ideological tool to rise of its ‘soft’ power.
legitimise the global exercise of power
 Nevertheless, the rise of China is often seen as
by the USA.
part of a larger shift in the balance of global
 According to Andrew Heywood the ‘liberal power from West to East, and specifically to
moment’ in world affairs turned out to be Asia, and maybe from the USA to the BRICs
the ‘unipolar moment’. countries, sometimes dubbed ‘the Rest’.
 Some argue that the twenty-first century
A MULTIPOLAR GLOBAL ORDER? will not so much be the ‘Chinese century’ as
the ‘Asian century’, with India and Japan in
 Nearly two decades ago, Charles Krauthammer particular also being viewed as key actors.
prophesied that multipolarity will come in
 As India has become an emerging power based
time and in perhaps another generation or so
on economic growth rates only marginally less
there will be great powers coequal with the
impressive than China’s.
United States, and the world will, in structure,
resemble the pre-World War I era.  India has become a world leader in industries
 Since the beginning of the 21st century, and such as computer software and biotechnology,
especially within the past couple years, the seeming while Bollywood films have become a global
actualization of Krauthammer’s prediction has entertainment phenomenon.
caused many to believe that the world now stands  Japan, also emerged as a major power through
on the precipice of a multipolar order. China and its post-1945 ‘economic miracle’, becoming the
Russia have long been in the forefront of nations second largest economy in the world during the
advocating for this order and have included 1970s.
multipolarity as a joint cause in many of their
statements, declarations, and treaties But there are disagreements related to the
multipolarity of the world order.
 There is Debate about the decline, or even end,
of US hegemony which is invariably linked to  The continued forward march of a Chinese-led
an assessment of rising multipolarity. Asia cannot be taken for granted. The Japanese
There are several trends which point to the rise of economy stalled badly in the 1990s (Japan’s ‘lost
the multipolar World order: decade’). There are questions regarding the
sustainability of India and China’s high growth
 The rise of so-called ‘emerging powers’ and
rates.
some of these states already have a significant
measure of regional influence – Iran in the  India’s emergence as a great power is constrained
Middle East; and South Korea, Australia in Asia by a number of factors. India still suffers from
and Oceania and some others have wider, and acute problems of poverty and illiteracy, which
possibly global, significance. These include, most are being fuelled by a population growth crisis
obviously, China, Russia, and India, but also that is fast getting out of hand. India has also
Japan and the European Union. been less interested than China in projecting
 Of all the powers that may rival, and even eclipse, itself militarily, despite having joined the ‘nuclear
the USA, the most significant is undoubtedly club’ in 2001.
China. The basis for China’s great power status As far as China is concerned, there are reasons
is its rapid economic progress. China has a
for questioning whether it can yet be viewed
seemingly inexhaustible supply of cheap labor,
as a serious rival of the USA.
making it, increasingly, the manufacturing
heart of the global economy.  As the Chinese economy remains heavily
dependent on supplies of cheap labour, and
 China also has a growing military capacity,
being second only to the USA in terms of a transition to a more highly technologized
arms expenditure. economy based on advanced skills and
production techniques has yet to be achieved.
 China’s emerging global role within the WTO and
G-20 and over issues such as climate change, as  China’s one child policy, introduced in 1979, also
well as in its much-strengthened resource links means that China has the most rapidly ageing
with Africa, Australia and parts of the Middle East population in the world, putting its future
and Latin America. economic prospects seriously at risk.

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 The most serious challenge facing China, however,  Pessimists about the changing power
may be how it reconciles tensions between its relationship between the USA and China
political and economic structures. argue that hegemonic powers rarely adjust
Russia’s re-emergence as a great power has easily or peacefully to declining status, while
rising hegemons will, sooner or later, seek a
been evident in two major respects. level of politico-military power that reflects
 Driven by the substantial expansion of oil their economic dominance.
and gas production. Russia has emerged as an
 Moreover, there are a number of sources of
energy superpower allowing it, for instance, to
potential Sino–US conflict. For example, cultural
exert influence over the states of Eastern Europe
and ideological differences between ‘liberal-
and beyond by controlling the flow and price of
democratic’ USA and ‘Confucian’ China may
oil and gas resources.
provide the basis for growing enmity and
 Fuelled by growing economic confidence misunderstanding, in line with the ‘clash of
and strengthened nationalism, Russia has civilizations’ thesis.
demonstrated a renewed appetite for military
assertiveness, especially in relation to the  Conflict could also arise from divisions that
so-called ‘near abroad’. This was particularly already exist over issues such as Taiwan, Tibet
demonstrated by the 2008 war with Georgia, and and human rights generally, as well as over
its Ukraine invasion. growing resource rivalry in Africa, the Middle
East and elsewhere.
 Nevertheless, with Russia’s military spending
lags a long way behind NATO’s, much of its Way Forward
equipment still stemming from the Cold War
era, and extensive and exposed borders make  The emergence of new powers and the relative
Russia strategically vulnerable at a number of decline of the USA may be managed in a way
points. that preserves peace and keeps rivalry under
control.
The Concept of “Multipolar Disorder”
 The USA’s established approach to likely
 Neorealists have been particularly rivals has been to accommodate them in line
prominent in warning against the dangers with enlightened self-interest and in order to
of multipolarity, seeing a tendency towards discourage them from aspiring to a greater
instability and chaos as the key feature of its role.
structural dynamic.
 This was evident in US support for the
 Mearsheimer lamented the end of Cold War post-1945 Japanese reconstruction and
bipolarity, warning that Europe’s future in in consistent encouragement given to the
particular would be characterized by a ‘back to the process of integration in Europe. A similar
future’ scenario. By this, he was referring to the approach has been adopted to China, India and,
multipolar world orders that, arguably, gave rise in the main, to Russia.
to WWI and WWII by allowing ambitious powers
 Such an approach tends to encourage
to pursue expansionist goals precisely because
power balances within the international system emerging powers to ‘bandwagon’ rather than
remained fluid. In this view, multipolarity is ‘balance’, becoming part of the usually US-
inherently unstable, certainly by comparison led global trading and financial system rather
with bipolarity because more actors increase than putting up barriers against the USA.
the number of possible conflicts and creates  It also makes the prospects of a ‘USA versus the
higher levels of uncertainty, intensifying the Rest’ conflict significantly less likely, as potential
security dilemma for all states. rivals are at least as concerned about each other
 In addition, shifting alliances amongst as they are about the USA.
multiple actors mean that changes in power  The USA’s drift back to multilateralism, following
balances are likely to be more frequent and its early unilateralist reaction to the emergence
possibly more dramatic. of a unipolar world order, not only reflects its
 Several emerging fault-lines and tensions have recognition of the importance and efficacy of
been identified- possibility of growing enmity, legitimate power, but also enhances its ability
and possibly war, between the USA, the old to manage shifting balances of power while
hegemon, and China, the new hegemon. maintaining peace and cooperation.

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SCHOLARLY ANALYSIS The widespread belief that economic growth

will effectively translate into military power
is misleading, but China’s power projection
Megan Dee
capacity is still limited for a potential global
 This is an emerging multipolar world. The military power. The Chinese military has yet to
end of the Cold War was to bring with it both develop a military doctrine that protects China’s
shrinking borders and new power brokers, closer global interests.
interdependence, and greater global insecurities.
Globalization has brought the abroad ever closer Ashok Kumar Behuria replies: Multipolarity
to home. Power is diffuse. is what the states make of it.
 Gone are the days when the ‘West’ could dictate  ‘Multipolar world’ opens up the foreign policy and
policy and shape the world in its own image. security choices for all countries.
The world of today is instead witnessing the
rise of new and diverse global powers capable  Theoretically, the transition from a bipolar
of wielding influence in both global markets (through a short unipolar moment) to a
and global governance. multipolar world throws open the windows
of opportunity for weaker states to exercise
 The wealth of the economic powerhouses of their strategic autonomy and multi-align
the latter half of the 20th century, including the themselves with multiple powerful states, in
United States, Europe, and Japan, has begun to pursuit of their developmental and security
wane, while the global south is on the rise, not interests.
least in the form of the emerging economies,
China, India, and Brazil. This is an emerging  In reality, however, the transition, if it is long and
multipolar world. fuzzy, may lead powerful states both to manipulate
global norms and institutions to their advantage,
Bekir Ilhan and to flout them at will to the disadvantage of
weaker states in the sense that they may be forced
 The US pullback from global leadership has to take decisions that constrain their sovereign
thus caused a false perception of multipolarity. authority to make independent choices.
Russia and China, however, don’t seem to stand  Ultimately, whether the states can make
as peer competitors vis-à-vis the United States. good use of multipolarity would depend on
The Russian military has often been touted as their relative power potential, geo-strategic
the second-largest military power. But Russian location, demography and people power,
blunder in Ukraine has put its conventional resource base and, above all, the quality of
forces into question. leadership available with them to forge these
 China, on the other hand, continues to grow elements into their foreign policy to sustain
economically. Even if China’s GDP surpasses US their relative autonomy. Multipolarity is what
GDP, China still has much to do to catch the US. the states make of it.

**********

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Chapter - 7.3

New World Order

INDIA’S VISION OF NEW WORLD HOW DOES IT SEE THE CURRENT WORLD
ORDER ORDER?

 India’s view of the world is intimately linked According to Happy Moon Jacob, India’s view
to how it views itself. This is composed of its of the current world order can be summed up
in three words: unequal, discriminatory and
geopolitical location, its sense of its own history
unrepresentative. India considers global institutions,
and culture, the bitter colonial experience, and
in particular the UNSC, as deeply unrepresentative.
the nationwide freedom movement to break free As India’s External Affairs Minister Subrahmanyam
from colonial Britain. From 1947 onwards, all Jaishankar stated in 2019, “If you have a United
these variables shaped the newly independent Nations where the most populous country in the
India’s political and strategic culture. world - may be in 15 years - with the third largest
economy is not in the decision-making process, I
 Explaining the above view Happy Moon
grant you, it affects the country concerned. But I
Jacob says , India is a developing country with
would also suggest it affects the United Nations’
serious challenges of misgovernance, corruption credibility”. India finds itself on the margins of current
and poverty. It is located within a largely hostile world order which is dominated by the USA and
neighbourhood. This had a defining influence on yet, over time, New Delhi has grown accustomed to
India’s sense of self. Second, even though the living with the imperfections of an imbalanced global
modern Indian state emerged in 1947, India views order, and it would still prefer an imperfect world to
itself as a civilizational state with a great history a deeply chaotic one. After the end of the Cold War,
and culture. This sense of greatness influenced India’s unease with unipolarity (or US dominance)
was due to US behaviour in the international system.
its worldview and its place in it. Third, even
This is despite the fact that even though it had its
though India viewed itself as the legatee state of
reservations about unipolarity, India benefited a great
the British Empire in the region, it harbours deep deal from US dominance. For instance, India’s nuclear
sensitivities about its colonial past, and as a result mainstreaming (waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers
any attempts by Western nations to condescend Group and the India-specific protocol offered by the
to India are met viscerally. And finally, in order International Atomic Energy Agency) was facilitated
to understand the Indian conception of the by the US’ overwhelming power in the international
international system, we must understand system.
New Delhi’s foreign policy priorities. Two key
priorities include securing its neighbourhood WHAT IS THE VISION OF INDIA’S NEW
(its Achilles’ heel), and the need to ensure the WORLD ORDER?
welfare of its huge population (a considerable
number of which struggle to afford a decent  India has traditionally supported a multipolar
livelihood). world as opposed to a bipolar or unipolar world.

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In addition to this India prefers to have strong the US are speculating over whether India could
global institutions (like the UN). Addressing be a balancer to China in the region. However,
the Conference on Interaction and Confidence- India’s Strategic Partnership with the US and
Building Measures in Asia (CICA), HV Shringla the EU are signs of India coming into her
said in June 2021 that, “India values a own and being recognised as an important
multipolar international order, underpinned contemporary and future partner.
by international law, premised upon respect
 Its intrest in ASEAN and other major regions-
for the sovereignty and territorial integrity
South-East Asian countries (aimed at enhancing
of all countries, resolution of international
trade and economic relations), and West Asia
disputes through peaceful negotiations, and
and Central Asia (focused on strengthening and
free and open access for all to the global
further securing India’s energy security). This also
commons”.
covers the Indian Ocean and littoral. In addition
 India’s desire for a multipolar world is due to its to this it also involves.
inherent unease with the balance of power, arms
 South East Asia is an area of vital interest to
race and subsequent complications. New Delhi’s
India because of the security of the sea lanes
views of bipolarity were shaped by its Cold
of communication, as also the economic
War experience. More so, for a civilizational
agenda. The USA, and maybe even some
state that prides itself as a moral power, India
of the SE Asian countries, would like to see
did not want to be playing second fiddle to
India play a more assertive role as a balance
either of the two superpowers in a bipolar world.
against China.
India traditionally shied away from the global
balance of power games - both to ensure that  Central Asia has become an arena for
its periphery, South Asia, remains free of Cold power play with the USA, Russia and China
War politics, and due to lack of capacity. And yet, trying to assert in one way or another. The
there were times when India did engage in Central Asian Region has significance for
balancing: against China by reaching out to the India in terms of sources of energy supplies,
US after the 1962 Sino-Indian war and signing and equally importantly as a stabilising
a treaty of peace and friendship with the USSR influence against Islamic radicalism.
during the Bangladesh liberation war in 1971.  West Asia is an area of particular interest
Put differently, India engages in contingent and concern to India not only for historical
balancing, as Pratap Bhanu Mehta, an Indian reasons, but because of the large Indian
scholar, puts it. work force deployed in the countries of
the region (about 5 million at last count),
HOW INDIA WOULD ENGAGE WITH THE of course the fact of dependence on energy
WORLD DEPEND ON THE FOLLOWING resources from the region.
FACTORS-  Latin America (long ignored earlier) and
Africa, where India is actively pursuing its
energy requirements.
 Its interests in South Asia-First, there is the
immediate region of South Asia, where India  The vision for a new world order is also
shares a border with 6 other countries (Pakistan, driven by India’s desire for strategic flexibility
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and and autonomy, whereby New Delhi does
Maldives) which together constitute the South not wish to be constrained by longstanding
Asian Association of Regional Cooperation alliances but instead seeks multiple cooperative
(SAARC). India is the major undisputed power partnerships simultaneously, even if they are
in South Asia.However, India’s leadership of counter-intuitive in terms of strategic alignment.
the region is not accepted unequivocally. While A wider multipolar order would normalise such
India considers herself to be status-quoist, the complexity and seemingly erratic policies, and
neighbours think of India as the ‘big brother’. also mitigate against India ever being totally
Thus the uncertainty of the peace process in placed within the sphere of influence of powers
South Asia defines its involvement in the new such as the US or the UK.
world order.  The underlying belief is that bloc rivalry can be
 India’s intrest in Indo-Pacific and Rise of harmful to its interests and that as a country with
China- As China emerges as the pre-eminent economic and other needs, it requires all the
player in the Asia-Pacific region, many analysts in help it can get from various major powers. For

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example a recent Council on Foreign Relations  Politically, India views itself as a responsible
(CFR) report noted that, in the past, India has nuclear power that, unlike its neighbour Pakistan,
expressed interest in jointly exploring (with has not been a source of nuclear proliferation. Its
Russia and China) an alternative to SWIFT long-held democracy record and its internal fight
to enable trading with countries under US against terrorism have found resonance among
sanctions. There have been talks about India both the Europeans and the US. In the aftermath
considering linking with a financial messaging of 9/11 India was quick to offer overflight rights
service developed by Russia (SPFS, or System for and bases to the US, which signalled its new
Transfer of Financial Messages, Russia’s SWIFT intent in foreign policy.
equivalent) after the Crimea invasion of 2014.  P.R. Shankar says as the US and China
 According to Ummu Salma Bava the end of intensely compete to establish their spheres of
the Cold War and the growing impacts of influence, the world is being driven to bipolarity.
globalisation are making India redefine its Reflexively, countries have started hedging as
position and role both at the regional and at per their national interests so that they are not
the global level. The acknowledged leader of the caught in a jam. In this environment, there is a
South, is transcending that role to play a larger requirement for a large country to balance these
global role, a development that is endorsed by poles to enable other smaller countries to find
both the US and the European Union (EU) in their their space. In these nebulous times, a rising
respective Strategic Partnerships with India. India with its non-alignment experience can
handle multi-sided engagements. It can be the
‘bridge and balancing’ third pole. Though not
INDIA’S ROLE IN EMERGING WORLD explicit, there is an emerging view that India fits
ORDER that role.

 India’s role in the United Nations,WTO and Three options available for India in
other international organisations to demand emerging world order:
fair and just representation, as a leader of
 India can choose to become a client state
the third world . India’s commitment to the
of the US: It can opt to follow the Western
Organisation should remain, it is imperative
economic model of development, increasing
we continue to strongly advocate the need for
consumerism and following an elitist model of
reform, particularly of the Security Council.
society based on inequalities. Internationally
 On the economic front India is still managing this would imply following a path of dependent
the transition from a developing country to a development, that is, seeking foreign investment,
developed one. However, India’s performance and providing goods and services needed by the
in soft infrastructure, with its exceptional growth Western Nations.
in the IT sector, has changed the perception of  A hard option for India would be to
the Indian economy to a major extent. India, with consistently follow a path of self-reliance.
its good legal structure, corporate governance, This could mean abandoning the ambition of
banking system, financial sector, property increasing its military and economic strength in
rights security, its skilled manpower and young order to support its claim to be a world power.
workforce, has become the new economic icon Then it calls stick to its high moral ground of
of the emerging powers. In an increasingly nuclear disarmament and peaceful co-existence.
networked world, India is a brand leader enabling This would entail organising its society on the
a technologically networked world. basis or decentralisation of power, ethic pluralism
 Asia has many players and contenders to be and an egalitarian approach to development.
its leader both regionally and globally. From  These two are extreme positions. Of course,
within the region China, India and Japan are the India can combine elements of these two
key actors, while the US is the most dominant options picking and choosing paths to suit
outside stakeholder in the region, followed by its peculiar circumstances. For example, it may
Russia, it can potentially play a significant offer stiff resistance to the pressures brought to
role in the power dynamics in the region all bear upon it where it’s vital interests are involved
the way from West Asia to the Asia-Pacific (e.g. Kashmir, security from a nuclear threat,
region. terrorism, etc.). It can try to build a support base

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for itself anlong the Third World Nations who CHINA’S VISION FOR A NEW WORLD
face problenls similar to that of India in matters ORDER
of trade, environnlent issues, secrlrity concerns
like terrorism etc. Lastly, it can try to influence
The steady rise of China in the world order has
the hegemon ‘from inside’ (through NRls, MNCs,
been one of the seminal events of the 21st century.
interest groups) as well as ‘from outside’ (in
China’s extraordinary economic growth coupled
cooperation with other nations).
with its military strength and active diplomacy has
transformed the nation into a rising global power.
INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY TO EMERGE This has not only resulted in a shift in the global
IN NEW WORLD ORDER- distribution of power but also brought about
alterations that have had significant ramifications
for the world order. AFK Organski, in his book, World
 India is seeking to build strategic political and Politics, explained the dynamics of the potential power
economic alliances at the bilateral, regional transition war between China as a rising challenger
and global level that hold promise of rich and the United States as a declining hegemon in
security dividends. In South Asia it is engaging the international system. According to Organski’s
its neighbours both bilaterally and, within power transition theory China’s rise is taking place
a regional framework (SAARC), in order to in an order that is highly institutionalised. As Marc
achieve its other foreign policy objectives. It has Lanteigne argues, China is not only “growing up” in
sought membership and representation (even if this complex milieu of international organisations but
it only as an observer) in regional organisations is also making “active use” of these institutions to
in South-East Asia and Central Asia that seek to advance its “global power status” in the international
project India into the region and also to facilitate order. China’s growing confidence in engaging with
alliance building. These efforts have been driven the institutional order is a direct and causal result of
by both political and economic considerations. its increasing power in the world.
India’s ``Look East” policy has brought it
substantial visibility in South –East Asia (a region How does China view post WW2 liberal
which is increasingly being influenced by China), international world order?
with membership in ASEAN and the ASEM.
 “Chinese policy makers believe that the current
 Along with the high ideals and the strong self- global order is geared toward U.S. hegemony,
image espoused by Nehru, there is a new-found that … the world’s greatest power is doing
pragmatism and confidence. As a part of this all it can in order to contain and suppress
new strategy, relations with the US, Israel and encircle China,”. To Beijing, the existing
and Myanmar were all revived. These were order has become inherently hostile to it
countries India aspired to keep away from for and a constraint on its global ambitions. By
various regions: the US for its imperialistic global upholding democracy as the sole legitimate
bullying strategy, Israel for its war against the form of government, the system undermines
Palestinians and Myanmar for its undemocratic the stature of China’s authoritarian state on the
government in light of the 1990 elections. world stage.
Recently, India’s relations with the United States  It has felt that established institutions lack
have expanded remarkably over the last few necessary reform; these organisations do not
years on civil nuclear and other strategic issues. or might not advance Chinese interests in a way
 The 1991 economic reforms saw the birth of that is commensurate with its rising power and
a new role for international economic and capabilities; and An early example of this effort
trade relations. India suddenly had to engage was the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
with the post-cold war world and reassess its (SCO) which was established in 2001.
foreign policy priorities. The opening up of the  China contests the aspects of the order that
economy to international players also meant that reflect Western values emphasising human
foreign relations had an economic dimension rights and democracy or enhancing U.S.
and trade became a foreign policy tool. Leaving military power. For example, China’s leaders
Swadeshi, economic self-sufficiency behind argue that U.S. military alliances are not part of
and engaging in international trade was the international order. Instead, they view these
India’s new way forward. alliances as part of a plan to “contain” China.

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 Beijing is skeptical of U.S. and European their disputes through dialogue, respect one
security policies that appeal to such values as another’s differences, and be considerate of
individual freedom, democracy, and human varying national interests to achieve “security
rights. A commentary in China’s official English- for all,” .
language newspaper, China Daily, reflected a  Michael Schuman says in China’s version of a
disposition commonly encountered in official world order, national leaders are allowed to do
media when it derided a “Pax Americana” for
more or less as they please within their own
furthering a “period of incessant warfare” through
borders. Many would prefer to be free of American
“Western policies of military intervention and
standards of human rights and democracy, and
regime change” even as it upheld the authority
Washington’s preaching and pressure to adhere to
of the UN.
them.President Xi Jinping’s vision is a world order
 Another major tension of China with the developed based on ‘common interests’ and not
current world order is ,China’s commitment ‘universal values’. Values are different in different
to rules at the international level and its own societies so, in Xi’s view, you cannot ‘order’ the
conception for its regional role, which involves world based on universal values,” said Forough, who
a form of preeminence that privileges it with the added that Beijing developed inter-state relations
power to set norms and make exceptions as its in terms of how the involved parties and itself could
interests demand. benefit.
What is China’s vision for a new world  China’s leaders express support for
order? international institutions that grant China
significant influence or, at minimum, influence
equal to that of other countries. In the UN,
China’s core interests- for example, China is granted veto power as a
permanent member of the Security Council, In
Since the early 2000s, China’s leaders have the WTO, all members, including China, have an
focused on three important national, or what equal vote . In institutions in which China has
authorities call “core,” interests: security, less influence, however, China’s leaders want
sovereignty, and development. According to the allocation of decision making power to be
the 2011 Peaceful Development White Paper, redistributed so that China has a greater voice
the first interest (security) refers to the country’s in determining outcomes. For example, for many
fundamental protection from danger and chaos.
years, China petitioned for the Chinese currency,
Threats to security include both existential
the renminbi, to be included as one of the
threats, such as those posed by nuclear anni-
international reserve cur-rencies included in the
hilation, and potential challenges to the nation’s
IMF’s Special Drawing Right (SDR).
integrity and stability, such as those posed by
terrorists or separatists. Security also includes the  In general, China’s leaders express appreciation
maintenance of the country’s political system, for the fact that the international order is
defined by Chinese Communist Party (CCP) rule. based on rules and multilateral decision
Sovereignty includes the interests of national making mechanisms, which bring stability,
sovereignty, which refers to the country’s ability predictability, and legitimacy to state behaviour
to exercise authority over all geographic claims, and international relations.12 They particularly
including Taiwan. It also includes territory, which value the UN’s role as a forum for multilateral
refers to the integrity of all land and maritime bor- decisions about the use of force. China also has
ders. Threats to sovereignty include challenges become an active participant in WTO dispute
by rival claimants to disputed territory. The proceedings— both as a complainant and as a
core interest of development refers to access respondent.
to the resources and goods required for the
country to sustain economic development.  Bill Hayton says China’s vision of a world order
Threats to development include disruption of key is one in which countries stand on their own
shipping lanes and instability in distant countries and make their way in an international system as
that could interrupt China’s access to important individuals. This is clearly a vision in which big
natural resources and markets.1 countries matter more than small or middle-size
ones. It fits neatly with the idea of a regional, or
 Xi has collected his ideas for a new world even global, hierarchy – one in which Beijing sits
order into the Global Security Initiative (GSI).. at the top. It is a hierarchy open to all, so long as
Some proposals are- countries should resolve each knows its place.

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 A vision inspired by China’s past and infused  Beijing’s diplomacy is pushing

with Leninist principles of power - The party- omnidirectionally to rally supporting partners
state has rejected Western models and instead among its Asian neighbours, emerging and
primarily revisited historical and traditional developing countries, and nations along the
Chinese conceptions of empire—tianxia BRI corridors. At the same time, it is working
(everything under heaven) and the tributary from within old and newly created international
system. Although they rely heavily on past organisations, institutions, and platforms to
models of Chinese supremacy,the China-led promote its own worldview and concepts while
world order they envision is not rooted in sidelining the existing governance norms and
traditional Chinese wisdom or Confucianist values.
principles; nor is it entrenched in Communist
 In the book “The Long Game: China’s Grand
revolutionary ideals. Its vision is rooted in the
Strategy to Displace American Order” Rush Doshi
Leninist idea of power and domination. Leninist
says -
concepts of penetration, subversion, and access
for the pursuit of specific objectives are also  It shows that politically, Beijing would seek
used in practice to support China’s expansion. to project leadership over global governance
In sum, China’s vision is where Tianxia meets and international institutions and to advance
Leninism. autocratic norms. It shows how the Global
Financial Crisis caused China to depart from
 Nadège Rolland- A partial system that is neither a blunting strategy focused on joining and
global nor regional: Beijing does not seem to stalling regional organisations to a building
aim at a complete overthrow of the current strategy that involved launching its own
international order. Instead, at least in the institutions.
medium term, the objective seems to be the
building of a new, partial system carved out  Economically, it would weaken the financial
of the existing order. This subsystem would advantages that underwrite US hegemony
be hierarchical—with China at the top as well and seize the commanding heights of the
as at the centre—and asymmetrical. China “fourth industrial revolution.” At the core of
would be the biggest, most powerful, and most this effort is China’s Belt and Road Initiative,
technologically advanced state, with smaller, its robust use of economic statecraft against
weaker, subordinated states circling in its orbit. its neighbours, and its attempts to gain
greater financial influence.
The China-led order would not be global, but
neither would it be merely regional. Indeed,  Militarily, the PLA would field a truly global
it could eventually expand to include much of Chinese military with overseas bases around
the developing, non-Western world, where the the world. China now sought the capability
power asymmetry would be manifest. to hold distant islands, safeguard sea
lines, intervene in neighbouring countries,
and provide public security goods. China
STRATEGY OF CHINA TO ENGAGE IN promptly stepped up investments in aircraft
NEW WORLD ORDER- carriers, capable surface vessels, amphibious
warfare, marines, and overseas bases.
 China has begun to advocate for and create
new institutions, such as, Asian Infrastructure
CAN CHINA REPLACE USA AS HEGEMON?
Investment Bank (AIIB), New Development
Bank (NDB) and the Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI) that places its geopolitical and geo- China as A Hegemon in Asia?
economics interests at the forefront. Apart
from supporting international institutions, A potential hegemon is a state that has the
Beijing has championed the cause of regional capability to dominate a region by overpowering
multilateralism by taking the initiative in its great-power neighbours. Nonetheless, as
creating several forums and summits such as John Mearsheimer notes, hegemony is rare
because ‘the costs of expansion usually outrun
the Association of South-East Asian Nations
the benefits before domination is achieved’.
(Asean) + 3 forum; East Asia Summit; Brazil,
Consequently, potential hegemons only seek to
Russia, India, China and South Africa (Brics).

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achieve domination when the anticipated costs  Considering these factors H.B. Godwin
are low. Therefore, whereas China’s economic says Beijing’s primary security objectives are
development and military modernization therefore maintaining internal stability and
programs may in the future grant it the status of the CCP’s political monopoly while increasing
a potential hegemon, the decision to become the China’s national strength and enhancing its
region’s hegemon does not directly derive from international prestige and influence.
the capacity to dominate. The costs and risks of
achieving domination must be perceived as lower  Politically- It is a one-party Communist
than the benefits derived from hegemony. country. Politically, it has become further
closed and centralised than ever before.No
 To be the regional hegemon, a state must
be dominant over both the continental doubt, China is a strong state with a powerful
and maritime components of Asia. The party bureaucracy, but its politics is potentially
disintegration of the former USSR and very fragile. Under a closed system, it is almost
the ensuing Russian economic crises and impossible to predict when that spark will arrive
degradation of its military capabilities to ignite a political upheaval. Moreover, chinese
essentially removed from contention the people don’t have similar trust and confidence
only power that could challenge China’s in their political system as the Americans have
continental pre-eminence. in theirs
 In maritime Asia, the United States functions  Economically- China has become rich, China’s
as the countervailing power to China. economy might be booming for decades, but
Certainly from the US perspective, the United 10 million Chinese have travelled to other
States with its alliances and access maintains countries to find jobs while 51 million people
‘the current continental-maritime military from all over the world have moved to the US for
balance in East Asia’. As long as there is better work and improved living.
a second regional great power in Asia,  Difficult geopolitical environment- Geopolitics
by definition China cannot become the also does not favour China as it has the US.
region’s hegemon. Unlike the US, China is surrounded by several
 Beijing is extremely aware that China powerful and competing countries. Among
lags far behind the world’s major powers them, at least two, Russia and India, see the
in economic, scientific and technological dream of becoming superpowers. China has also
strength. Moreover, Beijing recognizes that fought wars against them and continues to have
the rapid pace of China’s modernization several border disputes.
over the past two decades and more has  China is neither safe nor secure in its
created major problems of instability and neighbourhood to freely engage in
tension within society.
political and military projects in other parts
 China’s continued economic growth and of the world as the US does. Besides China’s
modernization is critically dependent on location in a tough neighbourhood, it also
trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). lacks trusted, powerful allies.
From 1990 to 1999, China’s total external
 On the one hand, the democratic US has
trade increased from US$116.6 billion per
established strong political and military
year to US$360.6 billion. In Asia, this placed
cooperation with many regionally
China second only to Japan’s US$729.9
powerful countries like the UK, Germany,
billion in total trade.Sustaining and expanding
Japan, and Australia from the Cold War
China’s trade and FDI is dependent upon
days. It continues to keep those allies, while
an international environment conducive to
commerce and investment. getting new ones like India. On the other
hand, China’s only significant ally in the
 This linkage between trade, FDI and the world is Russia, but that alliance suffers from
modernization and expansion of China’s many contradictions and has not passed
economy means that any major disruption the test of time. It will be hard to imagine
of the peace and stability of Asia would have China gaining the upper hand militarily,
dire consequences for what Beijing defines economically, and politically in the future,
as its fundamental national objective. vis-à-vis the US and its allies’ combined
forces.

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 Culturally- Not only does its democracy and CHINA AS A REVISIONIST POWER ?
freedom provide ideological superiority to the
US, its cultural influence through movies, media,
Recent Chinese policies have fueled concerns that
music, and literature also extends across the the country seeks to overturn the post–Cold War
world. geopolitical order. President Xi Jinping has
 Looking at its global political and ideological begun to modernise China’s military, gradually
influence, China has been able to win allies transforming the regional balance of power. This
especially in the global South with its economic is due to the following reasons-
diplomacy like the Belt and Road Initiative. But  Assertive policies in the East China and
even more than the largesse of its trade and aid, South China Seas, appearing to reject both the
what draws governments to China is the model territorial status quo in East Asia and the role of
of supple but effective technocratic leadership international law in adjudicating disputes
that appears to promise fast growth in the early
stage of development and satisfy the popular  Many observers now believe East Asia will have
desire for higher living standards, even if the cost to contend with a dangerous, revisionist power.
is rising inequality and the spread of corruption. But China is not the only revisionist power in the
 Ashok Swain- The US has been and will continue U.S.-Chinese relationship. Since the end of World
to be the global cultural superpower, and there War II, the United States has pursued a strategy
is minimal possibility of China posing any serious aimed at overturning the status quo by spreading
challenge to that status. China will always be liberalism, free markets, and U.S. influence around
struggling to catch up to the US and take the lead the world. Chinese policymakers deny that their
position in the global power race. Like the Soviet country is a revisionist power. They claim that China
Union, its superpower status will be limited and seeks merely to defend a regional status quo that
confined to certain aspects of it. the United States is threatening.

 Walden Bello- although it has trumpeted China’s According to Beijing, the South China Sea has always
contributions to the developing world, Beijing been, and will always be, Chinese territory; China,
has been very cautious about presenting China’s in other words, remains a status quo power, not
path as the one country of the global South a revisionist one. For the past few years, however,
should follow. Neither has it moved to replace China has grown increasingly assertive in its
the multilateral agencies set up by the West territorial disputes.
to serve as the canopy of global governance,  In 2012, Beijing declared an “air defence
nor sought to replace the dollar with the identifi-cation zone” over the Senkaku
renminbi as the world’s reserve currency. Islands (known in China as the Diaoyu Islands),
While Chinese reluctance plays a big role, the also China manoeuvred the Philippines out of
biggest block to China’s displacing the U.S. and Scarbor- ough Shoal.
assuming the role of hegemon is Washington’s  Today, its navy, coast guard, and “maritime
ability to call on that one resource where it still militia” of fishing boats deny Philippine vessels
enjoys absolute superiority — military power — access to the area.
to redress the balance of power, to maintain its
increasingly fragile hegemonic status.  China has presided over an extraordinary
construction project in the South China Sea,
 Ulrich Menzel, for now, China is neither building a string of artificial islands.
willing nor able to replace the U.S. as the
leading global power, because it is still  As the Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative,
inferior militarily (although it is catching a website that monitors activity in the disputed
up). Therefore, it wants to offer an alternative territory, has noted, “The number, size, and
to the U.S. on the continental and maritime construction make it clear these are for
tracks between Asia and Europe. International military purposes—and they are the smoking
organisations under Chinese leadership, such as gun that shows China has every intention of
the Regional Cooperation Economic Partnership militarising the Spratly Islands,” a contested
(2020) for the Indo-Pacific region, also serve archipelago.
this goal – a clear rejection of the Asia-Pacific  China has drilled for oil in the waters of the
Economic Cooperation, in which the U.S. plays a contested Paracel Islands, ignoring Vietnamese
significant role. protests

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 China is also improving its conven-tional ballistic war in 1991, the United States and its allies did
missiles, which threaten U.S. air bases and ports not preserve the status quo. Instead, they pushed
in the region, eastward, enlarging nato to absorb all of the Soviet
In the eyes of all but Beijing, this clearly counts Union’s former Warsaw Pact allies. At the same time,
as revisionist behaviour. And it has touched off the European Union expanded into eastern Europe.
a flurry of activity among countries that feel In the Middle East, U.S. policymakers saw the
threatened. Australia has strengthened its military 2003 invasion of Iraq as an opportunity to advance
and deepened its alliance with the United States, democracy in the region. Underlying the United
Singapore, has increased its defence spending and States’ recent engagement with Iran is a desire to
has begun to work more closely with the U.S. Navy. promote liberalisation there, too.
Despite the legacy of the Vietnam War, Hanoi and In East Asia, the United States has not only maintained
Washington have begun to move toward closer and strengthened its longtime alliances with Australia,
security cooperation. Under Prime Minister Shinzo Japan, and the Philippines but also courted new
Abe, Japan has reinterpreted its constitution to
partners, such as Malaysia and Singapore. And
permit more military activism and is forging closer
with its policy toward Vietnam, the United States
ties with other countries worried about Chinese
may encourage dramatic change in the regional
revisionism, including Australia and India.
status quo. Historically, Vietnam, which borders
Like their Chinese counterparts, U.S. foreign China, has fallen within its larger neighbour’s sphere
policy officials argue that the United States seeks of influence, and since the Vietnam War, its relations
merely to uphold the status quo in East Asia. They with the United States have been bitter. In the past few
want to maintain military predominance in the region years, however, Vietnam and the United States have
through the policy of a “rebalance” to Asia, prevent deepened their economic ties, and also expanded
a return to an era when countries settled disputes their military ties with U.S. allies—namely, Australia,
unilaterally and by force, and support freedom of Japan, and the Philippines. In each of these regions,
navigation and the law of the sea. But at its heart,
U.S. diplomatic, economic, and military policies
U.S. grand strategy seeks to spread liberalism and
are aimed not at preserving but at transforming
U.S. influence. The goal, in other words, is not
the status quo.
preservation but transformation. The strategy, to
be sure, had elements of self-interest: Washington Jeniffer Lind says no one(neither China nor US),
sought to create a liberal order that it itself led. in other words, is trying to preserve the status
But it also had a more revolutionary goal: the quo. U.S. foreign policy elites might object to this
transformation of anarchy into order. The United assessment. But the U.S. goal is to replace the old-
States has pursued this transformational grand fashioned competition for sphere of influence with
strategy all over the world. In Europe, post cold a single liberal sphere led by the United States.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss India’s vision of a new world order in the 21st century. 2022/15/200
2. Critically examine the decline of the United States of America as a hegemon and its implications
for the changing international order. 2021/15/200.
3. Critically examine the role of India in shaping the emerging world order. 2020/15/200

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Chapter - 7.4

Additional Content

Pandemic And The Political Order  Levels of market concentration in the U.S.
economy had been rising steadily for decades,
and the pandemic will push the trend still
 Experience from the past
further.
Major crises have major consequences, usually  Only large companies with deep pockets
unforeseen. The Great Depression spurred will be able to ride out the storm, with the
isolationism, nationalism, fascism, and World technology giants gaining most of all, as
War II—but also led to the New Deal, the rise digital interactions become ever more
of the United States as a global superpower, important.
and eventually decolonization. The 9/11 attacks  The political consequences could be even more
produced two failed American interventions, the significant. Populations can be summoned to
rise of Iran, and new forms of Islamic radicalism. heroic acts of collective self-sacrifice for a while,
The 2008 financial crisis generated a surge but not forever.
in anti-establishment populism that replaced  A lingering epidemic combined with deep
leaders across the globe. job losses, a prolonged recession, and an
unprecedented debt burden will inevitably
Different regimes and Different responses create tensions that turn into a political
backlash—but against whom is as yet unclear.
Some countries have done better than others in
dealing with the crisis so far. Some democracies  Poor countries with crowded cities and weak
public health systems will be hit hard. Not just
have performed well, but others have not, and the
social distancing but even simple hygiene such
same is true for autocracies. The factors responsible
as hand washing is extremely difficult in countries
for successful pandemic responses have been state
where many citizens have no regular access to
capacity, social trust, and leadership. Countries clean water. The global distribution of power
with all three—a competent state apparatus, a will continue to shift eastward, since East Asia
government that citizens trust and listen to, and has done better at managing the situation
effective leaders—have performed impressively, than Europe or the United States.
limiting the damage they have suffered. Countries
 Over the years to come, the pandemic could
with dysfunctional states, polarised societies, or lead to the United States’ relative decline, the
poor leadership have done badly, leaving their continued erosion of the liberal international
citizens and economies exposed and vulnerable. order, and a resurgence of fascism around the
globe. However, it could also lead to a rebirth of
Economic and political consequences: liberal democracy, a system that has confounded
Erosion of the liberal international order sceptics many times, showing remarkable powers
of resilience and renewal. Elements of both visions
 Economically, a protracted crisis will mean more will emerge, in different places. Unfortunately,
business failures and devastation for industries unless current trends change dramatically, the
such as shopping malls, retail chains, and travel. general forecast is gloomy.

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ATTACKS ON THE LIBERAL WORLD  Fascism, in fact, could be seen as one such cult,
ORDER: RISE OF FASCISM emerging from the violence and dislocation
engendered by World War I and its aftermath.
Conspiracy theories used to flourish in places such
 Nationalism, isolationism, xenophobia, and as the Middle East, where ordinary people were
attacks on the liberal world order have been disempowered and felt they lacked agency.
increasing for years, and that trend will only be
accelerated by the pandemic. Governments in Will the democracies become more
Hungary and the Philippines have used the crisis resilient?
to give themselves emergency powers, moving
them still further away from democracy.  Just as the Great Depression not only produced
 Barriers to the movement of people have fascism but also reinvigorated liberal democracy,
appeared everywhere, including within the heart the pandemic may produce some positive
political outcomes, too. It has often taken
of Europe; rather than cooperate constructively
just such a huge external shock to break
for their common benefit, countries have turned
political systems out of their coma and create
inward, bickered with one another, and made
the conditions for long-overdue structural
their rivals political scapegoats for their own
reform, and that pattern is likely to play out
failures.
again, at least in some places.
 The rise of nationalism will increase the
 The practical realities of handling the pandemic
possibility of international conflict. Leaders may favour professionalism and expertise;
see fights with foreigners as useful domestic demagoguery and incompetence are readily
political distractions, or they may be tempted exposed. This should ultimately create a
by the weakness or preoccupation of their beneficial selection effect, rewarding politicians
opponents and take advantage of the pandemic and governments that do well and penalising
to destabilise favourite targets or create new those that do poorly.
facts on the ground.
 The pandemic has shone a bright light on
 In dealing with the citizens, governments have existing institutions everywhere, revealing
often made matters worse rather than better— their inadequacies and weaknesses. The gap
whether by design, by inciting communal between the rich and the poor, both people
tensions and undermining social cohesion, or by and countries, has been deepened by the crisis
simple incompetence. and will increase further during a prolonged
 Displacement caused by climate change was economic stagnation.
already a slow-moving crisis brewing in the  The crisis has also revealed the government’s
global South. The pandemic will compound ability to provide solutions, drawing on collective
its effects, bringing large populations in resources in the process. A lingering sense of
developing countries ever closer to the edge “alone together” could boost social solidarity
of subsistence. Popular outrage will grow, and drive the development of more generous
and dashing citizens’ rising expectations is social protections down the road, just as the
ultimately a classic recipe for revolution. The common national sufferings of World War I and
desperate will seek to migrate, demagogic the Depression stimulated the growth of welfare
leaders will exploit the situation to seize states in the 1920s and 1930s.
Power, corrupt politicians will take the  The crisis may ultimately spur renewed
opportunity to steal what they can, and many international cooperation. While national
governments will clamp down or collapse. leaders play the blame game, scientists and
 A new wave of attempted migration from the public health officials around the world are
global South to the North, meanwhile, would deepening their networks and connections.
be met with even less sympathy and more
resistance this time around since migrants could NEW REALIST ORDER
be accused more credibly now of bringing
disease and chaos.
 There are likely to be three different realist
 Past pandemics have fostered apocalyptic visions, orders in the foreseeable future: a thin
cults, and new religions growing up around international order and two thick bounded
the extreme anxieties caused by prolonged orders—one led by China, the other by the
hardship. United States.

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 The emerging thin international order will the U.S.-China rivalry should bear a marked
be concerned mainly with overseeing arms resemblance to the three Cold War orders, albeit
control agreements and making the global with China taking the place of the Soviet Union.
economy work efficiently.  No such parallels exist in the economic realm,
 It is also likely to pay more serious attention however. There was little economic intercourse
than in the past to problems relating to climate between the superpowers or their respective
change. orders for most of the Cold War. Thus, the
 In essence, the institutions that make up the existing international order was not concerned
international order will focus on facilitating in any meaningful way with facilitating economic
interstate cooperation. relations between the two sides.

 The two bounded orders, in contrast, will be  Economic dealings were largely concerned
concerned principally with waging security with the bounded orders, and there the main
competition against each other, although that objective was to pursue policies that would help
will call for promoting cooperation among the gain an advantage over the other side. Because
members of each order. economic power underpins military power,
waging security competition was carried out in
 There will be significant economic and military both the economic and military domains.
competition between those two orders that
will need to be managed, which is why they How to Strengthen International World
will be thick orders. Two key features of the Order?
new multipolar world will profoundly shape the
emerging orders.  It will require a renewal of American leadership
 First, if China continues its impressive rise, in the international system. The present world
it will be involved in an intense security order has been forged by many hands and
competition with the United States that will peoples, but the role of the United States in both
be the central feature of international politics shaping and defending it has been critical.
over the course of the twenty-first century.  American military power, the dynamism of the
 That rivalry will lead to the creation of bounded US economy and the great number of close
orders dominated by China and the United alliances and friendships that the United States
States. Military alliances will be core components enjoys with other powers and peoples have
of those two orders, which are now beginning to provided the critical architecture in which this
form and will resemble the Soviet-led and U.S.- liberal world order has flourished. A weakening
led orders in the Cold War. of America’s commitment or its capabilities,
or both, would invariably lead to its collapse.
 Beijing and Washington, however, will sometimes
have reasons to cooperate on select military  Existing multilateral financial institutions,
issues, an endeavour that will fall within the such as the IMF and World Bank, will inevitably
purview of the international order, as it did evolve to reflect changing realities and a
during the Cold War. shifting economic balance of power. American
policy should work to ensure that these changes
 Again, the focus will be principally on arms control are consistent with liberal economic norms and
agreements and will involve Russia as well as reflect the legitimate needs of partners that share
China and the United States. The existing treaties and benefit from this order.
and agreements dealing with proliferation are
likely to remain in place, because all three great  New institutions, meanwhile, have arisen and
powers will want to limit the spread of nuclear will continue to arise, sponsored by powers
weapons. that may wish to challenge the existing order.
The US, together with its allies, should strive
 But Beijing, Moscow, and Washington will have to embrace these new institutions and engage
to negotiate new treaties limiting their arsenals, constructively with them, encouraging them
as the superpowers did during the Cold War. insofar as they reinforce liberal economic norms,
 Nevertheless, the U.S.-led and Chinese-led discouraging them when they challenge those
bounded orders will be largely responsible for norms and, in general, urging them to engage
dealing with core security matters. In military collectively as part of a larger multilateral system,
matters, the three emerging orders built around rather than seek to operate as an alternative.

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 Rising economic powers have already responded new institutions in a way that is compatible
to their lack of proportional influence at existing with the existing liberal economic order. This
development institutions by creating new is possible.
institutions, such as the New Development
Bank and the AIIB, where they can wield greater  Over the decades since World War II, new
influence. regional development institutions emerged
without the United States’ direct involvement,
 The emergence of new institutions must be
such as the Islamic Development Bank, CAF
expected, and some of these new institutions
may well challenge not only the existing (the Development Bank of Latin America)
institutions, but also the liberal economic and the European Investment Bank, with each
order itself. It is very much in the interest of finding its role within the greater development
those with a stake in the liberal economic order institutional system and leaving the overall
for the US and its allies to help shape these system no weaker.

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Chapter - 7.5

Arms Race

DURING COLD WAR  In short, weapons acquired for defensive

purposes may be perceived by other states
 During the second half of the 20th century, the as having, potentially or actually, offensive
two superpowers competed for superiority in significance. This, then, encourages them to
the development and accumulation of nuclear strengthen their own defensive military capacity,
weapons. an action which, in turn, may be viewed by other
 After the U.S. successfully dropped its first bomb, states as offensive.
the Soviets developed theirs. With deterrence at  Classic arms race therefore develops out of
the core of foreign policy, both sides worked to the simple fact that international politics is
increase their arms stock.
inevitably characterized, at some level, by
 The fear of communism was ideologically fear and uncertainty.
fueling the furious pace of the A-Bomb
construction. A new enemy across the horizon  In addition, the costs of inaction (when an
was discovered in the form of communist Soviet offensive military build-up is dismissed as merely
Union. This resulted in the U.S. spending defensive) greatly outweigh the cost of action
six trillion dollars on its nuclear weapons (when unnecessary steps are taken in response
program, containing ten thousand nuclear to a defensive military build-up).
warheads, while Russia had only half as
many. However, in the case of nuclear weapons,
 Although the arms race was meant to increase each a range of other factors have been
state’s security, it backfired in several instances. For
relevant.
example, in the 1950s, the Soviets issued nuclear
threats against Western allies, including the British  These include the particular importance of their
and French during the Suez crisis.
deterrent effect, which makes an attack on a
 Tensions rose and consequently culminated in nuclear power almost unthinkable. The USA’s
the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, which was the atomic attack on Japan in 1945 there-fore
closest the world has ever been to nuclear war.
encouraged the Soviet Union to intensify its
 This period marks an intense time in history when efforts to develop nuclear weapons, leading to
two countries were racing to stockpile the most the first Soviet nuclear test in 1949.
deadly weapon in the world: the nuclear bomb.
 Another factor is that nuclear weapons
Proliferation During Cold War quickly acquired huge symbolic significance,
particularly in terms of the political prestige
 Reason behind the tendency for any weapons associated with their possession.
to proliferate is based on the so-called
security dilemma which recognizes the  During the Cold War, sometimes seen as the
symbolic significance of weapons as well as ‘first nuclear age’, nuclear proliferation was
their military purpose. primarily vertical rather than horizontal.

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 Greatest attention was given to restricting

Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle
the spread of nuclear arms beyond the ‘big
(MIRV) capability in their ICBMs in 1968. MIRV
five’, particularly through the Nuclear Non- marked a tremendous exponential upgrade
Proliferation Treaty (NPT). By contrast, during of the arms race. The Soviets deployed two
this period, the USA and the Soviet Union built other weapon systems- the Anti-Ballistic Missile
up the capacity to destroy the world many times (ABM) system in 1968 and second, the first Anti-
over. Satellite (ASAT) missile and warhead, thus Arms
Race and Nuclear Threat ensured that the arms
 Both sides quickly developed massive first-
strike capability, but also acquired second- race went on.
strike capabilities.  1981: Reagan’s Strategic Modernization
 By the early 1960s, both superpowers had an Plan- The next major technological tussle
took place between the two Superpowers
invulnerable second-strike capability which
over the MX-Missile. On October 2, 1981,
ensured that nuclear war would result in President Regan announced a strategic
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), thus modernization plan at an estimated cost
completing what Jervis (1990) called the of $ 160 billion.
‘nuclear revolution’.
 1983: Militarization of Space-Reagan’s
 This system of nuclear deterrence led to a Star Wars Programme - The militarization
‘balance of terror’ that some have viewed as of space began from 1958 and since then,
the most powerful evidence of the capacity of over 2219 satellites-military and civilian have
the balance of power to maintain peace and been launched by the superpowers and other
security. nations, and 75% of the satellites launched
have been for surveillance and military
 Nuclear war, indeed, threatened such use, thus clearly violating the Space Treaty
environmental devastation that it created the of 1967. On March 23, 1983, President
possibility of the extinction of life itself, not least Reagan announced the Strategic Defence
through a nuclear winter. Initiative (SDI) popularly called ‘Star Wars’
Programme costing 1 trillion dollars to raise
the militarization of space. The aim being
Nuclear Arms Race During Cold War
to build both a ground based, and space
 1945 to 1953: Period of US Monopoly - the based Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) to
United States first enjoyed a total monopoly protect US territory against Soviet strategic
until 1953 and then, nuclear superiority. In missile attacks.
this phase, the US territory was regarded as  1984-1991: Nuclear Arms Race in the
a sanctuary because the Soviets did not have Gorbachev Era and the Last Days of
any reciprocal delivery capability to reach the Collapsing Soviet Union- The arms race
American targets from the USSR. was at three levels of nuclear weaponry,
i.e., -space weapons, intercontinental
 1957 to 1968: Period of 'Missile Crisis' and
weapons, and intermediate nuclear
the ICBM Race- The Soviets successfully
weapons. The US in 1984 had a massive
tested the ICBM in 1957 creating what has
programme for rearmament of many
been called the 'Missile Crisis' in America. The
types of weapon systems. The rearmament
advent of ICBMs shifted the focus of the
programme of USA consisted of more Sea
nuclear arms race to strategic weapons, Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs); MX
i.e., Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles missile testing; Midgetsman Missiles; a new
(ICBMs), Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles TYPHOON class submarine Intermediate
(SLBMs) and strategic or inter-continental Range Ballistic Missiles.
bombers which provided the strategic tripod.
This accelerated the qualitative dimension
of the nuclear arms race further into 1991 to 97:
space.
 The Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of
 1968 to Late 1970’s: Period of MIRV and
Soviet Union 1991-92 was a historic year in the
ICBM Race- The third phase in the nuclear
sense that due to the collapse of the USSR, the
arms race began when the American
enemy that fueled the arms race was gone and
delivery technology took a gigantic leap
by introducing what is called the Multiple so, the whole political ideological basis of the
nuclear arms race.

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 After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August  Regional tensions in the Middle East have also
1990 with the complete defeat of Iraq. Arms trade played a major role in encouraging Israel’s
as a result showed a down-ward trend. In 1991 acquisition of nuclear weapons, as well as
the total value of global arms trade touched $ Iran’s quest for a nuclear capacity.
22, 114 million. This was 20% less than in 1990.  Nevertheless, the greatest incentive to acquire
 In 1992-93 USA, the Russian Federation, France, nuclear weapons arises from their evident
and Britain all agreed to halt the Arms Race and benefit in terms of discouraging intervention by
Nuclear Threat nuclear arms race totally except much more powerful states, as the comparison
vis-a-vis R & D. between Iraq and North Korea demonstrates.
 At the regional level, there was further  The USA invaded Iraq in 2003, although the
concretization of Europe’s complete USA had similar concerns about North Korea,
demilitarization by the signing of the Helsinki its capacity to intervene was drastically
Document by all Eastern and West European reduced in 2006 when North Korea carried
countries. out its first nuclear test.
 Added to this, there was the world summit on  Proliferation is easier, as nuclear weapons and
environment at Rio and UN Secretary General’s nuclear technology are more readily available.
declaration of the ‘Agenda for Peace’. The technological threshold that made the
development of nuclear weapons possible had
become much more diffuse by the 1990s, as
PROLIFERATION IN THE POST-COLD
demonstrated by the apparent ease with
WAR ERA which India and Pakistan moved from a
‘threshold’ position to achieving full nuclear
The post-Cold War era, sometimes seen as the capability.
‘second nuclear age’, has been characterized by  Fears have heightened that nuclear weapons
heightened anxiety about nuclear proliferation. This may get into the ‘wrong’ hands. The obstacles
has happened for at least four reasons: to horizontal proliferation have diminished, the
 Established nuclear powers continued to use chances of nuclear weapons getting into the
nuclear strategies- The 2002 Strategic Offensive hands of states or other actors that may use
Reduction Treaty (SORT) amounted to little more them have significantly increased.
than a ‘gentleman’s agreement’. It contained  This particularly applies in the case of so-
no verification measures, allowed the USA called ‘rogue’ states in which military-based
and Russia to deploy between 1,700 and 2,200 dictatorial governments combine with factors
warheads and enabled either side to withdraw such as ethnic and social conflict and economic
from the Treaty at three months’ notice. underdevelopment to dictate an aggressive
 Furthermore, there is evidence that established foreign policy, particularly in the context of
nuclear powers were keen to develop a new regional instability.
generation of weapons. The UK also decided  More serious, though, is the prospect of
in 2007 to update and replace its Trident nuclear nuclear weapons getting into the hands of
weapon system. non-state actors such as terrorist groups,
 The incentives for states to acquire nuclear especially ones motivated by radical politico-
weapons have increased- non-nuclear states religious ideologies, for whom the traditional
came, in many cases, under growing pressure constraints on the use of WMD, arising in part
to acquire nuclear weapons. For example, the from the fear of retaliation, simply do not
superpower era operated in part through a apply.
system of ‘extended’ deterrents, based on the  Indeed, the extent of proliferation is much
capacity of the USA and the Soviet Union to offer less than we might otherwise have expected
allied states a ‘nuclear umbrella’. Concern about in an anarchic, self-help system (Smith
the withdrawal of the US or Russian nuclear 2010). A number of states with clear economic
umbrella was likely to encourage states to and technological potential to develop nuclear
stand on their own two feet in nuclear terms. weapons have demon-started a consistent
 In 1998, both India and Pakistan tested determination not to do so. These include
nuclear devices and joined the ‘nuclear club’, Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan and South
responding to increasingly bitter rivalry Korea.

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 A further collection of states has voluntarily of acquiring nuclear weapons may outweigh
abandoned nuclear programmes and renounced the benefits they bring, that the possession
nuclear weapons. Brazil, Argentina, and South of nuclear weapons is widely viewed by the
Africa are all former ‘opaque’ nuclear states. international community as illegitimate, and
 The reasons for this level of unilateral self-policing that non-proliferation is clearly favored by
or self-restraint are many and various. They established nuclear powers, particularly the
include that states recognize that the costs P-5.

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Chapter - 7.6

Nuclear Arms Control and Disarmament

Why Is Disarmament Required?  Its chief goal is the establishment of a legally

binding and verifiable Nuclear Weapons
 Nuclear weapons have been seen as morally Convention, under which the use, for whatever
indefensible, the development, use or reason, of a nuclear weapon would constitute a
threatened use of a weapon that would lead violation of international law .
to the indiscriminate deaths’
 The establishment of nuclear-free zones in
 The economic and political case in favour of many parts of the world- the earliest of these
nuclear disarmament is based on considerations were in the Antarctic (1959), Latin America
such as the huge cost of their development, the and the Caribbean (1967) and the South
belief that the strategy of nuclear deterrence Pacific (1985). The Treaty of Pelindaba (1996)
simply leads to an escalating, and unstable declared Africa to be a nuclear-free zone, as
arms race (making nuclear war more likely not did the Bangkok Treaty (1997) in relation to
less likely), and that nuclear weapons deepen Southeast Asia.
inequality amongst states as the elite ‘nuclear
club’ try to dictate to the rest of the world. NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION REGIME
 Psychological argument- capacity to generate
unending anxiety and dread, as post-1945 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
generations have lived under the shadow of the
bomb (Lifton and Falk).  It was after the 1974 Indian test that a direct
linkage came to be acknowledged as a reality
 As the nuclear arms race accelerated during the
for control over proliferation and possible
Cold War period, large-scale peace movements
safeguards that finally led to the creation of the
were mobilized focusing on anti-nuclear
Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. The treaty
protest.
divides the signatories into two categories:
 The UK-based Campaign for Nuclear those who possess the nuclear bomb (those
Disarmament (CND) was founded in 1958, who possessed it prior to 1 January 1967) and
with the aim of ridding the world of nuclear those who did not.
weapons and Another WMD, and European  It commits the non-weapon states to inspection
Nuclear Disarmament (END) emerged in the of their holdings of nuclear materials. The NPT
early 1980s as an attempt to extend anti-nuclear commits them to negotiate safeguard agreements
activist across Europe, even (though with limited with the IAEA. These safeguards, however, are
success) into the Soviet bloc. not binding on the weapon states.
 The International Campaign to Abolish  In exchange of the commitment by the non-
nuclear weapons (ICAN) was launched in 2007 weapon states to refrain from producing or
and represents over 200 organizations in some acquiring nuclear weapons the weapon states
50 countries. agreed to the following:

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 not to transfer nuclear weapons or NUCLEAR SUPPLIER GROUP AND ITS

other nuclear weapon devices and not to OBJECTIVES
assist non-weapon states to acquire such
weapons or devices.
 In 1975, seven countries formed what became the
 to seek discontinuance of all Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in response to
(underground) nuclear tests as a corollary India having detonated a nuclear explosive
to the 1953 Partial Test Ban Treaty. device; it contained materials that Canada and
 to refrain from the threat or the use of the United States asserted had been diverted
by India to a non-peaceful use in violation of
force in compliance of the UN Charter.
bilateral nuclear trade agreements.
 to develop research production and use
 Following the Indian test, several countries
of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes
informed the IAEA of their intention to enforce
and help the developing countries in this
the IAEA safeguards on their nuclear exports.
regard. This memorandum included a ‘trigger list’ of
 to make available to all states the potential materials and items and was to become the first
benefits from and peaceful uses of nuclear major agreement on the supply list of nuclear
explosions. materials.
 pursue negotiations to end the nuclear  Two major issues were discussed: Under what
arms race and move towards nuclear conditions, technology and equipment for
disarmament. enrichment and reprocessing be transferred
to non-weapon states; and whether transfers
The NPT became the first step to the
are made to states unwilling to submit to full
construction of an effective international
scope IAEA safeguards.
regime designed to halt the proliferation
of nuclear weapons. However, the non-  The NSG’s founding members accounted for
nuclear weapon states perceived this to be a nearly all states that possessed the technological
and industrial capacity to build nuclear weapons
discriminatory treaty.
from scratch. They pledged to vigorously restrain
 The asymmetric nature of the treaty provisions the transfer of nuclear wares to would-be
that imposed safeguards only on the non- proliferators.
weapons states.
The Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines
 The preservation of commercial interests of
the weapon states by providing them the right The aim of the NSG Guidelines is to ensure that
to explore peaceful uses programmes. nuclear trade for peaceful purposes does not
 The vagueness of the commitments on part of contribute to the proliferation of nuclear weapons
the weapon states; and or other nuclear explosive devices, and that
international trade and cooperation in the nuclear
 The failure to address legitimate security field is not hindered unjustly in the process. These
concerns of the non-weapon states. guidelines include-
Until the signing of the NPT the debate  One, nuclear export recipients pledge not to use
about safeguards had been structured within the transferred material for nuclear explosives of
technological parameters and frameworks. The any kind.
unbalanced nature of the Treaty obligations under
 Two, transfer of sensitive nuclear technology was
the NPT and the universality of its approach resulted
to come under this safeguards system.
in the shift of the debate from the technical to the
political arena. The NPT system of safeguards came
to be perceived as an infringement on the political THE COMPREHENSIVE NUCLEAR-TEST-
sovereignty of the State. Eventually it was the Indian BAN TREATY (CTBT)
test of 1974 that refocused international attention
to the linkage between peaceful uses and weapons  The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
production. The NPT had provided for periodic review (CTBT) is a legally binding global ban on
conferences. In 1995 the conference decided to nuclear explosive testing. The CTBT was opened
extend the Treaty indefinitely for signature in 1996.

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 Specifically, Article XIV of the CTBT states that reduce the number of nuclear weapons nor
the treaty can enter into force only when all decrease the present offensive capabilities of
of the 44 states possessing nuclear weapons the nuclear weapon states.
capabilities and research reactors sign and  The treaty asks the non-nuclear states not to go
ratify the treaty. for testing of nuclear devices thus preventing
 Of these 44 states, the treaty awaits formal them from emerging as nuclear capable states.
ratification from the United States, China, It has no provision for reducing the nuclear
Israel, Iran, and Egypt (which have already capabilities of the weapon states. Like the
signed), and both signature and ratification from NPT, the CTBT too wants to divide the world
India, Pakistan, and North Korea, in order into nuclear haves and have-nots.
to implement a legally binding global ban on  The treaty has been planned in a way that the
nuclear testing. nuclear weapon states can control the nuclear
 Though short of signing the CTBT, India has technology and maintain their hegemony
endorsed the basic objective of the treaty by over the world.
declaring a unilateral moratorium on nuclear  This will not deter the weapon states to sharpen
testing. However, India has had and continues to and improve their technology. Because they
have reservations about the CTBT. have reached a stage, now they can further
improve their technology through computer
Significance of the CTBT and other indoor tests which have not been
banned.
 The negotiating mandate for the CTBT noted  They are also not willing to destroy the
that the treaty should contribute both to existing weapons within a time frame. These
“the prevention of proliferation in all its treaties, therefore, are not in a position to
aspects, [and] to the process of nuclear eliminate the nuclear weapons leading to general
disarmament.” and complete disarmament.
 The CTBT contributes to the above goals because,  UN chief Antonio Guterres- “We need a legally
although nuclear testing is not absolutely binding system; we need a clear verification
required for the development or modernization mechanism; we need the CTBT to enter into
of nuclear weapons, these activities become force”.
harder if states cannot test and have confidence
in their nuclear weapon designs.
TREATY ON THE PROHIBITION OF
 Thus, under a CTBT, non-nuclear weapon NUCLEAR WEAPON
states (NNWS) are restrained from advancing
their nuclear aspirations, while NWS are
constrained from significantly modernizing  By resolution 71/258, the General Assembly
their programs. decided to convene in 2017 a United Nations
conference to negotiate a legally binding
 This potential to restrict modernization caused instrument to prohibit nuclear weapons, leading
the CTBT to assume particular prominence in towards their total elimination. The Treaty on
the context of NPT Article VI, which commits the Prohibition of nuclear weapons (TPNW)
the nuclear weapon states to pursue “effective includes a comprehensive set of prohibitions
measures relating to the cessation of the nuclear on participating in any nuclear weapon
arms race at an early date and to nuclear activities.
disarmament.” They are thus crucial to advance  These include undertakings not to develop,
the global nuclear arms control agenda. test, produce, acquire, possess, stockpile, use or
threaten to use nuclear weapons.
Criticism of CTBT
 The Treaty also prohibits the deployment of
 The concept of Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty nuclear weapons on national territory and
was mentioned in the NPT. The CTBT has been the provision of assistance to any State in the
planned to realise the objective of general and conduct of prohibited activities.
complete nuclear disarmament. The CTBT  States parties will be obliged to prevent and
in present form, however, is not intended suppress any activity prohibited under the TPNW
to make the weapon free world, free from undertaken by persons or on territory under its
nuclear weapons. It would neither actually jurisdiction or control.

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 The Treaty also obliges States parties to provide of global power, it perhaps has little incentive to
adequate assistance to individuals affected by follow the USA’s lead.
the use or testing of nuclear weapons, as well  Third, significant technical problems will have
as to take necessary and appropriate measures to be surmounted if abolition is to become a
of environmental remediation in areas under its reality. Not the least of these are about how
jurisdiction or control contaminated as a result of the elimination of nuclear warheads can be
activities related to the testing or use of nuclear verified and whether nuclear material can be
weapons. monitored with high confidence. It is difficult,
therefore, to pretend that the task of abolishing
 The Treaty on the Prohibition of nuclear weapons
nuclear weapons will be easy or that it will be
was adopted by the Conference (by a vote of
accomplished in the near future (Perkovich and
122 States in favour, with one vote against and
Acton).
one abstention) at the United Nations on 7 July
2017 and opened for signature by the Secretary- There are some, nevertheless, who argue that
General of the United Nations on 20 September even if the elimination of nuclear weapons is
2017. possible, it may not be desirable. Concerns, for
example, have been expressed about
 Following the deposit with the Secretary-General
of the 50th instrument of ratification or accession  The impact the strategy of nuclear disarmament
of the Treaty on 24 October 2020, it entered into may have, may turn conventional wars into
force on 22 January 2021 in accordance with its nuclear wars, a reduction in (or, worse, the
article 15 (1). elimination of) nuclear arsenals may only create
conditions that allow such wars to break out
again.
STRATEGIES AND CHALLENGES TO  Ironically, nuclear disarmament may damage
ACHIEVE A WORLD FREE OF NUCLEAR the cause of non-proliferation as well as
WEAPONS strengthen it. A major factor helping to
prevent nuclear proliferation in recent
decades has been the existence of the USA’s
 Moral authority- will have any impact on
nuclear umbrella.
states such as Iran and North Korea, which have
already demonstrated a willingness to endure  If making a credible commitment to nuclear
condemnation from the international community disarmament means reducing the range and
in pursuit of what they see as key national security effectiveness of the US umbrella, states ranging
from Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan in
goals.
Asia to ones across the Middle East and the
 Second, great power unanimity on this issue Gulf may be forced to reconsider their non-
may be fragile. China, for instance, has made nuclear status. Efforts to create a world free
it clear that it has no plans to scrap its nuclear of nuclear weapons may therefore prove to be
weapons, and, in a context of the shifting location counterproductive.

Previous Year Questions

1. Bipolar structure of the World is more stable than the multipolar one. Comment 2022/150/10
2. Critically examine the decline of the United States of America as a hegemon and its implications
for the changing international political order. 2021/ 200/15
3. Identify the benefits of a multi-polar world. 2019/ 200 /15
4. “The development of advanced missile technology and nuclear threat by North Korea has
challenged the American hegemony in South-East Asia.” Evaluate the above statement in the
context of recent developments in the region. 2017/ 250 /20]

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Chapter - 7.7

Non-Alignment Movement

What Is Non-Alignment?  The Nonalignment 1.0 was just a way of making

it clear that India would act in her interests first
 The phrase “non-aligned” was first used by V K rather than the interests of Washington, Moscow,
Krishna Menon at the United Nations General or Beijing (Peking).
Assembly in 1953 and by Jawahar Lal Nehru in
1956 Background
 But as early as in late 1940s, Nehru had spelt out  The Non-Aligned Movement was formed
the strategy behind the phrase, first in Constituent during the Cold War as an organization of
Assembly debates and later in Parliament States that did not seek to formally align
 The core idea was that the very sense of India, themselves with either the United States
with its history and civilization attributes, or the Soviet Union, but sought to remain
demands the pursuit of an independent foreign independent or neutral.
policy.  The basic concept for the group originated
 Decisions relating to India’s vital interests should in 1955 during discussions that took place at
not be externally determined. the Asia-Africa Bandung Conference held in
Indonesia.
 Maintaining and, if possible, expanding the
country’s strategic autonomy is a continuing  The first NAM Summit Conference took place
objective in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in September 1961.

 Nehru once said that “We should either be  It has 120 members as on April 2018 comprising
53 countries from Africa, 39 from Asia, 26 from
strong enough to produce some effect or we
Latin America and the Caribbean and 2 from
should not interfere at all “, which demonstrates
Europe (Belarus, Azerbaijan). There are 17
a realistic awareness of the limits of India’s ability
countries and 10 international organizations that
to influence events
are Observers at NAM.
 The way Jawaharlal Nehru conceived
 The Non-Aligned Movement was founded
Nonalignment was a strategy and not a and held its first conference (the Belgrade
doctrine. For Nehru, the nonalignment was Conference) in 1961 under the leadership of
a strategy designed to maximize newly Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel
independent India’s gains from the world Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India,
system. Nonalignment did not mean to choose Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and Sukarno of
to become a hermit kingdom. Indonesia.
 Nehru kept the West open for trade and aid,  The purpose of the organization was enumerated
while on the other, it avoided alienating the in the Havana Declaration of 1979 to ensure
two communist powers in India’s immediate “the national independence, sovereignty,
neighborhood, China and the Soviet Union. By territorial integrity and security of non-
adopting a policy to be friendly to all, Nehru aligned countries” in their struggle against
hoped to receive critical necessary foreign aid at imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism,
that time. and all forms of foreign subjugation.

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 During the cold war era the NAM played a vital  Because of great power rivalry during the Cold
role in stabilizing the world order and preserving War Era many economic projects were set up in
peace and security. developing countries as part of the rivalry but
 Non-alignment of NAM doesn’t mean the suffered as a result of the quest for influence.
neutrality of the state on global issues, it was  During the years the focus of Non-Aligned
always a peaceful intervention in world politics. Summits, therefore, shifted away from essentially
political issues to the advocacy of solutions to
Principles
global economic and other problems.
As J.L Nehru was founding members, the principles  The Jakarta Summit in 1992 was a turning
of NAM was largely guided by Panchsheel principles, point in Non-Aligned history since this was
some of them are: the first Summit after the end of the Cold
 Respect for the principles enshrined in the charter War. It allowed the Movement to shift its
of the United Nations and international law. focus in a direction that also enabled It to
 Respect for sovereignty, sovereign equality, work across to groupings such as the G-7 and
and territorial integrity of all States. the EU. South Africa assumed the position as the
 Peaceful settlement of all international conflicts Chair at a time when this transitional phase was
in accordance with the charter of the United still ongoing.
Nations.
Administration
 Respect for the political, economic, social, and
cultural diversity of countries and peoples.  The founders of the Non-Aligned Movement
 Defense and promotion of shared interests, and their successors recognized that the
justice and cooperation, regardless of the Movement would probably be best served if it
differences existing in the political, economic operated without a formal constitution and a
and social systems of the States, on the basis of permanent secretariat.
mutual respect and the equality of rights.
 The practice of a rotating Chair was instead
 Respect for the inherent right of individual or
created which at the same time placed the onus
collective self-defense, in accordance with the
of an administrative structure on the country
charter of the United Nations
assuming the Chair.
 Non-interference in the internal affairs of
States. No State or group of States has the right  The Summit Conferences are the occasions when
to intervene either directly or indirectly, whatever the Movement formally rotates its Chair to the
the motive, in the internal affairs of any other Head of State or Government of the host country
State. of the Summit.
 Promotion and defense of multilateralism and  The Foreign Ministry and Permanent Mission
multilateral organizations as the appropriate in New York of the Chair at the same time
frameworks to resolve, through dialogue and assume the responsibility of the administrative
cooperation, the problems affecting humankind. management of the Movement.

Objectives
NAM STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION
 NAM has sought to “create an independent
path in world politics that would not result
in member States becoming pawns in the  The founders of the Non-Aligned Movement and
struggles between the major powers.” their successors recognized that the Movement
would probably be destroyed if they created
 It identifies the right of independent judgment,
such formal structures for the Movement as a
the struggle against imperialism and neo-
constitution and internal secretariat.
colonialism, and the use of moderation in
relations with all big powers as the three basic  A multilateral transnational organization
elements that have influenced its approach. made up of states with differing ideologies
 At present, an additional goal is facilitating a and purposes could never create a rational
restructuring of the international economic administrative structure to implement its
order. policies that all could accept.

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 The Non-Aligned Movement has created a  The Chair of the Movement is also responsible
unique form of administrative style. Non- to give expeditious consideration to the
Aligned administration is non-hierarchical, establishment of arrangements for coordination
rotational, and inclusive, providing all member of Non-Aligned countries in all United Nations
states, regardless of size and importance, with an centers and international organization
opportunity to participate in global decision- headquarters.
making and world politics.  The establishment of these arrangements
 The Summit is the occasion when the Movement facilitates coordination and cooperation with the
formally rotates its Chair to the Head of State of Coordinating Bureau and enhances the role of
the host country of the Summit, who then holds the Movement in international fora.
office until the next Summit. The Chair is at the  At a meeting of Foreign Ministers of NAM,
same time also delegated certain responsibilities representing past, present and future Chairs,
for promoting the principles and activities of the in New Delhi on 6 April 1997, the concept of a
Movement. Troika (of the past, present and future Chairs)
 The Coordinating Bureau is the vocal point for started to emerge. The Chair, the Colombian
coordination. The Bureau reviews and facilitates Foreign Minister, at the meeting announced that
the harmonization of the work of the NAM the first meeting of the Troika would take place
Working Groups, Contact Groups, Task Forces at the 52nd UN General Assembly. The Troika
and Committees. subsequently formally met for the first time in
New York in September 1997.
 The Heads of State or Government entrusted the
Coordinating Bureau with the task of intensifying  During the aforesaid meeting Ministers expressed
its actions to further strengthen coordination their satisfaction with the format of the meeting
and mutual cooperation among Non-Aligned of past, present and future Chairs and suggested
countries, including unified action in the United that the Group meet more frequently as a
Nations and other international forums on issues discussion forum. It was also suggested that the
of common concern. Group would meet at other levels, e.g., on the
level of officials to discuss issues that arise and
 All NAM Working Groups, Contact Groups,
require direction or a stance by the NAM.
Task Forces and Committees meet as often as
necessary. In the fulfillment of their mandates  The Cartagena Document on Methodology,
due regard is paid to coordination, efficiency which was issued in May 1996, emphasizes that
and preparedness. the documents of Summit Conferences, which
are the supreme organ of the Movement, should,
 It is necessary that the NAM countries elected
while remaining comprehensive, be condensed.
to the Security Council, and who form the NAM
Every effort should also be made to avoid
Caucus in the Security Council, constantly strive
repetition.
to adopt unified positions, and that the decisions
and the positions of NAM as adopted at its  The practice of the Movement is to make all
Summits and Ministerial Conferences and by the decisions by consensus. Consensus has enhanced
Coordinating Bureau be properly reflected by the solidarity and unity of the Movement. This
them in the Security Council, without prejudice concept presupposes understanding of and
to their sovereign rights. respect for different points of view, including
 At the Cartagena Summit, the Heads of State disagreement and implies mutual accommodation
or Government called for the need to continue on the basis of which agreement can emerge by
to enhance this coordination, including the a sincere process of adjustment among member
possibility of holding consultations on a regular nations in the true spirit of non-Alignment.
basis, between members of the NAM Caucus and  The Cartagena Document on Methodology
other members of the Coordinating Bureau. states that consensus, while signifying
 In order to promote coordination and cooperation substantial agreement, does not require implying
between the NAM and the Group of 77 in unanimity.
promoting the interests of developing countries  In sensitive issues, the NAM tradition is to
in international forum, a Joint Coordinating pay attention to openness and the holding
Committee of the two groups was established in of extensive consultations with the broadest
1994, which meets regularly in New York. possible participation.

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NAM IN COLD WAR charter of the United Nations and crime against
humanity and should therefore be prohibited.
 Against Apartheid: The evil of apartheid was  UNSC reforms: Right from its inception NAM
massively prevalent in African countries like was in the favor of UNSC reforms, it was against
South Africa, its was on the agenda of NAM the domination of US and USSR. It wanted the
right from first conference. During 2nd NAM representation of third world countries to make
conference at Cairo the government of South UNSC more democratic. Members echoed
Africa was warned against the discriminatory with same demand at 17th NAM conference at
practices of apartheid. Venezuela.
 Disarmament: The Non-aligned Movement  Failed to resolve regional tensions: In the era
repeatedly comes out for maintenance of peace, of cold war the tension in South Asia escalated
‘the cessation of arms race and the peaceful due to regional conflict between India- China and
coexistence of all States. In the General Assembly, India-Pakistan. NAM failed to avoid tensions in
India submitted a draft resolution declaring that the region, that further led to the nuclearization
the use of nuclear weapons would be against the of the region.

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Chapter - 7.8

India & NAM

 India being a founder and largest member in  India is striving hard for a multipolar world order
NAM was an active participant in NAM meetings and asserting itself as one of the players. Multi
till 1970s but India’s inclination towards erstwhile polar world order is very much closed to NAM
USSR created confusions in smaller members. It principles.
led to the weakening of NAM and small nations
drifted towards either the US or USSR.
WHAT WERE THE IMPLICATIONS OF
 Further disintegration of the USSR led the unipolar
world order dominated by US. India’s New Economic THE NAM
Policy and inclination towards US raised questions
over India’s seriousness over nonalignment. Despite of initial rumblings from US congress, India
 Prime Minister of India skipped the 17th Non was fairly successful in its policy of non-alignment.
Aligned Movement (NAM) summit held in India received aid from both blocks and neither
Venezuela in 2016, it was only second such took India as a threat. In Nehru Era, India was able
instance when Head of a state didn’t participate to maintain satisfactory relations with US as well as
in NAM conference. USSR. However, India found herself moving closer
 Moreover, NAM continued losing relevance and closer to the Soviet Union. The reasons were:
for India in a unipolar world, especially after  United States kept supplying arms to Pakistan
the founding members failed to support India despite repeated admonition from India
during crisis. For instance, during 1962 War with
 From New Delhi’s perspective, US was an
China, Ghana and Indonesia, adopted explicitly
unreliable partner, it was proved in 1960s during
pro-China positions. During 1965 and 1971 wars,
financial crisis and food crisis.
Indonesia and Egypt took an anti-India stance
and supported Pakistan.  USSR reassured India regarding the security
 India in particular, but also most other NAM measures against a potential Chinese attack
countries, have integrated themselves to varying  India and US remained in contravention over the
degrees within the liberal economic order and nuclear question
have benefited from it.
 India was subject to a nuclear blackmail by US
 India is a member of the G20 and has declared (allegedly) when it deployed its aircraft carrier
itself as a nuclear weapons power and has for all USS Enterprise during the India – Pakistan War
practical purposes abandoned the call for global of 1971
nuclear disarmament.
 India did not like the US presence at Diego Garcia
 India has also engaged itself with new and old in the Indian Ocean
global powers. India joining the Quadrilateral
Security Dialogue, a coalition seen by many as  We can say that India and US relations remained
a counterforce to China’s rise in the Indo-Pacific acerbated for the first few decades of India’s
and Shanghai cooperation organization led by impendence and that is why India tilted towards
China shown India’s balancing approach in new Moscow and signed the Indo-Soviet Friendship
world order. Treaty in August 1971.

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END OF NAM 1.0  The country has inherent assets, such as a

favorable demography, a strategic location and
a culture of creativity and innovation, which
NAM as a strategy become useless with the end
create a window of opportunity to drive India’s
of Cold War when world became Unipolar as USA
emergence as a front-ranking power, a master of
became undisputed world leader. its own destiny but generating a range of public
goods that make the world a better and safer
Failures of Non-alignment place to live in.
 The critics of non-alignment say that the biggest
failure of the policy was the India’s failure to WHAT IS THE ISSUE WITH THE NAM?
deal with China in 1962. It was said that India
could move closer to US to counter the abject
The recent developments in the international order
poverty, grim state of economy and problems in
reflect the need for a renewed non-aligned movement
foreign trade. However, these were problems of as a soft balancing mechanism against powerful
India as a state and not India as a country with states.
independent foreign policy.
 The failure was not of non-alignment, but of an What was the soft balancing strategy?
economy spiraling out of control (the concurrence
with the China war/ pushing of India’s Five-Year  The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and its
Plans off schedule) and held policies held to precursor, the Bandung Afro-Asian conference
because they had become articles of faith than in 1955 were examples of this.
strategies.  It was adopted by the weaker states towards
great powers engaged in intense rivalry and
conflict after the Second World War.
FUTURE OF NAM
 The newly emerging states had little material
ability to constrain superpower conflict and arms
NAM should be seen as “Strategic Autonomy” which is build-ups.
much needed in today’s world than in past. However,
in today’s context, India needs more engagements  They, hence, under the leadership of India’s
with all players as world has become more inter Jawaharlal Nehru, Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser
dependent than in the past. Few points to remember and Indonesia’s Sukarno adopted a soft balancing
are: strategy, the NAM.
 It was later joined by Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz
 India’s enhanced economic and security
Tito.
capabilities enable it to influence external events
and outcomes in a widening orbit compared to  It aimed at challenging the superpower excesses
the Cold War years. and was a mechanism for preventing the global
order from sliding into war.
 India enjoys greater leverage but bears greater
responsibility in dealing with regional issues
such as South Asian and East Asian economic WAS NAM SUCCESSFUL?
integration and global issues such as climate
change and energy security. In the long run, some of the goals of NAM were
 Furthermore, in a globalizes world, external issues achieved.
impact our economic and social development  Despite its shortcomings, the NAM and the Afro-
prospects while domestic choices we make as a Asian grouping acted as a limited soft balancing
country, in turn, have an impact on the external mechanism.
environment.
 It attempted to delegitimize the threatening
 Promotion of India’s interests demands far behaviour of the superpowers.
greater engagement with the world than ever
 It was particularly through their activism at the
before.
UN and other such forums including that on
 Depending on the issue at hand, India will Disarmament that the non-aligned declarations
find itself working with shifting and variable on nuclear testing and nuclear non-proliferation
coalitions rather than through settled alliances helped concretise the 1963 Partial Test Ban
or groupings. Treaty.

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 They also helped create several nuclear weapons  Smaller states would be the first to suffer if there
free zones as well as formulate the Nuclear Non- is a war in the Asia-Pacific or an intense Cold War
proliferation Treaty. develops between the U.S. and China.
 The tradition of ‘non-use of nuclear weapons’
was strengthened partially due to non-aligned WHY IS NAM NEEDED NOW?
countries’ activism at the UN.
 Also, the UNGA declared decolonization as a key  A renewed activism by leading global south
objective in 1960. countries may be necessary to delegitimise the
 It was practised, especially in the 1950s and new imperial ventures.
1960s, in Africa, parts of Asia and the Caribbean.  These states must play a balancing role to avoid
the international order from deteriorating and to
 NAM definitely deserves partial credit for ending
prevent any new forms of cold and hot wars.
colonialism through their activism at the UN
General Assembly.  China, the U.S. and Russia need to be balanced
and restrained.

DID NAM LOSE ITS RELEVANCE?  Some countries are already showing some
elements of strategic autonomy favoured by the
NAM.
 In the 1970s, some of the key players, including
India, began to lose interest in the movement.  Developing countries can engage more with
China and India and restrain the U.S. and Russia
 They started forming coalitions with one or the from aggravating military conflict in Asia-Pacific.
other superpower to handle their conflicts with
their neighbours.  More concrete initiatives are needed by the
emerging states in the Association of Southeast
 The Western countries often portrayed non- Asian Nations (ASEAN) grouping.
alignment as pro-Soviet or ineffective.
 The soft balancing by non-superpower states
 The general intellectual opposition was the result has a key role to play in this.
of the Western scholarly bias against a coalitional
move by the weaker states.
EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
 In the hierarchical international system, the
weaker states are expected to simply abide by
the dictates of the stronger ones. NAM has to adopt and change itself to suit the newly
emerging challenges and geopolitics such as:
 World has again moved towards bi-polarity, one
HOW IS THE INTERNATIONAL ORDER led by US and other by China-Russia. The war
AT PRESENT? torn syria is prime example of this, where both
US and Russia is asserting power.
 The great powers are once again launching a new  The escalating tension in Indo-pacific region
round of nuclear arms race, territorial expansion due to China’s assertion and US acting as a
and militarization of the oceans. counterweight to check the Chinese expansionist
 The freedom of navigation activities of the U.S. is policy.
generating hostile responses from China.  The large scale migration in Europe and Asia due
 In turn, China is building artificial islets and military to the unstable regimes and ethnic conflict in
bases in the South China Sea and expanding its different parts of world.
naval interests into the Indian Ocean.  Issue of global climate change and occurrence
 The U.S. as the reigning hegemon will find the of catastrophic disasters raising demand to form
Chinese takeover threatening and try different global consensus to deal with it.
methods to dislodge it.  Changing US policies, protectionism, prevalent
 If the present trends continue, a military conflict terrorism and nuclearization of middle east.
in the South China Sea is likely and the naval  Formation of multiple regional economic
competition will take another decade or so to groupings like TPP and RCEP and fading away of
become intense. multilateral bodies like WTO from global arena.

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RELEVANCE OF NAM WAY FORWARD

NAM continues to hold relevance as a platform and  NAM as a concept can never be irrelevant,
due to its principles. principally it provides a strong base to foreign
 World peace - NAM has played an active role policy of its members.
in preserving world peace. It still stands by its  It should be seen as “Strategic Autonomy”,
founding principles, idea and purpose i.e. to which is the need of the hour of today’s world.
establish the peaceful and prosperous world. It The principles of NAM still can guide the nations
prohibited invasion of any country, promoted towards it.
disarmament and a sovereign world order.
 NAM is a platform where India can assert its
 Territorial integrity and sovereignty - NAM soft power and provide an active leadership and
stands with this principle and proved its by being a torchbearer for smaller countries at
repeated relevance with the idea of preserving multilateral platforms.
the independence of every nation.
 It should be used as a platform to raise global
 Third World nations - Third world countries issues like terrorism, climate change and trade
fighting against socio-economic problems since protectionism and others.
they have been exploited for a long time by other
 NAM platform can be used to garner support
developed nations, NAM acted as a protector
by South-East Asian countries like Vietnam,
for these small countries against the western
hegemony. Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines against
Chinese assertion in South China Sea and related
 Support of UN - NAM’s total strength island and border disputes.
compromises of 118 developing countries and
most of them being a member of UN General  NAM can provide a platform for Afro-Asian
Assembly. It represents two third members of cooperation and a strong position for poor
general assembly, hence NAM members act as African nation to have healthy negotiations with
important vote blocking group in UN. China and US for economic development without
compromising the sovereignty of their land.
 Equitable world order - NAM promotes
equitable world order. It can act as a bridge Non-Alignment 2.0
between the political and ideological differences
existing in the international environment. “Nonalignment 2.0: A foreign and strategic policy
 Interest of developing countries - If disputes for India in the 21st century” is a publication by
arise between developed and developing nation Centre for Policy Research that was released in March
at any point of a concerned topic for example 2012. This document identifies the basic principles and
WTO, then NAM act as a platform which drivers that would make India a leading player on the
negotiates and conclude disputes peacefully world stage while preserving its strategic autonomy
securing the favorable decisions for each and value system.
member nation. The document Nonalignment 2.0 was written over
 Cultural diversity and human rights - In the 14 months of deliberations by Sunil Khilnani, Rajiv
environment of gross human right violation, it Kumar, Pratap Bhanu Mehta, Lt. Gen. (retd.) Prakash
can provide a platform to raise such issues and Menon, Nandan Nilekani, Srinath Raghavan, Shyam
resolve the same through its principles. Saran and Siddharth Varadarajan. It also had some
inputs of National Security Adviser Shivshankar
 Sustainable development - NAM supported
Menon and Deputy National Security Advisers Alok
the concept of sustainable development and can
Prasad and Latha Reddy.
lead the world toward sustainability. Can be used
as larger platform to make consensus on global This document is an idea to identify the basic principles
burning issues like climate change, migration, that should guide India’s foreign and strategic policy
and global terrorism. over next decade.
 Economic growth - The country of NAM has  The core philosophy of the document is that –
inherent assets, such as a favorable demography, success of India’s own internal development will
demand and favorable location. The cooperation depend decisively on how effectively we manage
can lead them to higher and sustainable our global opportunities in order to maximize
economic growth. Can be an alternative to our choices—thereby enlarging our domestic
regional groupings like TPP and RCEP. options to the benefit of all Indians.

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 The report points out that in a situation where and outcomes in a widening orbit compared to
the world is no longer bifurcated between two the Cold War years. India enjoys greater leverage
dominant powers, nonalignment today will but bears greater responsibility in dealing with
require managing complicated coalitions and regional issues such as South Asian and East
opportunities in an environment that is not Asian economic integration and global issues
structurally settled. such as climate change and energy security.
 Report deals with India’s approach towards the  Furthermore, in a globalized world, external issues
‘Asian theatre,’ the international order, hard- impact our economic and social development
power, internal security, non-conventional prospects while domestic choices we make as a
security issues like energy and nuclear options, country, in turn, have an impact on the external
the knowledge and information foundations of environment. Promotion of India’s interests
power as well as the state and democracy. demands far greater engagement with the world
 The report has generated controversy too. The than ever before.
authors of the report have been accused of  Depending on the issue at hand, India will
resurrecting the buried ghost of non-alignment, find itself working with shifting and variable
which allegedly served to limit rather than
coalitions rather than through settled alliances
advance India’s interests.
or groupings.
The need for non-alignment 2.0:  The country has inherent assets, such as a
favorable demography, a strategic location and
The Centre for Policy Research seems to have a culture of creativity and innovation, which
replicated fairly well Nehru’s strategy of retaining create a window of opportunity to drive India’s
strategic autonomy. Yet it seems to be a halfhearted emergence as a front-ranking power, a master of
guide for India’s foreign policy in the 21st century. its own destiny but generating a range of public
 India’s enhanced economic and security goods that make the world a better and safer
capabilities enable it to influence external events place to live in.

Previous Year Questions

1. “Non alignment was little more than a rational strategy on the part of a materially weak India to
maximize its interests with a bipolar distribution of global power.” Comment 2021/250/20
2. Discuss the ways to strengthen the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to enable it to address the
challenges faced by the developing countries. 2020/250/20
3. Compare and contrast Non-alignment 1.0 with Non-alignment 2019/150/ 10
4. Discuss the significance of Non-Aligned Movement as a unique contribution of the Non-Western
world to World Politics. 2018/250 /20
5. Do you endorse the view that the end of Bipolarity and the rise of multiple regional organisations
has made Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) more or less irrelevant? 2017/200 /15
6. Comment on India’s contribution to Non-Alignment Movement and its contemporary relevance.
2016/150 /10

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8
Evolution of the
International Economic
System
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Chapter - 8.1

Evolution of the Bretton Woods System

 The end of the Cold War meant that increased rules and mechanisms, formal and informal,
expectations fell on international organisations in existing at a variety of levels in the world
general and on the United Nations in particular. today’ (Karns and Mingst).
 Accelerated globalisation stimulated discussions  Such arrangements have become an increasingly
about the relationship between trends in the prominent feature of global politics since the
world economy and the institutional frameworks end of the Cold War, particularly in response to,
through which it is supposedly regulated. And but also, tsome extent, in an attempt tshape, the
there has been a general recognition that a process of globalisation.
growing number of worldwide problems are
beyond the capacity of individual states tsolve  Although global governance and international
on their own. organisation are not synonyms, an important
aspect of the emergence of global governance
 However, hovering somewhere between a
has been the growth in the number and
Westphalian world of sovereign states and
importance of international organisations.
the fanciful idea of world government, global
governance is profoundly difficult tanalyse and  Furthermore, as a set of processes through which
assess. states cooperate without, it seems, abandoning
sovereignty global governance is a difficult
 The arena in which global governance is
most advanced is nevertheless the field of phenomenon tcategorise.
economic policymaking. This stems from  Global governance is the management of
the 1944 Bretton Woods agreement, which global policies in the absence of a central
sought testablish the architecture for the government.
post war international economic order. This
 It involves a level of sustained cooperation
system, however, has evolved significantly
and a preference for collective action which is
over time, as it has adapted tthe changing
pressures generated by the world economy. impossible in a self-help system.

 From an initial concern with postwar  States in a global governance system cooperate
reconstruction in Europe and later development voluntarily, recognizing that it is in their interest
in the Third World, its key institutions were drawn tdso.
intdeeper controversy from the early 1970s  Global governance differs from global hegemony
onwards as they were converted tan agenda of and world government in that each of the latter
economic liberalization and became inextricably presupposed the existence of a supranational
linked tthe forces of neoliberal globalisation. authority. It can therefore be described as a
system of ‘cooperation under anarchy’ (Oye).
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE  Global governance thus implies that international
anarchy can be overcome without founding a
 Global governance has been described as the world government or having tendure a world
‘collection of governance-related activities, hegemonic order.

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The key features of global governance  However, the extent twhich the world as a whole
include the following: has become orderly and norm-governed should
not be exaggerated. It is more accurate trefer tan
 Polycentrism – global governance is multiple emerging global governance process rather than
rather than singular, having different institutional an established global governance system.
frameworks and decision-making mechanisms in  Moreover, the norms and rules of global
different issue areas. governance are much better established in some
 Intergovernmentalism – States and national parts of the world than in others.
governments retain considerable influence  For instance, Europe has been portrayed
within the global governance system, reflecting by Cooper as the heart of the so-called
international organisations’ general disposition ‘postmodern’ world by virtue of the EU’s
towards consensual decision-making and their success in pooling sovereignty and banishing
weak powers of enforcement. balance-of-power politics. Europe, nevertheless,
is an exception and many parts of the world
 Mixed actor involvement – In addition
are still little affected by international norms
tstates and international organisations, global
and rules, as demonstrated by the existence of
governance embraces NGOs, TNCs and other ‘rogue’ states and pariah states.
institutions of global civil society the blurring of
the public/private divide
GLOBAL ECONOMIC GOVERNANCE: THE
 Multilevel processes – Global governance
operates through interaction between groups EVOLUTION OF THE BRETTON WOODS
and institutions at various levels (municipal, SYSTEM
provincial, national, regional and global), with
nsingle level enjoying predominance over the  The trend towards global governance has been
others. particularly evident in the sphere of economic
 Deformalization – Global governance tends policy-making. This is because economics is
the most obvious area of interdependence
toperate through norm-based and informal
amongst states, and the area where the failure of
international regimes rather than through formal
international cooperation can cause the clearest
and legally constituted bodies.
damage.
 Since 1945, a system of global economic
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE: MYTH OR governance has emerged through a thickening
REALITY? web of multilateral agreements, formal
institutions, and informal networks, with the most
 Liberal theorists have argued that there is an important institutions being those established
unmistakable, and perhaps irresistible, trend by the Bretton Woods agreement, negotiated
in favour of global governance. just before the end of World War II.
 Biggest lesson from the Great Depression of
 The growth of international organisations
the 1930s was that so-called ‘beggar-thy-
provides both evidence of a greater willingness
neighbour’ policies of protectionism were
amongst states tcooperate and engage in
economically self-defeating and politically
collective action, and fosters further cooperation
dangerous.
by strengthening trust amongst states,
accustoming them trule-governed behaviour.  However, such tendencies could only be
countered if a framework of norms, rules and
 In the sense that global governance is under-standings could be established that
closely linked tglobalisation, its salience enabled states tcooperate over economic matters
may fluctuate, but is likely tgrow over time and avoid the pitfalls of the ‘welfare dilemma’.
as the tendency towards interdependence
 This led tthe Bretton Woods system In August
and interconnectedness, once established, is
1944, tformulate the institutional architecture for
difficult treverse. (Andrew Heywood)
the postwar international financial and monetary
 This is demonstrated by developments ranging system- significant outcome of the Bretton
from international migration and global terrorism Woods process was the establishment of three
ttransnational criminal organizations and global new bodies, in due course collectively known as
pandemics. the ‘Bretton Woods system’.

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 These bodies were: The International  During the golden age of the 1950s and 1960s,
Monetary Fund (IMF), The International Bank OECD member states consistently achieved average
for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), growth rates of four tfive per cent a year.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
 How far Bretton Woods contributed tthe
(GATT), which was replaced by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) in 1995. economic boom of the postwar period is,
however, a matter of debate.
 The Bretton Woods agreement is a clear example
of multilateralism. However, the crucial role  Many have argued that ‘national’
played by the US can’t be ignored which emerged Keynesianism, through which governments
from WWII as the world’s predominant military stimulated domestic growth by running
and economic power. permanent budget deficits, had a greater
impact than ‘international’ Keynesianism
 Not only was the conference initiated by the
(Skidelsky).
USA and took place on US soil, but the USA was
the leading force in the negotiation, effectively  Radical theorists linked the long boom tthe
dictating some key outcomes. establishment of a ‘permanent arms economy’,
 At the centre of the Bretton Woods system was a a kind of ‘military Keynesianism’, in which
new monetary order, overseen by the IMF, which the principal motor for growth was high and
sought tmaintain stable exchange rates. sustained military expenditure, legitimized by
the Cold War (Oakes).
 The World Bank and GATT complemented the new
international monetary order, by establishing,  On the other hand, the economic stability of
respectively, a new international financial order the period was perhaps not smuch a product
and a new international trading order. of a new era of multilateral governance,
 The main responsibility of the World Bank but, rather, of the overwhelming economic
was tprovide loans for countries in need of dominance of the USA and the dollar.
reconstruction and development, while GATT,  What thus made the Golden Age unusual was
which existed more as a multilateral agreement the USA’s capacity tmanage the world economy
than as an international organisation, sought in its own interests. The Bretton Woods system
tadvance the cause of free trade by bringing has therefore been seen as an expression of US
down tariff levels. hegemony.
 Bretton Woods certainly reflected an  However, the long boom of the postwar period
underpinning faith in liberal economic started tpeter out in the late 1960s, leading tthe
theories. However, the fact that the ‘stagflation’ of the 1970s, in which economic
institutional arrangements had tbe put in stagnation and rising unemployment was linked
place to, in a sense, ‘police’ the international thigh inflation.
economy and ensure stability reflected grave
doubts about classical political economy and  The US economy was especially troubled by these
especially the doctrine of laissez-faire . difficulties. In 1971, the USA abandoned the
system of fixed exchange rates, signalling, in
 Bretton Woods was shaped by the fear that
an unregulated international economy is effect, the end of the Bretton Woods system
inherently unstable and crisis-prone, tendencies in its original form.
most dramatically demonstrated by the Great  The economic slowdown in the 1970s
Depression itself. In line with the ideas of J. M. alsweakened and in some cases reversed
Keynes, markets therefore had tbe ‘managed’. GATT’s progress in reducing trade barriers,
 This acknowledged only the limited benefits of with industrialized countries in particular
market competition, it has been described as pushing-up so-called non-tariff barriers. The
a form of embedded liberalism, as opposed resentment that this generated amongst
t‘pure’ liberalism (Ruggie). developing countries, combined with
recession, led tgrowing support for a ‘New
International Economic Order’ (NIEO).
ACHIEVEMENT OF BRETTON WOOD
SYSTEM  During the 1980s, the institutions of global
economic governance were reorientated
around the ideas of the so-called ‘Washington
 It heralded the longest period of sustained consensuses. This, in effect, meant that a system
economic growth the world economy had based on embedded liberalism finally gave
ever experienced. way tone based on neoliberalism.

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Chapter - 8.2

The International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an

the IMF promoted the system of floating
organisation of 189 member countries, each of which
exchange rates. Countries are free tchoose
has representation on the IMF’s executive board
their exchange arrangement, meaning
in proportion tits financial importance, sthat the
that market forces determine the value of
most powerful countries in the global economy have
currencies relative tone another. This system
the most voting power.
continues to in place today.
Objecective  During the 1973 oil crisis, the IMF estimated
that the foreign debts of 100 oil-importing
 Foster global monetary cooperation developing countries increased by 150%
 Secure financial stability between 1973 and 1977, complicated
 Facilitate international trade further by a worldwide shift tfloating
exchange rates.
 Promote high employment and sustainable
economic growth  The IMF administered a new lending
program during 1974– 1976 called the
 And reduce poverty around the world History Oil Facility. Funded by oil-exporting nations
and other lenders, it was available tnations
The IMF, alsknown as the Fund, was conceived at a suffering from acute problems with their
UN conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, balance of trade due tthe rise in oil prices.
United States, in July 1944.
The 44 countries at that conference
FUNCTIONS OF IMF

sought tbuild a framework for economic
cooperation tavoid a repetition of the
competitive devaluations that had contributed  Provides Financial Assistance: Tprovide
tthe Great Depression of the 1930s. financial assistance tmember countries with
 Countries were not eligible for membership balance of payments problems, the IMF lends
in the International Bank for Reconstruction money treplenish international reserves,
and Development (IBRD) unless they were stabilise currencies and strengthen conditions
members of the IMF. for economic growth. Countries must embark
on structural adjustment policies monitored by
 The IMF, as per Bretton Woods agreement
the IMF.
tencourage international financial
cooperation, introduced a system of  IMF Surveillance: It oversees the international
convertible currencies at fixed exchange monetary system and monitors the economic and
rates, and replaced gold with the U.S. dollar financial policies of its 189 member countries. As
(gold at $35 per ounce) for official reserve. part of this process, which takes place both at the
global level and in individual countries, the IMF
 After the Bretton Woods system (system of
fixed exchange rates) collapsed in 1971, highlights possible risks tstability and advises
on needed policy adjustments.

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 Capacity Development: It provides technical  Development Committee:

assistance and training tcentral banks, finance  is a joint committee (25 members from Board
ministries, tax authorities, and other economic of Governors of IMF & World Bank), tasked
institutions. This helps countries raise public with advising the Boards of Governors of the
revenues, modernize banking systems, develop IMF and the World Bank on issues related
strong legal frameworks, improve governance, teconomic development in emerging
and enhance the reporting of macroeconomic markets and developing countries.
and financial data. It alshelps countries tmake
 It serves as a forum for building
progress towards the Sustainable Development intergovernmental consensus on critical
Goals (SDGs) development issues.

Governance  Executive Board:

 It is a 24-member Executive Board elected
 Board of Governors: by the Board of Governors.
 It consists of one governor and one  It conducts the daily business of the IMF
alternate governor for each member and exercises the powers delegated tit
country. Each member country appoints its by the Board of Governors & powers
twgovernors. conferred on it by the Articles of
 It is responsible for electing or appointing Agreement.
executive directors tthe Executive Board.  It discusses all aspects of the Fund’s work,
 Approving quota increases, Special from the IMF staff’s annual health checks of
Drawing Right allocations, nAdmittance member countries’ economies tpolicy issues
of new members, compulsory withdrawal of relevant tthe global economy.
member,  The Board normally makes decisions based
on consensus, but sometimes formal votes
 Amendments tthe Articles of Agreement
are taken. Votes of each member equal the
and By-Laws.
sum of its basic votes (equally distributed
 The Board of Governors is advised by among all members) and quota-based
twministerial committees, the International votes. A member’s quota determines its
Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) voting power.
and the Development Committee.  IMF Management:
 Boards of Governors of the IMF and the  The IMF’s Managing Director is both
World Bank Group normally meet once a chairman of the IMF’s Executive Board and
year, during the IMF–World Bank Annual head of IMF staff. The Managing Director is
Meetings, tdiscuss the work of their appointed by the Executive Board by voting
respective institutions. or consensus.
 Ministerial Committees: The Board of  IMF Members:
Governors is advised by twministerial
 Any other state, whether or not a member
committees,
of the UN, may become a member of the
 International Monetary and Financial IMF in accordance with IMF Articles of
Committee (IMFC): Agreement and terms prescribed by the
 IMFC has 24 members, drawn from the Board of Governors. Membership in the IMF
pool of 189 governors, and represents all is a prerequisite tmembership in the IBRD
member countries.  Pay a quota subscription:
 It discusses the management of the  On joining the IMF, each member country
international monetary and financial contributes a certain sum of money,
system. It alsdiscusses proposals by the called a quota subscription, which is based
Executive Board tamend the Articles of on the country’s wealth and economic
Agreement and any other matters of performance (Quota Formula)
common concern affecting the global  It is a weighted average of GDP (weight of
economy. 50 percent)

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 Openness (30 percent),  In 1997, a wave of financial crises swept over

 Economic variability (15 percent), East Asia, from Thailand tIndonesia tKorea
and beyond. The International Monetary Fund
 International reserves (5 percent). GDP of
created a series of bailouts (rescue packages)
a member country is measured through a
for the most-affected economies tenable them
blend of GDP—based on market exchange
tavoid default, tying the packages tcurrency,
rates (weight of 60 percent) and on PPP
banking, and financial system reforms.
exchange rates (40 percent).
 Global Economic Crisis (2008): IMF undertook
major initiatives tstrengthen surveillance trespond
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) is
ta more globalised and interconnected world.
the IMF’s unit of account and not a
These initiatives included revamping the legal
currency. framework for surveillance tcover spillovers
 The currency value of the SDR is determined (when economic policies in one country can
by summing the values in U.S. dollars, based affect others), deepening analysis of risks and
on market exchange rates, of a SDR basket of financial systems, stepping up assessments of
currencies. members’ external positions, and responding
 SDR basket of currencies includes the U.S. more promptly tconcerns of the members.
dollar, Euro, Japanese yen, pound sterling  International regulation by the IMF in the field
and the Chinese renminbi (included in 2016). of money has certainly contributed towards
 The SDR currency value is calculated daily expansion of international trade. India has,
(except on IMF holidays or whenever the tthat extent, benefited from these fruitful
IMF is closed for business) and the valuation results.
basket is reviewed and adjusted every five
years.
 Quotas are denominated (expressed) in INDIA AND IMF
SDRs.
 SDRs represent a claim tcurrency held by IMF  Post-partition period, India had serious balance
member countries for which they may be of payments deficits, particularly with the dollar
exchanged. and other hard currency countries. It was the IMF
 Members’ vo4ng power is related directly that came ther rescue.
ttheir quotas (the amount of money they  The Fund granted India loans tmeet the financial
contribute tthe institution). difficulties arising out of the Indo–Pak conflict of
The IMF allows each member country tchoose its 1965 and 1971.
own method of determining the exchange value
 Since 1970, the assistance that India, as other
of its money. The only requirements are that the
member nlonger base the value of its currency member countries of the IMF, can obtain from it
on gold (which has proved tbe toinflexible) and has been increased through the sewing up of the
inform other members about precisely how it is Special Drawing Rights (SDRs created in 1969).
determining the currency’s value. IMF and India.  India had tborrow from the Fund in the wake
of the steep rise in the prices of its imports,
food, fuel, and fertilisers.
RECORD OF IMF SO FAR
 In 1981, India was given a massive loan of
 Balancing capitalism with human welfare- about Rs. 5,000 crores tovercome foreign
Its design allowed the system tbalance the exchange crisis resulting from persistent deficit
rebuilding of international capitalism with the in balance of payments on current account.
maximisation of national economic sovereignty  India wanted large foreign capital for her
and human welfare, alsknown as embedded various river projects, land reclamation
liberalism. schemes and for the development of
 Supporting transition from communism communications. Since private foreign capital
tcapitalism- The IMF played a central role in was not forthcoming, the only practicable method
helping the countries of the former Soviet bloc of obtaining the necessary capital was tborrow
transition from central planning tmarket-driven from the International Bank for Reconstruction
economies. and Development (i.e. World Bank).

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 India has availed of the services of specialists it did sbecause the IMF responded, at heart,
of the IMF for the purpose of assessing the tthe ‘interests and ideology of the Western
state of the Indian economy. In this way India financial community’.
has had the benefit of independent scrutiny
advice.
FOLLOWING ATTEMPTS HAVE BEEN
 The foreign reserves started picking up with the MADE TO REFORM IMF ALTHOUGH
onset of the liberalisation policies.
LIMITED SUCCESS HAS BEEN
ACHIEVED
IMF ‘S CRITICISM
 Due tdiscontent with the IMF, BRICS countries
 West hegemony- IMF’s governance is an area established a new organisation called BRICS
of contention. For decades, Europe and the bank treduce the dominance of the IMF or
United States have guaranteed the helm of World Bank and tconsolidate their position in
the IMF ta European and that of the World the world as BRICS countries account for 1/5th of
Bank tan American. The situation leaves little WORLD GDP and 2/5th of world population.
hope for ascendant emerging economies that,  In 2006 the IMF changed its governance
despite modest changes in 2015, dnot have as tenhance the role of developing countries in
large an IMF voting share as the United States its decision-making processes, a trend that was
and Europe. taken further in 2008 in the wake of the global
 Conditionality -Conditions placed on loans are financial crisis
tointrusive and compromise the economic  2010 Quota Reforms approved by the Board
and political sovereignty of the receiving of Governors were implemented in 2016 with
countries. ‘Conditionality refers tmore forceful delay because of reluctance from US Congress
conditions, ones that turn the loan inta policy as it was affecting its share. Combined quotas
tool. These include fiscal and monetary policies, (or the capital that the countries contribute) of
including such issues as banking regulations, the IMF increased ta combined SDR 477 billion
government deficits, and pension policy. Many (about $659 billion) from about SDR 238.5 billion
of these changes are simply politically impossible (about $329 billion). It increased 6% quota
tachieve because they would cause tomuch share for developing countries and reduced the
domes*c opposition. same share of developed or over-represented
 Inconsiderate tlocal conditions- The IMF countries.
imposed the policies on countries without  More representative Executive Board: 2010
understanding the distinct characteristics of the reforms alsincluded an amendment tthe
countries that made those policies difficult tcarry Articles of Agreement establishing an all-
out, unnecessary, or even counter- productive. elected Executive Board, which facilitates a
move ta more representative Executive Board.
 Prioritising privatization- Policies were
imposed all at once, rather than in an appropriate  The 15th General Quota Review (in process)
sequence. The IMF demands that countries it provides an opportunity tassess the appropriate
lends tprivatise government services rapidly. size and composition of the Fund’s resources
It results in a blind faith in the free market and tcontinue the process of governance
that ignores the fact that the ground must be reforms.
prepared for privatization.
 The most controversial aspect of the loans that POSSIBLITY OF REFORMS
the IMF provided was that ‘conditionalities’
were attached tthem. This led ta ‘one size fits  It is almost impossible tmake any reform in the
all’ application of a neoliberal template based on current quota system as more than 85% total
the control of inflation ahead of other economic votes are required tmake it happen. The 85%
objectives. (Andrew Heywood) votes does not cover 85% countries but countries
 IMF-led structural adjustment deepened, rather which have 85% of voting power and only the
than reduced, economic crises in Asia, Russia USA has a voting share of around 17% which
and elsewhere, and, according tJoseph Stiglitz, makes it impossible treform quota without
consent of developed countries.

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 IMF Quota: a member can borrow up t200 that the IMF Quota’s formula is designed in
percent of its quota annually and 600 percent such a way that the USA itself has a 17.7%
cumulatively. However, access may be higher in quota which is higher than the cumulative of
exceptional circumstances. IMF quota simply several countries. The G7 group contains more
means more voting rights and borrowing than 40% quota whereas countries like India &
permissions under IMF. But it is unfortunate Russia have only 2.5% quota in the IMF.

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Chapter - 8.3

World Bank Group

With 189 member countries, the World Bank Group All of these efforts support the Bank Group’s twin
is a unique global partnership: five institutions goals of ending extreme poverty by 2030 and
working for sustainable solutions that reduce boosting shared prosperity of the poorest 40% of the
poverty and build shared prosperity in developing population in all countries.
countries. The Bank Group works with country
governments, the private sector, civil society HISTORY
organisations, regional development banks, think
tanks, and other international institutions on issues The Bretton Woods Conference, officially known
ranging from climate change, conflict, and food as the United Nations Monetary and Financial
security teducation, agriculture, finance, and trade. Conference, was a gathering of delegates from
nations that met from July 1 t22, 1944 in Bretton
A Group of Institutions Woods, New Hampshire (USA), tagree upon a series
of new rules for international financial and monetary
Together, the International Bank for Reconstruction
order after the conclusion of World War II. The
and Development (IBRD) and International
twmajor accomplishments of the conference
Development Association (IDA) form the World were the creation of the International Bank for
Bank, which provides financing, policy advice, and Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and
technical assistance tgovernments of developing International Monetary Fund (IMF).
countries. While the World Bank Group consists of
 Founded in 1944, the International Bank for
five development institutions.
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) — soon
 International Bank for Reconstruction and called the World Bank — has expanded ta closely
Development (IBRD) provides loans, credits, and associated group of five development institutions.
grants.  Originally, its loans helped trebuild countries
 International Development Association (IDA) devastated by World War II. The focus shined
provides low- or no-interest loans tlow- income from reconstruction tdevelopment, with a
countries. heavy emphasis on infrastructure such as dams,
electrical grids, irrigation systems, and roads.
 The International Finance Corporation (IFC)
provides investment, advice, and asset  With the founding of the International Finance
management tcompanies and governments. Corporation (IFC) in 1956, the institution became
able tlend tprivate companies and financial
 The Multilateral Guarantee Agency (MIGA) institutions in developing countries.
insures lenders and investors against political
 Founding of the International Development
risk such as war.
Association (IDA) in 1960 put greater emphasis
 The International Centre for the Settlement on the poorest countries, part of a steady trend
of Investment Disputes (ICSID) investment- toward the eradication of poverty becoming the
disputes between investors and countries. Bank Group’s primary goal.

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 International Centre for Settlement of Investment  IBRD has maintained a triple-A rating since
Disputes (ICSID) founded in 1966 settlement 1959. This high credit rating allows it tborrow at
investment disputes between investors and low cost and offer middle-income developing
countries. countries access tcapital on favourable terms
 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency — helping ensure that development projects
(MIGA) founded in 1988 insures lenders and gforward in a more sustainable manner.
investors against political risk such as war  IBRD earns income every year from the return
International Bank for Reconstruction and on its equity and from the small margin it makes
Development (IBRD) sense. This pays for World Bank operating
 Following the recovery from World War II, expenses, goes intreserves tstrengthen the
the International Bank of Reconstruction and balance sheet, and provides an annual transfer
Development broadened its mandate tincrease of funds tIDA, the fund for the poorest countries
global economic growth and eliminate poverty.
 The Bank only finances sovereign governments
INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION
directly or projects backed by sovereign
governments.
 IFC is the largest global development institution
 Today, the IBRD focuses its services on middle-
focused exclusively on the private sector in
income countries or countries where the per
developing countries. The Bank Group has set
capita income ranges from $1,026 t$12,475 per
twgoals for the world tachieve by 2030: end
year. These countries, like Indonesia, India, and
extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity
Thailand, are home tfast-growing economies
that attract a lot of foreign investment and large in every country.
infrastructure building projects.  It is a private-sector arm of the World Bank Group,
 At the same time, middle-income countries are tadvance economic development by investing in
home t70% of the world’s poor people, as the for-profit and commercial projects for poverty
benefits of this economic growth are unevenly reduction and promoting development.
distributed across their populations.  IFC is alsa leading mobilizer of third-party
resources for projects.
Governance of IBRD:
IBRD Boards of Governors: The Boards of Governors
Governance of IFC
consist of one Governor and one Alternate Governor IFC Boards of Governors: The Boards of Governors
appointed by each member country. The office is
consist of one Governor and one Alternate
usually held by the country’s minister of finance,
Governor appointed by each member country.
governor of its central bank. The Board of Governors
The office is usually held by the country’s minister
delegates most of its authority over daily maiers
of finance, governor of its central bank. The Board of
such as lending and operations tthe
Governors delegates most of its authority daily tthe
Board of Directors Board of Directors.
 IFC Board of Directors: The Board of Directors
IBRD Board of Directors: The Board of Directors
consists of executive directors and is chaired
consists of currently 25 executive directors and is
by the President of the World Bank Group.
chaired by the President of the World Bank Group.
Executive Directors are appointed or elected by
Executive Directors are appointed or elected by
the Governors. Executive Directors select the World the Governors. Voting power on issues brought
Bank President, whis the Chairman of the Board of before them is weighted according tthe share
Directors. capital each director represents. The directors
meet regularly treview and decide on investments
 IBRD raises most of its funds in the world’s
and provide overall strategic guidance tIFC
financial markets. This has allowed it tprovide
management.
more than $500 billion in loans talleviate poverty
around the world since 1946, with its shareholder  IFC raises virtually all funds for lending
governments paying in about $14 billion in activities through the issuance of debt
capital. obligations in international capital markets.

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 Since first being rated in 1989, IFC has been rated better living conditions. IDA’s work covers
triple-A every year by Standard and Poor’s and primary education, basic health services, clean
Moody’s. Our high credit rating is essential for water and sanitation, agriculture, business
maintaining our ability taccess markets globally climate improvements, infrastructure reforms.
and tmaintain our low cost of funding.
Governance of IDA:
 IFC makes loans tbusinesses and private
projects generally with maturities of  IDA Boards of Governors: The Boards of
seven ttwelve years. It determines a suitable Governors consist of one Governor and one
repayment schedule and grace period for each Alternate Governor appointed by each member
loan individually tmeet borrowers’ currency and country. The office is usually held by the country’s
cash flow requirements. It may provide longer- minister of finance, governor of its central bank.
term loans or extend grace periods if a project is  IDA Board of Directors: The Board of Directors
deemed twarrant it. consists of executive directors and is chaired
 It does not have a policy of uniform interest by the President of the World Bank Group.
rates for its investments. The interest rate is tbe Executive Directors are appointed or elected by
negotiated in each case in the light of all relevant the Governors.
factors, including the risks involved and any right  IDA lends money on concessional terms. This
tpar*cipa*on in profits, etc. means that IDA credits have a zeror very low-
 Through its Global Trade Finance Program, interest charge and repayments are stretched
the IFC guarantees trade payment obligations over 30 t38 years, including a 5- t10- year grace
of more than 200 approved banks in over period. IDA alsprovides grants tcountries at risk
80 countries tmitigate risk for international of debt distress
transactions. The Global Trade Finance Program  Tborrow from the IDA’s concessional lending
provides guarantees tcover payment risks for programs, a country’s gross national income
emerging market banks regarding promissory (GNI) per capita must not exceed $ 1,145 (the
notes, bills of exchange, letters of credit, bid and fiscal year 2019)
performance bonds, supplier credit for capital
 IDA alsprovides significant levels of debt relief
goods imports, and advance payments
through the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
 IFC attempts tguide businesses toward more (HIPC) Initiative and the Multilateral Debt Relief
sustainable practices particularly with regards Initiative (MDRI).
thaving good governance, supporting women
in business, and proactively combating climate
change.
INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR
SETTLEMENT OF INVESTMENT
DISPUTES (ICSID)
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ASSOCIATION (IDA)
 ICSID was established in 1966 by the Convention
on the Settlement of Investment Disputes
 IDA is the part of the World Bank that helps the between States and Nationals of Other States
world’s poorest countries. Overseen by 173 (the ICSID Convention). The ICSID Convention
shareholder nations, IDA aims treduce poverty is a multilateral treaty formulated by the
by providing loans (called “credits”) and grants Executive Directors of the World Bank
for programs that boost economic growth, tfurther the Bank’s objective of promoting
reduce inequality, and improve people’s living international investment.
conditions.
 States have agreed on ICSID as a forum for
 IDA is one of the largest sources of assistance investor-State dispute settlement in most
for the world’s 75 poorest countries, 39 of international investment treaties and in numerous
which are in Africa, and is the single largest investment laws and contracts.
source of donor funds for basic social services in  Bilateral investment treaties (BITs) are
these countries. proliferating, many such treaties contain text that
 IDA supports a range of development activities refers present and future investment disputes tthe
that pave the way toward equality, economic ICSID. ICSID provides for settlement of disputes
growth, job creation, higher incomes, and by conciliation, arbitration or fact-finding.

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Governance of ICSID investment in developing countries by

providing guarantees (political risk insurance
 Administrative Council: and credit enhancement) tinvestors and lenders.
 One representative of each Member State,  MIGA was created tcomplement public and
and one vote per State. private sources of investment insurance against
 Adopts ICSID arbitration, conciliation, and non-commercial risks (currency inconvertibility
fact-finding rules. and transfer restriction; government expropriation;
war, terrorism, and civil disturbance; breaches
 Adopts an annual budget and approves
of contract; and the non-honouring of financial
annual reports.
obligations) in developing countries.
 Elects Secretary-General and Deputy
 The MIGA convention that defined its core
Secretaries-General. Each State designates
mission was submitted tthe Board of Governors
persons ta list of arbitrators and conciliators. of the IBRD in 1985 and went intestablishing
 Secretariat: MIGA as the newest member of the World Bank
 Led by Secretary-General. Provides Group in 1988.
technical and administrative support  The Convention can be amended by the Council
tproceedings. of Governors of MIGA.
 Offers training and technical assistance  The agency opened for business as a legally
tgovernments and the public. separate and financially independent entity.
 Contributes tthe development of Membership was open tall IBRD members.
investment law through publishing and
outreach. CRITICISM OF WORLD BANK
 ICSID Panel of Arbitrators and Panel of
Conciliators: Some critics have pointed out that the World Bank
 Each ICSID Member State may designate really caters tthe agenda of World Capitalism in the
four persons teach Panel. garb of its “Structural Adjustment Programme”
(SAP) and continues tbe dominated by rich
 Conciliation Commission or Arbitral
countries. SAP is a set of “free market” economic
Tribunal: an Arbitral tribunal or Conciliation
policy reforms imposed on developing countries by
Commission is constituted by the Secretary-
the World Bank as a condition for receipt of loans.
General.
 It is argued SAP policies have increased the gap
 In most instances, the tribunals consist of
between rich and poor in both local and global
three arbitrators: one appointed by the
terms.
investor, another appointed by the State,
and the third, presiding arbitrator appointed  The emerging new economic powers,
by agreement of both parties particularly India and China, and some other
Asian and Latin American countries of the world
Each case is considered by an independent should be given their due place and role.
Conciliation Commission or Arbitral Tribunal,
after hearing evidence and legal arguments  The leadership succession debate should be
from the parties. A dedicated ICSID case team used tcreate space for reflection on the purpose
is assigned teach case and provides expert of the multilateral body, the substantive role it
assistance throughout the process. should play in the future, the need tstrengthen
inclusive multilateralism, and the actions needed
An ICSID award according tArticle 53 of the tbolster the position of emerging economies and
ICSID Convention is final and binding and developing countries.
immune from appeal or annulment, other than
as provided in the ICSID Convention.  Failure of the World Bank tadapt tthe changing
world order may see rising economies going
their own way. e.g., establishment of the Asia
MULTIATERAL INVESTMENT GAURANTEE Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) by China.
AGENCY (MIGA)  Such a development would signify the emergence
of multipolarity without multilateralism and
 MIGA is a member of the World Bank Group, create a climate of conflicting interests and
and its mandate is tpromote cross-border values among a diverse group of countries.

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 An emphasis on deregulation and privatization, need for reform. This has involved a greater
and a stress on export-led growth rather than awareness of the environmental costs of
protectionism, often led tan increase, not a industrialization, urbanization and major
reduction, in poverty in Latin America, Asia and infrastructure projects, helping tconvert the Bank
sub-Saharan Africa.
tthe idea of sustainable development .
 In emphasizing the need tpromote growth by
 A growing emphasis on good governance and
expanding trade, particularly through the export
of cash crops, the World Bank helped tmaintain anti-corruption policies alsreflects a repudiation
dependency and poverty. (Andrew Heywood) of the dogma of minimal government, based
on the recognition that the state plays an
 Development disparities thus became entrenched,
and during the 1990s even widened, through essential role not only in ensuring civil order and
a structural imbalance in trade that allowed containing criminal violence but alsin providing
developed countries tgrow rich by selling high- at least basic social protections.
price, capital-intensive goods, while developing  World Bank poverty reduction programmes
countries sold low-price, labor-intensive goods, have, since 2002, been increasingly formulated
often in highly volatile markets.
through negotiations with recipient countries,
 In this way, the World Bank, together with the accepting the need for higher levels of local
IMF, presided over a substantial transfer of wealth control and accountability and for projects tbe
from peripheral areas of the world economy tits
better tailored tlocal needs.
industrialised core (Thurow 1996).
 In light of the 2007–09 global crisis, led the
 Deep reforms of the World Bank are necessary
as part of rethinking the current world order and Bank in 2010 tboost its capital by $86 billion,
giving rising powers and developing countries a the first increase in 20 years, and tallocate an
meaningful voice in this institution. additional seat on its Board of Directors tsub-
Saharan Africa.
REFORMS IN WORLD BANK
 The voting power of developing countries
 Since the early 1990s it has responded tcriticism was alsincreased t47 per cent, with the aim of
from both without and within and accepted the increasing it t50 per cent over time.

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Chapter - 8.4

WTO

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is the only global economic growth and help countries
international organisation dealing with the rules of develop. In that sense, commerce and
trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO development are good for each other. In
agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk addition, the WTO agreements are full of
of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their provisions that consider the interests of
parliaments. The WTO has 164 members (including developing countries.
the European Union) and 23 observer governments
 The WTO can give the weak a stronger
(like Iran, Iraq, Bhutan, Libya etc).
voice: Small countries would be weaker
without the WTO. Differences in bargaining
GOALS OF WTO power are narrowed by agreed rules,
consensus decision-making and coalition
 The WTO’s global system lower trade barriers building.
through negotiation and operates under the  Coalitions give developing countries
principle of non-discrimination. a stronger voice in negotiations. The
 The result is reduced costs of production resulting agreements mean that all countries,
(because imports used in production are including the most powerful, have tplay by
cheaper), reduced prices of finished goods and the rules. The rule of law replaces might-
services, more choice and ultimately a lower cost makes-right.
of living.  The WTO can support the environment and
 The WTO’s system deals with these in twways. health:
 One is by talking countries negotiate rules  The trade is nothing more than a means
that are acceptable tall. tan end. The WTO agreements try tmake
 The other is by seiling disputes about trade support the things we really want,
whether countries are playing by those including a clean and safe environment,
agreed rules. and tprevent governments using these
 The WTO can stimulate economic growth and objectives as an excuse for introducing
employment. The WTO can cut the cost of protectionist measures.
doing business internationally. The WTO can  The WTO can contribute tpeace and stability:
encourage good governance. Transparency — When the world economy is in turmoil, the
shared information and knowledge — levels the multilateral trading system can contribute
playing field. tstability.
 Rules reduce arbitrariness and opportunities for  Trade rules stabilise the world economy by
corruption. discouraging sharp backward steps in policy
 The WTO can help countries develop: and by making policy more predictable. They
Underlying the WTO trading system is deter protectionism and increase certainty.
the fact. That more open trade can boost They are confidence-builders.

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ESTABLISHMENT OF WTO  The GATT provided for consultations and dispute

resolution, allowing a GATT Party tinvoke GATT
dispute settlement articles if it believes that
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
another Party’s measure caused it trade injury.
traces its origins tthe 1944 Bretton Woods Conference
delegates alsrecommended the establishment of  The GATT did not set out a dispute procedure
a complementary institution tbe known as the with great specificity resulting in lack of
International Trade Organisation (ITO), which they deadlines, laxity in the establishment of a dispute
envisioned as the third leg of the system. panel and the adoption of a panel report by the
GATT Parties. It made the GATT as a weak Dispute
 In Havana in 1948, the UN Conference on Trade
Settlement mechanism. The WTO and the United
and Employment concluded a charter for the
Na4ons (UN)
ITO, known as the Havana Charter, which
would have created extensive rules governing  Although the WTO is not a UN specialized
trade, investment, services, and business and agency, it has maintained strong relations
employment practices. with the UN and its agencies since its
establishment.
 The Havana Charter never entered intforce,
primarily because the U.S. The Senate failed  The WTO-UN relations are governed by the
tratify it. As a result, the ITO was still born. “Arrangements for Effective Cooperation
Meanwhile, an agreement as the GATT signed by with other Intergovernmental Organisations
23 countries in Geneva in 1947 came intforce on -Relations between the WTO and the United
Jan 1, 1948 with the following purposes: tphase Nations” signed on 15 November 1995.
out the use of import quotas and treduce tariffs  The WTO Director General participates in the
on merchandise trade, Chief Executive Board which is the organ of
 The GATT became the only multilateral instrument coordination within the UN system. Governance
(not an institution) governing international trade Ministerial Conference
from 1948 until the WTO was established in  The topmost decision-making body of the
1995. WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which
 The Uruguay Round, conducted from usually meets every twyears.
1987 t1994, culminated in the Marrakesh  It brings together all members of the WTO, all of
Agreement, which established the World which are countries or customs unions.
Trade Organisation (WTO).  The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on
 The WTO incorporates the principles of the all matters under any of the multilateral trade
GATT and provides a more enduring institutional agreements.
framework for implementing and extending
them. GENERAL COUNCIL
 The GATT 1947 was terminated in 1996 and
WTO integrated its provisions intGATT 1994  The General Council is the WTO’s highest-level
 The GATT 1994 is an international treaty binding decision-making body located in Geneva,
upon all WTO Members. It is only concerned with meeting regularly tcarry out the functions of the
trade in goods. WTO.
 It has representatives (usually ambassadors
WHY WTO REPLACED THE GATT ? or equivalent) from all member governments
and has the authority tact on behalf of the
ministerial conference which only meets
 The GATT was only a set of rules and multilateral
about every twyears.
agreements and lacked institutional structure
 The General Council alsmeets, under different
 The GATT 1947 was terminated, and WTO
rules, as
preserved its provisions in the form of GATT 1994
and continues tgovern trade in goods.  The General Council,

 The trade in services and intellectual property  The Trade Policy Review Body,
rights were not covered by regular GATT rules.  And the Dispute Settlement Body (DSU)

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 Three councils, each handling a different broad  It is a standing body of seven persons that hears
area of trade, report tthe General Council: appeals from reports issued by panels in disputes
 The Council for Trade in Goods (Goods brought by WTO Members.
Council)  The Appellate Body can uphold, modify, or
 The Council for Trade in Services (Services reverse the legal findings and conclusions
of a panel, and Appellate Body Reports, once
Council)
adopted by the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB),
 The Council for Trade-Related Aspects of must be accepted by the parties tthe dispute.
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Council)
 The Appellate Body has its seat in Geneva,
 As their names indicate, the three are Switzerland.
responsible for the workings of the WTO
agreements dealing with their respective The Council for Trade in Goods (Goods
areas of trade. Again, they consist of all Council)
WTO members. The Trade Policy Review
Body (TPRB)  The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
 The WTO General Council meets as the TPRB (GATT) covers international trade in goods.
tundertake trade policy reviews of Members The workings of the GATT agreement are
under the TPRM and tconsider the Director- the responsibility of the Council for Trade
in Goods (Goods Council) which is made
General’s regular reports on trade policy
up of representatives from all WTO member
development.
countries.
 The TPRB is thus open tall WTO Members.
 The Goods Council has the following committees
Dispute Settlement Body (DSU)
dealing with specific subjects:
 The General Council convenes as the Dispute
 Agriculture,
Settlement Body (DSB) tdeal with disputes
between WTO members.  Market access,
 Such disputes may arise with respect tany  Sanitary and Phytosanitary (measures for
agreement contained in the Final Act of the the control of plant diseases especially in
Uruguay Round that is subject tthe Understanding agricultural crops) Measures,
on Rules and Procedures Governing the  Technical barriers ttrade,
Settlement of Disputes (DSU).
 Subsidies and countervailing measures,
The DSB has authority to:  Rule of origin,
 Anti dumping measures,
 Establish dispute settlement panels,
 Importing licensing,
 Refer matters tarbitration,
 Trade related Investment Measures,
 Adopt panel, Appellate Body, and arbitration
reports,  Safeguards,

 Maintain surveillance over the implementation  Trade facilitation,

of recommendations and rulings contained in  Customs valuation.
such reports,  These committees consist of all member
 And authorize suspension of concessions countries.
in the event of non-compliance with those
recommendations and rulings. The Council for Trade in Services (Services
Council)
Appellate Body
 It operates under the guidance of the General
 The Appellate Body was established in 1995 Council and is responsible for facilitating
under Article 17 of the Understanding on Rules the operation of the General Agreement on
and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Trade in Services (GATS) and for furthering its
Disputes (DSU). objectives.
 The DSB shall appoint persons tserve on the  It is open tall WTO members and can create
Appellate Body for a four-year term. subsidiary bodies as required.

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 Presently, the Council oversees the work of  trade and investment

four such subsidiary bodies:  trade facilitation
 the Committee on Trade in Financial  transparency in government procurement
Services:
 trade and competition Geneva, Switzerland
 It carries out discussions on matters
18-20 May 1998 (MC2)
relating ttrade in financial services and
formulate proposals or recommendations  The Ministerial Declaration included following
for consideration by the Council. work programmes:
 the Committee on Specific Commitments,  the issues, including those brought forward
 the Working Party on Domestic by Members, relating timplementation of
Regulation, existing agreements and decisions.

 and the Working Party on GATS Rules  the future work already provided for under
other existing agreements and decisions
The Council for Trade-Related Aspects taken at Marrakesh.
of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS  possible future work on the basis of the
Council) work programme initiated at Singapore.
 priority areas for the next round of
 It monitors implementation of the Agreement
comprehensive negotiations on agriculture
on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (the TRIPS Agreement) include Market access, Export subsidies etc.
Seattle, USA November 30 – December 3,
 It carries out the specific responsibilities assigned 1999 (MC3)
and provides a forum in which WTO Members
can consult on intellectual property matters, There were two major issues
tthe Council in the TRIPS Agreement.
 The TRIPS Agreement: sets the minimum  First, whether tstart a new comprehensive round
standards of protection for copyrights and of negotiations such as the Uruguay Round or
related rights, trademarks, geographical confine negotiations tthe so-called “built in
indications (GIs), i n d u s t r i a l designs, patents, agenda” of agriculture and services mandated
integrated circuit layout designs, and undisclosed at the last Ministerial.
information.  Secondly, what should the negotiations
 Establishes minimum standards for the encompass, more specifically what should be
enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) included in the agenda of the meeting.
through civil actions for infringement, actions
 The meeting was unable tresolve both issues and
at the border, and at least in regard tcopyright
ended in stalemate.
piracy and trademark counterfeiting, in criminal
actions.  The deliberations were suspended without
agreement on a new round of negotiations
and without agreement on a ministerial
WTO MINISTERIAL CONFERENCES declaration.

The first Ministerial Conference (i.e. MC1) was held Doha, Qatar 9-13 November 2001 (MC4)
in Singapore in 1996 and the last one (MC11) was
organized in Geneva in 2022. All these MCs have  Agriculture: The special and differential
evolved the prevailing current global trading system. treatment for developing countries shall be an
Singapore, 9-13 December 1996 (MC1) integral part of all elements of the negotiations
 Trade, foreign, finance and agriculture Ministers tenable developing countries teffectively take
from more than 120 World Trade Organisation account of their development needs, including
Member governments and from those in the food security and rural development.
process of acceding tthe WTO participated.  Services: The negotiations on trade in services
 The following four issues termed as the shall be conducted with a view tpromoting the
Singapore issues were first brought up on economic growth of all trading partners and the
which the multilateral body could initiate development of developing and least-developed
negotiations: countries.

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 It recognizes the work already undertaken  It makes different coefficients for developed
in the negotiations, initiated in January 2000 and developing countries. Here, tariff-cuts
under Ar4cle XIX of the General Agreement on are supposed tbe undertaken such that it
Trade in Services (GATS), and the large number cuts higher tariffs more steeply than it cuts
of proposals submitted by members on a wide lower tariffs.
range of sectors and several horizontal issues, as
well as on movement of natural persons. This meeting could have been the final step of the
Doha trade talks launched in 2001.
 Market access for non-agricultural products:
The negotiations shall take fully intaccount
Geneva, Switzerland 30 November - 2
the special needs and interests of developing
and least-developed country participants, December 2009 (MC7).
including through less than full reciprocity in
reduction commitments, in accordance with the  The theme of the Conference is “The WTO, the
relevant provisions of Article XXVIII bis of GATT Multilateral Trading System and the Current
1994. Global Economic Environment”.
 Transparency in government procurement:  Unlike previous Conferences, this meeting was
Recognizing the case for a multilateral agreement not a Doha Round negotiating session, but
on transparency in government procurement rather a chance for Ministers treflect on all
and the need for enhanced technical assistance elements of WTO’s work, exchange ideas and
and capacity building in this area, it agreed that extend guidance on the best way forward in the
negotiations would take place on the basis of a years tcome.
decision tbe taken, by explicit consensus.
 Cancún, Mexic10-14 September 2003 (MC5): Geneva, Switzerland 15-17 December
The main task was ttake stock of progress in 2011 (MC8)
negotiations and other work under the Doha
Development Agenda.  The Conference approved the accessions of the
 Hong Kong, 13-18 December 2005 (MC6): Russian Federation, Samoa and Montenegro.
The WTO member economies aimed treach  It adopted a number of decisions on intellectual
a preliminary agreement on liberalisation property, electronic commerce, small economies,
of farm trade by reducing subsidies, and least developed countries’ accession, a services
address other issues at the meeting, aiming
waiver for least developed countries, and trade
for a successful conclusion of the Doha Round
policy reviews.
in 2006. After an intense talk, WTO Members
have produced an interim package for the Doha  It reaffirmed the integrality of special and
Round negotiation: differential treatment provisions tthe WTO
 The deadlines for the elimination of agreements and their determination tfulfil
agricultural export subsidies (2013) the Doha mandate treview them with a view
and coin export subsidies (2006), and tstrengthening them and making them more
alsmandates that duty and quota-free access precise, effective and operational. Bali, Indonesia
for at least 97% of products originating 3-6 December 2013 (MC9)
from the least developed countries (LDCs)
 The Conference adopted the “Bali Package”, a
be provided by 2008.
series of decisions aimed at:
 Regarding non-agricultural market
access (NAMA), Members adopted the  streamlining trade,
“Swiss formula” mandating greater cuts in  allowing developing countries more op4ons
higher tariffs, and decided that modalities for providing food security, boosting least-
for tariff reduction to be established by developed countries’ trade, and helping
April 30, 2006. development more generally.
 The Swiss Formula (by the Swiss Delegation
 The Bali Package is a selection of issues from
tthe WTO) is a suggested method for
the broader Doha Round negotiations.
reducing tariff on non-agricultural goods
(NAMA) by both developed and developing  The Conference alsapproved accession of
countries. Yemen as a new member of the WTO.

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Nairobi, Kenya 15-19 December 2015 illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing
(MC10) for the next four years, tbetter protect global
fish stocks. Since 2001, member states have
 It culminated in the adoption of the “Nairobi been negotiating the banning of subsidies
Package” , a series of decisions on agriculture, that promote overfishing.
cotton and issues related tleast-developed
 The current agreement, which establishes
countries (LDCs).
new trading rules, is the second multilateral
 Agriculture: agreement in WTO’s history.
 Special Safeguard Mechanism for  India and other developing countries
Developing Country Members. were able twin some concessions in this
 Public Stockholding for Food Security agreement. successfully lobbied tremove
Purposes. a section of the proposal that would
 Export Competition. threaten some subsidies which would assist
small-scale artisanal fishing. Artisanal and
 Cotton: Stressing the vital importance of
cotton ta number of developing economies and traditional farmers would not face any
particularly the least-developed amongst them, restrictions under this agreement.
 Developed country Members, and developing  Global Food Security
country Members declaring themselves in a
position  Members agreed ta binding decision
 Tdso, shall grant preferential trade arrangements texempt food purchased by the UN’s World
in favour of LDCs, as from 1 January 2016, duty- Food Programme (WFP) for humanitarian
free and quota-free market access for cotton purposes, from any export restrictions.
produced and exported by LDCs.
 LDC issues:  E-commerce transactions
 Preferential Rules of Origin for Least  During the MC12 session India has
Developed Countries; • asked the WTO treview the extension
 Implementation of Preferential Treatment in of the moratorium on custom duties on
Favour of Services and Service Suppliers of e-commerce transactions, which include
Least Developed Countries. digitally traded goods and services.
 and Increasing LDC Participation in Services  WTO members had first agreed tnot impose
Trade. custom duties on electronic transmissions
 The decision in Nairobi builds on the 2013 Bali in 1998, when the internet was still relatively
Ministerial Decision on preferential rules of new. The moratorium has been periodically
origin for LDCs. extended since then.
 The “Nairobi Package” pays fizzing tribute  All members now have agreed tcontinue
tthe Conference host, Kenya, by delivering the long-standing moratorium on custom
commitments that will benefit in particular the duties on e-commerce transmissions until
organization’s poorest members. Buenos Aires, the subsequent Ministerial Conference
Argentina 10-13 December 2017 (MC11) or until March 31, 2024, depending on
 The Conference ended with a number of whichever comes first.
ministerial decisions, including on fisheries
subsidies and e-commerce duties, and a  Covid-19 vaccine production
commitment tcon4nue negotiations in all areas.
 WTO members agreed ttemporarily waive
intellectual property patents on Covid-19
(MC12)- GENEVA 2022 vaccines without the consent of the patent
holder for 5 years, sthat they can more easily
Some of the key points manufacture them domestically.

 Curtailing harmful fishing subsidies  The waiver agreed by the WTO was
criticized by advocacy groups for being
 The WTO passed a multilateral agreement narrow in scope, as it did not cover
that would curb ‘harmful’ subsidies on all medical tools like diagnostics and

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treatments. “This agreement fails overall  multilateral negotiations among all WTO
toffer an effective and meaningful solution members testablish any necessary rules and
thelp increase people’s access tneeded disciplines
medical tools during the pandemic as it  Trade facilitation: Tease customs procedures
does not adequately waive IP on all essential and tfacilitate the movement, release, and
COVID-19 medical tools and it does not clearance of goods. This is an important
apply tall countries,” said Christos Christou, addition tthe overall negotiation since it would
international president of Doctors Without cut bureaucracy and corruption in customs
Borders procedures and would speed up trade and make
it cheaper.

SPECIAL MENTION : THE DOHA ROUND  Rules: This covers antidumping, subsidies and
countervailing measures, fisheries subsidies,
and regional trade agreements. “Clarifying and
The Doha Round is the latest round of trade improving disciplines” under the Anti-Dumping
negotiations among the WTO membership. Its aim and Subsidies agreements; and t“clarify and
is tachieve major reform of the international trading improve WTO disciplines on fisheries subsidies,
system through the introduction of lower trade considering the importance of this sector
barriers and revised trade rules. tdeveloping countries.
 The Round is alsknown semi-officially as the  The environment: These are the first significant
Doha Development Agenda as a fundamental negotiations on trade and the environment in
objective is timprove the trading prospects of the GATT/ WTO. They have twkey components:
developing countries.  Freer trade in environmental goods –
 The Round was officially launched at the WTO’s Products that WTO members have proposed
Fourth Ministerial Conference (MC4) in Doha, include wind turbines, carbon capture and
Qatar, in November 2001. storage technologies, solar panels.
 Environmental agreements – Improving
 The Doha Ministerial Declaration provided the
collaboration with the secretariats of
mandate for the negotiations, including on
multilateral environmental agreements and
following subjects:
establishing more coherence between trade
 Agriculture: More market access, eliminating and environmental rules.
export subsidies, reducing distorting domestic  Geographical indications (GI): multilateral
support, sorting out a range of developing country register for wines and spirits. Geographical
issues, and dealing with non- trade concerns indications are placed names (in some countries
such as food security and rural development. alswords associated with a place) used tidentify
 Non-agricultural market access (NAMA): products that come from these places and
Treduce or as appropriate eliminate tariffs, have specific characteristics (for example,
including the reduction or elimination of high “Champagne”, “Tequila” or “Roquefort”). Under
the TRIPS Agreement, all geographical indications
tariffs, tariff peaks and tariff escalation (higher
have tbe protected at least tavoid misleading the
tariffs protecting processing, lower tariffs on
public and tprevent unfair competition (Article
raw materials) as well as non-tariff barriers,
22). This is the only intellectual property issue
in particular on products of export interest that is definitely part of the Doha negotiations.
tdeveloping countries. The objective is t“facilitate” the protection of
 Services: Timprove market access and wines and spirits in par4cipa4ng countries. The
tstrengthen the rules. Each government has talks began in 1997 and were built intthe Doha
the right tdecide which sectors it wants topen Round in 2001.
tforeign companies and twhat extent, including  Other intellectual property issues: Some
any restrictions on foreign ownership. members want negotiations on twother subjects
 Unlike in agriculture and NAMA, the services and tlink these tthe register for wines and
spirits. Other members disagree. Following
negotiations are not based on A “modalities”
these twtopics are discussed: GI “extension”-
text. They are being conducted essentially on
Extending the higher level of protection for
twtracks:
geographical indications beyond wines and
 bilateral and/or plurilateral (involving only spirits. Biopiracy, benefit sharing and traditional
some WTO members) negotiations knowledge

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 Dispute settlement:  President Trump made clear his preference for

 Timprove and clarify the Dispute Settlement bilateral trade when he withdrew from the 12-
Understanding, the WTO agreement dealing country Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) shortly
with legal disputes. afer taking office.

 These negotiations take place in special  In the 2017 Ministerial Conference Buenos
sessions of the Dispute Settlement Body Aires(MC11), USA reflected scepticism toward
(DSB). multiculturalism when it blocked agreement
on a ministerial declaration that would have
 With the Doha Round seemingly “reaffirmed the centrality of the multilateral
directionless, the global Great Recession trading system and the development dimension
that began in the second half of 2008 led of the organization’s work.”
tfears that the world may face a wave of
 Meanwhile, India, which has repeatedly
protectionism that the WTO would be
threatened tblock WTO agreements (including
powerless tprevent. Negotiations continued
the Trade Facilitation Agreement) unless WTO
after the 2008 global financial crisis with low
members conceded tits demands on public
expectations.
stockholding for food security. India alsfacilitates.
 The 2013 Ministerial Conference (MC9) in Bali, In the end, it was a relief tmany that the United
Indonesia, delivered a significant achievement, States did not actively seek tdismantle the WTO—
the first multilateral agreement since the as some had feared. But giving up its traditional
creation of the WTO. This was the Trade leadership role could lead ta similar result, only
Facilitation Agreement (TFA), which aims tspeed more slowly.
up customs procedures and make trade easier,
faster, and cheaper.
WTO CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORLD
 The TFA was only a small slice of the larger
Doha agenda, but the successful deal was a
The WTO is one of the three international organisations
cause for optimism.
(the other tware the International Monetary Fund
 The talks alsreached an interim agreement (IMF) and the World Bank Group) which by and large
(a peace clause) on “public stockholding” formulate and co- ordinate world economic policy. It
continuing exceptions that allow developing is playing a crucial role in:
countries tstockpile agricultural products
 The international trade,
tprotect against food shortages.
 Global economics,
 The 2015 Ministerial Conference Nairobi,
Kenya (MC10) focused on a selected number  And the political and legal issues arising in the
of issues that are part of the Doha Development international business because of globalisation.
Agenda (DDA). Agreement was reached on It has emerged as the world’s most powerful
following DDA issues: institution for reducing trade related barriers between
 Stopping the use of subsidies and other the countries and opening new markets. It cooperates
schemes unfairly supporting agricultural with the IMF and World Bank in terms of cohesiveness
exports in making global economic policies.
 Ensuring that food aid for developing  Through resolving trade related disputes,
countries is given in a way which does not the WTO has got the potential tmaintain world
distort local markets Seeking tsimplify the peace and bilateral relations between its member
conditions that exporters from the poorest countries through following negotiations,
countries have tmeet, sthat their products consultations, and mediations.
benefit from trade agreements (so-called  Global trade rules: Decisions in the WTO are
rules of origin). Giving more opportunities typically taken by consensus among all members,
for businesses from the poorest countries and they are ratified by members’ parliaments.
tprovide services in the WTO’s 164 member This leads ta more prosperous, peaceful, and
countries accountable economic world.
 However, for many observers, Nairobi signalled  Trade negotiations: The GATT and the WTO have
the end of the Doha talks, a sentiment that helped tcreate a strong and prosperous trading
intensified after the 2016 election of Trump. system contributing tunprecedented growth.

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 The system was developed through a series of WTO AND INDIA

trade negotiations, or rounds, held under the
GATT. The 1986-94 round – the Uruguay Round
India is a founder member of the General
–led tthe WTO’s creation.
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947 and
 In 1997, an agreement was reached on its successor, the WTO.
telecommunications services, with 69  India’s participation in an increasingly rule based
governments agreeing twide-ranging system in the governance of international trade
liberalisation measures that went beyond those is tensure more stability and predictability,
agreed in the Uruguay Round. which ultimately would lead tmore trade and
 Alsin 1997, 40 governments successfully prosperity.
concluded negotiations for tariff-free trade  Services exports account for 40% of India’s
in information technology products, and 70 total exports of goods and services. The
members concluded a financial services deal contribution services tIndia’s GDP is more
covering more than 95% of trade in banking, than 55%. The sector (domestic and exports)
insurance, securities and financial information. provides employment taround 142 million
 In 2000, new talks started on agriculture and people, comprising 28% of the workforce of the
services. These were incorporated inta broader country.
work programme, the Doha Development  India’s exports are mainly in the IT and IT
Agenda, launched at the fourth WTO Ministerial enabled sectors, Travel and Transport, and
Conference (MC4) in Doha, Qatar, in November Financial sectors.
2001.
 The main destinations are the US (33%), the
 At the 9th Ministerial Conference (MC9) in Bali in EU (15%) and other developed countries.
2013, WTO members struck the Agreement on
 India has an obvious interest in the
Trade Facilitation, which aims treduce border
liberalisation of services trade and wants
delays by slashing red tape.
commercially meaningful access tbe provided by
 The expansion of the Information Technology the developed countries.
Agreement – concluded at the 10th Ministerial
 Since the Uruguay Round, India has autonomously
Conference (MC10) in Nairobi in 2015 – eliminated
liberalized its Services trade regime across the
tariffs on an additional 200 IT products valued at
board.
over US$ 1.3 trillion per year.
 Ensuring food and livelihood security is
 Most recently, an amendment tthe WTO’s
critical, particularly for a large agrarian
Intellectual Property Agreement entered
economy like India.
intforce in 2017, easing poor economies’ access
taffordable medicines. The same year saw the  India is persistently demanding for a permanent
Trade Facilitation Agreement enter intforce. solution on public stockholding subsidies at
WTO. At the 2013 Ministerial Conference (MC9)
WTO agreements: in Bali, an interim agreement (a peace clause)
was made on “public stockholding” continuing
exceptions that allow developing countries
 The WTO’s rules
tstockpile agricultural products tprotect against
 The agreements are the result of negotiations food shortages.
between the members. The current set is  India strongly favours extension of higher
largely the outcome of the 1986-94 Uruguay levels of protection tgeographical indications
Round negotiations, which included a major for products like Basmati rice, Darjeeling tea,
revision of the original General Agreement and Alphonsmangoes at par with that provided
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) twines and spirits under the Trade-related
 Goods: From 1947 t1994, the GATT was Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
the forum for negotiations lower tariffs and agreement.
other trade barriers; the text of the GATT  Developed countries have been putting pressure
spelt out important rules, particularly non- on inclusion of non-trade issues such as labour
discrimination. After 1994, WTO ratified the standards, environmental protection, human
new, comprehensive, integrated GATT as rights, rules on investment, competition policy in
GATT 1994. the WTO agreements.

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 India is against any inclusion of non-trade  The U.S. has consciously (or not) destroyed the
issues that are directed in the long run at Doha round of trade negotiations in formulating
enforcing protectionist measures (based on excessive demands that ncountry was prepared
non-trade issues, the developed countries like tmeet.
USA and European Union are trying tban the  The priority of the Obama administration
imports of some goods like textile, processed was not trevive a dying WTO negotiation, but
food etc.), particularly against developing tconcentrate on its newly created alternative,
countries. the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership), tcontain its
competitors: Europe and China.
WTO CONCERNS  For years now, the multilateral system for the
settlement of trade disputes has been under
In 2001, the WTO membership launched the “Doha intense scrutiny and constant criticism. The U.S.
Development Agenda” – a massive attempt has systematically blocked the appointment
tupdate trading rules. The participating countries of new Appellate Body members (“judges’’)
spent years trying and failing treach an agreement. and de factimpeded the work of the WTO
appeal mechanism.
 A central problem in negotiation was the
difficulty of being well over 150 countries treach  Chinese mercantilism (try tinfluence trade and
a consensus. business, especially by encouraging exports and
pushing limits on imports), the USA’s aggressive
 In the previous negotiating round (The Uruguay use of unilateral tariff measures, and the
Round, conducted from 1987 t1994), potentially inability of WTO members treach consensus
hold-out countries could be threatened with on expanding its disciplines timportant new
exclusion from the new WTO. That trick could sectors in the modern economy reinforce the
not be repeated once they were already in. critique of the WTO.
 The 2017 WTO Ministerial Conference (MC11)
Buenos Aires ended without any substantial CRISIS AT WTO
outcome as consensus failed the 164-member
body.
A democratic inclusive WTO however, started showing
 The USA blocked a permanent solution on signs of discontent. The issues came tsurface in the
government stockholding for food security very first Singapore Ministerial (1996). Singapore
purposes, resulting in India’s toughened stand issues spilled over tSeattle, Cancun and finally tDoha
on new issues including e- commerce and Ministerial. The recent trade war between the US and
investment facilitation. China where the US is increasing import tariffs is a
 Developed countries led by the US and the symptom of the larger rot.
European Union sought tfind a way out of the  WTO and its institutional flaws
deadlock at the WTO talks by forming large
 When the GATT was established, it was
pressure groups on e-commerce, investment
Western powers that had the main input,
facilitation and MSMEs within the WTO with
possessing what have been called ‘first
more than 70 members in each formulation.
mover advantages’, a term which refers tthe
 Though WTO is driven by consensus and even notion of the states which join first finding
a plurilateral agreement needs approval of all it easier tinfluence and shape negotiations.
members, the formation of these groups as an (Robert Keohane in Wilkinson. “The
attempt tsteer WTO away from its focus on Problematic of Trade and Development
multilateralism. beyond the Doha Round)
 Its fierce defense of ‘Trade Related Intellectual  Former colonies which joined were subject
Property’ rights (TRIPs)—patents, copyrights, ta process of ‘grandfathering’ in which
and trademarks—comes at the expense of health they were instructed what tdby their former
and human lives. colonial masters. (Rorden Wilkinson. “The
 WTO has protected pharmaceutical companies’ Problematic of Trade and Development
‘right tprofit’ against governments seeking beyond the Doha Round).
tprotect their people’s health by providing  There were very few trade-related benefits
lifesaving medicines in countries in areas like for the developing world in early years due
sub-Saharan Africa, where thousands die every tthe limited influence late-joining developing
day from HIV/AIDS. countries could exert on proceedings.

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 The WTO suffers from numerous negative  The Doha Conference, rather than being
institutional problems inherited from the about development, actually ‘enhanced the
GATT era that cause it tbe unable tfunction as asymmetry [of power] in the WTO’ by focusing
a fair or effective multilateral trading system. on issues that were of benefit tdeveloped
These, along with ‘discursive barriers’, countries and limiting the ‘policy space’.
‘preclude any discussion of substantive The very process by which negotiations
reform of the multilateral trading system’, are conducted act as barriers teffective
which suggests that the WTO is flawed in trade promotion for the developing world.
both its institutional structure and due WTO negotiations – the successive ‘rounds’
tthe theoretical discourse, that supports – occur as a series of ‘iterated games’ in
the WTO. (Rorden Wilkinson. “The which developing countries are often forced
Problems of Trade and Development intaccepting ‘new concessions in return
beyond the Doha Round.) for remedial actions’ on earlier decisions.
 Inequality in decision making (Rorden Wilkinson. “The Problematic
of Trade and Development beyond the
 In looking at how decisions are made, there
Doha Round.)
is clearly not an equality of decision-making
power in the WTO, as the ‘trading system  For example, developing countries accepted
is still ta large degree a power-based as the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
opposed ta rules-based system’. (Tony Property Rights (TRIPs) agreement in
Heron. “The Ending of the Multifibre 1996 in exchange for ‘modest’ agricultural
Arrangement: A Development Boon for liberalisation in the form of access tWestern
the South?”) Whilst there is formally a one- markets.
member, one-vote system in the WTO, it  One again the issue is one of material
has never been used, and as is the case in capability as poorer countries often have
most international governance institutions, less ability and skill in complex trade
the interests of the powerful dominate. negotiations, as well as having much more
(Ray Kiely :The clash of globalisations: tlose – namely, access tdeveloped countries’
neoliberalism, the third way, and anti- markets. Such problems are compounded by
globalisation) the ‘single undertaking’ , a negotiating tool
 Weaker states cannot influence the way which means all participants have tcomply
in which trade agreements are reached, with everything that is decided, causing
which can be manifest in several ways, power asymmetries tbecome perpetual
from basic resource issues such as the between developing and developed nations.
inability ‘testablish permanent delegations (Rorden Wilkinson. “The Problematic
in Geneva’, (Rorden Wilkinson. “The of Trade and Development beyond the
Problematic of Trade and Development Doha Round.)
beyond the Doha Round.)
 Dispute Settlement Understanding:
 It alsmeans exclusion from day-to-day
 (DSU) is a costly process which ‘results in
administrative WTO activity texclusion
procedural rules that favour developed
from the many “informal” (a euphemism for
economies. A large part of the problem
non-democratic) decision-making sessions
is that the ultimate response in any trade
that occur within the WTO through ‘green
dispute is ‘retaliation’ in the form of punitive
room deals’ and ‘confessionals’, which
trade measures. However, the economic
are frequently lacking in transparency.
and political risk is much greater for poorer
(Bhagirath Lal Das. The WTO and the
nations, as richer nations will be less affected
multilateral trading system: Past, present,
by penalties or sanctions, hence power
and future)
ultimately always being with the wealthier
 Decision making has often been described nations. (Lal Das. The WTO)
as ‘coercive’, the Doha Round in particular
being an example of ‘overt power politics  WTO and the lack of International Labour
[in which the] rich pressured the poor’. Standards
(Morten Boas and Desmond McNeill.  Absence of labour rights- There is currently
Multilateral institutions: A critical nagreed multilateral ‘social clause’ in
introduction.) international trade, meaning that the

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WTO ‘[does not] include any protection for examples of this being the Agreement on
labour rights’ [Sandra Polaski, “Protecting Agriculture, TRIPs and the Agreement on Trade
labour rights through trade agreements: Related Investment Measures (TRIMS). [ Bello.
An analytical guide.”] or arguably see “The iron cage “]
‘[any] role for internationally agreed  TRIPs are problematic with regard
labour standards. [Werner Sengenberger, tdevelopment in that they give ‘exclusive
Globalisation and Social Progress: the rights’ of use tthe holders – generally
role and impact of international labour Western firms – leading tthe likelihood, as
standards.] This presents a major obstacle often occurs, of exploitative usage.
for the development of equitable and
 For example, holders of intellectual property
progressive trade policy and is indicative
rights (IPRs) on pharmaceutical products
of the WTO’s failure.
prevent independent development of
 During the Singapore Ministerial conference generic, low-cost drugs, leading tmonopolies
minimum labour standards were discussed; rather than fostering genuinely ‘free’ trade.
however, some developing nations regarded
 Whilst there are conditions in WTO policies
them as ‘non-tariff barriers’ ttrade, resulting
for IPRs tbe overruled in cases of anti-
in the issue being passed tthe International
competitive practice or national emergency,
Labour Organisation (ILO). (Stephen
such rules are complex and open
Woolcock, “The Singapore issues in
tinterpretation by Western corporations
Cancun: a failed negotiation ploy or a
with substantial legal resources.
litmus test for global governance)
 Such a discrepancy between WTO rhetoric
 Developing countries fear that they would and reality have led tIndia’s former
be used by the West as a form of non- representative tthe GATT stating that IPRs
tariff barrier. In a sense it is understandable are designed tprotect the ‘investments of
for developing countries tfear the loss of multinational corporations’ in order tensure
any potential threat of sovereignty; past the maintenance of ‘monopoly profits. [Lal
experiences are evidence that Western Das. The WTO]
powers dnot act altruistically.
 WTO trade policy in areas like (IPs) is
 Power politics- In its current form it is an designed tprotect advanced Western
illusion that WTO decisions are consensual; sectors, leading ta dependency trap for poor
power-politics prevail. Problem in the theoretical countries that are forced tbuy these foreign
discourse of neoclassical, laissez-faire economics products rather than innovate domestically.
with its commitment ttrade liberalisation. As
 Secondly, there is overwhelming empirical
its statement of principles declares, the WTO
evidence that trade liberalisation does not
maintains a commitment tthe ‘opening of
lead tsustainable growth and that developing
national markets tinternational trade’.
countries which adopt protectionist trade policies
Neoclassical theory is manifest in neoliberal economic actually develop quicker than those which
policy and is predicated on the seemingly a priori liberalize their economies, for example South
assumption that free markets will allow nations, Korea and China. [ UNCTAD, World Investment
acting on their various competitive advantages, Report, New York: United Nations. 1998]
tachieve GDP growth. Neo-classical economic
orthodoxy at the WTO is built on this assumption,
leading thostility towards anything that may interrupt WHY DOES THE WTO REMAIN
the free functioning of markets. This ‘implicit belief RELEVANT?
in the benevolence of free trade’ is fundamentally
flawed in twmajor areas which are not considered  WTO regulates 98% of global trade flows. The
in the operations of the WTO, leading tits failure average value of tariffs has reduced by 85% since
tpromote trade that aids development. (Heron. “The 1942. Tariff reduction along with technological
Ending of the Multifibre Arrangement) advances have driven extraordinary expansion of
 Firstly, and most importantly, the WTO often global trade.
promotes trade liberalisation exclusively for  Trade as a share of GDP has grown from 24%
poor, developing countries whilst maintaining in 1960 t60% in 2015. As nations’ economies
protectionist policies for rich countries, have become more and more interdependent,

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the breakdown of a trade organisation will be a  India stressed the need for increased and active
major blow tinternational trade order. participation by the developing countries in
 Trade acts as a powerful force for inclusive the trade of services for augmenting progressive
Growth, by lowering poverty and by opening liberalisation in conformity with Article XIX of
opportunities for small firms, women, farmers as Services Agreement.
well as fishermen.  India pointed out that multilateral investment
agreement (which is binding type) will eat away
the options of strategic policy that are available
INDIA’S DEMAND IN WTO: tthe developing nations (including India) tpursue
their developmental industrialization objectives.
 During the Seattle conference, India stressed
 India mentioned that the Trade Related
the importance of deriving useful solutions
Investment Measures (TRIMS) agreement
for the implementation issues voiced by the
is having adverse impact in the process of
developing countries without linking tfuture
industrialisation in the developing countries
negotiations on multilateral trade, as a result of
which a decision was taken thold special sessions  India is not in the favour of linking trade with
by WTO’s General Council. core labour standards since its linking ttrade and
WTO would result in a position where core labour
 In agriculture, India mentioned that the standards will be utilized for protectionist purposes.
developing countries with agrarian economies India is in favour that core labour standards issues
must maintain flexibility for domestic are tbe tackled under the ambit of the International
support, market access commitments with Labour Organisation (ILO) only.
regard ttariff rates, export subsidies due
 India pleaded for transferring of environment
ttheir concerns on rural employment, and food
technology tdeveloping nations in a fair
security.
manner, since the developing countries have
 Indian agriculture being non-commercial in limited resources which restrict the adoption of
nature must not be subjected tWTO rules environment friendly technology of large scale
which are mainly for commercial protection and in nature.
commercial trading.  India took the lead in the formation of alliances
 India has stressed that the tariff rates are tbe or groups in the name G13, G21, G22 of the
made more transparent, non-discriminatory developing countries for negotiating with the
for gaining market access by the new & small- developed countries and in particular with the
scale exporters of the developing countries. US-EU alliance for agriculture issues.
 In anti-dumping, India has stressed upon  India adopted Trade Related Intellectual
tavoid anti-dumping (back-to-back) Property Rights (TRIPS) based on the rulings
investigations. India has highlighted the need of the Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM)
tmake the integration process of textile & clothing of the WTO since a complaint was filed by USA,
commercially viable while pleading for avoiding although many nations including India were not
anti-dumping actions under quota restrictions. in favour tbring intellectual property rights under
India drawn the attention in the WTO in the WTO through TRIPS agreement, as there already
areas of Sanitary & Phytosanitary measures for exists specialized agencies like World Intellectual
setting international standard organisations by Property Organisation (WIPO).
ensuring active participation of all countries in  Due tthe absence of enthusiasm in the
setting standards. Uruguay Round Agreement (URA) India
was not in favour of starting Multilateral
 India proposed (in the TRIPS Agreement)
Trade Negotiations (MTN) in the WTO. The
that the patent system is tbe aligned with the
absence of enthusiasm resulted since URA was
provisions of Biodiversity as laid down in the
unbalanced as several developing nations had
UN Convention.
tmake several costly commitments vis-a-vis
 India pointed out that the large subsidies URA including TRIPS and TRIMS agreements
provided in the agriculture sector by the that did not benefit the developing nations at
developed countries are creating distortion all both in short run and in long run besides the
in international trade of agricultural products. implementation issues raised by India.

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 Main stand of India in the WTO Doha summit  This was often expressed in calls for a ‘new
is that the implementation issues are tbe Bretton Woods’. But there is nsingle model
addressed first followed by the decision of reformed global economic governance, but
on negotiations in the next New Round, rather a number of models.
which was agreed by WTO by including the  From the market fundamentalist perspective,
un-addressed issues relating tdeveloping moreover, the most appropriate response tthe
countries in the New Round. crisis has been, in effect, tdnothing. In this view,
financial and economic crises are a small price
REFORMING THE BRETTON WOODS tpay for roughly thirty years of sustained growth
SYSTEM: ISSUES AND OPTIONS in the world economy, and, anyway, any attempt
tstrengthen national or global regulation will
only make matters worse, not better.
 Concerns over the performance of the global
economic governance crisis are rising as financial  On the other hand, for regulatory liberals,
and economic crises have occurred on a fairly whdraw on Keynesian or other insights about
regular basis since the 1960s, and, indeed, have the fallibility of markets, what is needed
become increasingly frequent and more serious is specific reforms of the global financial
since the 1980s. architecture, as well as new regulatory
regimes at the domestic level (Gamble).
 After both the Asian financial crisis of 1997–
98 and the dot.com crisis of 2000 in particular, A variety of reforms have therefore been proposed,
criticisms were voiced about the failure of particularly in relation tthe IMF and the World Bank
the global economic governance system like-
tprovide adequate warnings by highlighting,  Changing voting allocations and decision-making
in advance, key instabilities and crisis processes tincrease the political influence of
tendencies. In the case of the Asian crisis, IMF developing countries
intervention was seen by some thave made
 Weaken links between these bodies and Northern
the crisis more severe, not less severe.
countries and interests.
 Susan Strange had highlighted the dangers
 Strengthening their ability tsupport countries
of what she called ‘casincapitalism’, in which
adversely affected by debt and crises.
the unregulated dynamics of global capital
movements allowed what she called ‘mad  Bolstering their capacity toversee and regulate
money’ tsurge around the world in speculative the world economy, with a view tpreventing,
bursts, creating unsustainable ‘bubbles’ and rather than merely responding to, future crises.
dramatic crises. “New global architecture would have tbe
 Joseph Stiglitz, Paul Krugman and George constructed on a more inclusive basis, taking much
Soros, have highlighted the dangers implicit fuller account of the views and ideas of global civil
in the dogma of market fundamentalism that society and it would need tbe orientated around
underpinned neoliberal globalisation and helped the principle of ‘cosmopolitan democracy’” (Held
tshape the Washington consensus. 1995).
 The global financial crisis of 2007–09 posed  For anti-capitalists, however, the problems
a series of deeper and more challenging exposed by the 2007–09 crisis gdeeper still.
problems. In the first place, it was deeper Rather than highlighting flaws or failings
than the previous crises, second, its impact in the framework of global economic
was genuinely global, in that it affected governance, they reflected the imbalances
virtually every country in the world third, and inequalities of the global economy itself.
instead of occurring in emerging or transition What is required, from this perspective, is
economies, it originated within the beating therefore a substantial redistribution of wealth
heart of finance capitalism, the USA and power both within national societies and
(Seabrooke and Tsingou). within the global economy (Monbiot 2004)
 In this light, global capitalism appeared tbe on  The three pillars of global economic governance
the brink of collapse, and led tcalls for the urgent have survived the crisis, just as they survived the
reform of the architecture of global economic end of the Bretton Woods system, and although
governance. there has been some adjustment in the allocation

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of voting rights within the IMF and World Bank Bank Group of institutions. Moreover, rising
in favour of developing countries, fundamental powers, especially China, alscall for replacing the
power balances within these bodies remain US dollar as the international reserve currency.
substantially unchanged.  Miles Kahler- “Although their economic
 The chief institutional development has been growth has recently slowed, these emerging
the establishment in April 2009 of the Financial economies will exert growing influence on the
Stability Board (FSB) as the successor tthe architecture of global governance. Given their
Financial Stability Forum, a proposal that came deepening integration intthe international
out of the 2009 G-20 London summit. economy, they could become “responsible
 The purpose of the FSB is tcoordinate at the stakeholders,” stalwart supporters of the
global level the work of national financial existing rules of the game. In the absence of
authorities and international standard-setting institutional reforms, such as changes in IMF
bodies and tpromote the implementation of and World Bank governance, rising powers
effective regulatory, supervisory and other could challenge the existing order, creating
financial sector policies. their own parallel or alternative institutions.”

 The IMF undertook a series of reforms intended Rising powers challenge the US and
timprove the Fund’s capacity trespond tmember
Western dominance in international
needs in the aftermath of the GFC. Several of
these reforms represent Fund empowerment. financial institutions
Starting with resources, members boosted the  First, they demand and persuade a reformed
Fund’s drawable capital by roughly US$250 IMF and World Bank with greater voting power
billion in 2009 and 2010, agreeing tcontribute temerging market economies. In 2009, rising
first via bilateral borrowing arrangements and, powers proposed transferring seven per cent of
later, via an expanded New Arrangements the Western economies’ IMF quota temerging
tBorrow (NAB) mechanism (IMF, 2016). economies.
 Apart from the call for reform of post-World  Next year, the IMF agreed on the redistribution
War international financial institutions, of voting shares and decided that six per cent
emerging economies alsestablished their of the IMF quota share should be transferred
own institutions tcounter the hegemony of trising economies and developing states. This
Western institutions. The formation of the quota reform and doubling of IMF permanent
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), capital resources helped emerging economies,
the BRICS New Development Bank and the especially Brazil, China, India, and Russia, enhance
BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement their influence in the institution, including the
(CRA) are examples. These new multilateral Executive Board.
funding agencies provide challenges tthe World

Previous Year Questions

1. Identify and evaluate the reasons for deadlock in the WTO negotiations on fisheries between
the developing and developed countries. 2022 /250/20
2. Explain India’s position on the waiver of intellectual property rights on COVID-19 vaccines in
WTO. 2021/150/10
3. Critically evaluate the role of the United States of America in the World Trade Organisation (WTO)
dispute settlement mechanism and its implications for the future of the WTO. 2020/200/15
4. How are the rising powers challenging the USA and Western dominance in the IMF and the
World Bank? 2019/250 /20
5. Analyse the stalled progress of Doha Round of WTO negotiations over the differences between
the developed and the developing countries.2017/ 200 /15

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Chapter - 8.5

Third World Demand for New International

Economic Order: Globalisation of the World
Economy

Please note : The topic “Globalisation of the world the developing countries are committed tsecure
economy” has already been covered in the chapter it. The issue of NIEO continues tbe a major issue
on Globalization. Kindly read the preceding of contemporary international relations.
chapters from Globalization onwards before
reading this section.
NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC
 The Third World regards the securing of NIEO as
ORDER (NIEO)
a vital necessity of contemporary international
relations. It feels that this is the only alternative
for halting the fast deterioration of their  At the Sixth Special Session of the United
economies in the present state of international Nations General Assembly in 1975, a
economic order. declaration was made for the establishment of a
 The developed countries, on the other hand, New International Economic Order (NIEO).
are not willing taccept the abandonment of  NIEO is tbe based on “equity, sovereign
their existing strong and dominant economic equality, common interest and co-operation
positions and their key role in international among all States, irrespective of their social
economic relations. They feel that NIEO would and economic systems, which shall correct
be harmful ttheir interests and objectives. inequalities and redress existing injustices,
 The existing system has been helping them make it possible teliminate the widening gap
tmaintain an economic and political control between the developed and the developing
over the economies and policies of the under- countries and ensure steadily accelerating
developed countries. They dnot want tpart economic and social development and
with their dominant position in the United peace and justice for present and future
Nations and other international economic generations.”
institutions like the World Bank, IMF etc.
 Though the declaration on the NIEO by the
They advocate that the existing economic
General Assembly (GA) is of recent origin,
institutions, particularly after the birth of the
the idea is not altogether a new one. In fact, a
new GATT—the WTO, are capable of all actions
in international relations and these can be similar resolution was adopted by the GA itself
amended and used for accommodating some long back in 1952. Again, similar demands were
of the demands of the Third World countries. raised from time ttime by the UNCTAD since its
They are, therefore, neither serious nor keen inception in 1964.
tparticipate in North-South dialogue over NIEO.  A.K. Das Gupta, however, says that what is
 This difference in approach between the spectacular about the NIEO Declaration is its
developed North and the Third World, the timing. The NIEO aims at a development of the
South, has made the issue of NIEO a highly global economy as a whole, with the setup of
controversial issue. The developed countries interrelated policies and performance targets of
are not at all willing tgin for it. As against this, the international community at large.

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The Rise of The Third World And The Need  Political Instability: Political stability and
Of The NEIO economic growth ghand-in-hand. On the one
hand, economic growth cannot occur in countries
 The majority of today’s Third World countries facing political disturbance. Many foreign
were once under the domination of the European investments quit and drive away from countries
nations. These nations are economically least under political turbulence. On the other hand, a
developed and dependent on powerful countries. fall in government or regime can immediately
They were dependent upon the European have a decisive blow on the nation’s economic
powers primarily because of good governance growth. For instance, Afghanistan’s economic
growth slowed down after the re-emergence
and financial assistance.
of the Taliban regime in the year 2021.
 On the other hand, the Western powers began
texploit most parts of the African and South-East Origin of NIEO
Asian societies because of their raw materials,
human resources, and territory. However, with The movement for the establishment of the NIEO
World War II, the colonial rule alsended, and an is caused by the existing deficiencies in the current
independent, sovereign third world emerged international economic order and the gross failures
(Dwivedi S. Dr. Sangit). of the GATT and the UNCTAD in fulfilment of their
vowed objectives.
 However, there is improvement now in
developing countries. Nearly 60 percent of the The present international economic order
world’s total GDP will be contributed by the is -
emerging economies (third world nations) by the
year 2030 as determined by the Perspectives  Biased
on Global Development: Shifting wealth, a  Favoring the rich-advanced countries
new publication from the OECD Development
 Over dependence of the South on the North.
Centre.
 Major control of the north over vital decision
 As per the study by Professor T N Srinivasan,
making in the matter of international trade,
India stands in fourth place, after the US, China, terms of trade, international finance, aids, and
and Japan. Its share of global growth was 8.0%. technological flows.
India’s contribution tglobal GDP in PPP terms
was 5.9% in 2005, the fourth highest globally  The failure of WTO: The failure of the WTO
tmake a point of the need for a North-South
(Ignatius G. and Fernandes P).
dialogue over NIEO has again been a source of
The Need for NIEO is due tthe following challenges strain on the relations between the developed
faced by the Developing/ Least Developed and the developing countries (Denny).
countries:
The basis for the NIEO was constituted by the U.N.
 High population: Most Least Developed and Resolution in 1971, in the seventh special session
Developing countries are characterized by rapid on “Development and International Economic
population growth, indicating more mouths Co-operation” with various reforms in the area of
tfeed with limited resources. Lack of family international monetary system, transfer of technology
planning, religious beliefs and poor medical and foreign investment, world agriculture and
developments are some of the leading reasons cooperation among the Third World Countries.
for the rapid rise in population growth.
Objectives of the NIEO:
 Unemployment: The labour force is highly
underutilized in these countries. People
are willing twork but have nor lack job  The NIEO aims
opportunities. This eventually leads tlow living  At social justice among the trading
standards. countries of the world.
 Poverty: Poverty is one of the standard features  Seeks restructuring of existing institutions
among these countries. It is due primarily thigh- and forming new organizations tregulate
income inequalities. A large amount of money is the flow of trade, technology, capital funds
concentrated in the hands of a few. According tthe in the common interest of the world’s global
World Bank estimates, 97 million people were in economy and due benefits in favour of the
extreme poverty during the pandemic. LDCs.

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 Has the spirit of a ‘world without developed countries. Protectionist trade and
borders.’ policies of the developed countries have been a
 Suggests more equitable allocation of source of a big strain and loss for the developing
the world’s resources through increased countries. Their import bills have boomed while
flow of aid from the rich nations tthe poor their exports have tended tbe stagnant. The need
countries. is tend protectionism in trade and economy, and
this is a vital theme of NIEO.
 Seeks tovercome world mass misery and
alarming disparities between the living  Transfer of Capital Resources: NIEO wants the
conditions of the rich and poor in the world actual transfer of capital resources along with
as large. the knowledge tput them tbeneficial use in order
tenable the developing countries not only in
 Tprovide poor nations increased
producing more for themselves but alsfor export
participation and have their say in
tother countries. Cancellation of outstanding
the decision-making processes in
debts of the Third World countries and the
international affairs.
grant of at least 0.7% of G.N.P. international as
 Tpromote economic development among developmental aid tthe developing countries
the poor countries through self- help and can solve the capital needs of the entire Third
south-south cooperation. World.
 Tdeal with the major problems of the  Transfer of Advanced Technology tthe Third
south, such as balance of payments World: For securing advanced technology, the
disequilibrium, debt crisis, exchange scarcity developing countries find themselves dependent
etc. upon the developed countries. The latter
through international patents and protective
Demand for New International Economic policies and measures have a virtual monopoly
Order (NIEO) over advanced technology and dual use
technology. They are not prepared ttransfer
 Total Restructuring of International Economic
it tthe developing countries without getting
Order: Realizing the non-viable nature of the
favorable commitments and several desired
existing international economic order, the Third
trade and economic agreements. Often their
World advocates a new economic order based
terms are not reasonable from the point of view
on equality, interdependence, mutual benefit
of the developing countries. NIEO stands for
and support for the rights of all the nations
systematizing and facilitating the transfer of
which is essential for securing real progress and
advanced technology from the developed tthe
sustainable development.
developing countries.
 Changes in International Economic Institutions
 Control over the harmful features of
like WB, IMF: Twinstitutional changes are
deemed essential for safeguarding the rights Multinational Corporations: The role of
and needs of the developing countries. First MNCs in the international economy has been
relates tthe restructuring of the existing rules damaging as it has been a source of maintaining
and regulations governing the international and increasing the gap between developed and
economic relations, and second relates tthe developing countries. These have always acted as
formation of new institutions and systems of instruments of neo-colonialism of the rich over
cooperation among nations. The existing rules the poor countries. The developing countries
governing international economic – and trade want an end tthe menace of MNCs.
relations as well as the international institutions,  A greater and definite share for the developing
favour the interests and needs of the developed countries in International Exports: In the
countries. presence of a big economic and industrial gap
 End of Protectionism: The existing system of between the developed and the developing
protectionist trade and policies stands designed countries, GATT and UNCTAD and even WTO,
by the developed countries for safeguarding have failed tproduce the desired effect and
their interests in international economy and change in the international economic and trade
trade. Discriminatory limits on exports and system. Unregulated and open competition
imports, even against the GATT rules, are between the developed and the developing
frequently made and pressed intuse by the countries has proved tbe a highly damaging

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aspect of international trade relations as it has  Promotion of regional cooperation for

always favored the developed tthe disadvantage development among the developing countries.
of the under- developed. The Third World It can be a very effective means for rapid socio-
countries now demand a definite and fixed share economic development which can strengthen
in all international exports and tariff preferences the bargaining power of the South vis-a-vis the
in their favour as part of a new economic order. North.

PROSPECTS OF NEIO INDIA’S ROLE IN ESTABLISHING NEIO

 South-South cooperation and Regional  As a leader of NAM, India played an important

Cooperation for development among the role in establishing NIEO. As the movement of
developing countries can be moderately non-alignment expanded, the nature of NAM
successful in actual practice. The heavy constraints adapted tinclude the economic issues of the 3rd
and big weakness of the Third World economic world.
systems are bound tremain big hindrances.
 Addressing the sixth Special Section of the UN
 The concerted opposition and protectionist General Assembly India’s Foreign Minister S.
policies of the developed countries are further Swaran Singh Suggested:
destined tkeep the South’s path towards
 Comprehensive policy for the revalorization
development difficult and problematic.
of prices of raw materials.
 The developed countries are not prepared
 Provision of Additional liquidity for specially
taccept NEIO as a priority. They continue tplay
affected countries.
safe and evasive. Their attempt tconsolidate their
power, unity and affluence (G-8) for neutralizing  Equitable pattern of voting rights in IMF and
pressures from the developing countries, their other international financial institutions.
lukewarm response tthe idea of North-South  Provision of external capital for the
dialogue on NIEO and their continued attempts development of developing countries.
at the perpetuation of the existing system of their
 Financial and technical assistance
neo-colonial control over developing countries,
tdeveloping countries.
are all indicative of their staunch opposition
tNIEO.  India played a crucial role in advocating and
furthering the social and economic interest
 The Commercialization and marketing of raw
of the third world in the international system,
materials, access by the developing countries tthe
attempting tsecure increased South-South
investment markets and development assistance
cooperation and facilitate North-South dialogue
remain mere promises. (Dr. S. B. Phad)
(UNCTAD).
 India played a decisive role in amending the GATT
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE?
rules tallow the imposition of import restrictions
by developing countries and improve their
 Expand and strengthen South-South cooperation. exports (Phad).
 Use the platform of NAM tkeep their unity and  India has been sharing her knowledge and
solidarity as well as for forcefully advocating the expertise on the experience of development with
need for NIEO; neighbouring and other developing countries
 Work for securing an expansion of UN Security through different frameworks and platforms
Council as well as for ending western control from multilateral tregional.
over international economic institutions like IMF,  India’s Panchsheel principles were incorporated
WB, and others. intthe “Declaration on the Promotion of world
 Adopt coordinated policies and collective peace, and cooperation” in the Bandung; the
approach towards all international issues conference laid the strong foundation for south-
and problems, particularly economic and south cooperation. India alsprovides technical
developmental issues, and problems under relief and funding via multilateral forums
WTO. (OECD).

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 India is alsadvocating NIEO through its more effective system of international economic
multilateral alignments. India is a member of cooperation and better standards of life for the
Brazil-Russia- India-China-South Africa (BRICS), developing nations.
India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA), Russia-India-  India has mobilized its resources tpush forward
China (RIC) and G4 Nations initiatives, which are the movement testablish an NIEO. Special steps
aimed at creating multipolar world order. were taken tachieve Industrial development,
application of scientific methods, acquisition of
 Indian representatives played a crucial role technology and skills, and managerial capacities.
in setting up the UN conference on Trade and Thus, it is clear that India played an influential
Development (UNCTAD) as a part of UNGA. The and substantial role in establishing a New
conference’s goal was tpromote social progress, a International Economic Order (Lall).

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the relevance of the demand for New International Economic Order (NEIO) in the present
era of globalisation. 2022/250/20
2. Explain the significance and importance of the demand raised by the developing countries for
a New International Economic Order (NEIO). Are they likely tachieve their objectives of NEIO in
foreseeable future? 2020/200/15

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9
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Chapter - 9.1

United Nations: Envisaged Role and Actual

Record; Specialized UN Agencies- Aims and
Functioning: Need for UN Reform

HISTORY OF UN FOUNDATION UNITED NATIONS: ENVISAGED ROLE

 In 1899, the International Peace Conference The United Nations is, without doubt, the most
was held in The Hague to elaborate instruments important international organization created to date.
for settling crises peacefully, preventing wars Established through the San Francisco Conference
and codifying rules of warfare. (April–June 1945), the principal aims of the UN, as
 It adopted the Convention for the Pacific spelled out by its founding Charter, are as follows:
Settlement of International Disputes and  To safeguard peace and security in order ‘to
established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, save succeeding generations from the scourge
which began work in 1902. This court was the of war’
forerunner of UN International Court of Justice.
 To ‘reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights’
 The forerunner of the United Nations was the
League of Nations, an organization conceived  To uphold respect for international law
in circumstances of the First World War and  To ‘promote social progress and better standards
established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles of life’
“to promote international cooperation and to
The principal aim of the UN is ‘to maintain
achieve peace and security.”
international peace and security’ (Article 1), with
 The International Labour Organization (ILO) responsibility for this being vested in the Security
was also created in 1919 under the Treaty of Council.
Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League.
 The name “United Nations”, coined by United
UN AND ITS ORGANS
States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A
document called The Declaration by United
Nations was signed in 1942 by 26 nations, The Un Security Council
pledging their governments to continue fighting
together against the Axis Powers (Rome-Berlin-  The UN Security Council was given the main
Tokyo Axis) and bound them against making a responsibility for maintaining international peace
separate peace. and security. It is made up of 15 states.

 United Nations Conference on International  It includes five permanent members, namely the
Organization (1945) : Conference held in San USA, Britain, France, Russia (previously the Soviet
Francisco (USA), was attended by representatives Union), and China, as well as ten non-permanent
of 50 countries and signed the United Nations members.
Charter.  Unlike the League, the decisions of the Security
 The UN Charter of 1945 is the foundational Council are binding, and must only be passed by
treaty of the United Nations, as an inter- a majority of nine out of the 15 members, as well
governmental organization. as each of the five permanent members.

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 These five permanent members therefore have THE SECRETARIAT

veto power over all Security Council decisions.
 When the Security Council considers a threat  The Secretariat carries out the substantive and
to international peace, it first explores ways to administrative work of the United Nations as
settle the dispute peacefully under the terms of directed by the General Assembly, the Security
Chapter VI of the UN Charter. Council, and the other organs.
 It may suggest principles for a settlement or may  It is led by the Secretary-General, who provides
suggest mediation. In the event of fighting, the overall administrative guidance.
Security Council tries to secure a ceasefire. It may  The Secretariat consists of departments and
send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties offices with a total staff of 8,900 under the regular
maintain the truce and to keep opposing forces budget, and a nearly equal number under special
apart. funding.

 The Council can also take measures to enforce its  On the recommendation of the other bodies,
the Secretariat also carries out a number of
decisions under Chapter VII of the Charter. It
research functions and some quasi-management
can, for instance, impose economic sanctions or
functions.
order an arms embargo. On rare occasions, the
Security Council has authorized member states  The role of the Secretariat remains primarily
to use all necessary means, including collective bureaucratic, and it lacks the political power and
military action, to see that its decisions are the right of initiative of
carried out.  The one exception to this is the power of the
Secretary-General under Article 99 of the Charter,
 The Council also makes recommendations to the
to bring situations that are likely to lead to a
General Assembly on the appointment of a new breakdown of international peace and security
Secretary-General and on the admission of new to the attention of the Security Council.
members to the UN.
 This Article was the legal basis for the remarkable
expansion of the diplomatic role of the Secretary-
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY General, compared with its League predecessor.
 Due to this, the Secretary-General is empowered
 All UN member states are represented in the to become involved in a large range of areas that
General Assembly—a ‘parliament of nations’— can be loosely interpreted as threats to peace,
which meets to consider the world’s most including economic and social problems, and
pressing problems. humanitarian crises.

 Each member has one vote. A two-thirds

majority in the General Assembly is required THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
for decisions on key issues such as international
peace and security, the admission of new  It is intended to coordinate the economic and
members, and the UN budget. social work of the United Nations and the UN
family of organizations. Organizations were set
 A simple majority is required for other
up to deal with specific economic and social
matters. However, the decisions reached by
problems.
the General Assembly only have the status
of recommendations, rather than binding  However, ECOSOC was not given the necessary
decisions. but its recommendations are management powers. It can only issue
recommendations and receive reports from the
important indications of world opinion
Specialized Agencies.
and represent the moral authority of the
community of nations.  It also consults with non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), thereby maintaining a vital link between
 One of the few exceptions is the General the United Nations and civil society.
Assembly’s Fifth Committee, which makes
 ECOSOC’s subsidiary bodies include Functional
decisions on the budget that are binding on
Commissions, such as the Commission on the
members.
Status of Women; Regional Commissions, such
 The General Assembly can consider any matter as the Economic Commission for Africa; and
within the scope of the UN Charter. other bodies.

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 ECOSOC is responsible for overseeing the At the Country (field) level

activities of a large number of other institutions
known as the United Nations system. This includes  A key feature of the reforms at the country (field)
the Specialized Agencies and the Programmes level was the adoption of Country Strategy
and Funds. Notes. These were statements about the overall
development process tailored to the specific
needs of individual countries. The merit of the
THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL Country Strategy Notes is that they clearly set
out targets, roles, and priorities.
 The Trusteeship Council was established to  Another reform at the country level was the
provide international supervision for 11 Trust strengthening of the Resident Coordinator.
Territories administered by seven member states He or she became the responsible officer at
and to ensure that adequate steps were taken the country level and was provided with more
to prepare the territories for self-government or training to fulfil this role.
independence.
 There was also an effort to introduce improved
 By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self- communication facilities and information-
government or independence, either as separate sharing.
states or by joining neighbouring independent  The activities of the various UN organizations
countries. were brought together in single locations or
 Its work completed; the Trusteeship Council now ‘UN houses’, which facilitated inter-agency
consists of the five permanent members of the communication and collegiality. The new
Security Council. It has amended its rules of country-level approach was called an Integrated
procedure to allow it to meet when necessary. Programmes approach.
 This can be contrasted to earlier arrangements
THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE whereby the various agencies would work
separately on distinct projects, often in ignorance
of each other’s presence in the same country.
 The International Court of Justice is the main
judicial organ of the UN. Consisting of 15 judges At the Headquarters level
elected jointly by the General Assembly and the
Security Council, the Court decides disputes  Reform efforts in the 1990s focused on the
between countries. reorganization and rationalization of the
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
 Participation by states in a proceeding is
voluntary, but if a state agrees to participate, it is  ECOSOC could only issue recommendations and
obligated to comply with the Court’s decision. receive reports. By contrast, UN reform in the
mid- to late 1990s allowed ECOSOC to become
 The Court also provides advisory opinions to
more assertive and to take a leading role in the
other UN organs and Specialized Agencies upon
coordination of the UN system.
request.
 ECOSOC was to ensure that General Assembly
policies were appropriately implemented on a
THE REFORM PROCESS IN THE ECONOMIC system-wide basis.
AND SOCIAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE  ECOSOC was given the power to take final
UNITED NATIONS decisions on the activities of its subsidiary bodies
and on other matters relating to system-wide
In the mid- to late 1990s, alongside growing UN coordination in economic, social, and related
involvement in development issues, the UN economic fields.
and social arrangements underwent reform at two  One of ECOSOC’s responsibilities was to review
levels: first, reforms concerned with operations in common themes in the work of the nine Functional
the country (field) level; and second, reforms at Commissions, such as the Commission on
the general or headquarters level. The continuing Narcotic Drugs, the Commission on Sustainable
complaints of NGOs about poor UN performance in Development, and the Commission on the Status
the field served as a powerful stimulus for reform. of Women.

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 The reform effort aimed to eliminate duplication  Participation in the United Nations gives
and overlap in the work of the Functional governments status in the international system.
Commissions. ECOSOC would integrate the work Membership and success in the UN have come
of its Functional Commissions and provide input to be regarded as legitimizing state autonomy.
to the General Assembly, which was responsible Hence holding office, taking the initiative,
for establishing the broader economic and social providing personnel, and policing norms are
policy framework. seen to have value because they add to the self-
esteem as well as to power of the state. The UN
 The Boards of the Programmes and Funds were
has become the essential club for states.
also reformed to enhance their day-to-day
management.  Another widely cited achievement is
decolonization, although arguably this owed
Overall, economic, and social reorganization meant
more to the determination of the colonized
that the two poles of the system were better peoples What is certain is that United Nations
coordinated: the pole where intentions are defined membership became an important badge or
through global conferences and agendas, and the pole certificate of a country’s independence, and
where programmes are implemented. Programmes a valuable diplomatic card in the hands of any
at the field levels were better integrated and field State whose territorial integrity was threatened,
officers were given enhanced discretion. The reform whether by external aggression or internal
of ECOSOC sharpened its capacity to shape broad secession (or indeed a combination of the two).
agreements into cross-sectoral programmes with
 A parliament of nations- by the 1970s the great
well-defined objectives. At the same time, ECOSOC
majority of the world’s peoples were represented
acquired greater capacity to act as a conduit through
in the United Nations by independent
which the results of field-level monitoring could be
Governments, and developing countries formed
conveyed upwards to the Functional Commissions.
a large majority of the membership.
These new processes had the effect of strengthening
the norms of a multilateral system.  Significant achievements outside the immediate
domain of peace and security: notably the
adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human
ACHIEVEMENTS OF UN Rights in 1948, followed by the two international
covenants of 1966 (International Covenant on Civil
 Despite the flaws of the Security Council, it and Political Rights and International Covenant
is striking that even the largest states prefer on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights); and the
to get authorization from the United Nations creation of funds and programmes specialized in
Security Council for any action they propose. various kinds of humanitarian and development
In Kosovo, the states that participated in the work (the United Nations Children’s Fund,
NATO intervention wanted to demonstrate that the United Nations High Commissioner for
they were acting according to the UN Charter Refugees, the United Nations Population Fund,
and the relevant Security Council resolutions. the World Food Programme, the United Nations
In Iraq, the US and UK governments invested Development Programme, etc.).
considerable diplomatic energy in getting a
second Security Council resolution in support of
Post-cold war
military action. The effort failed, but nevertheless  The end of the Cold War was the beginning of a
it was attempted. new chapter for the UN. For so long marginalized
 There have been undoubted successes, for by superpower antagonism, the UN suddenly
example in negotiating a ceasefire between India assumed a new prominence as the instrument
and Pakistan in 1959, maintaining peace in 1960 through which an effective system of collective
in the Belgian Congo (now Zaire) and mediating security could be brought about.
between the Dutch and the Indonesians over  For instance, the use by the P-5 of their veto
West Irian (New Guinea) in 1962. power declined significantly, only being used 13
 Peacekeeping role of the United Nations—often times between 1996 and 2006.
an important element enabling warring parties  Many postcolonial conflicts which had been kept
to agree and observe a truce or ceasefire, since alive by super-Power rivalry were wound down,
it built confidence on each side that the other usually through negotiated agreements which
could not launch a new attack without being involved the deployment of United Nations
detected. peacekeeping missions.

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 The 1990s witnessed a series of impressive of many, had proved in fact to be a “new world
global conferences which agreed on norms and disorder”.
targets in many areas of social and economic  The worst setback in the recent history of
development, from human rights through the United Nations was the Anglo-American
population to the status of women, culminating invasion of Iraq in March 2003. The decision of
in the Millennium Summit in 2000 and the two permanent members of the Security Council
adoption of the Millennium Development Goals. to take military action without due authority,
 The UN’s intervention in the Gulf War of 1991, ignoring the views of their colleagues and indeed
being only the second time (after Korea) that of the vast majority of States, has led not only
the UN authorized large-scale military action, to an ever-deepening crisis in the Middle East,
seemed to demonstrate a renewed capacity to characterized by venomous sectarian conflict,
fulfil its obligation of deterring aggression and but also to lasting mistrust between “the West
maintaining peace, as did the USA’s decision not and the rest”—which, while not as structural or
to pursue fleeing Iraqi troops into Iraq for fear of systemic as the cold war, has brought about a
acting outside the authority of the UN. similar inability to act decisively in crises where
global Powers take sharply differing views of
 Indeed, a new era of UN activism appeared to be
local actors.
a major component of the ‘new world order’, as
announced by President Bush Snr.
LIMITATIONS OF UN
FAILURES OF UN
 Enforcement mechanisms: a recurring criticism
of the UN is its inability to effectively enforce
 Failed to protect human rights- Example of
mandates. The Security Council is able to enforce
Genocide in Rwanda and Srebrenica are cases in
its resolutions by means of sanctions or military
point. The UN had an “Assistance Mission” for
force, but any one of the five permanent council
Rwanda in 1994, which failed to stop the majority
members can veto a bill so harsh mechanisms
Hutus from killing almost a million members of
are not frequently used.
the Tutsi minority. The massacre of more than
8,000 Bosnian Muslim men at the hands of Serb  Security Council inaction: the Security
forces in Srebrenica in 1995 was another UN Council is tasked with taking action to maintain
failure. international peace and security; however, the
veto poses an obstacle to action. P-5 nations
 UN peacekeepers were accused of paying for
ultimately determine what conflicts constitute
sex or raping women and young girls they were
actionable threats to international peace and
supposed to be protecting. For example, in the
security by exercising their veto power. The United
Democratic Republic of Congo in early 2005.
Kingdom, United States, and France presented
There have been similar allegations in countries
a resolution declaring the Venezuelan election
ranging from Cambodia to Bosnia to Haiti.
illegitimate and calling for new elections. Russia
 Failed to protect peace and security- Its and China proposed a resolution condemning
inability to protect Ukraine from Russian invasion outside intervention in the election process and
illustrates its failure to stop ensuring peace called for dialogue in Venezuela.
and security and respect to sovereignty in the
 Western domination of UN institutions:
international system.
despite its mission emphasizing inclusion and
 In the Post-cold war “unipolar moment” representation, the UN is typically viewed as a
in which the United States was increasingly Western-oriented organization. From the UN’s
reluctant to pay attention to the views of other inception, European and American interests have
powers. The Security Council, no longer stymied prevailed. One example is developmental aid.
by antagonism between super-Powers, struggled Institutions like the International Monetary Fund
to contain ethnic conflicts in various parts of the and the World Bank are primarily responsible
world, often passing unrealistic resolutions which for coordinating economic development efforts
assigned ambitious mandates to United Nations while the UN provides guidelines for sustainable
peacekeepers with- out providing the necessary development and oversight. These have been
resources. This led to a series of disasters in controversial during the height of the COVID-19
Somalia, Rwanda, and the former Yugoslavia, pandemic when the IMF conditioned loans on
which badly tarnished the image of the United tight austerity measures like reductions in public
Nations. The “new world order”, in the opinion health spending and unemployment benefits.

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Chapter - 9.2

UN in Cold War and in Post Cold War Era

UN IN COLD WAR ERA a new prominence as the instrument through which

an effective system of collective security could be
brought about.
 During the cold war era the UN was virtually
paralyzed by superpower rivalry. The Cold War  For instance, the use by the P-5 of their veto
ensured that, on most issues, the USA, and power declined significantly, only being used 13
times between 1996 and 2006.
the Soviet Union (the P-2) adopted opposing
positions, which prevented the Security Council  The UN’s intervention in the Gulf War of 1991,
from taking decisive action. being only the second time (after Korea) that
the UN authorized large-scale military action,
 During the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, as seemed to demonstrate a renewed capacity to
the world grew close to nuclear war, the UN fulfil its obligation of deterring aggression and
was a powerless spectator. It was also unable maintaining peace, as did the USA’s decision not
to prevent the Soviet invasions of Hungary to pursue fleeing Iraqi troops into Iraq for fear of
(1956), Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan acting outside the authority of the UN.
(1979), or to curtail the USA’s escalating military  Indeed, a new era of UN activism appeared to be
involvement in Vietnam during the 1960s and a major component of the ‘new world order’, as
the 1970s. announced by President Bush Snr.
 The cold war between the United States and the  However, early hopes for a UN-dominated ‘new
Soviet Union hampered the functioning of the world order’ were quickly disappointed.
UN Security Council, since the veto could be  This was evident not only in sometimes high-
used whenever the major interests of the United profile peacekeeping failures, as in Rwanda and
States, or the Soviet Union were threatened. the former Yugoslavia, but, most significantly, in
From 1945 to 1990, 193 substantive vetoes were the USA’s decision to go ahead with the invasion
invoked in the Security Council, compared to of Iraq in 2003, despite opposition from leading
only 19 substantive vetoes from 1990 to 2007. members of the Security Council.

 Furthermore, while the UN Charter provided

for a standing army to be set up by agreement CHANGED ROLE OF UN IN POST COLD
between the Security Council and consenting WAR PERIOD
states, the East-West cold war rivalry made this
impossible to implement. The end result was that  Threats from Intrastate conflicts - After the
the UN Security Council could not function in the cold war, it was felt that threats to international
way in which the UN founders had expected. peace and security did not only emanate from
aggression between states. Rather, global
 Similarly, the UN had only a very limited influence
peace was also threatened by civil conflict
on the succession of Arab–Israeli wars.
(including refugee flows and regional instability),
The end of the Cold War was the beginning of a humanitarian emergencies, violations of global
new chapter for the UN. For so long marginalized by standards of human rights, and other conditions
superpower antagonism, the UN suddenly assumed such as poverty and inequality.

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 In 1992, the then Secretary-General Boutros to find a new role in a world structured by the
Boutros-Ghali outlined a new ambitious UN dynamics of global capitalism, in which conflict
agenda for peace and security in a report called increasingly arises from imbalances in the
An Agenda for Peace. distribution of wealth and resources. This has
 Non-state-based threats- More recently, meant that the UN’s role in promoting peace
other types of non-state-based threat, such as and security has been conflated with the task of
terrorism and the proliferation of small arms ensuring economic and social development, the
and weapons of mass destruction, have an two being merged in the shift from ‘traditional’
increasingly prominent place on the UN security peacekeeping to ‘multidimensional’ or ‘robust’
agenda. peacekeeping.
 Security and human rights taking centre
stage- In 2003, then Secretary-General Kofi OBSTACLES TO REFORM
Annan named a high-level panel to examine
the major threats and challenges to global Despite increased interest in UNSC reform, three main
peace. The 2004 final report emphasised the factors have impeded the reform process in recent
interconnected nature of security threats, and years
presented development, security, and human
rights as mutually reinforcing.  The first and most significant is that the US,
China, and Russia appear skeptical, with U.S.
 Integrated issues due to Globalisation- The interest declining since the matter received
more integrated global context has meant that some attention in 2009-2010.
economic and social problems in one part of
the world may impact other areas. Furthermore,  A second factor impeding the process is that
promoting social and economic development is negotiations on Security Council reform at
an important UN goal. the UN have begun to lose momentum. As
the Chair of these negotiations, Ambassador
 Environmental issues- During the 1990s, a
Zahir Tanin, wrote in July 2012, “It is time to
number of new issues were brought on to the
recognize the limits of what can further be
international agenda. Several Global Conferences
achieved within the current framework of the
were convened to discuss pressing problems, such
Intergovernmental Negotiations (IGN) without
as environmental issues at a conference in Rio
a deepened Member State commitment to
de Janeiro (1992), human rights at a conference
undertaking robust negotiations, involving
in Vienna (1993), population questions at a
conference in Cairo (1994), and women’s issues active give and take.” This give and take has
at a conference in Beijing (1995). yet to emerge, reflecting a risk- averse attitude
or lack of interest among diplomats pessimistic
 The changing nature of war and armed conflict about the process.
raises difficulties for the UN in its peacekeeping
and peace-building roles. Not only do the rise  Third is that non-African member state
of identity wars and the links between civil strife, groupings have not successfully managed
humanitarian and refugee crises and endemic to coordinate with Africa enough to gain
crime make sustainable peace difficult to achieve, full support of the African group on any
but they also strain the relationship between the joint model of or approach to reform, although
quest for global justice and respect for state some convergence has occurred in recent years.
sovereignty. The case of Darfur, in the 2000s, Meanwhile, continued lack of African unity on
shows how UN intervention to keep the peace the issue of Security Council reform has impeded
and provide humanitarian aid can be blocked by progress either through a deeper collaboration
an unwilling host government. with like-minded countries, or the evolution of
the Common African Position.
 Challenges of unipolarity- The emergence
of what seemed to be a unipolar world order
Other factors are
threatened to sideline the UN just as effectively
as did Cold War bipolarity. The Iraq War in some  At the core of the paralysis of the UN is the
ways demonstrated the emergence of the ‘P-1’. phenomenon of P-5 countries (China, France,
 The UN’s role used to be to keep the peace Russia, the U.K., and the U.S.) blocking reforms.
in a world dominated by conflict between These countries are ready neither for expansion
communism and capitalism. Now it is forced nor abolition of veto power.

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 According to Article 108 of the UN Charter, any For example, the U.S. Congress has attempted
resolution requiring reforms or any amendments to influence the United Nations by enacting
to the Charter itself requires a vote of two-thirds legislation linking U.S. funding to specific U.N.
of the GA members, including the permanent reform benchmarks or activities.
UNSC members, or their abstention which further All peace and security reforms, as well as their
makes reforms difficult to achieve. successes or failures, have depended on three
 Many UN member states would also like to sets of actors: member states (who constitute
cancel the P5’s veto power, but they realize that the so-called “first UN”); the secretariat (which
this is a mission impossible, because the P5, makes up the “second UN”); and civil society—
which can veto the UN Charter amendment, will both within states and on the international stage
not agree to give up their veto power. Therefore, (who are recognized as the “third UN”).
some countries concede, and have asked for  Sreeram Chaulia : “On the 75th anniversary of
restriction of the use of veto power by the P5. It the UN, there must be a global push against
is still highly difficult to achieve this goal. ossifying ‘rules’ which have privileged ‘rule’
 There has been no consensus reached among UN of the few over the many. That is the only way
members, including the P5, on how to adjust the to restore some balance between ‘power’ and
Security Council’s structure, and in particular, on ‘principle’ and ensure a renaissance of the
how to increase the number of new permanent UN.”
members.  UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres: “We
 Conflicts like the present Ukraine crisis revives have essentially failed” to cooperate against
whether the UN has been relevant or not. The the immediate global threat of the pandemic.
pro-reform lobby argues that today’s UN is The UN is only as strong as its members’
hugely different from the United Nations of 77 commitment to its ideals.”
years ago. From just 51 countries in 1945, the UN  Ambassador Heusgen: “Only if we manage to
membership has grown to 193 today. They argue reform the Security Council will we stop it from
that the UNSC is increasingly becoming irrelevant becoming obsolete. Broader membership of
to match the realities of the 21st-century world. the Security Council – especially with increased
Members seek the expansion of SC to be more and enhanced representation of Africa – will
representative and inclusive. allow it to preserve its credibility and create
 UN dependency on its members for funding the political backing needed for the peaceful
try to impact attempts to reform the system. resolution of today’s international crises.”

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Chapter - 9.3

Stratagies for Approaching the

Reforms in UN

 The first is to advocate for Council reform “from worked together and drafted the resolution that
above” by forging an elite consensus among the ultimately expanded the Council and came into
P5 and a few other powerful states on alterations force on 31st of August 1965.
to the Council’s composition.  A 2010 Council on Foreign Relations report
 The second is to drive reform “from below” by notes that domestic ratification would be
trying to consolidate support among two-thirds more challenging today, and that today there
of the UN’s members and thereby pushing the P5 is no parallel to the rapid surge of new member
to accept changes they would otherwise reject. states from decolonization. However, the
 The third approach is to advocate for change report argues that similar to 1963, permanent
“from outside”: raising Council reform as an members may still be cautious about standing
issue in forums beyond the UN, such as regional alone on this issue.
organizations, and to create external pressure on  P5 members that do not ratify reform
diplomats in New York to achieve reform. This resolutions in capital are in effect, wielding a
“outsider” strategy can also encompass veto, since P5 ratification is required as per
interactions with non-governmental actors and the Charter. If permanent members today
the media to argue for reforms. would be motivated like their predecessors to
Historically, each of these strategies has borne fruit avoid the embarrassment of being the sole P5
– although sometimes only briefly – in UNSC reform dissenter to stand in the way of reform, this
debates. In 1963, developing countries in Africa and could play a role in future reform scenarios.
Asia pushed for an expansion of non-permanent  The Razali Plan Ambassador Ismail Razali, the
seats in the face of opposition from four of the P5. 1996-7 President of the General Assembly (PGA)
Once they succeeded in gaining a two-thirds majority and then Chair of the Open-Ended Working
in the General Assembly, however, the P5 ratified the Group, sought to push reform forward through
decision (with the USSR moving fastest). Expansion his three-stage plan. The plan involved first
followed in 1965. By contrast, a major reform a framework resolution deciding to add
drive like by Ambassador Razali Ismail in 1996- unnamed members to the Council, five
1997 gathered support among the P5 but hopes permanent and two non-permanent; and
for reform “from above” were disappointed when second, a framework resolution selecting
the Non-Aligned Movement – viewing the plan as a which countries would serve. The framework
threat to their cohesion – moved to block it. resolutions required two-thirds majority of those
 Reform of the Council- 1963. The number of present and voting. The third stage required
UN member states grew from 51 in 1945 to 113 implementation of both framework resolutions
in 1963. The push from decolonized countries through a Charter amendment. This requires
for better representation on the Council both favourable votes from two-thirds of the entire
in numbers and in interests was a key driver membership followed by domestic ratification.
of the decision to reform the Council in 1963. The third stage requires a more significant
Countries from Africa, Asia, and Latin America vote, but the groundwork for the resolution

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would have already been laid in the first two Panel did not state that new permanent
stages. Razali’s plan was blocked by the NAM members would be granted veto rights.
group, which saw the plan as a threat to their Instead, the report promoted gradually
cohesion, along with Italy, who sought to phasing out the veto altogether and
block permanent membership of Germany not introducing it to any new powers.
and Japan. Razali’s initiative shifted discussions Specifically, the report stated that,
in the OEWG to procedural issues, blocking the “the institution of the veto has
OEWG from making progress during the session, an anachronistic character that is
and bringing the PGA’s legitimacy into question unsuitable for the institution in an
as a result of strong criticism from member increasingly democratic age and we
states. would urge that its use be limited
 In Larger Freedom In March 2005, Secretary- to matters where vital interests are
General Kofi Annan presented his report “In genuinely at stake”.
Larger Freedom” to set the agenda for the  The G4 were willing to cede that power
September 2005 World Summit. The report if it meant finally pushing through
proposes a broad package of institutional reform that included their states as
reforms, including two models for Security permanent members. The United for
Council reform. Model A involves expansion in Consensus movement prefers adding
both categories with six new permanent and purely nonpermanent, two-year seats
three new two-year non-permanent seats. with no option for election so as not
Model B does not expand the permanent to create a middle status tier on the
category, but creates a new category of four- Security Council. Even so, Model B
year renewable seats, proposing eight Council
provided a solid basis from which the
seats in the new category and one new two-
UfC group could promote its proposal,
year non-permanent, nonrenewable seat. For
thereby working against the G4.
both models, seats are divided regionally and
there are no new vetoes. Model A aimed to fit
the requests of the G4 and its allies, while Model DIFFERENT VIEWS ON UNSC REFORMS
B was meant to be in line with UfC’s position. CLAIMS AND COUNTERCLAIMS
Neither model, nor other models that emerged
from member state groupings in the discussions
leading up to the World Summit, was put to a
Asian View
vote in September 2005 or thereafter.  Japan’s claim
 According to Jonas von Freiesleben,
reasons behind the failure of this reform  Japan has long argued that as the consistent
attempt include sharp opposition of the second ranking contributor to the UN
US and China to permanent membership preceded only by the US, along with a track
of Germany and Japan respectively, and record of nuclear disarmament and peace
Africa’s insistence on the right to veto, building, its inclusion as a permanent UNSC
which was not included in any other reform member would be logical.
models.  Permanent member China, however, balks
 Luck speculates that the package at the suggestion that Japan has paid its
deal presented by Kofi Annan was dues for the atrocities of WW2II. Under
too ambitious, and that member states the Charter, the Security Council structure
historically tend to prefer to “pick and cannot be altered if any permanent
choose” between options in steps toward member vetoes the proposed change.
reform. Therefore, as long as Japanese membership
 The G4 reform proposal closely remains anathema to China’s interests,
resembles Model A whereas the United nothing will move forward. Additionally,
for Consensus proposal is more Japan has essentially no support from its
similar to Model B. Each group thus Asian neighbours. North and South Korea
began to champion their respective are both fundamentally opposed to Japan
Model. Model A is almost precisely gaining a permanent seat as they continue
what the G4 calls for though the High to view Japan as their enemy.

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 India’s claim AFRICAN VIEW

 India also stakes claim to a seat as one
 All African nations agree that their continent
of the most populous nations in an
deserves far greater representation on the
underrepresented region, one of the world’s
Security Council. Africa is, in fact, the only
fastest growing economies, representing
continent with a unified proposal for
a sixth of the world’s population. Pakistan
reform; the Ezulwini Consensus, adopted in
has long stood in opposition to India gaining
2005. Africa will not settle for less than two
a permanent seat citing obvious fears for its
permanent seats with veto powers and five
own national interests.
nonpermanent seats: one allocated for each
 President Barack Obama’s November other five regions of Africa on a rotating basis.
2010 endorsement of India for a Ezulwini has been reaffirmed at every biannual
permanent SC seat stoked the rhetorical summit of the African Union since its adoption.
flame about India’s candidacy. In the eyes
 The three major points of tension between
of Egyptian diplomat Amr Roshdy, the
the Common African Position and the G4
endorsement was a well calculated political
proposal relate to: 1) the veto rights of new
move because it cost Obama and the United
permanent members, 2) the proposed number
States very little and gained Indian support
of permanent African members, and 3)
leading up to the G20 summit in Seoul.
the proposed number of non-permanent
 Though Pakistan was enraged and alarmed members.
by the endorsement, it is still fully reliant on
 Africa believes that without the veto power,
US aid and could not retaliate with anything
new permanent members would be ineffective
beyond rhetoric.
and unimportant in relation to the current
Permanent Five; in other words, the current
 G4
power balance would remain unaltered. The
 In the late 1990s and early 2000s Japan and Ezulwini Consensus explicitly states that,
India, along with Germany and Brazil, began “even though Africa is opposed in principle
to support each other’s bids for permanent to the veto, it is of the view that so long as
seats in a grouping known as the “G4” The it exists, and as a matter of common justice,
Group of Four (G4) consists of Brazil, it should be made available to all permanent
Germany, India, and Japan. members of the Security Council”.
 The G4 model consists of expansion  With most proposed schemes, Asia would receive
in both categories of membership and three permanent seats and Western Europe
reform of the working methods. Brazil alone three permanent seats – not to mention
and India are also members of the L69 Western-bent USA. Africa believes it is already a
group. The G4 has shaken up the debate major concession to ask for just two permanent
on Security Council reform twice in the last seats out of 11 permanent seats proposed by
decade. both the G4 and one of the two UN High-Level
Panels on reform.
 First in 2005 and again in 2011, both times
pushing forward reform models involving  Africa makes up more than 27% of UN General
expansion in both categories. In 2011 Assembly membership but would only receive
G4 representatives reported that their 18% of UNSC seats. The P5 also objected to
attempts to collect written signatures on a the Ezulwini Consensus proposed method of
draft “short resolution” circulated amongst selecting Africa’s permanent members.
the membership received more than 80  The African Union would like to select a group of
signatures. While their efforts fell shy of candidate states to then be sent to the General
the required two thirds support in the Assembly for a vote. This is how non-permanent
General Assembly, as the resolution was members are currently selected. Latin America
never brought to vote, it elicited strong and Africa are the only continents with no
responses from other member state permanent member on the Security Council
groupings, particularly UfC members but Africa, furthermore, has no representative
who were against the resolution, and amongst the G4 hopefuls while Latin America
renewed interest in the debate. at least has aspirant Brazil.

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 African sentiment seems to be that they are the strengthening the relationship between the
least represented in the current UNSC format and Security Council and the African Union Peace and
in most reform schemes. Much of the tension Security Council – the regional body responsible
related to Security Council reform in Asian, for the same objects as the UNSC.
European, and Latin America relate to the fear  Additionally, South Africa now believes that it can
of mid-sized states who believe that elevating offer legitimacy to Security Council measures and
the status of their large neighbours will not help actions in Africa, which are disproportionately
represent their needs but would simply lower prevalent Security Council issues.
their international status in comparison.
 South Africa believes, Combrink added, that
 Africa, with no current representation, feels other strong African nations such as Nigeria
that it can only stand to gain with the addition
and Egypt could also offer this critical credibility
of African seats. When the United Nations was
to the Security Council. Nigeria holds Africa’s
conceived the vast majority of Africa’s modern
largest population and is one of the continent’s
nations were not yet decolonized, independent
fastest growing economies.
states. The make-up of the General Assembly
has thus changed immensely, and the Security  Given international involvement in the oil industry
Council has not followed suit. in Africa, many believe that oil-rich Nigeria could
offer crucial perspectives to the Council.
 According to Ambassador Roshdy of Egypt,
African delegates are currently focusing on  Egypt believes that its combined associations with
ensuring two permanent seats for Africa and Africa and the Middle East/Muslim culture merit
have not yet opened discussions on which it a permanent seat on the Council. Ambassador
states those will be. It is most advantageous Roshdy opined that ignoring the fact that 1,100
to Africa to postpone that discussion in order million of the world’s citizens are Muslim and
to maintain a united front wherein all African 400 million are Arab when envisioning the
states agree that more permanent African permanent Security Council members would be
representation is vital. not only immoral, but also shortsighted and sure
to backfire.
 In international discussion, South Africa has
garnered the most attention for a permanent  The African Group (represented by Sierra
seat given its rapidly advancing economy. South Leone on behalf of C-10) is the largest of the
African Counsellor Combrink explained that regional organisations dealing with Security
when informal discussions about which African Council reform. The African group is united by
states would hold the permanent seats, South its common position, the “Ezulwini Consensus”
Africa was not initially convinced it wanted to and the Sirte Declaration. Ezulwini proposes
take up the mantle. Holding a Security Council at least two new permanent seats for Africa
seat does bring prestige to a country, but it is with all prerogatives and privileges enjoyed
also time-consuming, costly, and places states by other permanent members, and five non-
in a position where they are bound to make permanent seats on the Security Council, with
unpopular decisions. candidates to be decided by the African Union
and elected by the General Assembly.
 South Africa believes strongly in the UN body,
particularly given its creation in the wake of the  There is widespread agreement among member
apartheid regime. “South Africa is a creation of states that there is a need to improve African
the international community” and that origin representation on the Council.
continues to impact the way South Africa  Regionally based new permanent seats are
approaches international relations, with extreme broadly accepted for Africa amongst the
emphasis on multilateralism and cooperation. membership, with states to be determined by
 After South Africa served on the SC as a non- the African group. The African group is known
permanent member from 2006 to 2008, South to have internal divisions that have kept the
Africa saw that it could be incredibly useful group from moving beyond or building upon
in areas related to economic recovery and the Ezulwini consensus.
peacekeeping given its recent history.  While their regional collaboration has given them
 According to South African Ambassador the power of a strong collective voice, individual
Combrink, South Africa believes its major countries within the group and the group itself are
achievement during the ’06-’08 term was weighed down by the obligation to remain united

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among its 54 member countries. Any changes in  The League of Arab States, reiterated the
position would have to be agreed upon by all, League’s demand for “a permanent Arab
and tensions arise when certain countries appear representation in any future expansion in the
too close with other groupings or are viewed as category of permanent membership of the
straying from the consensus positions. (This has Security Council.”
placed limits on South Africa’s collaboration with
G4/L69/CARICOM.) L.69
 Belgium and the Netherlands generally speak  L.69 consists of 42 countries, L69 defines itself as
as a group in IGN meetings, are active in “a diverse group of developing countries from
reform discussions, and are informally referred Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia
to as BENL. Their position holds preference for and the Pacific, who are united by a common
G4’s model of expansion in both categories cause – to achieve, lasting and comprehensive
of membership, but BENL has also expressed reform of the UN Security Council.”
openness to exploring different models of
 In 2012 the group more clearly defined its
expansion including intermediate approaches. position, bringing it into line with the Common
African Position by clarifying that veto rights
CARICOM should be extended to new permanent seats.
 L69 also supports a non-permanent seat
 CARICOM has become more active in recent for small island developing states across
years on the issue of Security Council reform. all regions. Eleven countries from the African
A communiqué was issued in 2013, that Union, eleven from CARICOM, and two CARICOM
highlighted support for the African position, and observers are in the L69 group.
rather than emphasizing regional representation  The Organization of Islamic Cooperation
for CARICOM, calls for the inclusion of a (OIC) has emphasized that regional groups
nonpermanent seat for Small Island Developing should have a greater role in determining
States (SIDS) across all regions. their representation on the Council. They
 CARICOM circulated the communiqué along with do not speak in the IGN as a group but hold
a draft resolution to this effect. CARICOM’s draft a position in the negotiation text in regard to
resolution is similar to an L69 draft resolution “adequate representation” of Islamic Ummah on
from 2012, which was less widely circulated. the Council.

 The CARICOM draft resolution calls for United for Consensus (UfC):
additional seats to be elected by the General
Assembly with six new permanent seats,  Argentina, Canada, Italy, Malta, Mexico, Pakistan,
including two for Africa and to be determined South Korea, Spain, Turkey and others. The United
by Africa, two for Asia, one for Latin America, for Consensus group originated from a Thursday
and Caribbean states, and one for Western morning “coffee club” of delegates to New York
Europe and other states. from Italy, Spain, Mexico, and Pakistan.
 It calls for five new nonpermanent seats that  These four countries saw the building
are regionally divided, and a non-permanent seat momentum of the G4 states as a deeply
for Small Island and Developing States across all troubling threat to their national interests.
regions, which would be coordinated by regional None of the United for Consensus nations
groups to ensure regular representation of believed that the G4 member(s) from their
SIDS. region would represent their national
viewpoints. Pakistan fears that, far from merely
not representing their national interests, Indian
THE ARAB GROUP inclusion as a permanent member would
completely compromise Pakistan’s interests.
 Which represents the Arab League on this issue  Mexico is not militarily threatened by Brazil
at the UN, holds a position in Rev3, but it is only but, according to Secretary Toni Jacques, “It is
recently, with Saudi Arabia’s rejection of a Council shocking to assume that Brazil ideologically
seat and emphasis on the Council’s failure to represents the entire continent”. Currently Italy
resolve conflicts in the Middle East, that the and Spain occupy a similar rung of power within
Arab League amplified its call for reform. Europe as Germany.

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 As Germany’s economy continues to grow and  Regarding enlargement, the US supports

even carries the rest of the European Union, one modest expansion in both categories
of the only factors preventing Germany from of membership “in principle,” requires
completely dominating European politics is the that all new members are country-specific
permanent Security Council status that separates (not regionally based) and is against any
it from otherwise much less powerful France and expansion of veto powers.
Great Britain. Over time South Korea has become  Russia expresses openness to exploring
integral to the United for Consensus movement, the interim model of expansion and to
partly in response to fears of neighbouring Japan extending veto powers to possible new
with an elevated status. permanent members but emphasizes
 The United for Consensus proposal calls for that the veto should only be discussed
after new members have been selected.
an additional ten non- permanent members
Russia and the US support maintaining
and no new permanent members. To address
veto prerogatives for current permanent
the imbalance of power between permanent members.
and nonpermanent the UfC draft suggests
requiring a majority of 15 affirmative votes  China’s position in Rev3 supports
expansion to address imbalance in
out of 25 members to pass a Security Council
its structure, but only makes a general
resolution.
statement regarding categories of
 The UfC platform is not explicitly opposed to membership, stating that member states
the veto power – essentially because that is a further engage on the divisive issue.
politically untenable position – but privately,  France and the UK hold a shared position
most UfC member states feel the veto is in Rev3 supporting expansion in both
immoral. The UfC proposal submits that if categories of membership as well as
regional groups so decide, their members supporting intermediate models with long
should be eligible for immediate reelection to term seats and a review to convert those
the Council in the non-permanent category. seats into permanent ones. They have not
sought to take the lead on issues relating
 The non-permanent seats would be divided
to reform in recent years until the French
as follows; six to Africa, five to Asia, four to
proposal on limiting the veto in the current
Latin America and the Caribbean, three to
GA session.
Western Europe and other states, and two to
Eastern Europe. UfC reasoning follows that if The Small Five (S5):
nonpermanent seats are eligible for reelection,
they will be more accountable to the General  The Small Five (S5): Costa Rica, Jordan,
Assembly for their actions. Liechtenstein, Singapore, Switzerland Costa Rica,
Jordan, Lichtenstein, Singapore, and Switzerland,
 The basic philosophy of the United for Consensus who call themselves the “Small Five” (S5), have
movement is that the UNSC should be as joined together to propose focusing on reform
democratic and flexible as possible. of the working methods of the SC. Permanent
 As an anonymous South Korean diplomat members can only be added to the SC with an
explained, there is no way to predict future amendment of the UN Charter.
politics, so a democratic, electoral system is  To do so requires ratifying the new UN Charter
the best solution; “international politics is in the Congresses of at least a 2/3 majority of
not permanent, and permanent solutions will member states; an unwieldy, complex, and
not work.” expensive proposition. As states that are quite
small yet nonetheless regionally influential,
 UfC members argue that their solution makes the
these states see themselves as potential losers
most logical sense from an unbiased perspective of a reform scheme that greatly increases
and is the only solution that will work in the long permanent membership for larger regional
term as the P5 are divided on the issue of Security powers. By focusing the debate on increasing
Council reform, and are informally referred to, the transparency and accountability of the
unlike in other circumstances, as the P3 (China, current Security Council, the S5 hopes to
Russia, and the US) and the P2 (France and direct the discussion away from additional
the UK). permanent members.

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 The P5 have not commented directly on the S5  Egyptian ambassador Roshdy believes that
proposal because it is politically unsupportable unless the S5 proposal becomes more
for them to outwardly oppose it but not in their drastic and substantial it will gain no traction
interest to increase oversight of their actions. The because the General Assembly is interested in
G4 agree that Security Council working methods comprehensive reform which will address its lack
should be reformed but are uninterested in the S5 of representativeness.
proposal because it does not include additional
permanent Security Council members.

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Chapter - 9.4

Proposed Models for UN Reforms

SECURITY COUNCIL REFORMS  The third approach is to advocate for change

“from outside”: raising Council reform as an
issue in forums beyond the UN, such as regional
Domination Calls for reform of the UNSC centre
organisations, and to create external pressure on
around two major flaws in the current system: the
diplomats in New York to achieve reform.
makeup of the SC body and the working methods
of the SC. The permanent five members of the
Security Council indisputably continue to maintain PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
a stronghold on the decision making of the Council
body.  The Razali Plan: The plan involved first a
 Though the UN Charter confers on the Security framework resolution deciding to add unnamed
Council “the primary responsibility for the members to the Council, five permanent and
two non-permanent; and second, a framework
maintenance of international peace and security,”
resolution selecting which countries would
there are no explicit limits on veto usage.
serve. The framework resolutions required two-
Since the inception of the UNSC, 59 vetoes have thirds majority of those present and voting.
been cast to block the admission of member The third stage required implementation of
states to the UN and 43 have been cast to both framework resolutions through a Charter
block nominees for Secretary General. amendment. This requires favourable votes from
 At the same time, no veto has ever been cast to two-thirds of the entire membership followed by
stop a war. Many UN member states object to the domestic ratification. The third stage requires a
mentality that the preservation of international more significant vote, but the groundwork for
the resolution would have already been laid in
peace and security has been interpreted militarily
the first two stages.
almost exclusively. Additionally, the veto power
has enabled the permanent members to maintain  Kofi Annan Model- Model A involves expansion
de jure or de facto membership in almost every in both categories with six new permanent
and three new two-year non-permanent seats.
principal UN body and organ.
Model B does not expand the permanent
 Broadly speaking, there are three overall category, but creates a new category of four-
strategies for approaching these reforms. The first year renewable seats, proposing eight Council
is to advocate for Council reform “from above” seats in the new category and one new two-
by forging an elite consensus among the P5 year non-permanent, nonrenewable seat. For
and a few other powerful states on alterations to both models, seats are divided regionally and
the Council’s composition. there are no new vetoes. Model A aimed to fit
the requests of the G4 and its allies, while Model
 The second is to drive reform “from below” B was meant to be in line with UfC’s position.
by trying to consolidate support among Neither model, nor other models that emerged
two-thirds of the UN’s members and thereby from member state groupings in the discussions
pushing the P5 to accept changes they would leading up to the World Summit, was put to a
otherwise reject. vote in September 2005 or thereafter.

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 The G4 model consists of expansion in both has been made to replace it by the creation
categories of membership and reform of the of the Economic Security Council (ESC). The
working methods. Brazil and India are also functions suggested for the proposed ESC
members of the L69 group. The Group of Four include, among others, dealing with economic
(G4) consists of Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan. emergency situations, to considering such major
The G4 has shaken up the debate on Security non- military threats as the degradation of the
Council reform twice in the last decade. First
environment, global poverty, employment,
in 2005 and again in 2011, both times pushing
food security, drug trafficking, migration etc.
forward reform models involving expansion in
both categories. According to the suggestion, its membership
should be limited and should not exceed. It
 United for Consensus (UfC): Argentina,
should take decisions by consensus. However,
Canada, Italy, Malta, Mexico, Pakistan, South
this suggestion has been criticised for not bringing
Korea, Spain, Turkey, and others. The United for
any significant change except for its name. Since,
Consensus group originated from a Thursday
morning “coffee club” of delegates to New York ECOSOC has a comprehensive mandate under the
from Italy, Spain, Mexico, and Pakistan. These present UN Charter to deal with economic, social,
four countries saw the building momentum and humanitarian isms. In fact, in recent years the
of the G4 states as a deeply troubling threat ECOSOC has been dealing at the highest level
to their national interests. None of the United to Governments, such issues like environment,
for Consensus nations believed that the G4 human rights, social development, sustainable
member(s) from their region would represent economic development etc. Therefore, they see
their national viewpoints. no need to restructure the present ECOSOC.
 The five permanent members (P5) of the Security Replace ECOSOC by an Economic Council and a
Council are divided on the issue of Security Social Council. This new Council should have 23
Council reform, and are informally referred to, members. Abolish UN conference on trade and
unlike in other circumstances, as the P3 (China, development, UNIDO.
Russia, and the US) and the P2 (France and the
 The Monetary Fund and IBRD should be
UK). Regarding enlargement, the US supports
modest expansion in both categories of brought within the fold of the UN. Now they
membership “in principle,” requires that all new are Specialised Agencies only in name. Their
members are country-specific (not regionally agreements of association with the UN are of a
based), and is against any expansion of veto limited nature, which require them to function
powers. as independent organisations. As a result, they
are not subject to substantive coordination by
GENERAL REFORMS: PROPOSED MODELS the UN either at the inter-governmental level
(i.e. ECOSOC) or at the Secretariat level. They do
not provide all the information the UN may
The Security Council reforms are still mired in confusion
require of them. They do not give the UN full
over their direction, nevertheless if undertaken will
certainly ensure a better, more representative, and access to then meetings, their heads annually
transparent decision-making mechanism. address the ECOSOC, but they no longer invite
the UN Secretary General to address their annual
 If the power of Veto is removed as proposed
meetings. They have refused to accept the UN’s
by certain nations, it might ensure faster and
comprehensive decision making as well and involvement in their budget making. And they
many regions in the world facing critical security do not feel bound by any decision of the UN.
related issues might be provided necessary This state of affairs is due to the policies of the
assistance without years of delay. rich industrialized states who dominate these
bodies.
 There has also been a suggestion to replace
the UN Disarmament Commission by a Joint  A serious debate on some of these proposals is
Working Group after the General Assembly and taking place in the 185 capitals of the world and the
Security Council on Disarmament. UN headquarters. Unless the UN is redesigned
 Because the Economic and Social Council has in the light of constructive proposals, its
failed to perform its assigned role, a suggestion functioning cannot be improved.

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Chapter - 9.5

Role of UN and Institutions in Controlling

Nuclear Proliferations

Nuclear weapons proliferation, whether by state or Israel, and Pakistan) are known or believed to
non-state actors, poses one of the greatest threats have acquired nuclear weapons during the Cold
to international security today. Iran’s apparent War, for five decades following the development
efforts to acquire nuclear weapons, what amounts to of nuclear technology, only nine states have
North Korean nuclear blackmail, and the revelation developed—and since 1945 none has used—
of the A.Q. Khan black market nuclear network all nuclear weapons.
underscore the far-from-remote possibility that a  However, arguably not a single known or
terrorist group or a so-called rogue state will acquire suspected case of proliferation since the early
weapons of mass destruction or materials for a dirty 1990s—Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, North Korea,
bomb. Libya, or Syria—was deterred or reversed by
 The problem of nuclear proliferation is global, the multilateral institutions created for this
and any effective response must also be purpose. The continued advancement of Iran’s
multilateral. Nine states (China, France, India, nuclear program—despite the implementation
Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United of crosscutting economic sanctions and near
Kingdom, and the United States) are known or universal global condemnation—has elicited
believed to have nuclear weapons, and more serious concerns from states including Israel, the
than thirty others (including Japan, Germany, United States, and Saudi Arabia.
and South Korea) have the technological ability  Additionally, recent nonproliferation success
to quickly acquire them. Amid volatile energy stories, such as Libya’s abandoning its nuclear
costs, the accompanying push to expand program in 2003 and the accession of all of
nuclear energy, growing concerns about the the Soviet successor states except Russia to
environmental impact of fossil fuels, and the the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) as
continued diffusion of scientific and technical nonnuclear weapon states, have been the result of
knowledge, access to dual-use technologies direct government-to-government negotiations
seems destined to grow. and pressure rather than action by UN.
 In September of 2009, the UN Security Council  But nonproliferation as an international issue has
(UNSC) unanimously passed Resolution 1887, recently benefited from revived attention.
which called for accelerated efforts toward  The United States and Russia signed a legally
total nuclear disarmament. In December 2011, binding replacement agreement to the
the number of states who have ratified the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START),
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty increased to 157, which expired in December 2009. New START
heightening appeals to countries such as the entered into force in February 2011.
United States, Israel, and Iran to follow suit.
 The Obama administration had also pledged
 International instruments for combating to win the U.S. Senate ratification of the
nuclear proliferation were largely successful Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and
before 1991 but are proving unable to meet reduce the role of nuclear weapons in U.S.
today’s challenges. Although three states (India, defense doctrine. It initiated discussions with

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the Pentagon about potential deep cuts to the

by ten years. In addition to resistance facing
U.S. nuclear arsenal. Yet even with these renewed
the implementation of Resolution 1540, the
efforts, major challenges and threats remain,
legally binding Convention on Nuclear
namely with regard to Iran and North Korea.
Terrorism—which defines nuclear terrorism
and requires international cooperation to
 The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty prevent and punish such acts—had only
(NPT) is the core component of the global seventy-nine parties as of June 2012.
nonproliferation regime, and establishes a
comprehensive, legally binding framework  Moreover, two important elements of the
based on three principles: States without nonproliferation regime have never come
nuclear weapons as of 1967—a year before into effect, largely because of resistance by
the treaty opened for signature—agree not the United States and other nuclear weapon
to acquire them; The five states known to states. The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban
have tested nuclear weapons as of 1967—the Treaty (CTBT) of 1996 has been signed by
nuclear weapon states (NWS)—agree to not 183 countries but cannot enter into force
assist other states in acquiring them and to until all forty-four states with significant
move toward eventual disarmament; and military or civilian nuclear capacity ratify
 The non-nuclear weapons states (NNWS) it. China, India, Israel, Pakistan, and the United
are guaranteed access to civilian nuclear States have not yet done so.
technology and energy development.  Efforts to conclude a Fissile Material Cutoff
NNWS are subject to safeguards to ensure Treaty (FMCT) to ban the production of
that materials and technology from civilian weapons-grade material have also stalled.
activities are not diverted to weapons
programs. The International Atomic  A review of the NPT in 2010 concluded
Energy Agency (IAEA) is the implementing with modest success. The final outcome
body for the NPT, monitoring compliance document recommits signatories to the
with the treaty and assisting NNWS in principles of the treaty, provides some
developing civilian technology. Although specific action plans for nonproliferation and
the scope and mandate of the NPT and the disarmament, and calls for the elimination
IAEA are relatively broad, there is a critical of nuclear weapons from the Middle East
gap in coverage: 189 states are party to the through the establishment of a nuclear
treaty, but three of the world’s nine nuclear weapons-free zone in the region. The need
powers—India, Israel, and Pakistan—have for unanimous agreement resulted in
never joined, and a fourth—North Korea— some new U.S. initiatives, such as stronger
withdrew in 2003. Thus, even if enforcement verification requirements, being eliminated
of the existing regime were not an issue, from the final document.
nearly half of the world’s nuclear-armed
states are excluded from its provisions.  Despite the broad legal coverage of the Nuclear
 By design, the NPT does not address Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT), a string of failures
proliferation by nonstate actors. After since the early 1990s have highlighted the
the September 11 attacks, the UN Security ineffectiveness of existing nonproliferation
Council (UNSC) adopted Resolution 1540, instruments specially UN to deter would-be
a legally binding instrument requiring all nuclear weapon states. In theory, the International
UN member states to enact and enforce Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) can refer countries
measures to prevent nonstate actors from
that do not comply with the NPT to the UN Security
acquiring WMD. Many states in the UN
Council (UNSC), which in turn can impose sanctions
General Assembly, however, have argued
that the UNSC did not have the authority or other punitive measures.
to impose a binding resolution in this area.  In practice, however, political calculations have
Partly as a result, some states have resisted often caused deadlock at the UNSC, enabling
cooperation with the 1540 Committee nuclear rogues such as Iran to defy successive,
established to oversee implementation of the fairly weak UN sanctions resolutions with virtual
resolution. impunity. Therefore, while all the efforts till now
might have the success of the UN in preventing
 The UNSC, however, recommitted itself to 1540
nuclear proliferation cannot be certified and a
in April 2011 with Resolution 1977, extending
the mandate of the 1540 Committee lot more ground has to be covered in terms of
making NPT and CTBT relevant.

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Chapter - 9.6

International Court of Justice

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE  The court’s primary function is to pass judgement

upon disputes between sovereign states. Only
 The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the states may be parties in cases before the court,
United Nations (UN) and no state can be sued before the World
Court unless it consents to such an action.
 The ICJ is based at the Peace Palace in The
Hague.  Under article 36 of the court’s statute, any
 According to the ICJ’s description, its role is “to state may consent to the court’s compulsory
settle, in accordance with international law, jurisdiction in advance by filing a declaration to
legal disputes submitted to it by States and that effect with the UN secretary-General, and by
to give advisory opinions on legal questions 2000 more than 60 countries had issued such a
referred to it by authorized United Nations declaration.
organs and specialized agencies”.
 Cases before the ICJ are resolved in one of three
 The court “as a whole must represent the main ways: (1) they can be settled by the parties at
forms of civilization and the principal legal any time during the proceedings; (2) a state can
systems of the world”.
discontinue the proceedings and withdraw at
 The judges of the court are assisted by a Registry, any point; or (3) the court can deliver a verdict.
the administrative organ of the ICJ.
 The ICJ decides disputes in accordance with
 English and French are the ICJ’s official international law as reflected in international
languages.
conventions, international custom, general
 All members of the UN are automatically parties principles of law recognized by civilized nations,
to the ICJ statute, but this does not automatically judicial decisions, and writings of the most highly
give the ICJ jurisdiction over disputes involving
qualified experts on international law.
them.
 Although the judges deliberate in secret, their
How does the court work? verdicts—rendered in both English and French—
are delivered in open court. Any judge who does
 The ICJ gets jurisdiction only if both parties
not agree in whole or in part with the court’s
consent to it. The judgement of the ICJ is final
decision may file a separate opinion, and few
and technically binding on the parties to a
case. decisions represent the unanimous opinion of
the judges.
 There is no provision of appeal; it can at the
most, be subject to interpretation or, upon the  The court’s judgement is final and without appeal.
discovery of a new fact, revision. The court’s decisions have been concerned with
 However, the ICJ has no way to ensure issues such as land and maritime boundaries,
compliance with its orders, and its authority territorial sovereignty, diplomatic relations,
is derived from the willingness of countries to the right of asylum, nationality, and economic
abide by them. rights.

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 The ICJ is also empowered to give advisory Within a fixed duration set by the Secretary-General,
opinions on legal questions at the request the names of the candidates have to be sent to him/
of other organs of the UN and its specialised her.
agencies when authorized to do so by the
General Assembly. Although advisory opinions What are the qualifications of ICJ judges?
are not binding and are only consultative, they
 A judge should have a high moral character.
are considered important.
 The court may also be granted jurisdiction over  A judge should fit the qualifications for
certain cases by treaty or convention. appointment to the highest judicial officers as
prescribed by their respective states or
 The court itself has no powers of enforcement,
but according to article 94 of the Charter of the  A judge should be a jurisconsult of recognized
United nation -“‘If any party to a case fails to competence in international law.
perform the obligations incumbent upon it
under a judgement rendered by the Court, the From what regions the judges are elected?
other party may have recourse to the Security
The 15 judges of the Court are distributed as per the
Council, which may, if it deems necessary’’
regions:
 Few state parties to a case before the ICJ (or
 Three from Africa
before its predecessor, the PCIJ) have failed to
carry out the court’s decisions. The United States  Two from Latin America and the Caribbean
also withdrew its declaration of compulsory  Three from Asia
jurisdiction and blocked Nicaragua’s appeal to
the UN Security Council. In general, however,  Five from Western Europe and other states
enforcement is made possible because the  Two from Eastern Europe
court’s decisions, though few, are viewed as
legitimate by the international Community.
INDIA AT ICJ
Judges of the court
 India has been a party to a case at the ICJ on six
 The ICJ has 15 judges who are elected to nine- occasions, four of which have involved Pakistan.
year terms by the UN General Assembly and
They are: Right of Passage over Indian Territory
Security Council, which vote simultaneously but
(Portugal v. India, culminated 1960); Appeal
separately.
Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
 To be elected, a candidate must receive Council (India v. Pakistan, culminated 1972);
a majority of the votes in both bodies, a Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War (Pakistan
requirement that sometimes necessitates v. India, culminated 1973); Aerial Incident of
multiple rounds of voting. 10 August 1999 (Pakistan v. India, culminated
 Elections are held at the UNHQ in New York 2000); Obligations concerning Negotiations
during the annual UNGA meeting. A third of the relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race
court is elected every three years. and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands
 Judges are eligible for re-election. v. India, culminated 2016); and (Kulbhushan)
Jadhav (India v. Pakistan, culminated 2019).
Who nominates the candidates?  Four Indians have been members of the ICJ so
Every state government, party to the Charter, far. Justice Dalveer Bhandari, former judge of the
designates a group that proposes candidates for Supreme Court, has been serving at the ICJ since
the office of ICJ judges. This group includes four 2012. Former Chief Justice of India R S Pathak
members/jurists of the Permanent Court of Arbitration served from 1989-91, and former Chief Election
(machinery which enables arbitral tribunals to be set Commissioner of India Nagendra Singh from
up as desired and facilitates their work) also picked 1973-88. Singh was also president of the court
by the State. Countries not part of the statute follow from 1985-88, and vice-president from 1976-79.
the same procedure where a group nominates the Before him, Sir Benegal Rau, who was an advisor
candidates. Each group is limited to nominating four to the Constituent Assembly, was a member of
candidates, two of whom could be of their nationality. the ICJ from 1952-53.

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Voluntary Jurisdiction of the International the General Assembly, thereby strengthening the
Court of Justice (ICJ)- cooperation in the promotion and development
of international peace.
 The jurisdiction which the parties by virtue of an
agreement or treaty confer on Court is called Sushant Sareen
Voluntary Jurisdiction.
 The two most significant impediments of the
 In other words, when the parties to a treaty or International Court of Justice are that it has no
a contract stipulate that if any dispute arises in power to execute its decisions and it is voluntary
respect of such treaty or contract the dispute in nature.
shall be referred to the Court for settlement,
this type of jurisdiction of the Court is said to be  Thus, in such instances, political will is extremely
voluntary jurisdiction. So, in voluntary jurisdiction crucial since ICJ has no jurisdiction or legal
the parties to a dispute give their assent for the apparatus over individual nations.
jurisdiction of the Court in advance.  In this regard, appropriate and effective
techniques and measures are required to be
Issues devised by the international legal regime so that
the countries holding considerable political and
 ICJ suffers from certain limitations, these are economic clout within the UN Security Council
mainly structural, circumstantial, and related can be brought to justice.
to the material resources made available to
the Court. Prabhash Ranjan on role of ICJ during the
 The jurisdiction of the International Court of Ukraine - Russia War
Justice is general and thereby differs from that
of specialist international tribunals, such as the  While the court did not decide on whether
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Russia has breached the Genocide Convention,
(ITLOS). The Court is not a Supreme Court to as this is a question of merits, it did express
which national courts can turn; it does not act doubt over whether a country can unilaterally
as a court of last resort for individuals. Nor is it an use force against another country for punishing
appeal court for any international tribunal. It can, or preventing an alleged act of genocide. This
however, rule on the validity of arbitral awards. indicates that Russia’s use of force is difficult to
 The Court can only hear a dispute when justify under the Genocide Convention.
requested to do so by one or more States. It  Cynics argue that none of these matters because
cannot deal with a dispute on its own initiative. the remedy for not complying with ICJ rulings
Neither is it permitted, under its Statute, to lies with the UN Security Council, which has
investigate and rule on acts of sovereign States Russia as a permanent member. But just because
as it chooses. authoritarian populist leaders like Vladimir Putin
 The ICJ only has jurisdiction based on consent, don’t care for international law does not diminish
not compulsory jurisdiction. It does not enjoy its significance.
a full separation of powers, with permanent  International law, even if not sufficient, is
members of the Security Council being able to necessary to maintain global order. The ICJ
veto enforcement of cases, even those to which decision is an impactful step in that direction.
they consented to be bound. Moreover, the Russia can keep ignoring this only at grave peril
Court had pronounced itself in texts adopted by to itself.

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Chapter - 9.7

UN Contribution to World

PEACE AND SECURITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 Maintaining Peace and Security: By sending  Promoting Development: Since 2000,

peacekeeping and observer missions to the promoting living standards and human skills
world’s trouble spots over the past six decades, and potential throughout the world have been
the United Nations has been able to restore guided by the Millennium Development Goals.
calm, allowing many countries to recover from • The UN Development Programme (UNDP)
conflict.
supports more than 4,800 projects to reduce
 Preventing Nuclear Proliferation: For over the five poverty, promote good governance, address
decades, the International Atomic Energy Agency crises, and preserve the environment.
(IAEA) has served as the world’s nuclear inspector.
IAEA experts work to verify that safeguarded nuclear  The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) works in more
material is used only for peaceful purposes. To date, than 150 countries, primarily on child protection,
the Agency has safeguards agreements with more immunization, girls’ education, and emergency
than 180 States. aid.
 Supporting Disarmament: UN treaties are the  The UN Conference on Trade and Development
legal backbone of disarmament efforts: (UNCTAD) helps developing countries make the
 the Chemical Weapons Convention-1997 most of their trade opportunities.
has been ratified by 190 States,  The World Bank provides developing countries
 the Mine-Ban Convention-1997 by 162, with loans and grants and has supported more
 and the Arms Trade Treaty-2014 by 69. than 12,000 projects in more than 170 countries
since 1947.
 At the local level, UN peacekeepers
often work to implement disarmament  Alleviating Rural Poverty: The International
agreements between warring parties. Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
 Preventing genocide: The United Nations provides low interest loans and grants to very
brought about the first-ever treaty to combat poor rural people.
genocide—acts committed with the intent to  Focusing on African Development: Africa
destroy a national, ethnical, racial, or religious continues to be a high priority for the United
group.
Nations. The continent receives 36 per cent of
 The 1948 Genocide Convention has been UN system expenditures for development, the
ratified by 146 States, which commits to prevent largest share among the world’s regions. All UN
and punish actions of genocide in war and in agencies have special programmes to benefit
peacetime. The UN tribunals for Yugoslavia Africa.
and Rwanda, as well as UN supported courts
in Cambodia, have put would-be genocide  Promoting Women’s Well-being: UN Women
perpetrators on notice that such crimes would is the UN organization dedicated to gender
no longer be tolerated. equality and the empowerment of women.

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 Fighting Hunger: The Food and Agriculture 1,000 such sites have been designated as having
Organization of the UN (FAO) leads global exceptional universal value - as World Heritage
efforts to defeat hunger. FAO also helps Sites.
developing countries to modernize and  The first United Nations conference on the
improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries environment (Stockholm, 1972) helped to alert
practices in ways that conserve natural resources world public opinion on the dangers faced by
and improve nutrition. our planet, triggering action by governments.
 Commitment in Support of Children: UNICEF  The first world conference on women (Mexico
has pioneered to provide vaccines and other
City, 1985) put women’s right, equality and
aid desperately needed by children caught in
progress on the global agenda.
armed conflict. The Convention on the Rights
of the Child 1989 has become law in nearly all  Other landmark events include the first
countries. international conference on human rights
(Teheran, 1968), the first world population
 Tourism: The World Tourism Organization is
conference (Bucharest, 1974) and the first world
the UN agency responsible for the promotion
climate conference (Geneva, 1979).
of responsible, sustainable, and universally
accessible tourism.  Those events brought together experts and
policymakers, as well as activists, from around
 Its Global Code of Ethics for Tourism seeks
the world, prompting sustained global action.
to maximize the benefits of tourism while
minimizing its negative impact.  Regular follow-up conferences have helped to
sustain the momentum.
 Global Think Tank: The United Nations is at
the forefront of research that seeks solutions to
global problems. HUMAN RIGHTS
 The UN Population Division is a leading source
of information and research on global population  UN General Assembly adopted the Universal
trends, producing up-to-date demographic Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. • It
estimates and projections. has helped to enact dozens of legally binding
 The UN Statistics Division is the hub of the global agreements on political, civil, economic, social
statistical system, compiling and disseminating and cultural rights.
global economic, demographic, social, gender,  UN human rights bodies have focused world
environment, and energy statistics. attention on cases of torture, disappearance,
 The United Nations Development arbitrary detention, and other violations.
Programmer’s annual Human Development  Fostering Democracy: The UN promotes and
Report provides independent, empirically strengthens democratic institutions and practices
grounded analyses of major development around the world, including by helping people
issues, trends, and policies, including the in many countries to participate in free and fair
groundbreaking Human Development Index. elections.
 The United Nations World Economic and Social  In the 1990s, the UN organized or observed
Survey, the Word Bank’s World Development landmark elections in Cambodia, El Salvador,
Report, the International Monetary Fund’s South Africa, Mozambique, and Timor-Leste.
World Economic Outlook, and other studies
 More recently, the UN has provided crucial
help policymakers to make informed decisions.
assistance in elections in Afghanistan, Burundi,
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iraq,
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Nepal, Sierra Leone and Sudan.
 Ending Apartheid in South Africa: By imposing
 Preserving Historic, Cultural, Architectural measures ranging from an arms embargo to a
and Natural Sites: The UNESCO has helped 137 convention against segregated sporting events,
countries to protect ancient monuments and the United Nations was a major factor in bringing
historic, cultural, and natural sites. about the downfall of the apartheid system.
 It has negotiated international conventions to  In 1994, elections in which all South Africans were
preserve cultural property, cultural diversity, and allowed to participate on an equal basis led to the
outstanding cultural and natural sites. More than establishment of a multiracial Government.

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 Promoting Women’s Rights: The 1979 UN  Banning Toxic Chemicals: The Stockholm
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants-
Discrimination against Women, ratified by 189 2001 seeks to rid the world of some of the
countries, has helped to promote the rights of most dangerous chemicals ever created.
women worldwide.

INTERNATIONAL LAW
ENVIRONMENT
 Prosecuting War Criminals: By prosecuting
 Climate change is a global problem that demands and convicting war criminals, the UN tribunals
a global solution. The Intergovernmental established for the former Yugoslavia and for
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which brings Rwanda have helped to expand international
together 2,000 leading climate change humanitarian and international criminal law
scientists, issues comprehensive scientific dealing with genocide and other violations of
assessments every five or six years.
international law.
 IPCC was established in 1988 under the
 The International Criminal Court is an
auspices of the United Nations Environment
independent permanent court that investigates
Programme (UNEP) and the World
and prosecutes persons accused of the most
Meteorological Organization for the purpose
of assessing “the scientific, technical, and serious international crimes—genocide, crimes
socioeconomic information relevant for the against humanity and war crimes—if national
understanding of the risk of human induced authorities are unwilling or unable to do so.
climate change.  Helping to Resolve Major International
 UN Framework Convention on Climate Disputes: By delivering judgments and
Change (UNFCCC) provides foundation for advisory opinions, the International Court of
UN members to negotiate agreements to Justice (ICJ) has helped to settle international
reduce emissions that contribute to climate disputes involving territorial questions,
change and help countries adapt to its maritime boundaries, diplomatic relations, State
effects. (UNFCCC-1992 is an international responsibility, the treatment of aliens and the
environmental treaty adopted and opened use of force, among others.
for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de
 Stability and Order in the World’s Oceans: The
Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992.)
1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea,
 Global Environment Facility, which brings which has gained nearly universal acceptance,
together 10 UN agencies, funds projects in provides the legal framework for all activities in
developing countries. the oceans and seas. It also includes mechanisms
 Protecting the Ozone Layer: The UNEP and the for settling disputes.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)  Combating International Crime: The UN
have been instrumental in highlighting the Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) works
damage caused to Earth’s ozone layer. with countries and organizations to counter
 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the transnational organized crime by providing
Ozone Layer-1985 provided the framework legal and technical assistance to fight
necessary to create regulatory measures for corruption, money-laundering, drug trafficking
international reductions in the production of and smuggling of migrants, as well as by
chlorofluorocarbons. Convention provided strengthening criminal justice systems.
foundation for Montreal protocol.
 It has played a key role in brokering and
 The Montreal Protocol-1987 is an international implementing relevant international Treaties, such
environmental agreement with universal as the UN Convention against Corruption-2005
ratification to protect the earth’s ozone and the UN Convention against Transnational
layer by eliminating use of ozone depleting
Organized Crime-2003.
substances (ODS) such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and halons.  It works to reduce the supply of and demand
for illicit drugs under the three main UN
 Kigali amendment (to the Montreal Protocol)-
conventions on drug control:
2016: was adopted to phase down production
and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons  the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of
(HFCs) worldwide. 1961 (amended 1972),

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 the Convention on Psychotropic Substances- promoting the right of individuals to make their
1971, own decisions on the number and spacing of
 and the United Nations Convention their children through voluntary family planning
against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and programmes.
Psychotropic Substances-1988  Responding to HIV/AIDS: United Nations
 Encouraging Creativity and Innovation: The Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) coordinates
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) global action against an epidemic that affects
promotes the protection of intellectual property some 35 million people.
rights and ensures that all countries are in a
 Wiping Out Polio: Poliomyelitis has been
position to harness the benefits of an effective
eliminated from all but three countries—
intellectual property system.
Afghanistan, Nigeria and Pakistan—as a result of
the Global Polio Eradication Initiative.
HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS
 Eradicating Smallpox: A 13-year effort by the
 Assisting refugees: Refugees fleeing World Health Organization (WHO) resulted in
persecution, violence and war have received smallpox being declared officially eradicated
aid from the Office of the UN High Commissioner from the planet in 1980.
for Refugees (UNHCR).
 Fighting Tropical Diseases: WHO programme -
 UNHCR seeks long-term or “durable” solutions African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control
by helping refugees repatriate to their reduced levels of river blindness (onchocerciasis)
homelands, if conditions warrant, or by helping
in 10 West African countries while opening up
them to integrate in their countries of asylum or
25 million hectares of fertile land to farming.
to resettle in third countries.
 Guinea-worm disease is on the verge of
 Refugees, asylum-seekers, and internally
displaced persons, mostly women and children, being eradicated.
are receiving food, shelter, medical aid, education,  Schistosomiasis and sleeping sickness are
and repatriation assistance from the UN. now under control.
 Aiding Palestinian Refugees: UN Relief and  Halting the Spread of Epidemics
Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near
 Some of the more prominent diseases for which
East (UNRWA), a relief and human development
agency, has assisted four generations of WHO is leading the global response for some of
Palestinian refugees with education, health care, the more prominent diseases including Ebola,
social services, microfinance and emergency aid. meningitis, yellow fever, cholera, and influenza,
including avian influenza.
 Reducing the Effects of Natural Disasters:
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
has helped to spare millions of people from the HUMAN RIGHTS UNDER THE UN
calamitous effects of natural and man-made
disasters. • Its early warning system, which
Human rights are a cross-cutting theme in all UN
includes thousands of surface monitors, as well
policies and programmes in the key areas of peace
as satellites, has made it possible to predict with
and security, development, humanitarian assistance,
greater accuracy weather-related disasters, has
provided information on the dispersal of oil and economic and social affairs. As a result, virtually
spills and chemical and nuclear leaks and has every UN body and specialized agency is involved to
predicted long-term droughts. some degree in the protection of human rights. Some
examples are the right to development, which is at the
 Providing Food to the Neediest: The World Food
core of the Sustainable Development Goals; the right
Programme (WFP) is fighting hunger worldwide,
to food, championed by the UN Food and Agriculture
delivering food assistance in emergencies and
working with communities to improve nutrition Organization, labour rights, defined, and protected by
and build resilience. the International Labour Organization, gender equality,
which is promulgated by UN Women, the rights of
children, indigenous peoples, and disabled persons.
HEALTH The UN plays a crucial role in defining, promoting,
and protecting human rights. It helps maintain the
 Promoting Reproductive and Maternal Health: agreed global standards, identify violations, pursue
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) is remedy, and encourage improvement.

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It does this through a number of the functioning of the UNSC. Bangladesh in 1971,
mechanisms, including: Cambodia between 1975 and 1979, Rwanda in
1994, and several crises currently underway in
 The UN Human Rights Council – The Council Africa and Asia are examples of this.
is where governments and civil society discuss
 The track record of the UNGA to initiate and
and address the most pressing human rights
sustain a focus on gender equality counts as one
challenges. It also reviews the human rights
of UN’s success stories so far. Member states
record of all member States.
have undertaken legal obligations under the first
 The Universal Periodic Review- Under this human rights treaty of the contemporary era, the
mechanism, the human rights situation of all UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),
Member States is reviewed every 5 years. adopted by the UNGA in 1948.
 The UN human rights treaty bodies – bodies  The gender-neutral concept of ‘all human
of human rights experts (such as the Human beings are equal’, found in Article 1 of the
Rights Committee, the Committee on Economic, UDHR acted as the foundation for the UNGA to
Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee support gender equality and the empowerment
against Torture, and others) – that also examine
of women through a rights-based approach.
the records and practices of member States and
-Asoke Kumar Mukerji
consider complaints that people have made
against States.  Another success of the UNGA’s role in upholding
human rights is its decision in March 2006 to
 Appointed independent experts, known as
create the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC).
‘special rapporteurs’ or ‘special procedures’, to
The UNHRC’s major achievement to date has
monitor and advocate on specific thematic issues
been to conduct Universal Periodic Reviews or
or country situations.
UPRs, of human rights issues in all 193 UNGA
 The UN Declaration of Human Rights is the member states between 2008 and 2012.
foundational document that forms the basis of
international human rights law. It sets out the Failure
essential rights and freedoms that should apply
to all people.  Resolutions adopted have highlighted egregious
The UN’s role in upholding fundamental human violations despite efforts to the contrary by
rights and freedom has been somewhat mixed. some members of the HRC. The situation in
While the UN has succeeded in putting together Syria, Yemen, Myanmar, and North Korea are but
an impressive corpus of framework of human a few.
rights documents- both treaties and policies, it
 Subject areas that have been the source of much
has so far made limited progress in ensuring the
controversy have been addressed at the HRC,
universal application of this framework.
including LGBTIQ rights and discrimination on
 Endorsing the principle of non-discrimination the basis of religion.
has been a success story of the UN. Initially, the
 Human Rights Council is being criticized for its
UNGA considered issues relating to the upholding
of human rights, exemplified by its resolution on unwillingness to criticize Sri Lanka in 2009 for the
racial discrimination in South Africa, which was conduct of its civil war against the Tamil Tigers
moved by India in 1946. which demonstrated, serious human rights
violations can still escape sanction.
 Another early initiative taken by the UNGA was to
prevent the commission of mass atrocity crimes  In the three years between 2004 and 2007, the
such as genocide. India, along with Panama and UN Security Council passed 20 resolutions on
Cuba, sponsored the UNGA resolution in 1946, Darfur. Some set up UN missions and others
which mandated the negotiation of the 1948 called for a peace agreement. None set out
Convention on Genocide. concrete steps for protecting individuals from
rape, displacement, beatings, or death.
 While the role of the UN has been successful in
creating the legal framework against genocide,  The UN is failing to protect people from grave
shortfalls in preventing such mass atrocity crimes human rights abuses. It is failing to deal with the
have occurred due to the compromised nature of conflicts that give rise to wide scale atrocities.

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Chapter - 9.8

United Nations Human Rights Council

 UN General Assembly adopted a resolution  It aims to prevent and combat human rights
calling for Russia to be suspended from the violations, including gross and systematic
UN Human Rights Council. • The resolution was violations, and to make recommendations
moved by the US to suspend Russia from the thereon.
Council over allegations that Russian soldiers
 It also works to promote and coordinate the
killed civilians while retreating from towns near
mainstreaming of human rights within the
the Ukrainian capital Kyiv.
UN system.
 The resolution was adopted with 93 votes in
favour, 24 against and 58 abstentions.  It receives substantive and technical support
from the U.N. Office of the High Commissioner
 India has abstained on the vote asserting that for Human Rights (OHCHR), an office within the
India has chosen side of “peace and stands for U.N. Secretariat.
an immediate end to violence”.
 Its decisions, resolutions, and recommendations
are not legally binding.
ABOUT UN HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL
 Membership: The Council comprises 47
members apportioned by geographic region.
 It is an inter-governmental body within the
United Nations system, made up of 47 States,  Eligibility: All U.N. members are eligible to
is responsible for the promotion and protection run for a seat on the Council. Countries are
of all human rights around the globe. It nominated by their regional groups and elected
reports directly to the General Assembly’s 193 by the General Assembly through secret ballot
members. with an absolute majority required.
 Background: It was established in 2006 by  The General Assembly takes into account the
Resolution 60/251 as a subsidiary body to the candidate States’ contribution to the promotion
UN General Assembly. It replaced the former and protection of human rights, as well as their
Commission on Human Rights, which operated voluntary pledges and commitments in this
from 1946 to 2006. regard.
 Commission on Human Rights was created in  Term: Members of the Council serve for a period
1946 as a subsidiary body of the U.N. Economic of three years and are not eligible for immediate
and Social Council (ECOSOC). re-election after serving two consecutive terms.
 The initial mandate of the commission was to  Suspension of Membership: If a Council member
establish international human rights standards commits “gross and systematic violations of
and develop an international bill of rights. human rights,” the General Assembly may
suspend membership with a two-thirds vote of
Mandate and Role in the U.N. System members present.
 It is responsible for promoting universal respect  Meetings: The Council is headquartered in
for the protection of all human rights and Geneva, Switzerland, and meets for three or more
fundamental freedoms for all. sessions per year for a total of 10 or more weeks.

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It can hold special sessions on specific human Achievements of UNHRC

rights situations or issues at the request of any
Council member with the support of one-third of  Country specific reports and commissions of
the Council membership. inquiry: Between 2006 and 2015, the number
of country-specific reports submitted by special
Significance of UNHRC procedures increased by 104 percent and
 Platform for Dialogue among states: The the number of governments issuing standing
Council serves as a forum for dialogue among invitations to the independent experts almost
States, with input from other stakeholders. doubled to 114.
Through dialogue and cooperation, it contributes  Resolution on Internet free speech: In 2012,
towards the prevention of human rights UNHRC unanimously adopted a resolution to
violations and respond promptly to human rights protect the free speech of individuals on the
emergencies.
Internet, the first such U.N. resolution of its kind.
 Special procedures to monitor human
 Special rapporteurs on Iran: It highlighted the
rights: The Council has created or renewed the
mandates of various “special procedures.” The woeful human rights situation there, citing Iran’s
special procedures are experts appointed to extremely high rate of executions, constraints
monitor human rights around priority themes or on an independent judiciary, violations of
in specific countries with serious human rights due process, women’s rights, and systematic
problems. discrimination against religious minorities.
 Reviewing Human rights record: The Council  Resolution on prevention of violations: The
also manages the Universal Periodic Review resolution (adopted in 2020) highlights the need
(UPR), a process through which each UN Member for the UN system to support states in building
State’s overall human rights record is reviewed. national resilience, as well as the possibility for
 In addition, the Council receives complaints council to resort to dialogue and cooperation
alleging patterns of human rights violations, to prevent violations and respond promptly to
which are considered by the Working Group on human rights emergencies.
Communications and may be referred to the
Working Group on Situations.  Recognition of the Right to a Healthy
Environment as a Human Right: In 2021,
 The Working Group on Situations reports
members of the UNHRC adopted resolution
substantiated claims of consistent patterns
of gross violations to the Council and makes recognizing the human right to a safe, clean,
recommendations for action. healthy, and sustainable environment.
 Encourages Civil Society Participation:
Concerns with Human Rights Council
It explicitly acknowledges the role of non-
governmental organizations at the national,  Membership criteria: It requires candidates
regional, and international levels, in the to commit to the highest standards of human
promotion and protection of human rights”.
rights, and states should consider a nominee’s
Therefore, council works in close cooperation
human rights record when voting. Both of these
in the field of human rights with Governments,
regional organizations, national human rights rules are basically unenforceable.
institutions, and civil society.  UN members have very different views on
human rights. For example, US wanted only
Others: “democratic nations” to be eligible. Such a
Promotes the implementation of human rights criterion would lead to debates over meaning of
obligations undertaken by States. “democracy” and would seem to prioritize civil
and political rights over economic, social, and
 Provides advisory services, technical assistance,
cultural ones.
and capacity building in consultation with and
with the consent of Member States concerned.  In any case, the “measurement” and respective
 May issue resolutions calling on States to take ranking of human rights records across states is
specific actions or uphold certain principles, or it contentious. Consequently, Council sometimes
may create mechanisms to investigate or monitor includes countries widely perceived as human
questions of concern. rights abusers.

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 Lack of competitiveness in council election: In Other measures

some elections, countries have run unopposed
after regional groups nominated the exact  Provision of timely and accurate information to
number of countries required to fill Council reduce politicization and build consensus.
vacancies. For instance, October 2021 election.  Ensuring National implementation of international
 Prone to politicization: States generally vote human rights obligations and commitments and
in favour of their national interests rather than addressing human rights situations.
human rights interests if the two should clash.
 Strengthening delivery of international human
Thus, Council remains prone to politicization, as
rights technical assistance and capacity-building
evidenced by decisions that privilege political
support and additional resources for human
interests over human rights protection.
rights reporting.
 Reprisals against Human rights defenders:
NGO representatives invited to speak at the
Council are too often interrupted with harassing INDIA AND UNHRC
points of order from repressive delegations.
 In May 2017, for third time in less than ten years,
Others: India’s human rights record was reviewed under
the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) mechanism
 Council’s closed ballot elections in the General
of the UNHRC.
Assembly may make it easier for countries with
questionable human rights records to be elected  India also presented its Voluntary National Review
to the Council. (VNR) on the implementation of the seventeen
 The submissions and statements of governments Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) under the
perceived to be human rights abusers are taken 2030 Agenda at the High-Level Political Forum
at face value rather than being challenged. The (HLPF) of the ECOSOC at the United Nations in
process gives these same countries a platform July 2017.
to criticize countries that may have generally  In October 2021, India was re-elected to the
positive human rights records. UNHRC for a sixth term (2022-2024). The
 Many experts have also expressed concern overwhelming majority (184 votes in the 193-
regarding some member states’ rejection of UPR member assembly against required majority
recommendations and nonparticipation in the of 97) is a robust endorsement of our strong
UPR process. roots in democracy, pluralism, and fundamental
 Further, it remains difficult to build consensus on rights.
specific issues relating to human rights.
Rosa Freedman, in her book Failing to
Road Ahead Protect: The UN and the Politicization of
Human Rights
 Procedural reforms: Some experts and
policymakers have proposed requiring open Freedman analyzes the contrasts between the
ballots in Council elections to hold countries calculating, paralyzing politics of countries at the UN,
publicly accountable for their votes. Experts also and the horrific violations of human rights they discuss.
suggest lowering the two-thirds vote threshold Besides showing ways in which, the UN is ‘failing to
to make it easier to remove a Council member. protect’, Freedman offers several key reasons for this
 Protecting Human Rights Defenders from failure. The first reason offered is that the UN’ lacks
Reprisals: Any state found to be responsible for power’. The book shows that ‘the UN’ is only as good
reprisals against human rights defenders, and as the states of which it is composed and explodes the
which fails to rectify them, should be disqualified myth that the institution has any significant power to act
from sitting on the Council. independently of its member countries. The diversity
 Strengthening UPR: This can be done through of countries and the different dynamics within the
systematic follow-up and implementation and UN makes finding such agreement difficult. Often
adopting a more rigorous test. It can also be this leads to a heavy reliance on mechanisms with
made a part of the selection process for election much less binding power over states, as agreement
to Council or can be connected to other parts of can be reached on these more easily. Non-binding
the UN responsible for the provision of material resolutions and the soft power of expert Special
and technical assistance to states. Rapporteurs are prime examples of this. Clashes and

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stalemates between opposed groupings of states the UN Secretary-General for recognizing LGBT rights.
cause action on important human rights issues to She is critical of the UN’s failings; she does not cast it
be stalled by politicization. The disappointingly slow aside as a failed enterprise. She suggests, a number
development of the rights of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual of possible reforms to the workings of the UN human
and Transgender (LGBT) persons is highlighted as an rights structures are discussed, ranging from the
example of this ‘Realpolitik’ in action. The strength ‘radical’ to the more achievable. The possibility of a
of opposition from African Group countries and World Court of Human Rights, better use of regional
members of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation human rights systems, and the greater use of political
prevented basic resolutions being adopted for many and economic leverages are all mooted as potential
years. This was despite the unequivocal support of alterations to the status quo.

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Chapter - 9.9

The UN Performance in Containing Terrorism

The UN’s counter-terrorism work in recent years early 1990s against the backdrop of a rise in
can be organized under three headings:, first, a state-sponsored acts of terrorism. The Security
norm-setting role that includes a) the development Council imposed sanctions against Libya in
and promotion of a Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy 1992 over Tripoli’s noncooperation with the
and efforts to counter violent extremism, b) a set of investigation of two airline bombing incidents:
international conventions, and c) far-reaching Security against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan in
Council resolutions imposing counterterrorism 1999 for harboring the leadership of Al Qaida.
obligations on member states; second, capacity However, sanctions against the Taliban did
building activities to help countries meet these not lead to any policy change in Kabul, even
obligations; and third, Security Council-mandated though sizable financial assets were frozen.
sanctions, in the 1990s, against state sponsors  Security Council-led Counter-Terrorism Action
of terrorism, and since 9/11 against hundreds of in the Aftermath of 9/11- Less than two weeks
individuals and entities affiliated with Al Qaida. later, the Council adopted Resolution 1373,
 International Conventions -Starting in 1963, one of the most ground-breaking resolutions in
sixteen international conventions have the body’s history. It imposed legally binding
been negotiated under the UN’s auspices obligations on all UN member states to, among
criminalizing specific acts of terrorism, such other things, enhance legislation, strengthen
as hostage taking, acts against certain means border controls, and increase international
of transport or categories of persons, or use of cooperation to combat terrorism. However,
certain devices for terrorist purposes. The most the Council’s expanding counter-terrorism
recent is the 2005 Convention for the Suppression effort soon attracted widespread criticism,
of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. However, none of undermining member state buy-in for example
the treaties contains a monitoring and follow- the legislative nature of Resolutions 1373 and
up regime. Unfortunately, efforts to adopt an all- 1540, which created far-reaching and binding
encompassing comprehensive counter-terrorism obligations on all member states without their
convention have eluded the UN. This is because prior agreement, elicited much resentment,
member states have been unable to agree on which only recently began to recede. Second,
a definition of terrorism, in particular on the the US invasion of Iraq under the banner of the
questions of whether the definition should include global war on terror delegitimized Washington’s
so called “state terrorism” (i.e., acts carried out counterterrorism endeavor in the eyes of many
by the military forces of a state against civilians) member states.
and whether people under foreign occupation  Broadening the UN’s Counter-Terrorism
should retain the right of violent resistance. Agenda: -In 2005, UN Secretary-General Kofi
 Sanctions Against State Sponsors of Terrorism- Annan tabled a blueprint for a global counter-
During the Cold War, the UN Security Council terrorism strategy that was meant to place
was largely silent on terrorism and much of the greater emphasis on addressing root causes
UN’s counter-terrorism activity unfolded in the and respect for human rights. At the same time,
General Assembly. This began to change in the he established an interagency “Counter-

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Terrorism Implementation Task Force” to ability to engage with the local population, win
ensure that the wide array of UN agencies would hearts and minds, and mediate local disputes.
bring their combined strength to bear on the  And finally, as a high-level review of UN peace
implementation of the strategy. However, it is operations concluded in 2015, “UN peacekeeping
debatable whether either the strategy or the missions, due to their composition and
task force produced concrete achievements character, are not suited to engage in military
on the ground, other than generating a cottage counterterrorism operations.”
industry of meetings and expert workshops in
 While that conclusion is doubtless accurate, the
New York and elsewhere.
UN needs to reflect on how it can adapt its peace
 There have been efforts to efforts to operationalize operations to deliver on their mandate in theaters
the elements of the UN’s global counter- where terrorist networks are present. Among the
terrorism strategy that deal with root causes and key questions the UN will need to confront are:
human rights. These efforts are now framed, at how to identify elements among violent extremist
the UN and beyond, under the new headline groups that could potentially be engaged in
of “Countering Violent Extremism,” (CVE) which mediation, peace and reconciliations processes,
Peter Romaniuk has called “the most significant and how to peel them away from die-hard
development in counter-terrorism in the last radicals; how to reconcile the implementation
decade.” of mandates to extend state authority with the
The UN has accumulated ample experience and need to address grievances of local communities
a proven record of success in its efforts to end which have mainly experienced state authority
civil wars over the past two and a half decades. as oppressive and exclusionary force; and how
However, serious questions arise regarding to adapt Disarmament, Demobilization, and
the preparedness of the UN’s conflict Reintegration programs to the context of violent
management tools, in particular its peace extremism.
operations, to deliver mandates in countries
Richard Barrett, the former head of the UN expert
affected by terrorist insurgencies, such as
panel monitoring implementation of sanctions against
Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Somalia, Yemen,
Al Qaida and the Taliban, who recently concluded
Lebanon, and Mali.
that “[t]he U.N. is too political, too uncoordinated,
 First, the growing presence of islamist terrorist too focused on process rather than outcomes and
groups in many of today’s civil war environments follow-up, and too far removed from the people
complicates the UN’s peacemaking who actually deal with the problems of terrorism
 Second, even where such groups may be on the ground to make much of an impact, or even
motivated primarily by local, legitimate, and to appear relevant.” While it is true that the UN’s
reversible grievances, key powers tend to operational counter-terrorism activities have faced
discourage negotiations with them, many of severe shortfalls and limitations, the UN has proven
them being proscribed through UN, US, or EU a useful venue for establishing the broad normative
terrorism designation lists. and cooperative frameworks for collective counter-
terrorism action. It thus provides conducive background
 Third, jihadi groups have proven difficult
music that can be helpful to those member states who
to engage around respect for humanitarian want to embark on comprehensive counterterrorism
norms, which the UN has successfully employed efforts in line with human rights and international
elsewhere with other armed non-state actors. law. However, the UN’s norm development has
 Fourth, the UN has increasingly become a proven too weak to offset the negative effects of
target of such groups, which has led it to ever counterproductive counter-terrorism policies by
greater preoccupation with protecting itself Member States that ultimately exacerbate the
rather than local civilians and has hampered its terrorist threat. (Sebastian von Einsiedel D)

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Chapter - 9.10

Challenges to Principle of Collective Security

in UN Charter

Article I of the UN Charter calls for “effective about one third membership of the U.N. The
collective measures for the prevention and removal lack of geographical spread of members of the
of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of Security Council, no doubt, has a negative effect
acts of aggression or other breaches of peace,”. on the function and strength of the Council on
 One of the problems of the United Nations the role of maintenance of global peace and
Collective Security system is the unwillingness security.
of countries to subordinate their sovereign  The new organisation reflected the conviction
interests to collective action. “Thus far, that the concept of Collective Security has no
governments have generally maintained their realistic relevance to the problems posed by
right to view conflict in terms of their national conflict among the major powers (Claude,
interest and to support or oppose UN action 1962).
based on their nationalistic point of view.
 The direction of the United Nations Collective
Collective Security therefore exists mostly as
Security system has always been dictated by the
a goal, not as a general practice.” (Rourke and
world’s big powers, especially the five permanent
Boyer, 1998)
members of the UN Security Council. Small and
 Another problem which has resulted in the failure medium powers feel left out in the Collective
of the United Nations Collective Security system Security arrangement as they can only benefit
is the overdependence of the Security Council from the system only when the interests of any
on the member-governments for assistance, of the “big gives” especially the United States are
especially the United States, Britain, Germany, at stake.
Japan, etc. This overdependence has made
 However, its weakness does not dismiss the
these nations act unilaterally in conflict situations
system as wholly unuseful. The UN Collective
without approval of the Security Council of the
Security system remains relevant and needed,
United Nations. The Iraq crisis and the role
but its radical defects must be attended to
of the coalition forces, which was moulded
by admitting the added duty to prevent the
by the United States and Britain is a clearer
spread of weapons of mass destruction and
example.
terrorism, which were not initially conceived
 Critics argue that the United Nations has not and by enlarging the Security Council to take
completely applied the Principle of Collective care of political interests of states perceived
Security on a universal scale. To them, collective as orchestrating these new security challenges
security would be meaningful only if it applied to “since collective security system has always
great as well as lesser powers. remained an idealistic concept which has never
 They question the non-inclusion of any African been defined by treaty and, therefore, can be
country in the membership of the UN Security hijacked by the powerful nations in the lopsided
Council considering the fact that Africa makes United Nations Security Council.

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 It is of great importance therefore, to harp on  To do this is to start genuine reforms as currently

the need to institute a confidence-building canvassed by member states of the United
measure among the members of the United Nations; especially those of them from Asia,
Nations so as to establish the requisite solidarity Latin America and Africa with enlargement and
and cooperation for enduring global peace and representation of the Security Council based on
security. geographical location and power-relations.

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Chapter - 9.11

UN’s Peacekeeping Role-Changing Nature of

Peacekeeping Operations

United Nations peacekeeping is a unique and  International peacekeeping thus has come a
dynamic instrument developed by the Organization long way from the first armed United Nations
as a way to help countries torn by conflict foster Emergency Force (UNEF) which was deployed in
the conditions for lasting peace. Peacekeeping is a Egypt in 1956.
technique developed under the aegis of the United  Over the years, UN peacekeeping has evolved
Nations to help control armed conflicts. There are a to meet the demands of different conflicts
total 98071 uniformed personnel including 84056 and a changing global political landscape.
troops, 12197 troops and 1818 military observers
 Born at a time when cold war rivalries frequently
are functioning in these operations. There are also
paralyzed the Security Council, UN peacekeeping
17277 civilian personnel including 5323 international
goals were primarily limited to maintaining
and 11954 local civilians. There are also 2015 UN
ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the
volunteers and currently 117363 personnel are serving
ground, providing crucial support for political
in 16 current peacekeeping missions. A Total of 122
efforts to resolve the conflict by peaceful
countries are contributing uniformed personnel to
means.
UN peacekeeping operations.
 Those missions consisted of military observers
 Traditionally, peacekeeping relied on monitoring and lightly armed troops with primarily
ceasefires, troop withdrawals, creating buffer monitoring, reporting and confidence-building
zones and aiding political settlement. However, in roles.
the post-cold war, the notion of peacekeeping
 With the end of the cold war, the strategic
has evolved in tandem with an expanded notion
context for UN peacekeeping dramatically
of collective security that includes economic,
changed, prompting the Organisation to
political, and environmental issues.
shift and expanded its field operations from
 This shift is reflected in ―second generation‖ traditional missions involving strictly military
peacekeeping operations which have evolved tasks, to complex ―multidimensional‖
into more intensive and multi- dimensional enterprises designed to ensure the
―peacebuilding‖, as seen in the United Nations implementation of comprehensive peace
―An Agenda for Peace‖1 (1992). agreements and assist in laying a foundation
 The United Nations definition of peacebuilding for sustainable peace.
thus includes and incorporates non-military  Today ‘s peacekeepers undertake a wide variety of
elements designed to foster democratic complex tasks, from helping to build sustainable
institutions, the rule of law, economic recovery, institutions of governance, to human rights
a functional police and judiciary and a free and monitoring, to security sector reform, to the
fair electoral process as well as reforming and disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration
strengthening governmental institutions and of former combatants. The nature of conflicts
human rights protection as well. has also changed over the years.

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 Originally developed as a means of dealing with  Lead states or territories through a transition
inter-State conflict, UN peacekeeping has been to stable government, based on democratic
increasingly applied to intra-State conflicts and principles, good governance, and economic
civil wars. development.
 Although the military remains the backbone of  Depending on the specific set of challenges,
most peacekeeping operations, the many faces UN peacekeepers are often mandated to play
of peacekeeping now include administrators and a catalytic role in the following essentially
economists, police officers, legal experts, gender peacebuilding activities.
officers, de-miners, electoral observers, human  UN peacekeeping operations may have a
rights monitors, specialists in civil affairs and comparative advantage relative to state actors,
governance, humanitarian workers and experts local civil society groups, international non-
in communications and public information. governmental organisations (INGOs), and other
 Women have also taken on an increasingly actors in addressing local conflicts.
important role in UN peacekeeping. More  UN peacekeeping operations’ military component
and more, they are represented in the military, is an evident source of comparative advantage.
police, and civilian components of peacekeeping  Peacekeeping forces can be leveraged to either
operations. In an historic event, the first ever all- protect civilians at risk from local conflicts, or to
female contingent to serve in a UN peacekeeping create situations conducive to inter-communal
operation was deployed in 2007, when a 125- dialogue.
strong Formed Police Unit from India arrived in
Liberia.  The Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi)
reports that UN peacekeeping operations
 Their presence has served to demonstrate the typically also have more advantaged logistical
special contributions that women can make to capabilities than many other categories of
law enforcement. As provided by the UN Web actors and can leverage these resources
Site the latest statistics of UN Peacekeeping to address local conflicts – for example, in
Operations as on 30th June 2014 revealed that, transporting local mediators to inaccessible
there are a total 71 peacekeeping operations all locations where there is a threat of violence.
over the world as on June 2014.
 Similarly, peacekeeping operations have the
advantage of scale; with robust presence in
UN’S PEACEKEEPING ROLE IN DOMESTIC remote parts of the country that NGOs or
CONFLICTS civil society groups struggle to access, the UN
can reach parties to local conflicts that may
be otherwise inaccessible to other potential
There is growing recognition within the UN that local
interveners.
conflicts matter. In Darfur and South Sudan, the UN
Security Council (UNSC) has explicitly authorized  Most crucially, peacekeeping missions maintain
peacekeepers to address local conflicts. In 2014, higher political ground given their status as
the UNSC authorized the UN-African Union Mission the explicit expression of the political will of
in Darfur (UNAMID) to “support the mediation of the international community, as articulated by
community conflict, including through measures the mission’s mandate authorized by the UN
to address its root causes.” Engagement with local Security Council.
conflicts was consequently defined as one of the  Security sector reform and other rule of law-
mission’s three strategic priorities. related activities.
Depending on their mandate, peace operations in  Protection and promotion of human rights.
local conflicts may be required to:
 Support for the restoration and extension of
 Deploy to prevent the outbreak of conflict or State authority.
the spill-over of conflict across borders.
 Promotion of social and economic recovery and
 Stabilize conflict situations after a ceasefire, to development.
create an environment for the parties to reach a Given the proliferation of violent local conflicts in
lasting peace agreement. many peacekeeping contexts and given the inevitably
 Assist in implementing comprehensive peace limited resources of UN peacekeeping operations,
agreements. peacekeepers are forced to make difficult decisions

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about which local conflicts to address as a priority.  Peacekeeping operations have struggled to
Nevertheless, UN peacekeeping operations are not recruit the specialised context specific skills
always perceived as the most appropriate, effective, required to effectively address local conflicts in
or legitimate actor to lead attempts to address local a given country or region.
conflicts. While peacekeepers may have received
 A lack of legitimate, capable local partners to
some limited training on mediation, there are rarely
“own” local conflict resolution threatens long-
experienced senior mediation practitioners amongst
UN peacekeeping operations’ human resources. term sustainability.
Without these capacities, peacekeepers may not
have the necessary capacities to successfully address Recommendation
local conflicts. Similarly, where UN peacekeeping
 Invest in efforts to identify and prevent
operations are not regarded as neutral or impartial
violent local conflicts. A key driver of the limited
actors by parties to a dispute, there is unlikely to be
prioritization of local conflicts is the limited
demand for the UN to become involved in addressing
analysis and information that peacekeepers
the local conflict. And given the short-term nature of
a peace operation’s deployment, and the complex receive on these issues.
nature of local conflicts that often require sustained  Prioritize which local conflicts to seek to
long-term engagement, other actors may be better be addressed. In many country contexts to
placed to support the creation of legitimate dispute which peacekeeping operations are deployed,
resolution mechanisms. there are many different violent local conflicts.
UN peacekeeping operations possess only
Challenges to addressing local conflicts limited resources and must use those resources
 Local conflicts impacted by national and regional strategically to engage with local conflicts.
conflict drivers.  Partner with local actors to ensure local
 Limited political will from a government to address ownership and agency in solving local conflicts.
local conflicts can limit a peace operation’s  Institutionalizing a cross-mission, cross-
efforts, particularly regarding capacity-building. sector coordinated partnership and strategy
 UN peacekeeping operations face access to address local conflicts Cross-unit collaboration
restrictions to some of the regions where violent is critical to UN peacekeeping operations’ efforts
local conflicts may be a risk. to address local conflicts.
 Conflict management efforts without addressing  Increase context-specific recruitment and
the structural and root causes of local conflicts training of specialized skills to work on
are unlikely to have a positive impact in the local conflict drivers, prioritizing national staff
long-term. Standardized job descriptions limit peacekeeping
 Missions often lack the necessary funds to tackle operations’ capacity to attract the external talent
local conflicts or are constrained by administrative and specialized skills needed to tackle entrenched
and budgeting procedures. local conflicts.

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Chapter - 9.12

The Politics of Financing the UN

The UN’s funding structure-Funding from Member century, but it has also been reluctant to tie itself too
States for the UN system comes from two main closely to these multilateral institutes and rules. It is
sources: assessed and voluntary contributions. not that the US has never stood by the UN. On many
Assessed contributions are payments that all UN occasions, the United States has been a supporter of
Member States are required to make. Voluntary
the UN. Starting from Roosevelt in 1945 USA has been
contributions are not obligatory, but instead left
to the discretion of individual Member States. These instrumental in most matters regarding the United
contributions are vital to the work of the UN’s Nations. But it has supported and opposed the UN
humanitarian and development agencies—including as its national interests irrespective of the global
the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), World Food interests.
Programme (WFP).
 The United States of America has the power,
 The UN’s capacity to fulfil its mandate depends resources, and capability to move ahead
on its members’ willingness to contribute
alone but when it feels the need it can go
sufficient funds for it to function properly.
However, considering the vast economic along with a multilateral system as well. In the
differences between them, the scale of their case of Iraq and Kuwait in 1990 it went with its
financial obligations inevitably varies. allies. On the other hand, the US did not wait for
 Some members that end up spending more UN negotiations or decisions during the 2000s
than others are likely to feel disadvantaged post the 9/11 incident. The US government
compared to the rest. As a result, they may be paid little attention to international politics and
tempted to acquire some special leverage over attacked Iraq in 2003 without the approval of the
the conduct and direction of the organization’s UN Security Council.
decisions and policies, and to use the threat of
budget cuts as a bargaining chip.  The United States has been very selective in
assuming new international commitments
 Other less wealthy or poorer members
with the United Nations in recent times. It has
may think that this de facto dominance of
economically powerful members unduly even on some occasions, retreated from past
marginalizes their interests and concerns. commitments with the UN. In December 2001,
 When presenting the UN’s nearly $3bn budget the United States retreated from the Anti-Ballistic
for 2021 – a net reduction of 2.8 percent from Missile (ABM) Treaty, which allowed them to go
2020 – Guterres warned member states that the ahead with their own missile defense system but
organization was being asked to do more with started a new surge of American Unilateralism.
less and struggling to fulfil its mandate.
 Within the most important organ of the UN,
that is the Security Council, the US has always
USA AND UN held a great sway. Even when the General
Assembly has taken decisions against the wishes
As said by John Ikenberry, the United States has been of the US most resolutions were non-binding
the greatest champion of multilateralism in the 20th and did not really harm the country.

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 According to Mahbubani, the international its largest donor. In 2019, the US contributed
community has actually bent over backwards 22 percent of the UN’s core budget and 25
to comply with the wishes of the great power, percent to its peacekeeping budget, affording
the United States of America. The United States the superpower, host country and permanent
has used military force without explicit Security Security Council member a certain level of clout
Council approval, as against Iraq and the within the organisation.
intervention in Kosovo.  Critics argue through its financial contributions it
has sought to influence UN affairs through the
 The UN has been a good place for the US to
active use of its permanent seat at the Security
exercise and extend its substantial reservoir
Council to initiate costly projects, such as the
of ‘soft power’. The UN’s value to the US and
creation of international criminal tribunals or the
the constraints it imposes are a by – product
dispatching of large peacekeeping operations
of the organization’s role in cultivating and
with broad mandates.
implementing norms through a discursive
process that the US has had a major role in  U.S. Congress has attempted to influence
shaping- Zaara Zain Hussain the United Nations by enacting legislation
linking U.S. funding to specific U.N. reform
 Hegemons like the United States create and
benchmarks or activities. For example, it has
finance international organisations like the
withheld or conditioned funding to UNESCO,
United Nations to spread their ideals and values
the Human Rights Council and U.N. activities
throughout the international system and to related to the Palestinians. It has also limited U.S.
solidify their grasp on power. payments to assessed budgets (e.g., the 25%
 The realist focus on relative power explains peacekeeping cap).
why the United States has acted unilaterally at  Some Members oppose such actions due to
times. Some realists completely disregard the concerns that they may interfere with U.S.
importance of international institutions and talk influence and standing in U.N. fora. Others
about the power of the state alone. maintain that the United States should use its
 However, it is the classical realist argument position as the largest financial contributor to
of balance of power that can explain the US push for reform, in some cases by withholding
support for the UN. By being part of a multilateral U.S. funding.
system such as the UN, the US could prevent  Trump rejected the globalism of the United
counterbalancing by projecting a benign intent Nations and viewed certain programs as
towards the world. contradictory to his administration’s agenda
 Stephen Walt and many other realists argue, on Israel, abortion, and other policy areas.
U.S. policy makers have demonstrated support For many agencies, especially those that depend
for international institutions such as the UN, to on voluntary funding, cuts in U.S. contributions
show their satisfaction with the status quo and can be painful. For example, the UN agency
dampen other countries’ security fears, thus for Palestinian refugees, UNRWA, relied on
preventing the emergence of a counterbalancing the United States for about one-third of its
coalition. Walt argues that “the United Nations budget until the Trump administration halted
and other international institutions help the contributions in 2018. The move led the agency
United States exercise its power in a way that is to lay off staff and slash its health, education,
less threatening and therefore more acceptable and food assistance.
to others. Also, the USA over the years, from its  The Biden administration sees the United
civic culture and political mindset, has assumed Nations as an important forum for realizing U.S.
a role of “reformist” of international order and foreign policy goals and demonstrating U.S.
“custodian” of peace and stability in the world. leadership in the world. Ambassador Linda
Thomas- Greenfield, the U.S. representative
US dominance in UN funding and its to the United Nations, has said that “we need
implications to pay our bills to have a seat at the table.”
After his inauguration in 2021, President Biden
 Since the UN was founded in 1945 from the began refunding some of the agencies that saw
ashes of World War II, the US has served as cuts under Trump.

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Chapter - 9.13

Required Reforms in UN

 Reforms in the structure of the Security comprehensive information must be supplied to

Council- Its structure represents an is an it to inform critical decisions on intervention. The
anachronism. It is made up of 15 members, five second involves the decision-making process
of which are permanent members with a power and the inter-relationship between the
of veto, ten elected for two-year terms by the Secretary General, the Security Council, and
General Assembly. The permanent five, hold the UN DPKO. A greater level of transparency
their positions because they were victorious is needed in all the procedures of the Security
allies at the end of World War. They were Council. The greater consultation [with] those
the ‘great powers’ of their day and, in their Members States who are not members of the
privileged position in the Security Council, they Council when their specific interests are directly
took on special responsibility for the preservation affected, More transparency in the work of
of peace and security. They are arguably no sanctions committees.
longer an accurate reflection of the great  Currently, the UNSC functions as follows:
powers of the world, as much for those that the P5 discuss an issue behind closed
are left out as for those that are included. They doors, when they have made their
do not reflect any geographic balance. They are decision, they invite the nonpermanent
North and Euro-centric. No country from Africa, members to read the resolution and in
the Middle East or South America is a permanent certain cases make a comment, then, the
member of the Council. The rise in wealth and entire Council signs the resolution in the
strength of both Germany and Japan gives each large conference hall open to the press.
a claim to permanent membership, although the What goes on behind those closed doors
inclusion of either or both countries would not is entirely unknown because full records
spread the geographic balance. are not kept of the proceedings and the P5
are not required to submit an explanation
 Veto Power - The veto power itself is also for their vetoes. Amr Roshdy highlighted
contentious. For those countries that hold it, it this point in his 2005 address at the “UN
gives them a powerful and privileged position in @ 60” Conference in Pretoria, South
world affairs, which militates against the more Africa; “no researcher will, ever, be able
democratic aspirations of the organisation. to study the records of deliberations of
The veto was a matter that aroused strong Security Council members there are no
opposition and frustration during the inquiry, such records”. The Security Council is not
with a few submissions believing it should be accountable to the General Assembly, the
abolished. “popular” chamber [of the UN]. Furthermore,
 Reforms in the procedural rules for the the Security Council cannot be checked in
Security Council. These had never been defined its decision making by the International
as there was no agreement among the Permanent Court of Justice.
Five at the time of drafting the Charter. First,  Reform in the administration of the UN- It
the Security Council decision-making process is much more achievable than reform of the
must be more transparent and timelier and ‘political’ organs of the UN and it would seem

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that real reform has been considerable over  The Open-Ended Working Group on Security
the last ten years. The reform program of the Council reform is promoting the development
administration encompasses: processes of of greater ties between the Security Council and
greater accountability, especially the institution of the General Assembly Administrative Reform.
the Office of Internal Oversight Services, External The complaint has been made to the committee
Audit and the Joint Inspection Unit; human that the UN is a bloated bureaucracy. It is
resources planning, including a skills inventory; a acknowledged at the UN that the administration
performance management system; streamlined had become complex and inefficient by the
rules and procedures for work performance; beginning of the nineties.
improved systems for recruitment, placement  The General Assembly has an Open-ended
and promotion, emphasizing merit; mobility Working Group on the Reform of the Security
to ensure both flexibility for the organisation Council, co-chaired by HE John De Saram.
and varied career opportunities for the staff; The working group was considering several
improvement in the competency of staff, and propositions in relation to the veto:
in conditions of service and the administration
of workplace justice; and simplified contractual  The veto should be abolished.
arrangements. Both Professor Charlesworth  This was considered an unlikely scenario.
and the Women’s International League for One suggestion to the inquiry was that
Peace and Freedom argue that there is a bias two vetoes be required to defeat a majority
within the secretariat against the employment of resolution.
women in senior positions.  It was suggested that it would be more
 The UN’s funding structure-Funding from possible to persuade the Permanent Five to
Member States for the UN system comes from limit its use than to abolish it.
two main sources: assessed and voluntary  It might be limited to Chapter 7 enforcement
contributions. Its dependence on its members decisions only and for the appointment of
impacts its impartial functioning. the Secretary General.
 Need for reform in peace operations- A  A further suggestion was that it might
number of questions have been repeatedly raised. be limited to international purposes, not
Brahimi Report on Peacekeeping pointed out national interests.
the obvious lack of resources that hampered
 Justification of the use of the veto.
many UN peace operations, emphasised the
need for clear and realistic mandates, and  Germany has suggested that any use of the
heralded the insufficient general strategic veto should require an explanation to the
planning of operations. But it also, and perhaps General Assembly.
most significantly, flagged the need to develop “a  Cyprian Heen- From an African perspective,
rapid deployment capacity” for UN peacekeepers. reform of the Security Council should be in line
The report itself provided the backdrop for the with the Ezulwini Consensus, which proposes
creation of the UN Peacebuilding Commission two additional permanent seats and two
in 2006. How to make future operations more additional elected seats for Africa. Under this
effective, the Brahimi Report suggests: the proposal, the two permanent members would
need for a rapid deployment capacity. be granted all prerogatives and privileges of
permanent membership, including veto power.
Suggestions for reforms  Harsh V. Pant- The security dynamics in the
immediate aftermath of World War II focused on
 The Australian Peace Council suggested a managing a divided Europe and safeguarding
complete restructuring of the Council: only its peripheries from the Soviet bloc. Today, the
permanent positions on the Security Council Indo-Pacific is driving the global economic
should be one from each of the six main regions and political agenda. Global institutional
of the world (Europe, North America, Latin frameworks should reflect this shift. Definitions
America and the Caribbean, Asia Pacific, West of security have changed considerably; the
Asia and Africa) with Australia and New Zealand Security Council has yet to adapt to the new
being part of the Asia Pacific group. These six reality. The issue of UN reform is also linked
representatives should be elected on a rotational with that of ensuring proper resourcing.
basis with a timespan to be decided by the Discussing reforms without making provisions
members of the General Assembly. for adequate resources will lead nowhere.

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 Yu Tiejun- In retrospect, the most important  Joel Ng- The need to rebuild its legitimacy.
prerequisite for an effective global institution Legitimacy involves at least two components
may be a concert of powers. This has been that need strengthening: representation and
true of the Concert of Europe in the nineteenth effectiveness. First, the United Nations should
century, the League of Nations after World War work harder on being more representative,
I, and the United Nations after World War II. In not just at the Security Council (although it too
the absence of such coordination between major needs reform), but also throughout its staff and
powers, any international institution becomes corporate structure. People and ideas from East
dysfunctional or paralyzed. The top priority and South are still underrepresented. Second,
for the United Nations, therefore, should be UN bodies need to better deliver results—such
to avoid a new cold war between the United as public goods—and be recognized for doing
States and China, which would further divide so. The United Nations should do more to reflect
the United Nations and the world into competing the best of human cooperation and endeavour
camps. at every level.

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Chapter - 9.14

Reforms Suggested by Antonio

Guttress in UN

According to the Secretary-General, the overall goal Another charged with operational support services,
of his reform agenda is to create a ‘21st century focused on the on-the-ground delivery of the UN’s
UN ‘that is better equipped to address the complex mandate. This decentralization would aim to ensure
contemporary challenges facing humankind. It should the efficient implementation of UN policy without
be guided by the need to reduce and eventually having to constantly refer back to UN headquarters.
eliminate ‘the horizontal and vertical fragmentation
between the pillars of UN work’ (e.g., between the Development System
UN’s ‘peace architecture’ covering prevention, conflict
resolution, peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and the  Regarding reform of the UN’s development
UN’s ‘long-term development’ work). Instead, the system, Mr. Guterres has called for ‘bold
UN should deliver a country-orientated service, changes’ in order to support the realization of
which understands that, for example, sustainable the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.
development and capacity-building are essential  In July 2017, he presented a report to the UN’s
prerequisites for building national resilience and Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) on
preventing conflicts. He has focused, in particular, ‘Repositioning the UN development system to
on reforms across three areas: UN management deliver on the 2030 Agenda – Ensuring a Better
(Secretariat); the development system; and the Future for All, ‘in which he presented some initial
UN’s peace and security architecture. priorities, strategic guidelines, and proposals for
reform. His proposals included-
Management Reform
 Enhancing the effectiveness of UN Country
 The UN Secretariat must be better organized and Teams (UNCTs) and ‘delinking’ the functions
thus ‘better able to deliver on our mandate.’ of UN Resident Coordinators (RCs) from the
 The current highly centralized management UN Development Program (UNDP).
system (developed in the 1940s and 50s) must  Decreasing the number of country-level
be reformed to better reflect the modern reality offices, while strengthening the UN’s
of the field-based UN: ‘that’s where we do what regional offices.
we do, and where 2/3 of our staff work.’
 Reviewing the funding process and
 Those reforms should aim to promote progressively improving donor State
decentralization, provide greater management oversight.
flexibility for the Secretary-General, and
create a Secretariat for a ‘21st century UN’ that Peace and security architecture
is ‘nimble and effective’ and that works with high
levels of ‘transparency and accountability.’  In the report -‘Restructuring of the United
To achieve this, he informed colleagues that he Nations peace and security pillar,’ containing
would propose to Member States to restructure the his initial reform proposals, Mr. Guterres call for
Secretariat into two broad departments: One charged ‘adjustments to the architecture and working
with policy, compliance, governance, and oversight. methods of the peace and security pillar of

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the Secretariat, with a view to enhancing the  The establishment of a Standing Principals’ Group
effectiveness of the pillar by reducing the of the Under-Secretaries-General for Political and
fragmentation of efforts and ensuring a more Peace-building Affairs and for Peace Operations,
joined up, whole-of-pillar approach to the under the Secretary-General’s chairmanship.
delivery of mandates and stronger cross-pillar  The enhancement of certain priority areas to
cooperation.’ ensure coherence and coordination across the
 The report describes proposals to restructure the peace and security pillar.
Department of Political Affairs, the Department  The introduction of several non-structural
of Peacekeeping Operations, and the Peace- changes in the way the peace and security pillar
building Support Office, and to promote a work daily.
change in the UN’s ‘working culture.’
However, the human rights pillar is notably absent
from the Secretary-General’s reform plans.
The proposals include five main
The Secretary-General’s reforms are premised on
elements: the need to reduce and eventually eliminate ‘the
horizontal and vertical fragmentation between the
 The creation of a Department of Political and
pillars of UN work.’ However, when spelling out what
Peace-building Affairs and a Department of
that means in practice, the Secretary-General (e.g., in
Peace Operations.
his speech to the Town hall event with staff) speaks
 The creation of a single political-operational only of eliminating barriers between the ‘UN’s peace
structure under Assistant Secretaries-General architecture’ (i.e., its peace and security pillar) and its
with regional responsibilities, reporting to the ‘long-term development’ work (i.e., its development
Under-Secretaries-General for Political and pillar). The problem is, by side-lining or ignoring the
Peace-building Affairs and for Peace Operations. human rights pillar in his equations.

Previous Year Questions

1. Describe the composition of the international Court of Justice (ICJ)Discuss its voluntary
jurisdiction. 2022/200/15
2. What measures have been undertaken by the United Nations for its reforms? 2021/150/10
3. Discuss the Sustainable Development Goals as set by the United Nations. 2021/200/15
4. Enumerate the challenges in the operation of the principles related to collective security in the
UN charter.2020/200/15
5. Discuss the significance and urgency of the UN Security Council reforms. Explain the relevance
of the reforms proposals made by the UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres for the developing
countries. 2020/250/20
6. In what way does the predominance of the USA in the UN funding affect its decision-making?
2019/150/ 10
7. Do you think that sustainable development goals are really attainable by 2030. 2019/150/10
8. Evaluate the role of the International Court of Justice in inter-State disputes. 2019/200 /15
9. Discuss the relevance of UN Security Council Resolution 1825 on the security of women in
conflict zones. 2018/250/20
10. Do you agree with the view that despite the limitations in the functioning of the UN, it has
distinguished and unique achievements to its credit? 2017/200 /15

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Chapter - 9.15

The Sustainable Development Goals and UN

 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), include the mobilization of financial resources
also known as the Global Goals, were adopted as well as capacity building and the transfer
by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call of environmentally sound technologies to
to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and developing countries on favorable terms.
ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and  It acknowledges the importance for
prosperity. international financial institutions to support,
 The 17 SDGs are integrated—they recognize that in line with their mandates, the policy space of
action in one area will affect outcomes in others, each country, in particular developing countries.
and that development must balance social,  Also acknowledge the essential role of
economic, and environmental sustainability. national parliaments through their enactment
Under this Countries have committed to prioritise of legislation and adoption of budgets and their
progress for those who’re furthest behind. The role in ensuring accountability for the effective
creativity, knowhow, technology, and financial implementation of our commitments.
resources from all of society is necessary to
 Underline the important role and comparative
achieve the SDGs in every context.
advantage of an adequately resourced,
 The (SDGs) are the “blueprint to achieve a better relevant, coherent, efficient, and effective
and more sustainable future for all”, intended United Nations system in supporting the
to be achieved by 2030. The goals include zero achievement of the Sustainable Development
poverty, zero hunger, good health and well- Goals and sustainable development.
being, quality education, gender equality, clean
The recent 75th UN General Assembly underscored the
water and sanitation, clean and affordable
need to renew the world’s commitment to improving
energy, sustainable cities and communities, and
the global state of sustainable development.
climate action.
Following detail illustrate the underperformance
of SDGs
Means of implementation
 In Asia, a report by the Economic and Social
 It requires revitalized Global Partnership Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
to ensure its implementation. It will facilitate shows the progress has deteriorated on five key
an intensive global engagement in support of SDGs: SDG 2– Zero Hunger; SDG 8 – Decent
implementation of all the Goals and targets, Work and Equitable Economic Growth; SDG 10
bringing together Governments, the private –Reduced Inequality; SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities
sector, civil society, the United Nations system and Communities and SDG 15 – Life on Land.
and other actors and mobilizing all available  Globally, hunger has grown for the third year
resources. in a row. World leaders agreed in 2015 that
 It recognizes that each country has primary eliminating hunger by 2030 would require an
responsibility for its own economic and annual investment of more than $115 billion. But
social development. The means required for now, the UN says it needs more money to achieve
implementation of the Goals and targets will the target and “find triggers for change.”

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 The world is not on track to achieve many risk missing the SDGs and potentially squandering
human-development related Sustainable the UN’s hard-fought credibility. This could also
Development Goals. Some targets are especially jeopardize the possibility of establishing a new global
challenging: access to safe sanitation, upper development framework beyond 2030. There is no
secondary school completion, and underweight magical solution to overcome all these challenges at
children. once, but there are a number of measures that must
 Twenty-eight most vulnerable countries (MVCs) be taken immediately to get us back on track.
are projected to not achieve any of the selected  We need a drastic expansion of communication
human development SDG targets explored here. and advocacy to remind countries of the benefits
Population in MVCs is projected to grow from of aligning national and regional monitoring
751 million in 2015 to 1721 million by 2050. frameworks with the global SDG indicator
framework.
Reasons of underperformance of SDGs-
 The UN Statistical Commission and its subsidiary
 Countries have been slow to commit to bodies need to send an unequivocal message.
reporting global SDG indicators. A recent  We need a new partnership between
report by Paris21 found even highly developed
national statistical systems and international
countries are still not able to report more than
organisations to overcome the persistent
40-50% of the SDG indicators.
mutual distrust on statistical matters.
 The global indicator framework is still
 In this regard, FAO has proposed a new, common
viewed as an imposition by international
data validation platform that would relieve
organisations.
countries from the deluge of data validation
 Countries are systematically replacing global requests coming from different international
SDG indicators with different national proxy organisations using varied approaches.
indicators, making it impossible to have a
common benchmark to assess global progress.  A more flexible yet institutional approach is
needed to accommodate the needs of different
 Regional organisations too haven’t done actors while maintaining coherence and the
enough. A proliferation of regional “SDG involvement of official data producers.
indicator” frameworks by Eurostat, CARICOM,
the African Union and the Pacific Community,  Set priorities- Smart prioritizing and strategic
among others, tend to compete with, rather synergies would allow people to focus on
than complement, the global SDG indicator achievable goals to give a legitimate sense of
framework. victory. Targeting could also aim to address
key goals that struggle to be met in current
 Reports by the OECD, Paris21, SDSN and others
development pathways. Sustainability itself,
show statistics are perennially underfunded,
much like universal human rights, is more a value
currently attracting a mere 0.34% of total Official
than an accomplishment – a direction rather than
Development Assistance (ODA). The funding gap
for properly monitoring SDG indicators stands at a concrete target.
approximately USD 200 million per year.  Focus on harnessing the environmental
 International organisations are not above dimension of the SDGs -Joint solutions and
reproach either. Despite improvements in recent diplomatic actions are required to prioritize the
years, countries still need to juggle uncoordinated development of a work plan to contribute to
requests by different international organisations conserve and sustainably use the ocean and its
that are often poorly timed and duplicative. resources. These types of actions are mandatory
if the world is to secure the environmental
As the UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable
dimension of the 2030 Agenda and thus, support
Development (HLPF) recognized in its September
the progress of socio-economic targets.
2019 declaration, we are off-track to achieve the
SDGs. Indeed, only one of 38 targets assessed in the  Many of the SDGs would be within reach by
UN’s 2019 SDG Progress Report was on track at the 2030 if the world could replicate the progress of
global level. An FAO progress report on the SDGs, some of the top performing countries over the
released ahead of the HLPF’s July 2019 session, MDG era. However, change will need to begin
highlighted the world is off-track to meet the food immediately, and countries must not delay
and agriculture-related targets. At current trends, we implementing the SDGs at a national level.

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Chapter - 9.16

UN & India

UN CONTRIBUTION TO INDIA  International Labor Organization (ILO): The

first ILO Office in India started in 1928. There are
43 ILO conventions and 1 protocol ratified by
 Nation’s agencies, offices, programmes, and
India.
funds working in India comprise one of the largest
UN field networks anywhere in the world.
 The Asian and Pacific Centre for Transfer of
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR
Technology (APCTT): APCTT founded in 1977 MIGRATION
at New Delhi, is a Regional Institute of United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia  IOM assisted Indian citizens who were among the
and the Pacific (UNESCAP) with a geographic thousands of people displaced by the Persian
focus of the entire Asia-Pacific region. Centre Gulf War (1990s).
has focused on three specific areas of activity:  In 2001, IOM’s prompt and effective assistance
technology information; technology transfer; during the Gujarat earthquake planted the seed
and innovation management. of IOM operations in India as a humanitarian
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): agency.
When FAO began its India operations in 1948, its  In 2007, recognizing India as a major labor-
priority was to transform India’s food and farm sending and labour-receiving country and its
sectors through technical inputs and support for importance as a remittance-receiving country,
policy development. IOM began working with migrants on safe
and legal migration, warning them of the risks
 Over the years, FAO’s contribution has extended associated with irregular migration.
to issues such as access to food, nutrition,
livelihoods, rural development, and sustainable  UNESCO - Mahatma Gandhi Institute
agriculture. of Education for Peace and Sustainable
Development (MGIEP): MGIEP is an integral
 With the Sustainable Development Goals part of UNESCO, established with generous
(SDGs), much of FAO’s focus in India will be on support from the Government of India in 2012
sustainable agricultural practices. in New Delhi.
 International Fund for Agricultural  The Institute’s global mandate is to transform
Development (IFAD): IFAD and the Government education policies and practices by developing
of India have achieved significant results investing innovative teaching and learning methods.
in the commercialization of smallholding-  It works for Sustainable Development Goal
agriculture and building small farmers’ capacity (SDG) 4.7 – “education for building peaceful and
to increase incomes from market opportunities. sustainable societies across the world”.
 IFAD-supported projects have also provided  A project ‘Rethinking Schooling’ was launched
women with access to financial services, such by UNESCO-MGIEP with the UNESCO Asia and
as by linking women’s self-help groups with Pacific Regional Bureau for Education in 2016-
commercial banks. 17.

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 The first review of SDGs (4.7) by MGIEP, was  UNESCO: In India, UNESCO has provided
released in Rethinking Schooling for the 21st technical support to several premier educational
century. institutions.
 As part of its World Heritage programme, it
UNITED NATIONS ENTITY FOR GENDER has recognized 27 cultural heritage sites in India,
EQUALITY AND THE EMPOWERMENT such as the Taj Mahal and the Rock Shelters of
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
OF WOMEN (UN-WOMEN)
 UNESCO has also played a pioneering role in
the development of community radio in India,
 In India, UN-Women’s five priority areas are:
having helped to formulate the Community
 Ending violence against women and girls, Radio Policy of 2002.
 Expanding women’s leadership and  United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA):
participation, Currently, UNFPA is placing greater emphasis
 Making gender equality central to national on policy development and advocacy reflecting
development planning and budgeting, • India’s middle-income status.
enhancing women’s economic empowerment,  It raises awareness about demographic shifts
 And engaging women as global peace-builders towards older populations and about the need
and negotiators. to harness the opportunities and address the
challenges of population ageing.
 UN Women advocates for greater participation
of women in politics and decision-making and  United Nations Commission on Human
works with planning bodies such as NITI Settlements (UN-Habitat): UN-Habitat
Aayog to ensure that policies and budgets promotes socially and environmentally
reflect the needs of women. sustainable towns and cities with the goal of
providing adequate shelter for all.
 UN-Habitat’s initiatives in India include
OTHER PROGRAMMES OF UN
supporting government projects on sanitation
coverage in urban areas, urban water supply and
 Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/ environmental improvement, and supporting
AIDS (UNAIDS): Its mission is to help prevent organizations that empower women’s group and
new HIV infections, care for people living with youth groups to fight social exclusion.
HIV and mitigate the impact of the epidemic.
 UN-Habitat “World Cities Report 2016”
 United Nations Development Programme : As per Census 2011, 377 million Indians
(UNDP): In the 1950s and 1960s, UNDP comprising 31.1% of the total population lived
helped establish institutions of major national in urban areas. This is estimated to have risen to
importance, including space centers and 420 million in 2015.
nuclear research laboratories.
 UN-Habitat-New Urban agenda (NUA)-
 Over the last decade, UNDP has focused on 2017 addresses Goal-11 of the Sustainable
building the resilience of people faced with Development Goals (SDG): “Make cities and
the risks of natural disasters and climate human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and
change, and of minorities to various forms of sustainable.
discrimination.
 India launched the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation
 United Nations Economic and Social and Urban Transformation (Amrut), Smart Cities,
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP): Hriday (National Heritage City Development
In December 2011, a new South, and South-West and Augmentation Yojana), and Swachh Bharat
Asia office of ESCAP was inaugurated in New prominently allied to the goals of the UN-
Delhi to serve 10 countries in the sub-region. Habitat-NUA.
 As it moves up the development ladder, India  United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF): In
has been sharing its experience and capabilities 1954, UNICEF signed an agreement with the
with fellow developing countries in the region Government of India to fund the Aarey and
and beyond, using ESCAP’s platform for this Anand milk processing plants. In return, free
purpose. and subsidized milk would be provided to needy

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children in the area. Within a decade, India had  UNHCR’s urban operation is based in New
thirteen UNICEF assisted milk processing plants. Delhi with a smaller presence in Chennai
Today, India has become the world’s largest that helps Sri Lankan refugees in Tamil Nadu
producer of milk. voluntarily repatriate back to Sri Lanka.
 Polio Campaign-2012: The Government, in  In the absence of a national legal
partnership with UNICEF, the World Health framework for refugees, UNHCR conducts
Organization (WHO), the Bill & Melinda Gates refugee status determination under its
Foundation, Rotary International and the Centers mandate for asylum seekers who approach
for Disease Control and Prevention contributed the Office.
to almost universal awareness of the need to
 The two largest groups of refugees
vaccinate all children under five against polio.
recognized by UNHCR are Afghans and
As a result of these efforts, India was removed
Myanmar nationals, but people from
from the list of endemic countries in 2014.
countries as diverse as Somalia and Iraq
 It is also supporting nationwide campaigns on have also sought help from the Office.
maternal and child nutrition and the reduction
 United Nations Military Observer Group
of neonatal mortality and stillbirth rates to single
in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP): Under
digits by 2030.
the scheme of partition provided by the
 United Nations Industrial Development Indian Independence Act of 1947, Kashmir
Organization (UNIDO): The programme, was free to accede to India or Pakistan.
Integrated Approach Programme on Its accession to India became a matter of
Sustainable Cities-2017 funded by the Global dispute between the two countries and
Environment Facility and co-implemented by fighting broke out later that year.
the World Bank and UNIDO.
 In January 1948, the Security Council adopted
 World Food Programme (WFP): WFP is working
resolution 39, establishing the United Nations
to improve the efficiency, accountability and
Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) to
transparency of India’s own subsidized food
investigate and mediate the dispute.
distribution system, which brings supplies of
wheat, rice, sugar and kerosene oil to around  The first team of unarmed military observers,
800 million poor people across the country. which eventually formed the nucleus of the
United Nations Military Observer Group in India
 World Health Organization (WHO) : India
and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), arrived in the mission
became a party to the WHO Constitution on
area in January 1949 to supervise, in the State
12 January 1948. The WHO Country Office for
of Jammu and Kashmir, the ceasefire between
India is headquartered in Delhi with country-
wide presence. • It has also been instrumental India and Pakistan and to assist the Military
in the country’s transition from hospital-based Adviser to UNCIP.
to community-based care and the resultant  At the end of 1971, hostilities broke out again
increase in health posts and centres focusing on between India and Pakistan. UNMOGIP started
primary care. along the borders of East Pakistan and were
 The WHO Country Cooperation Strategy – related to the movement for independence,
India (2012-2017) has been jointly developed which had developed in that region, and which
by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare ultimately led to the creation of Bangladesh.
(MoH&FW) and the WHO Country Office for  The last report of the Secretary-General to the
India (WCO). Security Council on UNMOGIP was published in
 United Nations High Commissioner for 1972.
Refugees (UNHCR)  Since 1972, India has adopted a non-recognition
 India has a long tradition of receiving policy towards third parties in their bilateral
refugees that goes back centuries. exchanges with Pakistan over the question
regarding the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
 UNHCR’s support to India dates back to
1969-1975 when it coordinated aid to  The military authorities of Pakistan have
Tibetan refugees as well as refugees from continued to lodge alleged ceasefire violations
then East Pakistan. complaints with UNMOGIP.

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 The military authorities of India have lodged  India was among the most outspoken critics of
no complaints since January 1972 limiting the apartheid and racial discrimination (discriminatory
activities of the UN observers on the Indian- treatment of Indians in the Union of South Africa)
administered side of the Line of Control, though in South Africa, being the first country to have
they continue to provide necessary security, raised the issue in the UN in 1946.
transport, and other services to UNMOGIP.  India took an active part in Drafting of the
 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Universal Declaration of Human Rights-1948.
(UNODC): UNODC has worked in India over the  Its experience with the UN had not always been
last 25 years to address drug trafficking in the positive. On Kashmir issue, Nehru’s faith in
context of a constantly evolving drug market, the UN and adherence to its principles proved
involving an increasing number of drugs and costly as UN that was packed with pro-Pakistani
psychoactive substances. partisan powers.
 It also works with the government to address  Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit was elected the first
human trafficking, and the prevention, treatment woman President of the UN General Assembly
and care of persons who use drugs and live with in 1953.
HIV.
 India’s status as a founding member of the
 United Nations Conference on Trade and Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Group
Development (UNCTAD): Invest India, the of 77 (G 77) cemented its position within the
country’s investment promotion body, has won UN system as a leading advocate of the concerns
United Nations (UN) Award for excellence and aspirations of developing countries and the
in promoting investments in sustainable creation of a more equitable international
development-2018. economic and political order.
 The awards are given annually by UNCTAD since  It involved in conflict with China (1962), two wars
2002 as part of its investment promotion and (1965, 1971) with Pakistan and entered a period
facilitation. of political instability, economic stagnation,
 India’s consistently strong voice for the food shortages and near-famine conditions.
developing world has made it a major player with  India’s role diminished in the UN which came
UNCTAD, spanning a multiplicity of economic both as a result of its image and a deliberate
reforms. decision by the post-Nehru political leadership
to adopt a low profile at the UN and speak
INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO UN only on vital Indian interests.
 India has been a member of the UN Security
 India was one of the original members of the Council for seven terms (a total of 14 years), with
League of Nations. As a signatory of the Treaty the most recent being the 2011–12 term.
of Versailles-1919, India was granted automatic  India is a member of G4 (Brazil, Germany,
entry to the League of Nations. India, and Japan), a group of nations who back
 India was represented by her Secretary of State, each other in seeking a permanent seat on the
Edwin Samuel Montagu; the Maharaja of Bikaner Security Council and advocate in favor of the
Sir Ganga Singh; Satyendra Prasanno Sinha, reformation of the UNSC.
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for India.  The Russian Federation, United States, United
 India was among the original members of the Kingdom, and France support India and the other
United Nations that signed the Declaration by G4 countries gaining permanent seats.
United Nations at Washington, D.C. in 1944.  India is also part of the G-77.
This declaration became the basis of the United  The Group of 77 (G-77) was established on 15
Nations (UN), which was formalized in the June 1964 by seventy-seven developing countries
United Nations Charter signed by 50 countries signatories of the “Joint Declaration of the
in 1945. Seventy-Seven Developing Countries”. • It is
 By 1946, India had started raising concerns designed to promote its members’ collective
regarding colonialism, apartheid, and racial economic interests and create an enhanced joint
discrimination. negotiating capacity in the United Nations.

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 Because of the historical significance, the name remain claimants to UNSC seats—including two
G-77 has been kept despite the group’s growth (unnamed so far) from the African Union and an
to include more than 130 countries. Arab/Islamic country
 UN peacekeeping missions: From protecting  It is unacceptable that India, with a population of
civilians, disarming ex-combatants, and helping 1.2 billion, a $2 trillion economy, the third largest
countries transition from conflict to peace, India country in terms of purchasing power parity, a
has served the cause of peace. nuclear weapons power with the third largest
standing army in the world, and a major contributor
 At present (2019), India is the third largest troop
to the UN’s peacekeeping missions, is not a
contributor with 6593 personnel deployed with
member of the UNSC—that too when economically
UN Peacekeeping Missions (Lebanon, Congo,
and morally exhausted nations like France and UK
Sudan and South Sudan, Golan Heights, Ivory
remain on the council. India has already been a non-
Coast, Haiti, Liberia). permanent member of the Council for Seven times
 India has suffered the highest number of fatalities and has gathered sufficient and more experience in
(164 out of close to 3,800 personnel) among peace keeping as compared to any of the existing
countries that have sent forces to the United permanent members.
Nations peacekeeping mission since 1948. •  In the past few months, India has taken up the
Mahatma Gandhi has had a lasting influence on issue of “changing mandates” and a lack of
the United Nations. His ideals of non-violence consultation by the Security Council that appoints
deeply influenced the United Nations at the time the missions. In particular, India had objected
of its inception. after the killing of three Indian peacekeepers,
 In 2007, the United Nations declared 2nd or “blue helmets,” in South Sudan when rebels
October, Mahatma’s Gandhi’s birthday, as the attacked their base, while 39 have been killed on
International Day of Non-violence. peacekeeping duty in the Congo.
 In 2014, the UN General Assembly adopted  At the U.N. General Assembly this year, India had
a resolution commemorating 21 June as the called for a greater role in the decision making
International Yoga Day. about peacekeeping operations, especially in
areas of internal political conflict.
 It recognizes the holistic benefits of this timeless
practice and its inherent compatibility with the  With 8,132 soldiers on UN missions, India is
principles and values of the United Nations. the third largest contributor of peacekeeping
forces, after Bangladesh and Pakistan. It
 Plea for International Equality Day: In 2016, has suffered the highest casualties in UN
with focus on combating inequalities to peacekeeping operations, with an estimated
achieve Sustainable Development Goals, B. R. 157 Indian soldiers being killed since 1950.
Ambedkar’s birth anniversary was observed at Not to mention the massive economic costs
the United Nations for the first time. India has incurred in such missions. The move for a bigger
made a plea to declare April 14 as International role in deciding UN peacekeeping mandates is
Equality Day. seen as part of the bigger push by India for a
permanent seat at the Security Council.
INDIA’S CLAIM TO UNSC SEAT AND UN
PEACEKEEPING HAS THIS SACRIFICE ON PART OF INDIA
CONSOLIDATED INDIA’S CLAIM IN THE
 India has been one of the largest contributors UNSC FOR PERMANENT MEMBERSHIP?
to United Nations peace operations since the
1950s. Despite this, there has been little debate
in the Indian strategic and academic communities Pro arguments
about the country’s political commitment to
 India’s unsurpassed role in peace keeping shows
international peace operations.
its intent and commitment to world peace,
 Since 1955, India has claimed permanent even at the cost of the lives of its own soldiers.
representation in the UNSC. In later years, two of Compared to the existing permanent members
the defeated former powers, Japan, and Germany, in the Security Council, India has sacrificed more
have also staked a similar claim, as has emerging in terms of men and material thereby validating
power Brazil. Numerous other countries also its rightful claim to a permanent seat.

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 The Indian contribution shows its unwavering actor in global politics that needs substantial
faith in the principles and goals of United Indian diplomatic investment. While this
Nations, an essential prerequisite for a Permanent fascination with a moribund institution may not
member of the Security Council which continues have had any cost in the past when India was
to be a victim of impasse and flagrant violations on the periphery of global politics, a rising India
by members like Russia, USA, and China when it of today cannot afford to cling on to that same
comes to protecting their own interests. old worldview. Yet India continues to expend
its precious diplomatic capital on pursuing
 Our contribution reaffirms our faith in the
permanent membership in the Security Council.
doctrine of Collective security and our belief
in the ideal of cooperation against common  India’s experience with the UN has historically
threats to the world community. been underwhelming, to put it mildly. Indian
national interests have suffered whenever
 Most of the missions have been conducted in the
the nation has looked to the UN for support.
African region, a region thoroughly neglected
As the Nehruvian idealism has gradually been
by the P5 in terms of security and peace while
replaced by a more confident assertion of Indian
they continue to provide more than necessary
national interests, it is time for India to make a
intervention in the Middle East. At the same time,
more forceful dissociation from the perfunctory
Indian efforts have illustrated that it gives
modalities of the UN.
primal importance to world most economically
backward region which continues to face internal  Too much of a UN-fixation is not good for the
as well as external conflict as well state and non- health of any nation, much less for a rising power
state sponsored human right violations. like India. Indian interests today are global and
ever-expanding. And the Indian government
 India’s extensive experience gained over numerous should have the self-confidence to declare that
years and missions equips it fully to tackle any these interests will be protected and enhanced,
crisis or challenge in future while functioning as a irrespective of the priorities of other external
permanent Security Council member. actors. The Indian government is the only
legitimate constitutional authority to decide
Anti- Arguments when and how to use its instruments of power.
And by and large there is only one criterion
 In spite of massive commitment of India to the
that it should use: preservation of vital Indian
peacekeeping operations in the African region,
interests.
hardly any concrete support has come for it
claim in the UNSC.  The UN is an international organization that was
established in the aftermath of World War II and
 The Reform process at UN is moving at a snail’s
so reflects the distribution of power of that era.
pace and has hit major roadblocks in form
The Security Council, where the real power lies,
of opposition by China and UFC group. India
has five permanent members with veto powers
should focus on handling these challenges
who use the organization to further their own
diplomatically instead of wasting valuable
interests. The General Assembly, for all its
resources and sacrificing well trained troops for
pretensions, remains a mere talking shop.
nations which hardly reciprocate India’s efforts
The state of affairs in the UN is so pathetic
at Global forums. that apart from some of its technical bodies,
 Pakistan is world largest contributor in peace the rest of the organization is a farce. The UN
keeping operations although its causalities are Human Rights Council has had members like
far less than India, and its continued opposition Sudan, Zimbabwe, China, and Saudi Arabia: all
to Indian claim dilutes our peacekeeping mission with horrendous human rights credentials.
value in terms of furthering our cause at UNSC.  Indian leadership continues to give the impression
that the role it sees for India in global security is
WHY SHOULD INDIA NOT INVEST not shaped by its own assessment of its interests
and values, but by the judgements of global
MORE POLITICAL CAPITAL FOR UNSC
institutions like the UN. No major power takes
MEMBERSHIP? UN Peacekeeping Operations seriously. Yet India
continues to be one of the largest contributors
 Even as the UN’s failures have become self- to these peacekeeping contingents, sending
evident over the years, Indian political elites nearly 180,000 peacekeepers to 44 missions over
continue to view it as an almost indispensable the years.

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 Indian forces working for the UN have suffered the Security Council. But what has India achieved
more casualties than any other nation. Indian in reality? Despite its involvement in numerous
policymakers argue that this is being done not peacekeeping operations in Africa for decades,
for any strategic gain but in the service of global the African states refused to support India’s
ideals – “strengthening the world-body, and candidature. Given China’s growing economic and
international peace and security.” Why should military hold over Africa, the states in the region
global peace and security be a priority for were merely pursuing their own interests. India’s
Indian government, a government that has candidature for permanent membership on
the Security Council will be taken seriously
continued to fail miserably in establishing
only when India becomes an economic and
domestic order and internal security?
military power of global reckoning, able to
 There was always a calculation that being a protect and enhance its interests unilaterally.
leader in UN Peacekeeping would help India in Until then, Modi’s power diplomacy at the G4
its drive towards the permanent membership of will have little meaning.

Previous Year Questions

1. Explain the factors which justify India’s claim for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council.
2022/200/15
2. Explain the India’s importance of India’s claim for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.
2020/200/15
3. Analyze the recent trends in India’s role in the UN peacekeeping operations. 2019 /200 /15
4. Discuss the various impediments in India’s way to a permanent seat in the Security Council.
2018/200 /15
5. “India has been the largest and consistent country contributing to the UN peacekeepers
worldwide.” Examine India’s role in this perspective. 2017/150 /10
6. Uniting for Consensus’ also known as ‘Coffee Club’ has opposed the claims of India and other
countries over permanent membership of the UN Security Council. Point out their major
objections.2017/200/15

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10
Regionalisation of
World Politics
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Chapter - 10.1

Regionalisation of World Politics

Regionalisation of Global Politics

 The term regionalization is often used to refer regionalism is a way of life, it is a self-conscious
to ‘the growth of societal integration within a process.”
region and the often-undirected processes of  According to W.P. Scott. “Regionalism is an
social and economic interaction’ (Hurrell). approach to study the behaviour that emphasizes
 Marshall E. Dimock considers regionalism the geographical region as the unit of analysis,
“as a clustering of environmental, economic, stressing the relationship between man and his
social and governmental factors to such an immediate physical environment. Economic social
extent that a distinct consciousness of separate and cultural organisations are analyzed in terms
identity within the whole, a need for autonomous of their interrelationships and functions within the
planning, a manifestation of cultural peculiarities geographic region.”
and a desire for administrative freedom, are
 Regionalism broadly is a process through which
theoretically recognized and actually put into
geographical regions become significant
effect. Regionalism is something which remains
to be realized and further developed, as well as political and/or economic units, serving as the
a phenomenon which has already appeared and basis for cooperation and, possibly, identity.
taken form. In one sense, and perhaps the best one, Regionalism has two faces, however.

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 First, it is a sub-national phenomenon, a  It is the primary form of regional integration,

process of decentralization that takes place and it has become more so since the advent
within countries. This applies, for example, in the of so-called ‘new’ regionalism in the early
case of states that practice federalism. 1990s, manifested in the growth of regional
 The second face of regionalism is transnational trade blocs and the deepening of existing
rather than sub-national. In this, regionalism trade blocs.
refers to a process of cooperation or integration  In most cases, these trade agreements establish
between countries in the same region of the free trade areas, but in other cases, they may
world such as the Association of South-East Asian
establish customs unions or common markets.
Nations (ASEAN), the Southern African Customs
Such agreements are accepted by the WTO
Union and the Central American Common
as the only exception to its principle of equal
Market, while others are transcontinental, such
as Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and treatment for all trading partners, based on
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). granting all WTO members ‘most favoured
nation’ status
 An alternative basis for regional identity is
socio-cultural, reflecting similarities in religion, Security regionalism
language, history, or even ideological belief
amongst a number of neighbouring states.  It refers to forms of cooperation designed
Cultural identity is particularly important in the to protect states from their enemies, both
case of bodies such as the Arab League and the neighbouring and distant ones.
Nordic Council. In this view, a region may even
be the geographical expression of civilization,  Regional integration may thus give rise to what
as implied by Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations Karl Deutsch called a ‘security community.
thesis. This applies in two ways.
 However, economic integration in particular  First, regional bodies seek to enmesh their
has often focused on establishing cooperation members within a system of ‘peace through
among countries that were formerly hostile to cooperation’, in whichever deeper levels of
one another or which are divided in terms of interdependence and integration, particularly
their cultural or ideological identity. over economic matters, make war between
 Like the nation, the region is an ‘imagined member states unthinkable.
community’ (Anderson). Ultimately, ‘Europe’,  The other security motivation behind regional
‘Africa’, ‘Asia’, and ‘Latin America’ are ideas, not cooperation is the desire to gain protection
concrete geographical, political, economic, or against a common external enemy. European
cultural entities. integration was thus seen as a means of
 Being political constructs, regions are almost safeguarding Europe from the threat of Soviet
endlessly fluid, capable of being redefined and expansionism; ASEAN’s original role involved
reshaped, both as the extent and purposes of providing mutual defense against communism.
cooperation change over time and as new
members join or existing members leave. Political regionalism
 This also explains why regional identities are
often contested. Regionalism takes different  It refers to attempts by states in the same area to
forms depending on the primary areas over strengthen or protect shared values, thereby
which neighbouring states choose to cooperate. enhancing their image and reputation and
gaining a more powerful diplomatic voice.
 Three types of regionalism can thus be identified:
Economic regionalism, Security regionalism If regionalism has supporters among functionalists,
& Political regionalism. neo functionalists and federalists, there have been
counterclaims as to the desirability of regionalism.
FORMS OF REGIONALISATION The universalists question the relevance and utility
of regional organisations while placing their faith in
global international organisations to address and
Economic regionalism
solve problems of both regional and international
 It refers to the creation of greater economic nature. Critics also contend that excessive emphasis
opportunities through cooperation among on regionalism leads to inward looking, closed
states in the same geographical region. organisations that foster greater domination by big

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powers within the region. Hence, the assumption that Neofunctionalism

smaller states come together to protect themselves
against bigger, dominant powers within or outside the  As a result of these deficiencies, a growing
region is an oversimplified assumption. The empirical emphasis has therefore been placed on what
evidence of regional groupings so far suggests is called neo-functionalism. In the writings
that in the security arena, bigger and stronger in particular of Haas, neo-functionalism
recognizes the limitations of the traditional
powers acquire an additional forum for influence
functionalist idea that integration is largely
and domination leading to greater concentration
determined by a recognition of growing
of power than ever before.
interdependence in economic and other areas.
Instead, it places greater emphasis on the
Why Regionalism : Theories To Explain
interplay between economics and politics.
Regionalism
What drives Regionalization: A Factual
Federalism Examination
 Federalism is the earliest theory of regional or
even global integration, being advocated from  The prospects for political regionalism and
the eighteenth century onwards by political regional governance are driven by a combination
thinkers such as G. W. F. Hegel and Jean- of internal and external factors. The former
Jacques Rousseau , and drawing inspiration relates to those factors that characterize the
region itself. External factors, however, relate to
from its use in domestic politics as a device
events that originate from outside of the region
for reconciling tensions between the centre
(such as the 2007–08 Global Financial Crisis).
and the periphery.
 The internal forces that shape regional
 As an explanation for regional or international
governance may be far greater in one area of the
cooperation, federalism relies on a process of
world than another. For instance, the devastation
conscious decision-making by the political elites. caused by the Second World War undoubtedly
The attraction of international federations provided the impetus behind early moves
is that they appear to offer a solution to the towards European integration.
endemic problems of the state system, and
 In addition, the impact of external forces may
especially the problem of war.
be significantly greater in one area of the world
compared to others. Unlike the European Union,
Functionalism
integration within East Asia has been primarily of
 The key idea of functionalism is expressed in an economic character.
David Mitrany’s formulation: ‘form follows  The impetus behind recent political integration
function’. In this view, cooperation only was provided by the dramatic impact of the
works when it is focused on specific activities financial crisis during the late 1990s. The crisis
(functions) that would be performed more exposed the dramatic nature of globalisation and
effectively through collective action than by the need for some level of political integration to
individual states. mitigate the overall impact.
 This, then, creates pressure to construct  In South America, regional governance has been
institutional structures (forms) that would limited by several familiar issues. These include
facilitate such cooperation in these areas. the absence of economic convergence, a shift
European integration very clearly followed in the balance of global economic power and of
a functionalist path, as it tended to focus on course state sovereignty. The present situation
the promotion of economic cooperation, seen consists of incremental attempts towards political
regionalism in order to bolster democracy and
by states as the least controversial but most
regional security. The main impetus in recent
necessary form of integration.
times has centered upon liberalization of trade.
 However, the weakness of functionalism is that it There are several complementary organisations
overemphasized the willingness of states to hand within the region ranging from the Andean
over their responsibilities to functional bodies, Community of Nations to the Southern
especially in areas that are political rather than Common Market – Mercado Común del Sur
technical. (MERCOSUR). Regionalism in Latin America

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illustrates how the concept of a region is a complex and shifting pattern of regional
not geographically determined, but shaped agreements has resulted from the efforts of the
and reshaped by interactions among various former components of the Soviet Union to settle
regional actors, subject to international down in a zone of cooperation and competition
influences. between Russian, Chinese, and EU influence.
 In Africa, Contemporary regionalism emerged The earlier waves of regionalism arose in a
with the politics of anti-colonialism but often context of post-colonial restructuring, economic
protectionism, or regional security concerns. A
based on pre-existing colonial arrangements.
new wave of open regionalism began around
The first stage of pan-African organisation was
1990 with the end of the cold war and the surge
primarily political in nature. The path adopted
in globalisation.
by the European Union has also provided a
blueprint for the African Union. The organisation  Kevin Bloor- The formation of regional blocs
has embedded several of the political elements has often been driven by the growing impact
of integration adopted within Europe. There of economic globalisation. As borders have
are also signs that economic integration within become more porous, states have sought to
the region is gathering pace. Although such cooperate more closely in order to deal with the
institutions have not yet been established, there consequences of interdependence. The driving
are moves to establish a single currency. forces behind regionalism can derive from
economic, security and/or political grounds.
 In contrast, integration within North America
seems unlikely due to the indifferent approach
adopted by Washington. The United States is TRENDS OF REGIONALISM POST 1990S
such a powerful country that integration with
their neighbours does not offer anything like  Since the 1990s the integration and
the same benefits as integration does for weaker interdependence of regions have been growing,
states. thus forming regional blocs of trade, to name
 Joseph Nye could point to two major classes a few; North American Free Trade Area
of regionalist activity: on the one hand, micro- (NAFTA), European Union (EU), Mercosur, and
economic organisations involving formal Association of East Asian Nations (ASEAN).
economic integration and characterised by  This scenario called regionalism is often
formal institutional structures; and on the suggested to be an indication of a move towards
other, macro-regional political organisations regionalisation and segmentation of trade activity
concerned with controlling conflict. Today, in rather than its globalisation and integration into
the political field, regional dinosaurs such as the a multilateral system of trade.
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and the
 For the more optimists, the formation of
Organisation of American States (OAS) have
regional blocs is compatible with globalisation
re-emerged.
and promotes trade liberalization. There is
 LukVan Langenhove and MaryFarrell in the also the claim that in some ways regionalism
book-Global Politics of Regionalism: Theory overcomes one of the problems faced by
and Practice- explores the phenomenon of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the
regionalism. In a seeming contradiction to difficulty to accommodate divergent interests
globalisation, there is a growing tendency for of various nation-states; with fewer actors on
countries to enter regional arrangements as board, it is easier to negotiate and form a
a response to the pressures of operating in consensus.
a global marketplace. But regionalism is also
 According to Hirst and Thompson,
emerging as a phenomenon, serving distinct
“regionalization has become the strongest
purposes, and taking different forms in different
feature of the international economy rather
areas that impact on wider issues such as global than globalisation, and the former in practice
governance, democracy and trade. has been undermining the latter. It would
 John Baylis and Steve Smith- In context of Asia be fair to say that the current pattern of
and Europe they say that although economic regionalisation of trade activity is a very
cooperation was foreseen, the evolution of strong feature in contemporary economic
ASEAN was driven by political and security globalisation if not even a stronger feature
concerns. In Eurasia and the post-Soviet states, than globalisation itself.”

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 Regionalism is a form of protectionism based on

 The process of regionalism is widely viewed
preferential arrangements and has been blocking
as having a negative impact upon state
the way to a more liberalized and multilateral
sovereignty. As states cede their authority
system of trade. In this respect when compared towards regional organisations, they lose
with 19th-century perspectives trade activity is most of their ability to shape their own
less integrated and interdependent than it was destiny. This was brought home in stark
in the past. manner during the UK Brexit referendum,
when a majority of the British public voted to
leave the European Union.
The Impact Of Regionalism On State
Soverignty  There has long been a debate over the impact
of regionalism on state sovereignty. There are
The Neo-Liberal Institutionalist and Neo- those who claim that regionalism undermines
Functionalist Views the sovereignty of the state. This is based upon a
 Theories Neo-Liberal Institutionalism zero-sum view of sovereignty.
believes that states behaviour is not  As a member of a regional bloc, decisions
determined by absolute gains but by relative reached upon the basis of unanimity must be
gains in interaction with other actors in the implemented by all the signatory states. This may
international system. be supported via the existence of supranational
 Neo-Functionalism believes in the functional institutions. For instance, the African Union
benefits states' cooperation. These theories (AU) has recently strengthened its capacity to
generally posit that successful regionalism impose sanctions against member states who
depends on the extent to which states fail to meet their financial obligations. The Court
respond to interdependencies by transferring of Justice of the European Union is another
national sovereignty to regional institutions common illustration of this argument.
and governance mechanisms.
 From the opposing angle, it could be
 Once this decision is made, spillover effects convincingly argued that states merely pool (or
across policy fields may create incentives to
share) sovereignty within any given regional
broaden the scope of regional cooperation,
organisation. In doing so, they are better
and because policy makers are the
able to shape their own destiny. They are also
participants in regional cooperation, they
gradually shift their political loyalties from the free to leave at any time. Crucially, this means
state/national to the regional level, thereby that the sovereignty of the state has not been
inducing rising level of regional cooperation compromised. The salience of this argument
and integration. is supported further by the broader process of
globalisation.
Intergovernmentalism Theory Views  Issues within international relations tend to
be of a cross-border nature (e.g. protection of
 According to this school of thought,
the environment). Inevitably, this provides a
international norms do not matter much, and
nation states remain very protective of their persuasive reason for states to join regional
sovereignty, especially in the developing blocs.
world. This makes any form of deeper  In recent years, it should be noted that certain
international cooperation and community countries have been able to reassert their
building extremely difficult. sovereignty. Despite the combined forces
 There are two variants of this theory: (a) of regional integration and globalisation,
Classical Intergovernmentalism- in which predictions about the demise of the nation-state
the relation between national sovereignty and and its associated sovereignty are overstated.
regional cooperation is usually a trade-off.  Under the Trump administration, several decisions
(b) Instrumentalist Intergovernmentalism- were consistent with isolationism. For instance,
in which it is only under favourable
in 2017, the newly elected President decided to
conditions that states commit to regional
take the US out of the Trans-Pacific Partnership
and international cooperation, namely when
(TPP). The United Kingdom has also decided to
a collective solution outweighs the costs of
ceding state sovereignty. counter the trend towards regional integration
by leaving the European Union.

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 Conversely, it must be recognized that these  The world is not ready to establish global
decisions have not slowed down the process authority. Regionalism is the first step in
of regional integration and globalisation. For gaining experience and building areas of
instance, it is notable that when the United consensus towards inter-governmental
States withdrew from the TPP, in 2017, the coordination and integration.
remaining countries simply negotiated a new  Universalists fail to consider the heterogeneity of
trade arrangement that incorporated most of the political, economic, and social factors throughout
provisions from the former agreement. Equally, the world that militate against global unity.
the European Union has continued with the
process of deeper integration despite a major But while these arrangements can be
power leaving the organisation. readily defended there is real danger
that-
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF REGIONALISM
 They will deteriorate into military alliances
against some country or countries, that they will
There are two different opinions among scholars on the provoke counter measures,
formation and continuation of regional organisations.
 they will increase international tensions
One group of scholars holds that the age of nation- and thereby accentuate the very evils they are
state is over. The concept of nation-state is outdated, presumably designed to prevent.
and supra-nationalism is the present-day reality.
 Some scholars consider regionalisation against
To put it in the words of J.D.B. Miller “It is fair to the idea of globalisation.
say that when a scholarly interest in integration
 Leads to protectionist policies threatening the
became active, it had behind it a good deal of
free and rule-based world trade order.
criticism of the sovereign state as an institution.”
Such an argument may be subjected to criticism. Inis Claude in his ‘swords into plow-shares’
argued that “since the world is too wide to have a
Given the present-day realities it is difficult to accept universally accepted world government, a region
that the heyday of nationalism is over, and nation- with it’s homogeneity can have access to the
state is fading away or it is in that process. In solution to the problems of the region.’’
spite of the fact that the regional organisations
The U.N. Charter considers these organisations as
are flourishing, nationalism retains its status in one of the means to maintain peace and harmony
relations between countries and national interest among the member countries of the UN. Proponents
will continue to guide the foreign policies of the of regional security arrangements naturally insist that
countries. these devices are wholly consistent with the United
Leroy-Bennet gives an account of the grounds on Nations Charter and are necessary steps in regional
which regionalism is preferable. Those grounds on or collective self defence. The Charter specifically
which regionalism can be supported are listed below. recognizes the right of nations to take action of this
sort until and unless the United Nations is able to
 Political, economic, and social interaction is more assert itself effectively in the maintenance of peace.
easily attained among a lesser number of states
within a limited geographic area than at a global
level. REGIONALISM & GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
 Regional economic cooperation provides
There are three possibilities with regard to
more efficient economic units than the smaller
how regionalism theoretically relates to global
states and these larger units can successfully
governance.
compete in world markets.
 First, regionalism may be understood as
 Local threats to peace are more willingly and reproducing global governance at the regional
promptly dealt with by the governments of level.
that area than by the disinterested states at
 A second view sees regionalism as a form of
greater distances from the scene of conflict.
resistance to globalisation and the site where
 By confining states into regional groupings, a alternate norms, ideas, and practices to those
global balance of power can be maintained, and that predominate in contemporary global
world peace and security can be maintained. governance are consolidated.

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 In the third view, regional governance aims for depart from the prevailing norms, ideas,
additional goals, developmental objectives and practices of global governance even
for one or to address present gaps in global though these projects do not primarily
governance, rather than the mere replication of reject globalisation. Developmental
the competitiveness logic. regionalism, in which a variety of
 The view that regional governance developmental goals are addressed within
reproduces global governance is one a broadly neoliberal framework of market
that not only regards the two as mutually governance, is one such example. In this
reinforcing, but as projects born of ‘similar instance, there is explicit utilization of public
needs and logics … with no real distinction power at the regional level in pursuit of
between regional and global governance’ developmental or other strategic goals that
except for the reduced number of go beyond the logic of competitiveness and
participants involved in the former. ‘freeing the market’ that remain at the heart
 In this view, regionalism functions as the of global governance.
means to help insert its participants into  One variant of developmental regionalism
the global economy, with the regional could see development planning at the
level employed as an instrument to regional level through the adoption of
achieve international competitiveness, a regional industrial strategies (Hettne).
platform through which to participate in Another theoretical model of
global production networks and global developmental regionalism involves
trade, as well as to attract international partial and temporary protection or
capital. privileges accorded to domestic-owned
 In such instances, regional governance is capital as a way to nurture indigenous
likely to subscribe to many of the central firms in the region before complete
neoliberal norms, towards the creation of openness to foreign-owned capital is
a single global market with the regional allowed (Nesadurai). Alternatively, regional
level acting as a mere building block to governance projects could be adopted to
globalisation. address deficiencies in global governance.
 Resistance projects, on the other hand,
are best regarded as projects that seek to REGIONALISM AND GLOBALISATION
preserve through regionalism particular OR NEW REGIONALISM
national policy instruments or domestic
social and economic arrangements that
are difficult to sustain individually under  Since the late 1980s, there has been a clear and
conditions of globalisation. continuing resurgence in regionalism, often seen
as regionalism’s ‘second coming’ and associated
 Historically though, there were many such with what is called the ‘new’ regionalism.
projects in the developing world following
decolonization that were organised on  New regionalism is essentially economic,
the basis of shared concerns with self- and it largely takes the form of the creation
determination, autonomy, and anti- of regional trade blocs. These trade blocs,
colonialism (Ba, 2005). moreover, operate very clearly as regional
spaces through which states can interact,
 Many national governments in the
rather than being drawn into EU-style
developing world also took on board
supranational experiments.
dependency thinking and sought to
insulate their respective economies from  Between 1990 and 1994, GATT was informed of
the vagaries of the world economy through 33 regional trading arrangements, nearly a third
a closed or inward-focused form of regional of those that had been negotiated since 1948.
cooperation (Fawcett).  This surge of economic regionalism was driven
 The third category of regionalist projects by the wider acceptance of export-led economic
aims at regional governance to address strategies across the developing world, as more
a slew of national and/or transnational countries were inclined to follow the lead, first,
issues and problems in ways that may Japan and later the Asian ‘tiger’ economies.

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 Second, the end of the Cold War encouraged REGIONALISM NEITHER CHALLENGES NOR
former communist countries to view economic FULLY BUILDS ON GLOBALISATION
integration as a means of supporting and
consolidating their transition to the market OR
economy, a development that later gave rise
to the eastward expansion of the EU. HOW IS REGIONALISM CHALLENGING
 Third, the establishment of the WTO and GLOBALISATION IS BUILT ON A VERY WEAK
the growing influence of other institutions ARGUMENT ?
of global economic governance persuaded
many countries that regionalism was a way of Regionalization and Globalisation are entirely
gaining greater influence within multilateral different concepts that cannot necessarily act as
bodies. substitutes for one another, and Regionalism is
 Fourth, the USA’s transition from being a not a new concept. It was possible for Globalization
sponsor of regionalism to being an active to develop in the way it did even with Regionalism
participant gave the process considerable present and with states engaging in processes of
additional impetus. regionalisation whilst at the same time being subject to
 Finally, and underlying all the other factors, Globalization. Scholars investigating the relationship
was the acceleration of globalisation in between Regionalism and Globalization believe
the 1980s and 1990s. Regionalism became that Regionalism somehow builds on Globalization.
increasingly attractive as rapidly expanding
 The “multilateral framework in which they [the
global capital flows and an increasing trend
regional institutions] arose” has often been
towards transnational production patterns
regarded as vital for the development of these
appeared to undermine the viability of the
organizations. The technological revolution
state as an independent economic unit.
that was brought about by Globalization
 Regionalism was thus reborn as a mechanism forms a vital basis for Regionalism to flourish.
through which states could manage the effects In its absence it would have been difficult if not
of globalisation.
impossible to form regional institutions of scale,
 Nevertheless, ‘new’ regionalism has been like the European Union, for example.
motivated by competitive impulses and not
 The fact that suddenly due to Globalization
merely protectionist ones. In these cases,
“developments in one region inform and
countries have formed regional blocs not
so much to resist global market forces but, indeed feed into developments in others” has
rather, to engage more effectively with them. also definitely increased the desire and/or the
need for regional cooperation of some sort. So,
 Although states have wished to consolidate or
in a way, it could be argued that “regionalism
expand trading blocs in the hope of gaining
emerges in response to globalization” and
access to more assured and wider markets, they
that thus Regionalism partly builds on
have not turned their backs on the wider global
Globalization. Regionalism hardly challenges
market. This is evident in the growth of cross-
regional interaction and attempts to influence Globalization, and it only builds on the effects of
the WTO and other bodies. The fortress model Globalization.
of regional integration has been weakened by  What is far more striking and apparent, though,
the fact that regionalism has tended to march is the fact that Regionalism is often used as
hand in hand with economic liberalization. What a stepping-stone on the way to Globalization
Andrew Hurrell has called the “one-world/many and that it also provides what might be called
worlds relationship” has now become the subject a ‘safer’ version of Globalization. Richard
of great academic interest and debate. We Stubbs and Geoffrey R. D. Underhill has
can define regionalism as “the impact of rising described the latter phenomenon as “a way of
levels of regional social and economic exchange
taking advantage of some of the forces set in
and the links between economic integration,
train by the process of globalization”.
institutions and identity” and Globalisation
as “the internationalisation of production,  This is to say that national firms or organizations
capital flows and markets, the emergence of that would like to benefit from the effects of
transnational and supranational agencies and Globalization but that fear the insecurity that
the internationalisation of culture”. comes with it, would have the opportunity

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to take advantage of international trade on a REGIONALISATION AS A RESPONSE TO

smaller, regional scale, whilst being provided GLOBALISATION
with more security due to the involvement of
regional organizations.
 In the economic sphere, regionalism has
 Andrew Hurrell captured this trend nicely by proven to be extremely effective in helping
saying that “the region is the most appropriate to secure markets and providing economic
and viable level to reconcile the changing strength through the creation of Regional
and intensifying pressures of global capitalist Trade Agreements (RTAs). However, under RTAs,
competition on the one hand with the need economic policies remain more stable and
for political regulation and management on consistent since they cannot be violated by a
the other”. Thus, in this way, Regionalism does participant country provoking some kind of
not challenge Globalization, but rather “regional sanctions from other members.
cooperation is certainly a good preparation
for an open international economy”.  Globalisation has failed in ensuring that
multilateral political legislation is implemented
 This leads to the second argument, which was
throughout the world. For example, the
that Regionalism in providing a ‘safer’ version
Kyoto Protocol, as well as the Climate Change
of Globalization could act as a stepping-stone
Conference in Copenhagen, implemented
toward a global economy. As Mario Telò points
very few binding regulations in a world where
out: “Larry Summers argues that regional
globalisation has made pollution transnational.
liberalization is the best way towards
The failure of a state to have control over its
liberalization and globalization”.
citizens’ health holds a dangerous effect on
 This view of Regionalism is often called ‘open- its legitimacy as a government and thus must
regionalism’ and it “is the dominant theoretical effectively collaborate with other actors in the
model of the globalization-regionalism world to ensure that safety.
relationship” (Nesadurai, Helen; “Globalization
 The fact that these regional management
and Economic Regionalism: A Survey and
programs exist and persist, despite rivalries,
Critique of Literature). As such, it presents
“regionalism as a way station to globalization” shows the seen imperative need by states for
and it also regards it as standing “more and cooperation.
more in the center of the globalized economics  Political Scientist Niels Lange argues that
and world politics (Telò, Mario; European Union cultural influences now appear in a co-
and New Regionalism; Ashgate (2007)). modified way. ‘Patterns of consumption are
 Hence, Regionalism is not only “a way station converging throughout the world, languages
to globalization”, (Nesadurai, Helen; become “anglicized,” and the youth consumes
“Globalization and Economic Regionalism: similar styles of music and pop culture. ‘This
A Survey and Critique of the Literature) but spread of ‘imagined communities’ has faced
its institutions and regional economies can opposition due to the culturally diminishing
act as a sort of ‘training camp’ for national effect it has. Both interstate and sub-state
businesses and organizations that are trying regionalism has occurred in response to the
to go global. So, does Regionalism challenge spread of such ‘cultural globalisation to preserve
Globalization? distinct cultural attributes.
 Not really. Does it build on it? Partly. But what is  Bennett Collins- Regionalism has responded
more important about “the relationship between to cultural globalisation through an increase
“the one world of the international system and in cultural identity and the rise of regionalist
the many worlds of different regionalisms” is parties. A perfect example is the rise of the Parti
the purpose that Regionalism serves to the Quebecois Bloc and the general cultural identity
businesses and organizations of a regional the region of Quebec holds. Hence it can be
institution’s member states. observed that cultural regionalism has resulted
from a resistance to a global identity.
 Since Regionalism is concerned with an increase
in political and economic cooperation based  states that new regionalism should be defined as
on shared interests, norms, and values in a a world order concept. ‘Since one regionalization
certain region, this “make(s) it possible for of the world holds repercussions over other
large companies to expand and train for world regions of the world, it is thus shaping how the
competition”. new world order is being organised.’

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 In the face of a weakly tamed globalizing world, previous shocks in its suddenness, global impact,
it has been argued that states have responded and uncertainties about recovery.
through regionalizing to preserve economic,  It is also occurring at a time of contestable
political, and cultural stability.
economic hegemony. The concurrence of
 Although it could be argued that regionalism these events has led to a reconsideration of
is simply placing the international system on a global supply chains and recognition of their
larger scale, the amount of stability and regulation significant vulnerabilities.
that comes with regionalism is incomparable.
 A move to a more regionally based international
Therefore, it has been properly argued that
economy offers the possibility of a better balance
regionalism is a building block of achieving
of national and international interests, helping
global peace and cohesiveness through its more
counter growing populism, nationalism and
specified and regulative approach.
protectionism.
 Increased competition for FDI means there will
RISING REGIONALISATION: WILL THE
be a need for effective regional coordination,
POST-COVID-19 WORLD SEE A RETREAT investment promotion and industrial policy to
FROM GLOBALISATION? minimize wasteful duplication.
 Intraregional cooperation will become critical
Peter Enderwick and Peter Buckley as specialisation is pushed from the global to
the regional level.
 The current globalisation wave will transform
into a stronger regional focus as a result of  Finally, the efficiency costs of increased
underlying weaknesses in globalisation and regionalization must be offset against the
in response to the disruption of the COVID- opportunities to create a more inclusive,
19 pandemic. The current disruption is unlike equitable and acceptable global regime.

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Chapter - 10.2

European Union

The core aim of the European Union is to make  The wish of the USA to establish a prosperous
progress towards ‘an ever- closer union’. From an and united Europe, both as a market for US
original community of just six states, the organisation goods and as a bulwark against the spread of
is now one of the most important non-state actors in communism.
global affairs with twenty-seven members. During the  The widespread acceptance that the sovereign
historical development of the European Union, the nation-state was the enemy of peace and
organisation has created a quasi-federalist system. prosperity.
Another key objective of the EU is the existence
of the four fundamental freedoms. Since the  An idealist commitment to internationalism and
early-1990s, the EU has been pledged towards free the belief that international organisations
movement of: (1) goods, (2) services, (3) capital embody a moral authority higher than that
and (4) people. This is an integral element of the commanded by the state. This was evident in the
single market and associated moves towards closer federalist dream of an integrated Europe that was
espoused by, for example, Jean Monnet (see p.
economic integration.
496) and Robert Schuman (1886–1963).
Since WWII, Europe has undergone a historically
unprecedented process of integration, aimed, some Debates about Supranational Versus
argue, at the creation of what Winston Churchill in Intergovernmental Approaches in EU-
1946 called a ‘United States of Europe’. Indeed, it
has some- times been suggested that European One of the difficulties with understanding the
integration provides a model of political organisation structure of the EU is that it has been substantially
that would eventually be accepted worldwide as the reshaped and institutionally redesigned on a number
deficiencies of the nation-state become increasingly of occasions since the establishment of the ECSC
apparent. It is clear that this process was precipitated in 1952. Most significantly, the EEC/EC/EU has
by a set of powerful, and possibly irresistible, historical gone through a substantial process of widen-ing
circumstances in post-1945 Europe. and deepening in the context of its membership.
It has been deepened through successive waves of
Reasons of EU integration- integration that have transferred certain areas of
decision-making authority from member states to
 The need for economic reconstruction in
EU bodies. In strict terms, the EU is no longer a
war-torn Europe through cooperation and the
confederation of independent states operating on
creation of a larger market.
the basis of intergovernmentalism, as the EEC and
 The desire to preserve peace by permanently the EC were at their inception. This confederal image
resolving the bitter Franco-German rivalry of the EU has become difficult to sustain for at least
 The desire to safeguard Europe from the three reasons.
threat of Soviet expansionism and to mark out  In the first place, starting with the SEA and
for Europe an independent role and identity in a continuing with each of the subsequent major
bipolar world order. treaties – the TEU, Amsterdam, Nice and Lisbon –

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the practice of qualified majority voting, which Level and nature of integration in the
allows even the largest state to be outvoted in European Union
the Council, has been applied to a wider range
of policy areas. This has progressively narrowed
the scope of the national veto, which, in turn,  Economic cooperation-
circumscribes state sovereignty.
 During the 1980s and 90s, a framework
 Second, this trend has been compounded by for economic and monetary union was
the fact that EU law is binding on all member outlined amongst the member states.
states. This, indeed, is one of the key differences
between the EU and other international  The eurozone was established and the
organisations. The creation of this body of European Central Bank (ECB) in Frankfurt
law has involved the voluntary surrender of sets a common monetary policy within
powers by member states in a broad range of participant states.
policy areas, and the development of a new  The eurozone consists of 19 EU member-
level of legal authority to which the member states and the euro is one of the major
states are subject (McCormick 2005). global trading currencies on the foreign
 Third, and linked to this, the powers of certain exchange markets.
EU bodies have expanded at the expense of  Given the tradition of state sovereignty over
national governments. an area of considerable importance, the
The result is a political body that is a complex depth of integration achieved within the
blend of intergovernmental and supra- national economic realm is remarkable.
features. Nevertheless, although the EU has  Measured by the share of global GDP,
done much to realise the Treaty of Rome’s the EU is the second largest economy
goal of establishing ‘an ever-closer union’,
in the world with a population size of
moving well beyond Charles de Gaulle’s and
approximately 450 million.
Margaret Thatcher’s vision of a confederation of
independent states, it stops short of realizing a
 Cooperation at political level-
‘United States of Europe’. While the EU has not
created a federal Europe, still less a European  The European Commission is responsible
‘superstate’, the superiority of European law for implementing decisions, upholding the
over the national law of the member states treaties and managing the administrative
perhaps suggests that it is accurate to talk of functions of the EU.
a ‘federalizing’ Europe (Andrew Hewywood)
 The European Parliament (EP) is the main
 A major check on centralizing tendencies law-making branch of the EU.
within the EU has been respect for the principle
of subsidiarity, embodied in the TEU.  The Court of Justice of the European
Union (CJEU) interprets EU legislation
 Decision-making within the ‘New Europe’
to ensure that rules are implemented in
is increasingly made based on multilevel
the same manner across all twenty- seven
governance in which the policy process
member states.
has interconnected sub-national, national,
intergovernmental, and supranational levels,  This supranational body also adjudicates
the balance between them shifting in relation to upon legal disputes between national
different issues and policy areas. governments and EU institutions. Individuals,
 The desire to bring greater coherence and companies, and organisations can also bring
formality to the complex process of policy making cases to the attention of the court provided
gave rise to the idea of an EU Constitution, it relates to EU law.
which would codify major rules and principles,  The EU has facilitated the spread of
incorporating and superseding all previous democracy and respect for human rights.
treaties. However, this Constitution was not
ratified because of referendum defeats in the  Diplomatic cooperation-
Netherlands and France in 2005 which highlights
that despite decades of institutional deepening,  The process of integration within Europe
EU member states continue to function as states, has established a significant actor on the
still oriented around issues of national interest. world stage.

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 The European Union now boasts a  The first is EU enlargement and its
Common Foreign and Security Policy, implications. The original Six were bound
harmonization over policymaking and a together by powerful historical, political, and
diplomatic presence throughout the world. economic factors. However, enlargement
has reshaped the European project at each
 It also co-operates extensively with partners
stage, sometimes through the incorporation
– such as its relationship with NATO which is of countries that had a weaker commitment
depicted as ‘separable, but not separate’. to the European ideal (such as the UK and
 The EU is represented at the high table of Denmark) and, on other occasions, through the
global governance with a seat at the G20 incorporation of economically less prosperous
and the WTO. countries of southern Europe (Spain, Portugal,
and Greece).
 It also holds observer status in the IMF, the
UN General Assembly and G7 summits.  The second key challenge facing the EU is
economic rather than political. Although
 The EU is a signatory to 50 free trade economic union has, by common consent,
agreements with other countries and works been more successful than political union, there
in partnership with emerging and regional are reasons to believe that the EU’s continued
groups on the basis of mutual interests. economic success is by no means assured. The
EU’s share of world trade and production are
 Cooperation at the security level- set to diminish, a trend widely associated with
the determination of influential member states to
 NATO’s purpose is to guarantee the freedom maintain social protections and welfare provision
and security of its members through political in the face of growing global competitive
and military means. pressures. These long-term problems have
 Organisation for Security and Co- been compounded by the 2007–09 global
financial crisis. The crisis in Greece was so
operation in Europe, formerly (1972–94)
severe in May 2010 that it precipitated a massive
Conference on Security and Co-operation
German-led eurozone bail-out, backed up by the
in Europe, organisation of representatives IMF, with other vulnerable economies in danger
of virtually all the states of Europe, as well as of being sucked into the crisis. Since the onset
the United States and Canada, committed of the 2008-09 global financial crisis the EU has
to formalizing decisions on important been trapped in a state of permanent internal
questions affecting the security and stability crisis as member state governments became
of the European continent as a whole. predominantly preoccupied with resolving the
 The Common Security and Defence Policy financial instability inside the eurozone.
(CSDP) enables the Union to take a leading  Within the European Union, the prospects for
role in peace-keeping operations, conflict deeper integration appear to be negligible.
prevention and in the strengthening of Due to a combination of forces both inside
international security. and outside of their immediate control, the
European Union failed to implement an
 The European Defence Fund, created in effective convergence criterion. The European
2017, marked another step towards a more Union has also been affected by the decision of
effective military dimension. the United Kingdom to leave the organisation
in 2016. Given the depth of Eurosceptic feeling
within many countries, the prospect of deepening
THE EU IN CRISIS?
regional governance seems limited.
 The EU consequently failed to develop a joint
For some, the failure of the EU has always been just
response to the political instability and the
a matter of time. In this view, the level of diversity
military standoff in Ukraine, the deepening
within the EU, in terms of history, traditions, civil war in Syria and most recently to the
language and culture, means that the EU can never mounting refugee crisis from the Middle
match the capacity of the nation-state to engender East and Asia. The result is the profound
political allegiance and act effectively on the world weakening of the EU’s global standing since it
stage. However, following issues have proved to is not only regarded as economically fragile but
be particularly problematic in the early twenty-first also as unable to deal effectively with crises in its
century. neighborhood.

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 Peter A. Hall- For decades, the European Union BREXIT

has been a vehicle for peace and prosperity in
Europe, but it is in trouble today. The response
Brexit is connected with resentment towards
to the crisis has had negative economic and
national interests above regional integration and
political effects. The decision to subsidise debt
a sign of dissatisfaction with regional governance.
in return for austerity has stymied growth in
There is undermined trust in politicians. Across many
southern Europe. Although European elites
regions, there are several instances of referendums
favour deeper integration, the response to the
and growing support for populist appeals to emotion
crisis has reduced popular support for it.
and resentment for national or international policy.
Regional withdrawal and negotiations for the Brexit
LIMITATIONS OF EU deal have shown that regional union and relationships
are entangled and regional divorce complicated and
There are of course several constraints and obstacles contentious. There may be more countries holding
that limit the EU’s political influence. In terms of its national referendums in deciding whether to join or
relative importance, the EU is undoubtedly weaker leave the EU.
than the United States. Whilst there is a debate  The argument among the Leave group is that
over how to characterize the power balance within the more access the UK has to the global market
international relations, it cannot be denied that the (such as the USA, India, China, Australia, etc.),
US is the dominant political power. the better for the economy rather than being
 The EU finds it problematic to adopt an trapped in the EU single market.
effective unified position.  To the Leave Campaigners and supporters,
 The complexity of its internal structure is one sovereignty, judiciary independence, and border
obvious limitation to consider here. control (“take back control”) were worth the risk
of leaving the EU.
 In an organisation built upon a hybrid of
intergovernmentalism and supranationalism,  To the Remainers, the risk to the economy,
the EU cannot always act in a rapid and effective economic chaos, recession, and avoiding a
manner. hard border between Northern Ireland and the
Republic of Ireland were reasons to remain with
 it lacks the federal structure and political
the EU.
weight of a potential hegemon such as the
United States, and as such is limited by its internal  The Brexit agreement was based on improving
structural fractures, divisions, and debate. the terms of trade between the UK and EU.
 The process of economic and monetary union Although the long-term effect of Brexit remains
has faced major problems since the sovereign elusive, the short-term result of the economy has
debt crisis of the late 1990s. been negative. The forecasts have assumed that total
UK imports and exports will eventually both be 15
 The lack of convergence between the more
per cent lower than had the UK stayed in the EU .
developed economies such as Germany and the
The short-term assessment reveals that exports from
less efficient economies of Southern Europe was
the UK to the EU have been down due to extensive
always going to present a problem.
paperwork and custom checks between the rest of
 Attempts to resolve the issue (such as debt the UK and Northern Ireland and the EU. Although
restructuring) have only partially addressed the the UK now controls its borders and has the freedom
economic difficulties facing the organisation. to strike its free trade deals, Northern Ireland remains
 The main constraint upon the EU is its aligned to the EU single market, whereas goods
democratic deficit. This refers to a lack of entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK are
democratic legitimacy within the organisation. subject to customs checks.
 The lack of public support for European Impact of Brexit on the process of regionalisation
integration. It is revealing to note that turnout in Europe-
in European Parliamentary elections has tended  Anna Moskal- Unquestionably, the withdrawal
to decline, whilst the powers awarded to the of the United Kingdom from the EU is a serious
institution have increased. blow to European integration. However, as the
 In terms of its military influence, the EU most important EU leaders rightly noted, it
is relatively weaker than in the case of its cannot be read as an irreparable loss nor as the
economic might. beginning of the end of the EU.

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 Kent Jones- The Brexit referendum gave a direct depend on how that withdrawal is defined
electoral voice to the accumulated resentments in the withdrawal agreement and in the deal
of populist forces in the United Kingdom against over a new relationship.
EU rules administered by what its supporters  Second, the UK may emerge as a model
regarded as an elite bureaucracy in Brussels. looked to by Eurosceptics in the remaining
Many right-wing and left-wing populist parties Member States. This could happen if in 10-20
in particular tend to favour protectionism. The years’ time the UK look like it had succeeded
UK exit from the European Union will weaken in leaving the EU while continuing to grow
a prominent pro-trade voice in the EU Council economically. However, withdrawal may appeal
of Ministers. to Eurosceptics and publics in the remaining
 O. V. Butorina : The idea of an organic Member States if the EU faces another series
combination of two processes—the deepening of crises, for example in the Eurozone.
and widening of integration—no longer  The threat of European disintegration following
corresponds to reality. European Union, it can Brexit has reversed the seemingly irreversible
no longer confirm its historical correctness and course of ‘ever closer union’. Faced with
the feasibility of its current policies. Since Britain mounting challenges, the EU’s future is now
is a relatively wealthy country, the EU’s average uncertain, and effective leadership will be needed
per capita GDP dropped after Brexit by €650. to set a clear trajectory for the integration
Brexit has moderately affected the position of the process. There is recognition that the European
European Union in world trade. Its share in world institutions would benefit from wide-ranging
merchandise exports has decreased by 2.5 reforms. This will require the EU, which has long
percentage points. The exit of Britain suppresses been viewed as the terrain of the ‘better off’, to
the once unambiguous trend of the geographic also become a project for the ‘left behind’.
expansion of European integration. After the
emotionally charged Eastern enlargement of  As such, what renders Brexit a truly European
the European Union, contemporaries observe its phenomenon is its ability to expose fundamental
western contraction. tensions within the EU. In this context, it can also be
viewed as an opportunity to fix the problems that
 Uğur Tekiner- From the EU’s perspective the EU are present within the integration process. The UK’s
has also lost one of its most populous member exit has once again brought the long-standing issue
states, not to mention its largest military power, of the EU’s democratic deficit into the spotlight,
second largest economy, and most important which will need to be approached from a broader
financial hub. There has been an inevitable perspective in the aftermath of Brexit.
shift in the course of European integration as
a result. This shift has the potential to create  Pro-Europeans argue in favour of institutional
new divisions between member states, notably reform in order to make decision-makers more
between Eurozone and non-Eurozone countries, accountable. Eurosceptics however believe that
net-payers and net-recipients from the EU budget, the project is inherently undemocratic. They
and between member states in the North and point out that EU institutions have a habit of
South, and East and West. The UK’s referendum gaining powers over time despite the lack of
underlined the need to appeal to the losers from public support for such measures. Powers should
globalisation and, for that matter, the losers from therefore be transferred to the national level in
European integration. order to restore a sense of accountability.

 Study, commissioned by the European  Despite the challenges the EU is facing, It could
Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens’ be argued that the EU remains the leading
Rights and Constitutional Affairs: model for regional integration. The fundamental
concepts of European integration, such as pooled
 In GDP terms, the UK’s departure is the sovereignty, supranational bodies, and the single
equivalent to the EU losing the 19 smallest currency, have been adopted in several areas of
Member States. Therefore, it is likely to cause the world. The sheer force of globalisation
some shift in the EU’s balance of power and further emphasizes the need for successful
the direction of European integration. regional integration along the basis of the
 The UK’s withdrawal will not have a bigger EU. The manner in which European integration
effect over the longer term. Here two issues has accommodated the process of globalisation
come to the fore. First, the effect of the UK’s provides a useful blueprint for other regions of
withdrawal on European integration will the world.

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REGIONALISM IN ASIA: REPLICATING has tended to characterise the continent, more

EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE? or less. Five civilizations and their religious bases
reside in Asia (Huntington).
 Europe has developed its own ideas about  In terms of identity, European identity has
regionalism and has put into practice a particular become visibly strong as has been evidenced by
version of regionalism that is increasingly the European provision of rescue packages to
independent of the position of the United States avoid bankruptcy by some countries in Southern
(Murray) while remaining closely aligned to the Europe. In stark contrast, the Asian regional
US in security matters. identity is not very strong at all.
 Asian regionalism, in contrast, is still largely  On the economic dimension, European economic
under the shadow of American influence. There developmental momentum is a thing of the past;
may be strong arguments for the US playing arguably, Europe is in a twilight phase. In contrast,
this role in Asia, such as its importance in terms Asian economic developmental momentum is
of regional trade and security or its role as an still on the rise, more or less.
external balancer in territorial disputes and other  On the security dimension, Europe does not
intra-regional rivalries, but in this context Asian perceive there to be an external direct threat,
ideas have been largely ignored. notwithstanding internal problems such as the
 Counter arguments to this view is Asians have Islamic terrorist threat. In contrast, Asia is ripe
‘some ability to self organise and to resist for conflict, if not outright confrontation. The
and/or socialise hegemonic power, rather armed populations on the Korean Peninsula and
than simply playing to the hegemon’s tune’ on both sides of the Taiwan Strait are the two
(Acharya). While the US has played a significant largest armed groups in the world.
role in influencing and even defining ideas of
 In the process of developing Asian regionalism,
regionalism in Asia (Katzenstein; Higgott;
there have been debates over which great power
Boutin, ), national and local powers have also
(the US, India, Japan, or China) ought to lead
played an important role in selecting ideas and
regionalism, or whether there should be a concert
constructing the regional order, as Acharya has
of middle powers to drive Asian regionalization.
emphasized.
Asia has demonstrated strong caution toward
 The obvious difference is that the drivers great power-led regionalism, and this may
of Asian regionalism are not particularly explain why Washington’s regionalism is
interested in building transnational often at odds with regional trends (Boutin)
institutions with the authority and capacity and Beijing is frustrated with political and
to act. Asian regionalism is more interested security regionalism in Asia.
in each state empowering itself primarily on
 Asian countries were traumatized by Western
a national basis, and secondarily with the
imperialism. Consequently, they have
help of partial and pragmatic regionalist
arrangements. emphasised the sacred place of national borders
and sovereignty. This differs from the EU process
 There are at least two major approaches to whereby member countries have pooled their
regionalism. One is to cope with globalism sovereignty. Member states have explicitly
by uniting through a transnational regional acknowledged the role of the non-interference
organisation. European integration seems to norm in maintaining regional stability since the
adopt this approach. formation of ASEAN (Acharya).
 The other is to adapt to globalism, which  In relation to trade, globalisation is the most
permeates national life, primarily directly and
important trend for China and Asia, while
not necessarily through a transnational regional
for Europe it is regionalization that is more
organisation, for example ASEAN.
important.
There is a divergence in the following  Often it is the middle powers that have driven
dimensions regionalization in Asia, simply because it
enhances their status and influence in the region
 Culture seems to be a basic discriminator in in relation to greater powers. ASEAN is the result
leading to different approaches to regionalism. of middle power-driven regionalization; the force
In Europe, a tradition of a Christian civilization of path dependence makes ASEAN powerful.

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 However the relative decline of US domination Singapore and Burma represent radically different
and the rise of China and India have impacted, forms and levels of economic development).
or will impact in the future, on the process of  ASEAN lacks a major power, or powers, that
Asian regionalization is understudied. It seems could drive the integration process in the way
that Asians pursue regionalism under conditions that France and Germany have done in Europe.
that will not undermine US domination. In
 ASEAN’s project of regional integration
contrast, the European process of integration
has never been fuelled by the same level
is increasingly autonomous from the US now
of political urgency as was injected into the
(although not in security and defence).
European project by the pressing need to
 Europe wants to be a greater power on the overcome Franco-German hostility and thus to
world stage through union, while today prevent future world wars.
Asia attempts to deal with the rise of China
 Intraregional trade is very high within the
through regional cooperation. The EU does
EU (65%+) but not within ASEAN (24%), so
not face the challenge of a great power within
Europeans’ major trading partners are in fact
the region, although the US remains an external
each other. This is not the case for ASEAN or for
influence, but Asia faces a serious challenge from
ASEAN plus Three.
the rise of China.
 Asian nations have been reluctant to embrace
 In particular, ASEAN is geared to the
EU-style integration strategies and tend to
establishment of a free trade area, the EU,
pursue strategies of “open regionalism” and
by contrast, has gone much further, by
“open integration,” or coming together when
establishing a single market and subsequently
it fits their interests. “Open integration” Asian
embracing monetary union.
style embraces concepts of loose and pragmatic
 ASEAN has remained firmly intergovernmental integration, excluding legally binding decisions
in character and has not engaged in EU-style that constrain action in key policy areas.
experiments in supranational governance, its  Today, Asian integration can still be best
long-standing emphasis on state sovereignty described as market-driven integration. Whereas
impeding the construction of a more the benefits of political integration in Asia are not
centralised decision-making framework. yet fully acknowledged, economic integration is
 ASEAN embraces greater economic and perceived as beneficial when it yields economic
political diversity than does the EU (for instance, benefits for all parties involved.

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Chapter - 10.3

ASEAN

Southeast Asia will become an even more important  ASEAN-led regional fora—such as the ASEAN
region of the world. It is home to 650 million people Regional Forum (ARF), the East Asia Summit
and counting, making it the third-most-populous (EAS) and the ASEAN Defence Ministers’
place in the world after only China and India. Meeting Plus (ADMM-Plus)—further solidify
Collectively, its countries will grow to be the world’s these cooperative norms in the region.
fifth-largest economy and third-largest recipient of  Role in reducing interstate conflicts- The
foreign investment. Located at the heart of the Asia- Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),
Pacific region, it is a strategic military location and is has been playing an active and effective role
a worldwide trading hub, where $5.3 trillion of global in conflict management by mostly avoiding
goods already pass through its waterways each year. inter-state conflicts. Scholars credit ASEAN
Retaining regional unity will be crucial. with stabilizing tensions after the Cambodian-
Vietnamese War, guiding Myanmar’s partial
SUCCESS OF ASEAN transition from military dictatorship to democracy,
and mediating maritime disputes between
various member states. Today, ASEAN’s annual
 Economic growth- Their economies have
summits continue to serve as neutral forums for
been boosted by the ASEAN Free Trade
major powers to discuss fraught issues.
Area agreement and by ASEAN’s free-trade
agreements with other major economies such  Reducing geopolitical tensions - Kishore
as China, India, Japan, and South Korea, as Mahbubani and Rhoda Severino : ASEAN’s
well as Australia and New Zealand. The 1992 third major contribution is promoting geopolitical
ASEAN Free Trade Area removed tariffs on collaboration among major powers—not just in
nearly 8,000 items, increasing business access Southeast Asia but throughout the Asia–Pacific
to neighbouring markets and lowering prices of region. East Asia has experienced major shifts of
goods for consumers, while the 2015 ASEAN power in the 21st century. The United States and
Economic Community further lowered tariffs China have moved from close collaboration in the
and streamlined trade regulations. In addition, Cold War years to a new pattern of competition
ASEAN has given Southeast Asia better trade and collaboration. The Sino–Japanese relationship
terms with the rest of the world. has been a tempestuous one. Kishore Mahbubani
and Rhoda Severino
 Creating a culture of peace- Within ASEAN,
a culture of peace has evolved as a result  “Against all odds, the ten-member Association
of assimilating the Indonesian custom of of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN,
musyawarah and mufakat (consultation and has grown into one of the most viable and
consensus). Now ASEAN has begun to share successful regional organizations in the
these cooperative norms with the larger Asia- world“:Kishore Mahbubani and Kristen Tang.
Pacific region—and beyond. More than thirty  By coalescing into one bloc rather than acting
countries have acceded to ASEAN’s Treaty of as independent countries, Davis argued that
Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia ASEAN gives Southeast Asia “more leverage and
(TAC). more economic voice” during negotiations.

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ISSUES REMAIN IN THE ASEAN OBSTACLES TO ASIAN INTEGRATION

 Gaps in economic integration- The key challenge  Cultural Heterogeneity- Asia is too
for ASEAN is how to intensify intra-ASEAN trade “heterogeneous” in terms of size, economic
and investment, which have been stagnant over development, level of democracy and standard
the past five years. Regional banking systems of living to achieve EU-style integration.
and capital markets remain unintegrated. Tariffs  Gap in economic gap- The significant gap in GDP
may vanish, but non-tariff barriers pop up in per capita amongst Asian countries will remain
their place. Members continue to set their own an obstacle to further economic integration.
intellectual-property, land-use and immigration  Experience of colonialism- Southeast Asians
policies. Going forward, Rosengard believes nations, Peter Katzenstein wrote in the mid-
that ASEAN’s main economic challenge will 1990s, are “heirs to colonial powers and have
be “reconciling countries’ tendencies of inherited the colonial tradition of the “rule by law”
cooperation and competition.” rather than the West European tradition of the
“rule of law.” Following this argument, colonialism
 Failed securing peace in the region- ASEAN is
has indeed kept former colonies to establish
frequently criticised for not acting more harshly
democratic structures as the precondition
against Myanmar’s treatment of Rohingyas
for meaningful and codified Asian regional
and for not being more assertive in the South integration. They remain reluctant to pursue
China Sea. Despite all these commitments further political integration going along with the
and initiatives, the Southeast Asian region has concept of EU-style sharing of sovereignty in key
experienced inter- and intra-state disputes from policy areas.
time to time. The tensions between Myanmar and
 Conflicts in the region- The region of
Thailand in the late 1990s, and the differences Southeast Asia continues to grapple with
between Cambodia and Thailand between 2008 security imbalances ranging from domestic and
and 2013 have been challenging for ASEAN. intra-regional conflicts to conventional security
 ASEAN operates by consensus. Davis notes that threats such as territorial disputes, along with
ASEAN’s consensus model, in which all decisions non-conventional security risks emanating from
require countries’ unanimous approval, “limits international terrorism and organised crime at
ASEAN’s scope of collaboration and makes it land and sea to health crises such as the SARS
epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic.
difficult for ASEAN to be assertive in sensitive
areas.”  Filip Kraus, Richard Turcsanyi (and Zdenek
Kriz) and Maria Strasakova point out that the
 There is no mechanism to enforce the group’s
creation of artificial borders in the region have
many agreements and treaties.
resulted in numerous conflicts including the one
Though ASEAN has demonstrated that it is the second in Preah Vihear and the Koh Tral dispute. These
most successful regional organisation in the world authors have also spoken about the influences
after the European Union, it still has a lot of work to the domestic political situation practises to
do to both consolidate its early successes and deal determine the contemporary characteristics
with new challenges. To ensure ASEAN remains viable of these conflicts. For instance, the chapter
and strong in the coming decades, the populations of by Maria Strasakova explains how territorial
its member nations must begin to develop the same border conflicts are used in Cambodian political
scenarios to influence the voters during election
sense of ownership of ASEAN as their leaders.
campaigns.
When signing the ASEAN Declaration, Singaporean
 Influence of China- Josef Falko Loher argues
Foreign Minister S. Rajaratnam warned of the
that the Chinese government practises a
need to govern with a two-level mindset – to not synchronised strategy to enhance its power in
only think about national interests “but posit the region on the one hand and on the other
them against regional interests.” Despite facing hand, tries to keep the extra-regional powers at
increasingly challenging domestic situations, ASEAN bay. China tries to divide the ASEAN members
country leaders must not chase exclusively domestic on the South China Sea issue and economically
concerns at the expense of regional interests. Now weak countries like Cambodia serve the interests
more than ever, ASEAN must heed Rajaratnam’s rule. of the giant neighbour in doing so.

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 Alfred Gerstl & Maria Strasakova 2016. ASEAN as it often indulges itself in the great
Unresolved Border, Land and Maritime Disputes power rivalries in the region leaving little options
in Southeast Asia- This book offers few new for the smaller Southeast Asian countries except
arguments like besides China, United States is to be either with the United States or with
also responsible for the existing divisions within China.

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Chapter - 10.4

BIMSTEC

The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral  In 2014, a permanent BIMSTEC Secretariat was
Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a established in Dhaka, headed by a secretary-
regional organisation comprising seven Member general with seven country directors from its
States lying in the littoral and adjacent areas of members. Several priority sectors of cooperation
the Bay of Bengal constituting a contiguous regional were recently identified and rationalised to seven
unity. This sub-regional organisation came into being broad areas. Some BIMSTEC centres have been
on 6 June 1997 through the Bangkok Declaration.
set up on priority subjects for the region.
It constitutes seven Member States: five deriving
from South Asia, including Bangladesh, Bhutan,  With the recent emphasis on connectivity and
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and two from Southeast related infrastructure, BIMSTEC can play the
Asia, including Myanmar and Thailand. The BIMSTEC role of a facilitator and, as required, that of a
region is home to around 1.5 billion people which regulator in the process of the development of the
constitute around 22% of the global population borderlands increasing regional cooperation.
with a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of
 Another reason that gives scope for BIMSTEC
2.7 trillion economy. The regional group constitutes
a bridge between South and Southeast Asia and to increase regional integration is the failure
represents a reinforcement of relations among these of South Asian Association for Regional
countries. BIMSTEC has also established a platform Cooperation (SAARC). Indeed, for South
for intra-regional cooperation between SAARC and Asia, the shared history has in fact turned into
ASEAN members. a double-edged sword which is intermittently
employed for myopic geopolitical motives. For
instance, the heavy historical baggage that
OBJECTIVES OF BIMSTEC:
burdens bilateral relations between India and
Pakistan has been an unnecessary weight on
 To accelerate the economic growth and social
SAARC, which has all but become outmoded as
progress
a result. BIMSTEC is, however, not fraught with
 To promote active collaboration and mutual similar concerns.
assistance on matters of common interest in the
economic, social, technical and scientific fields.  As a bridge between South and Southeast
Asia, the organisation holds the prospect of
 To provide assistance to each other in the
harnessing the strengths of both sub-regions.
form of training and research facilities in the
In recent years there have also been discussions
educational, professional and technical spheres.
regarding a probable BIMSTEC+, which would
 To maintain close and beneficial cooperation comprise the membership of other countries in
with existing international and regional Southeast and East Asia as well. By bridging
organisations with similar aims and purposes.
South and Southeast Asia, BIMSTEC stands
BIMSTEC has proceeded gradually and to underwrite regional dynamics of the larger
carefully to build the institution and foster Indo-Pacific region that seek to offset Beijing’s
regional cooperation in the region mounting assertiveness.

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 From an economic and financial perspective, WAY FORWARD

the BIMSTEC FTA is barely the tip of the iceberg
in terms of the potential economic benefits.
 First, the organization is in need of internal
The institution has the potential of creating
structural reforms, including the streamlining of
an economic bloc with a common currency
administrative and financial matters that would
and regional-level stock and commodity
contribute to enhancing its functioning.
exchanges, engendered by free regional
movement of financial, fiscal and monetary  A comprehensive BIMSTEC FTA can aid to
capital. reduce barriers to trade and investment and help
businesses join global supply chains leading to a
 From the perspective of BIMSTEC, the involvement
rules-based multilateral trading system.
of Europe offers scope for better linkages and
the strengthening of a multilateral world order  This will require political intent, and the
as the coming decades are set to be marked by achievement of the “convergence criteria” or
both contests as well as cooperation. There are aspects which bind the aspirations of member
two principal areas of convergence that offer states which will be decided over time.
scope for the EU and BIMSTEC to work together.  Along with it, the reduction of regulatory
First, regional cooperation. Second, both barriers to foreign direct investment in the
organisations can work together on geopolitical region will promote growth and integration of
issues in the Indo-Pacific given that the latter has regional and global supply chains.
been identified as an area of engagement for the
EU. -Pratnashree Basu Nilanjan Ghosh  According to Riva Ganguli Das, a well-
established transport network is a prerequisite
to reap the benefits of a free trade area, promote
CHALLENGES trade and investment, and enhance cooperation
in areas such as tourism, people-to-people
 UDHHAB PYAKUREL- the big challenge before contact and cultural exchanges.
BIMSTEC is to muster public support for the  Also, the concept of the “mountain economy”
regional forum as people are not very optimistic was given in the ministerial meetings held in
about the idea of regional integration considering August 2017 in Kathmandu to integrate the
the failure of SAARC to deliver on its promises. mountain regions of India (including Uttarakhand,
 The BIMSTEC region is one of the least Himachal Pradesh, and Northeast India) with
connected in the world and many planned Bhutan, Nepal and parts of Myanmar.
infrastructure projects have over the years Despite challenges the organization is facing, the
remained confined to paper. BIMSTEC Free changing global economic order will make many
Trade Agreement (FTA), which has been under focus on the BIMSTEC nations as preferred
negotiation since 2004. destinations for investment. This is primarily because
 It is often said that BIMSTEC has a leadership these nations have four factors enabling businesses in
problem as well. There are arguments that abundance: namely, human capital, social capital,
major stakeholders, namely India, Thailand, and natural capital and an improving physical capital.
Myanmar, may talk about BIMSTEC but they have At the regional level, therefore, a higher level of
not been enthusiastically engaged to strengthen uniformity in policies with respect to land, labour, and
its initiatives. Rather, they favour a closer capital movements can make the region a lucrative
bond with ASEAN (Association of Southeast destination for investment.
Asian Nations). India’s participation in dozens Also, the recent resurgence of strategic and
of partnership mechanisms of India-ASEAN economic interests in the Bay, as part of a larger
cooperation with its Act East Policy, indicates maritime strategic space, namely, the IndoPacific,
that ASEAN is its priority today has helped BIMSTEC gain salience as a promising
 The focus in the Bay region remains primarily sub-regional grouping. The Bay, being the key
on enhancing bilateral ties, with multilateralism transit route between the Indian and the Pacific
yet to gain ground despite common ecological Oceans, is located at the intersection of Indian and
concerns and a shared past. Chinese strategic interests, affecting all other BIMSTEC
 There exist significant asymmetries in terms member-countries. Additionally, the Bay is plagued
of socio-economic indicators among member by a variety of non-traditional security threats, such
countries. as illegal migration and armed piracy. Consequently,

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the important issues of freedom of navigation in the Media can play a crucial role in this context, tapping
waters, controlling transnational threats, harnessing, into the rich repository of culture, heritage, political
and sharing the Bay’s natural wealth, and promoting history, and the prospect of a common future that
infrastructural and people-to-people connectivity the countries share -Rakhahari Chatterji. Members
become common to the BIMSTEC member countries.
have to clarify what additional benefit they offer to
In this background, to truly integrate the region,
the people, including those of the landlocked Member
rigorous and sustained initiatives by states must be
States. Unless the member states think of initiatives to
complemented by popular enthusiasm and national
civil society initiatives. Suitable institutional engage with the common man to strengthen people-
innovations are necessary to rejuvenate the to-people relations within the region, the agenda of
organizational structure, which will be aided by regional integration under BIMSTEC will also be an
official commitments as well as popular interest. incomplete dream.

Previous Year Questions

1. Russian-Ukraine crisis has cast a dark shadow on the energy needs of the member states of the
European Union (EU). Comment 2022/200/15
2. Explain the success of ASEAN as a regional organisation. 2021/200/15
3. Explain India’s relations with the European Union in the context of Brexit. 2021/200/15
4. Critically analyze the role of ASEAN in the promotion of regional peace and security through
economic cooperation and trade. 2020/200/15
5. Evaluate the role of BIMSTEC in multi-sectoral technical and economic cooperation. 2019/150
/10
6. Discuss the consequences of Trump’s “America First and Xi’s “Chinese Dream” on World Politics.
2018/200/15
7. American President Donald Trump’s proposal to withdraw from the ‘NAFTA’ would bring
unforeseen consequences to the regionalization of world politics. Elaborate. 2017/150 /10
8. How has ‘BREXIT’ affected the regionalization process initiated by European Union and what
could be its likely impacts in the regionalization process of world politics? 2017 /200 /15

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11
Contemporary Global
Concerns
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Chapter - 11.1

Contemporary Global Concerns

DEMOCRACY underlying question about the fundamental

compatibility of democracy and multiculturalism
has been somewhat overlooked. In this context,
What Is A Good Democracy? Bhikkhu Parekh has been crucial to the debate
in ways that need to be accounted for. Bhikkhu
A good democracy can be said to be one that Parekh has urged that democracy be seen,
presents a stable institutional structure that not hegemonically as ‘a paternalist, and
releases the liberty and equality of citizens even a imperialist project’, (although some
through the legitimate and correct functioning of in the West act as if that is what it is), but
its institutions and mechanisms. A good democracy as ‘an expression of our shared humanity and
is the first and foremost a broadly legitimated regime the duties arising out of it’. He understands
that completely satisfies its citizens (quality in terms multiculturalism as a feature of modern
of result). democratic life.
A good democracy is one in which the citizens,  European critics of immigration and of the
associations, and communities of which it is Muslim inroads into ‘European civilization’
composed enjoy at least a moderate level of liberty have generally blamed multiculturalism for
and equality (quality in terms of content). In a good democracy’s trouble. They have held minorities
democracy, there are the citizens themselves who responsible for their own marginalization (and
have the power to check and evaluate whether the radicalization) in traditional monocultural
government pursues the objectives of liberty and societies. British Prime Minister David
equality according to the rule of law. They monitor Cameron thus has condemned ‘segregated
the efficiency of the application of the laws in force, communities’ that are conducive to Islamic
the efficacy of the decisions made by government, extremism and a life ‘apart from the
and the political responsibility and accountability of mainstream’. He excoriated what he called a
elected officials in relation to the demands expressed ‘hand’s-off tolerance’ that permits terrorism to
by civil society (quality in terms of procedure) take root inside Britain.
 American critics of multiculturalism such as
CAN DEMOCRACY BE MULTICULTURAL? Samuel Huntington and Arthur Schlesinger
Jr. were worried that democratic solidarity
OR CAN MULTICULTURALISM BE
cannot withstand the pressure of a fractious,
DEMOCRATIC? multi-identity society, an identity that appears
to undermine consensus and national identity.
 Multicultural theorists such as Iris Young Benjamin R. Barber in the book Multiculturalism
and Will Kymlicka have been examining the Rethought: Interpretations, Dilemmas and
relationship between democratic institutions New Directions- argues that democracy and
and multicultural societies in terms of how multiculturalism are in deep tension with one
democracy is reflected by or modifies itself another, and that the democratic idea is more
to accommodate multiculturalism. But an at home in monocultural than multicultural

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societies. Bhikkhu Parekh acknowledged in the  The human rights agenda of the 1980s started to
conference in June 2011, cultural diversity can become a pro-democratic agenda and merged
raise issues of ‘moral diversity’ that are difficult with movements for political change.
to address.  The 1980s were an essential start-up period.
There are a tiny number of countries that claim But in those years democracy promotion was
enduring monocultural traditions, but even here deeply and, in some sense, fatally, entangled
appearances are not necessarily what they seem, with Cold-War politics. As a result, in the Cold-
and change is coming. For Example: Finland is War years, democracy promotion was regarded
often regarded as isolated and monocultural, yet with a great deal of suspicion by people in most
17 percent of its population is Swedish, and it is parts of the developing world and by many
subject to increasing immigration from beyond people in Europe and North America. It was not
Europe. Two thousand years of growth in the scale until the 1990s that democracy promotion really
of society and the growing mobility and multicultural took off.
diversification of nations around the world raise
 The 1990s – A New Consensus- There are
everywhere, the fundamental question that is at
several reasons why democracy promotion
the heart of Bhikkhu Parekh’s twin commitments
gained significant ground in the 1990s.
to democracy and to multiculturalism: can
democracy survive multiculturalism? This question  The first was the rapid global expansion of
has animated an ongoing but frustrating set of so- democracy in those years.
called ‘dialogues of civilizations.  The second cause was the end of the Cold
However convenient it is to assume democracy’s War.
hospitality to diversity; the analysis here suggests the  A third driver of democracy promotion in the
very contrary: If democracy was born for, designed for 1990s was a new attachment of democracy
and works best under monocultural conditions, then promotion to the development agenda,
the conditions presented by democratic multicultural as practiced by the Western donor
societies as India, America, Brazil or even Holland community.
or Denmark (recall the cartoon controversy) are
The result of these three drivers, the spread of
anything but hospitable to social capital, solidarity,
democracy, the detachment of democracy promotion
or the idea of common/ public goods. Strategies
from the Cold War framework and the merging of
need to be developed to respond to the challenge
the donor agenda, gave a tremendous impulse to
of making democracy work under conditions
where communitarianism, solidarity, fraternity, democracy promotion in those years. Taken together,
and ethnic and historical ties have been eroded. the changes in democracy aid and democratic
Strategies that accommodate multiculturalism diplomacy resulted in substantial pro-democratic
and democracy engagement by the United States and Europe,
particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, Southern
Africa, Central America and Southeastern Europe,
DEMOCRACY PROMOTION somewhat in the former Soviet Union and in a few
other parts of the world.
The contemporary period of democracy promotion, Two striking, positive features characterized this
which is roughly the mid-1970s up to the present pro-democratic activity. One was its growing
day. It is a period that began with what Samuel legitimacy. Election observation, for example,
Huntington called the third wave of democracy. became something of a norm and standards
Much contemporary democracy promotion is a began to emerge around it. However, the subject
response to the third wave of democracy. of democracy promotion has become intensely
 In the 1980s, as democratization spread in Latin controversial. Following are the reasons-
America and parts of Asia, democracy promotion  Disguised political interests- Although the
began to emerge as an identifiable policy and U.S. and Europe did begin to take this subject
aid domain. seriously while committing more resources to it,
 In the 1980s, pro-democratic diplomacy their interest in the subject was often secondary
grew, such as European human rights diplomacy to other interests. The Middle East is an
in Central America, pressure against Apartheid example of foreign intervention for vested
in South Africa and pressure on some Eastern political interests in the disguise of democracy
European countries’ human rights practices. promotion.

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 Being selective in democracy promotion- Both Of course, there are also positive events that have
the U.S. and Europe maintained warm, sometimes occurred over the last five or six years, such as the
very cosy relationships with nondemocratic noteworthy democratic progress in Indonesia, the pro-
governments for all kinds of reasons: trade, democratic breakthroughs in Georgia and Ukraine and
access to oil, security cooperation, or other the new political settlement in Nepal. Nevertheless,
things. The actual effect of all this activity, both the overall democratic trend has stagnated. Several
the assistance and the diplomacy, were actually factors are at work.
pretty modest.  First, there is a natural slowing down of any
 Being inconsiderate to local factors- Outside political trend of this sort. Those dictatorships
actors can be helpful in encouraging democracy that could not cope with the surge of democratic
in other societies, but the externally sponsored impulses have already fallen.
activities are not sustainable in the long term  Second, democracies are struggling in many
without considering the local conditions. This places to deliver the goods to their people.
leads to political instability in these countries.
 Third, and this is extremely important, rivals to
The greatest successes of democracy, both in the late democracy are growing.
1980s and the 1990s, were driven by people within
the democratizing societies themselves, despite  The fourth reason for the slowdown of the
the credit-taking that sometimes went on outside, democratic trend is a simple but powerful one – the
whether in South Africa, Poland, Chile or Mongolia, or high price of oil and gas. Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan,
many other places. By the end of the decade, it looked Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Iran,
as though the world was moving into a period marked Russia, Venezuela – these are countries awash in
by a growing consensus on political values. However, oil money. And concerns about energy supplies
the scenario has changed in recent times-It appeared weaken Western willingness to put pressure on
that in the new century, democracy promotion would any of these governments regarding their non-
probably continue, either with a little bit of growth or democratic practices.
reduction, but in a fairly steady pattern. That has not
proven to be the case. Democracy promotion has
Consequences
instead, in these last six years, been going through  Ten years after the 2011 “Arab Spring” uprisings,
turbulent times, surrounded by controversy, doubt civil wars continue to smoulder in Libya,
and uncertainty. Yemen, Syria, Iraq, and South Sudan. There is
If we look back at the drivers of change from the hardly a functional state or institutions left in
1990s: an advancing democratic trend, disconnection Syria, Iraq, Sudan, and Lebanon. The military has
from a geostrategic framework that often conflicts returned with a vengeance in Egypt and kept the
with democracy and a growing connection between upper hand over the street in Algeria.
democracy and economic development, we see that  Thomas Carothers- This troubled situation of
all three of these are being challenged or partly democracy promotion is a manifestation of the
reversed. Due to these reasons- fact that the overall state of international relations
 The global democratic trend has gradually has changed significantly from the 1990s. We are
slowed down and in many places stagnated. no longer in a world in which there is a growing
international consensus on political values. We
 The evidence is everywhere before us. The
are in a world in which there is less consensus
former Soviet Union is very short on successful
on basic political values and increased conflict
democracy, despite encouraging experiments
about them.
in a few places. Latin America has been going
through a self-conscious crisis of democracy in  President Bush has set forward democracy
the last five or six years. promotion again and again as a central element
and theme of the war on terrorism. This has had
 Its citizens, although still loyal to the idea of
a major effect on democracy promotion. There
democracy, are tremendously frustrated with
is serious resistance to democracy assistance
the political systems .
activities. The Russian government has been
 In the Middle East, a shaky political reform setting out a very strong line on this. But the
agenda is being overwhelmed by a rash of backlash does not come just from Russia. Ethiopia
bloody conflicts. kicked out some U.S. democracy promoters

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recently. So too did Bahrain. Nepal has made it either party/candidate or don’t like politics.
harder for international NGOs to operate there. This may also help to explain low voter
Peru recently passed a restrictive law limiting turnout.
funding of NGOs.  François Briatte, Camille Kelbel and Julien
 The close association of the concept of Navarro
democracy promotion with the war in Iraq has  A report for the RECONNECT project
alienated many people in the world. Which in which we analyze voter turnout in EP
has a wrong example. elections since the beginning of European
integration.
RECENT GLOBAL TRENDS IN ELECTIONS  Data at the national level reveals that voter
participation follows a downward trend
across Europe, similar to what has been
Despite the growth in the global voter population
observed in other advanced democracies.
and the number of countries that hold elections,
There is, however, more than one explanation
the global average voter turnout has decreased
for the low but also varying levels of turnout
significantly since the early 1990s. Global voter
in EP elections since turnout in those
turnout was fairly stable between the 1940s and the contests is related to both attitudinal and
1980s, falling only slightly from 78 percent to 76 per institutional factors.
cent over the entire period. It then fell sharply in
the 1990s to 70 per cent, and continued its decline  Unsurprisingly, turnout is higher when
to reach 66 per cent in the period of 2011–15. voting is compulsory.
The decline in Europe is more significant than  Turnout at the EU level is positively
the decline in the other regions. In Asia and the correlated with turnout at the national
Americas, the trends in voter turnout appear more level on the one hand, and with support
stable over time. However, in both regions’ voter for European integration on the other.
turnout has been much below the global average for  the electoral calendar: turnout is higher
most of the decades since the 1940s. Pew Research when EP voting days coincide with
Centre- Citizens in other developed countries, such those of national elections and when
as Switzerland and Luxembourg, also report low voting takes place on the weekend
turnouts. Pew analysis from the International Institute (rather than a weekday).
for Democracy and Electoral Assistance- Only 55.7  Peter Grand and Guido Tiemann
percent of voting-eligible Americans showed up at the
 Turnout in elections to the European
polls for the 2016 presidential election, placing the
Parliament has been consistently lower
U.S. behind most developed countries that belong
than the turnout in national elections.
to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
They concluded the factors which keep EU
Development, or OECD.
citizens away from the polls by accessing
data from the recent 2009 European
REASONS OF LOW TURNOUT IN Parliament election survey. They conclude
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES that many EU citizens find European
elections insufficiently rewarding and that
the perceived benefits of voting are often
 Anne M. Cizmar outweighed by the costs.
 There are a number of theories to explain  The decline in voter turnout is due to
why voter turnout is so low in the U.S. disenchantment with democracy and
 One theory argues that voting is “irrational” disappointment over the transitional hardships
in the sense that the costs of voting outweigh (Mason 2003/04).
the potential benefits.
 Additionally, many Americans are apathetic RECENT TRENDS IN DEMOCRACY (BASED
about politics. ON GLOBAL STATE OF DEMOCRACY
 Political science research has shown that REPORT 2021)
most Americans are unknowledgeable
about how the government works and the  More democracies than ever are suffering
candidates and issues of the day. Many from democratic erosion. Democratic erosion
Americans complain that they don’t like refers to a loss in democratic quality, as observed

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through a statistically significant decline in at They represent more than 30 percent of the
least one aspect of democracy. In 2020, 43 per world’s population. In fact, 70 percent of the
cent of democracies had suffered declines global population now live either in non-
in the previous 5 years. Some democracies democratic regimes or in democratically
have declined slightly in one area in particular backsliding countries. The percentage of the
(e.g., Canada’s decline in the quality of Effective world’s population living in high-performing
Parliament), while others have declined deeply and democracies is only 9 percent. These trends
across many areas (e.g., Brazil has had significant have become more acute and worrying with the
declines across eight sub attributes). There are onset of the pandemic. Over the past two years,
also notable new forms of democratic decline. some countries, particularly Hungary, India, the
Until 2020, the most common democratic Philippines, and the USA, have seen a number
declines in the world tended to be related to of democratic attributes affected by measures
the integrity of elections, media, and freedom of
that amount to democratic violations—that is,
expression. Although these aspects of democracy
measures that were disproportionate, illegal,
have continued to decline during the pandemic,
indefinite, or unconnected to the nature of the
Democratic decline has broadened to include
emergency. Currently backsliding countries
less commonly seen drops in Freedom of
include some of the largest economies in the
Movement, Predictable Enforcement, Social
world: Brazil, India, and the USA, in addition to
Group Equality and Effective Parliament.
countries such as Hungary, the Philippines and
 Democratic adaptation and modernization- Poland. Slovenia, which holds the presidency of
The pandemic has forced many democratic the EU in 2021, was added to the list of backsliders
institutions, such as electoral commissions, in 2020.
political parties, and parliaments, to make more
 The year 2020 represented the worst on record
use of digital tools and collaborate more with
for deepening authoritarianism in non-
other agencies, including health authorities. Such
democratic regimes. The percentage of non-
reforms, if maintained beyond the pandemic, can
democratic regimes with statistically significant
help make democratic institutions more agile and
declines on at least one sub attribute over a five-
responsive to citizen needs, particularly in the
year period increased from 21 per cent in 2015
electoral arena. The Global State of Democracy
to 45 per cent in 2020, the highest ever. Some
2021 shows the countries adopting various types
hybrid regimes have also used the shield of the
of special voting arrangements (SVAs), most of
pandemic to drop any semblance of democracy
which were in place before the pandemic but
and tighten their grip on power, without fear of
were extended during the pandemic. significant international condemnation. Hybrid
 Backsliding countries are dismantling the regimes with the greatest number of sub
core attributes of democratic systems. The attributes registering five-year democratic
number of democratically backward countries declines in 2020 were: Guinea, Serbia,
has never been as high as in the last decade. Tanzania, Turkey, and Zambia.

Previous Year Questions

1. The modernization thesis asserts that affluence breeds stable democracy. How do you explain
the success of India being the worlds’ largest democracy as an exceptional case? 2021/20/250
2. Explain the reasons for low voter turnout in democratic countries with suitable examples.
2019/200 /15
3. Is democracy promotion in developing countries a feasible idea? 2019/200 /15

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Chapter - 11.2

Gender Justice

WHY DO WE TALK ABOUT GENDER

freedom, gender inequality gets worse. In a
JUSTICE? study performed by Georgetown University
and Brigham Young University, researchers
were also able to connect religious intolerance
 Uneven access to education- Around with women’s ability to participate in the
the world, women still have less access to economy. When there’s more religious
education than men. ¼ of young women freedom, an economy becomes more stable
between 15-24 will not finish primary school. thanks to women’s participation.
That group makes up 58% of the people not  Lack of political representation- Of all
completing that basic education. Of all the national parliaments at the beginning of
illiterate people in the world, ⅔ are women. 2019, only 24.3% of seats were filled by
 Lack of employment equality- Only 6 women. As of June of 2019, 11 Heads of
countries in the world give women the State were women. Despite progress in this
same legal work rights as men. In fact, most area over the years, women are still grossly
economies give women only ¾ the rights underrepresented in government and the
of men. Studies show that if employment political process. This means that certain
became a more even playing field, it has a issues that female politicians tend to bring
positive domino effect on other areas prone up – such as parental leave and childcare,
to gender inequality. pensions, gender equality laws and gender-
based violence – are often neglected.
 Lack of legal protections- According to
research from the World Bank, over one Goetz- defines gender justice as the ending of, and
billion women don’t have legal protection
the provision of redress for, inequalities between women
against domestic sexual violence or domestic
and men that result in women’s subordination to men.
economic violence. Both have a significant
Anne Marie Goetz contends that the term gender justice
impact on women’s ability to thrive and live
is increasingly used by activists and academics because
in freedom.
of the growing concern and realization that terms like
 Lack of bodily autonomy- Many women gender equality or gender mainstreaming have failed to
around the world do not have authority communicate or provide redress for the ongoing gender-
over their own bodies or when they become based injustices from which women suffer. She shows
parent. According to the World Health that although discussions of gender justice have many
Organization, over 200 million women who different starting points, they share similar, unresolved
don’t want to get pregnant are not using
dilemmas.
contraception.
Oxfam- Oxfam understands gender justice as the full
 Lack of religious freedom- When religious
equality and equity between women and men in all
freedom is attacked, women suffer the most.
spheres of life, resulting in women jointly, and on an
According to the World Economic Forum,
equal basis with men, defining and shaping the policies,
when extremist ideologies (such as ISIS) come
into a community and restrict religious structures and decisions that affect their lives and
society.

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BASIC ISSUES OF MOVEMENTS FOR KEY DEMANDS IN GENDER JUSTICE

GENDER JUSTICE MOVEMENT

 Gender inequality- is primarily an issue of  Ensure a vision of gender justice that recognizes
unequal power relations between men and our intersecting identities and demands an end
women. It violates human rights, constraints to the many forms of oppression we experience.
choice and agency, and has negative impacts  Dismantle the sexism and racism that pervade
upon people’s ability to participate in, contribute our criminal justice system, in which women of
to and benefit from social, political, and economic color are currently the fastest growing segment
development. Though it is true that Feminism of the prison population.
truly works for promoting equality, it’s the term
 Support decisions to have a child, not to have
Gender Justice or Gender Equality that should be
a child, and to raise a child - decisions too often
preferred in today’s world.
denied poor people, people of color, same-sex
 Violence against women- The UNIFEM Report, couples, and people with disabilities, among
“A Life Free of Violence: It’s Our Right” (1998) others.
reveals that 3 to 4 million women are battered
 Achieve pay equity and equal opportunity in
each year worldwide; one in six women
the workplace.
are the victims of rape in industrialized
countries and between 16 and 52 percent of  Guarantee pregnancy and caregiving are
women surveyed were assaulted by intimate treated as normal conditions of employment,
partners. The United Nations Declaration on not cause for discrimination.
the Elimination of Violence against Women  Secure housing free from gender-based
regards the “unequal power relations” as the discrimination.
cause and core of violence against women. It
 Ensure educational opportunities free from
is these which have “led to domination over and
gender-based discrimination and stereotypes.
discrimination against women by men and to the
prevention of the full advancement of women,  Achieve equitable representation in leadership
and that violence against women in one of the positions.
crucial social mechanisms by which women are  Solidify constitutional and statutory protections
forced into subordinate position compared with for gender equity.
men.
 The relationship between religion and gender SOME ORGANISATIONS DEMANDING
equality is a complex one. Religion plays a GENDER JUSTICE
vital role in shaping cultural, social, economic,
and political norms in many parts of the world.
 The Association for Women’s Rights in
Similarly, gender roles and the status of women
Development (AWID)-The vision of AWID is
and men in society are deeply tied to the way
“a world where feminist realities flourish, where
religious texts have been interpreted for centuries
resources and power are shared in ways that
by those in positions of authority—positions held
enable everyone, and future generations, to
predominantly by men. The world religions all
thrive and realize their full potential with dignity,
agree on the respect for women and their
love and respect, and where Earth nurtures life
crucial role in family life, especially with
in all its diversity”. The organization supports the
emphasis on women as mothers and wives.
gender justice movements to become driving
They do not, however, advocate emancipation
forces in oppression.
in the sense of total equality with men.
According to Holm (1994), the most severe  Womankind Worldwide- The vision of the
restrictions apply to women during their periods organisation is a just world where the rights of
of menstruation and pregnancy, when, for all women are respected, realized and valued.
example, they cannot enter the temple or touch  The Centre for Reproductive Rights was
the Quran. Male and female roles are therefore established in 1992 with a goal to use the power
much differentiated and unbalanced in world of law to advance reproductive rights as
religions. fundamental human rights around the world.

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 Plan International is a global development far little literature that directly addresses the
human rights and humanitarian organisation link between gender (in)equality and fragility, or
working to advance the rights of children and gender equality in fragile states. The literature
equality for girls. on gender and fragile states tends to focus on
 Women for Women International is an conflict and post-conflict reconstruction and not
international women’s rights organisation that on the gendered dimensions and characteristics
supports the most marginalized women in of fragile states. A more thorough, gendered
countries affected by war and conflict. understanding of state fragility is needed.
 Women’s Environment and Development Studies in Africa suggest the importance of
Organisation (WEDO) is a global advocacy promoting women’s citizenship in fragile states
organisation created to promote and protect through a women’s rights agenda based on legal
gender equality, human rights and the reform and increased participation in decision
integrity of the environment. WEDO facilitates making.
and connects movements to global agendas and
 Puechguirbal, N. in ‘The Cost of Ignoring
in this way, it ensures that women’s voices are
Gender in Conflict and Post-Conflict
heard, and women’s leadership is advanced.
Situations: A Feminist Perspective’, discusses
 Global Fund for Women campaigns for zero the biases in international relations which
violence, political and economic empowerment, marginalise women’s contributions to peace
and sexual and reproductive health and rights of
and security. A gender lens reveals hidden
women globally.
power relations and highlights the different
impacts of conflict and security on men and
GLOBAL JUSTICE MOVEMENT AND women. Ceasing hostilities does not always mean
ROLE OF WOMEN peace for women.
 Schmeidl, S. in his paper ‘Gender and Conflict
The global justice movement emerged in the 1990s Early Warning: A Framework for Action’,
in connection with protests over the legitimacy of argues Despite increasing awareness of gender
global governance by supranational institutions. issues in most aspects of conflict processes,
It bore a strong heritage stemming from the social it remains largely absent in the pre-conflict
movements of the 1970s, about both its theoretical context. The limited, speculative research that
point of view and its militant forces and counted does exist suggests that the modelling and
feminist activists among its ranks. Feminism’s role in
analysis of conflict early warning practices would
the global justice movement can be seen on different
be improved if gender-based perspectives
levels. It can firstly be seen in the demands and
actions of activist groups: for instance, the leading were included.
organization—ATTAC—dedicated one of its working  The literature on sexual violence in armed conflict
groups to the question of women in Germany (which indicates that rape and violence against women
it renamed Feminist-Attac during the 2000s) and and girls prior to, during and after conflict is
of “gender” in France. ATTAC also takes up other extensive in scope and magnitude throughout
demands (which are not unique to the global justice the world. Sexual violence, particularly rape,
movement) such as recognizing domestic work, is often used as a weapon of war to destabilize
improving the conditions of women’s retirement,
families, groups, and communities; to carry out
or the status of women in countries of the Global
ethnic cleansing and genocide; to instill fear in
South. The global justice movement on the whole
populations in order to dampen resistance and/
reserves a certain role for women among its “major
figures,” including Aminata Traoré, Vandana Shiva, or incite flight; as a form of punishment and
and Starhawk, among others. torture; and to affirm aggression. This paper
argues that while international prevention and
response efforts have increased in recent years,
THE PLACE OF GENDER JUSTICE IN THE much more must be done.
GLOBAL POLITICAL AGENDA/WHAT ARE
 Melander, E. ‘Gender Equality and Intrastate
THE DEMANDS OF GENDER JUSTICE IN Armed Conflict’, explores the extent to which
POLITICAL AGENDA gender equality is associated with lower levels
of intrastate armed conflict. The study relies on
 Harcourt, W. in his report -‘Literature Review three indicators: (1) a dichotomous indicator of
on Gender and Fragility,’ argues , there is so whether the highest leader of a state is a woman;

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(2) the percentage of women in parliament; improve gender sensitivity and responsiveness
and (3) the female-to-male higher education in all aspects of the UN Security Management
attainment ratio. It concludes that gender System (UNSMS) and Security Risk Management
equality, measured as the percentage of women (SRM) processes.
in parliament and the ratio of female-to male
higher education attainment, is associated with
lower levels of armed conflict within a country. GENDER IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
Achieving equality between men and women
would thus mean rectifying a grave social There are enormous differences in the socioeconomic
injustice and would directly improve the lives of status of women, depending on their race, class,
most women and girls. nationality, and geographic location. Nevertheless,
women are disproportionately located at
GENDERING SECURITY the bottom of the socioeconomic scale in all
societies.

 Mainstream IR theorists, prominently  Three- fifths of the world’s one billion poorest
realists, consider security solely in terms people are women and girls (United Nations
of state security – one that can protect itself Development Programme 2006b: 20).
and its citizens from an anarchic international  On average, women earn two-thirds of men’s
system, despite the fact that most wars since earnings even though they work longer hours,
1945 have been fought within states and not many of which are spent in unremunerated
across international boundaries (Tickner and reproductive and caring tasks. Even when women
Sjoberg). do rise to the top, they almost always earn less
 IR feminists define security more broadly, than men.
as the diminution of all forms of violence –
 Gendered constructs, such as breadwinner
including domestic violence, rape, poverty,
and ‘housewife’ have been central to modern
gender subordination, economic, and ecological
Western definitions of masculinity, femininity,
destruction (Tickner and Sjoberg). This
redefinition of security provides a very different and capitalism.
view of the world and the effects of what are  The association of women with domestic roles,
considered ‘security policies. Several prominent such as housewife and caregiver, has become
feminist studies have exposed how security of institutionalized and even naturalized. This means
the state can be a direct cause of insecurity for that it is seen as natural for women to do the
the more vulnerable in society. domestic work. Putting the burden of household
 One such study is Moon’s Sex Among labour on women decreases their autonomy and
Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea economic security.
Relations in which she shows how the Korean  As a result of these role expectations, when
government actively promoted prostitution in women do enter the workforce, they are
areas surrounding US military bases in Korea disproportionately represented in the caring
to encourage the presence of US troops there
professions, such as nursing, social services, and
(Blanchard).
primary education, or in light industry (performed
 Another such study is Christine Chin’s In Service with light machinery).
and Servitude that shows how the Malaysian
 Women choose these occupations not on
government used the provision of cheap foreign
domestic labour, mainly Filipina and Indonesian the basis of market rationality and profit
women working in terrible conditions, to ease maximization alone, but also because of values
ethnic tensions and garner the support of the and expectations about mothers and caregivers
middle class (Tickner and Sjoberg). that are emphasized in the socialization of young
girls. Occupations that are disproportionately
 The United Nations has been at the forefront
populated by women tend to be the most poorly
of mainstreaming gender into all its policies
paid.
and programmes. UNDSS has recently
increased its efforts in this regard, working  Gender expectations about appropriate roles
with the partners of the Inter-Agency Security for women contribute to low wages and
Management Network (IASMN) to develop and double burdens.

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 Women’s cheap labour is particularly  Masculine values influence states’ national

predominant in textiles and electronics. These security policy and how this can be detrimental
industries favor hiring young unmarried women to women’s political opportunities.
who can achieve a high level of productivity at
low wages.
POLICY FRAMEWORK AVAILABLE TO
 Moreover, political activity does not go with WORK FOR GENDER JUSTICE
female respectability. Employers hire women on
the assumption that they will provide a ‘docile’
labour force unlikely to organize for better  In 2000, the Security Council adopted resolution
conditions. 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security, which
calls for the increased participation of women
 Gender expectations about suitable roles for
and the incorporation of gender perspectives
women enter into another global labour issue,
in all UN peace and security efforts (including
that of home-based work. As companies have
moved towards a more flexible labour force (less participation of women in decision-making and
benefits and job security) in all parts of the world, peace processes, gender perspectives in training
cost-saving has included hiring home-based and peacekeeping and gender mainstreaming in
workers who are easily hired and fired. UN reporting systems).
 Since women, often of necessity, prefer  In 2008, it adopted landmark Resolution 1820
work that more easily accommodates family (2008), the first devoted to addressing sexual
responsibilities, home-based workers are violence in conflict situations.
predominantly women.  The subsequent follow-up resolutions, 1888
 The gendered division of labour that defines (2009), 1889 (2009), 1960 (2010), have focused
women as housewives, a category with on preventing and responding to conflict-related
expectations that labour is free, legitimizes sexual violence, and have established the United
wages at below subsistence levels (Prügl Nations architecture to this end, including the
1999: appointment of the special representative on
 The gendered division of labour also affects sexual violence in conflict and the establishment
women’s work in agriculture, a role that is of a Team of Experts on the Rule of Law and Sexual
significant, particularly in many parts of Africa. violence in conflict.
While women do undertake cash crop production,
 The UN system further supports protect human
frequently they work as unpaid family labour in
rights and gender equality by promoting and
small units that produce independently or on
contract. ratifying treaties and their optional protocols via
the action of designated bodies. Among these,
 Consequently, men are more likely to gain access some examples are:
to money, new skills, and technology.
 The Committee on the Elimination of
 When agricultural production moves into the
Discrimination against Women, which recently
monetarized economy, women tend to get left
adopted the general recommendations on
behind in the subsistence (not for wages) sector,
producing for family needs. women’s access to justice and on the rights of
rural woman
 Women’s relative lack of economic
opportunities are not caused by market  The Committee on Economic, Social and
forces alone but by processes which result Cultural Rights, which recently adopted the
from gendered expectations about the kinds general comments on the right to sexual and
of work for which women are believed to be reproductive health and on the right to just
best suited. and favorable conditions of work
 The global economy operates not only according  The Office of the United Nations High
to market forces but also according to gendered Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
divisions of labor that value women’s work less three commissions of inquiry (for the Syrian Arab
than men. Republic, the Occupied Palestinian Territory and
 In addition, much of women’s non-monetized Eritrea) and the fact-finding investigations on
labor contributes to the global economy but atrocities conducted by the terrorist group Boko
remains invisible. Haram.

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 International Covenant on Civil and Political  The Vienna Declaration and Programme of
Rights and the International Covenant on Action, which stated that “the human rights of
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which women and of the girl-child are an inalienable,
under their common article 3 provide for the integral and indivisible part of universal
rights to equality between men and women in human rights” and placed particularly heavy
the enjoyment of all rights. emphasis on eliminating all forms of gender-
based violence. Importantly, the Programme of
 The Convention on the Elimination of
Action also called for “the eradication of any
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is conflicts which may arise between the rights
dedicated to the realization of women’s human of women and the harmful effects of certain
rights traditional or customary practices, cultural
 The International Covenant on Civil and prejudices and religious extremism”.
Political Rights and the International Covenant  The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The focused on 12 areas concerning the implementation
provisions of the two Covenants, as well as other of women’s human rights and set out an agenda for
human rights treaties, are legally binding on women’s empowerment. The Platform for Action
the States that ratify or accede to them. includes a series of strategic objectives to eliminate
 The African (Banjul) Charter on Human and discrimination against women and achieve equality
Peoples’ Rights was adopted in 1981 by the between women and men. It involves political and
Organization of African Unity. Its article 2 legal strategies on a global scale based on a human
prohibits discrimination on any grounds, rights framework. The Platform for Action is
including sex, in the enjoyment of the rights the most comprehensive expression of States’
guaranteed by the Charter. Article 18 specifically commitments to the human rights of women.
mentions the obligation of African States to
“ensure the elimination of every discrimination GLOBALIZATION’S IMPACT ON GENDER
against women and also ensure the protection
EQUALITY
of the rights of the woman and the child as
stipulated in international declarations and
conventions”.  Globalization has increased the exports of
different countries and wages in export sectors
 The Charter of the Organization of American are much higher than other sectors and, in many
States includes a nondiscrimination provision cases, women get higher wages than men in
and the American Convention on Human Rights. formal industrial sectors. So, globalization has
Moreover, in 1994. The Organization adopted the increase average wages of women.
Inter-American Convention on the Prevention,
Punishment and Eradication of Violence against  women’s employment opportunities have
Women. increase, and now they are also contributing
to family expenses which support the creation
 The European Convention on Human Rights of new resources and raise the level of income
and Fundamental Freedoms prohibits of family. Along with increase in family income,
discrimination on any grounds, including sex, with the help of globalization, social choices of
in the enjoyment of rights contained in the women have increased.
Convention (art. 14).
 Because of globalization, there are structural
 In 2011 the Council of Europe adopted a changes in agricultural production. Many
new Convention on preventing and combating countries started manufacturing of agricultural
violence against women and domestic violence products to increase their export values and it is
(Istanbul Convention). especially for women, who got benefitted from
 Regional political organizations, including the this because these activities are a good source of
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the South high wages than working in their family farms.
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the  Women health conditions are also improved
Economic Community of West African States, and by working in companies rather than farms. By
the Southern African Development Community, working in family farms, women paid nothing or
have also adopted protocols and resolutions very low wages, but women get higher wages
and issued declarations pertaining to women’s while working in companies especially in export
human rights. industries.

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 Multinational companies offer job without on their duties. That is particularly true when
discriminating between men and women new opportunities arise in formal sector, where
because they work in competitive environment longer working hours and fixed schedules are
and choose the best employees regardless of prevailing.
their gender. It motivates more women to get
 Many new jobs in growth sectors have low
the jobs.
wages, insecure tenure and limited training or
promotional prospects. These conditions may be
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION exacerbated by the relaxation of labor standards
ON WOMEN as a means to attract investment. Some gender
obstacles hinder the effect of women’s paid work,
 Women work two full time jobs. As they moved to sometimes businessmen cut down the women
workplaces, but their household responsibilities wages, women sometimes have to give all her
have not been decreased. For household wages or part of it to her family, which increase
responsibilities they paid nothing. Women gender inequalities.
double responsibilities – long working hours
 In agriculture, gender impact on trade differs
at workplace along with attending household
chores like cooking, baby care hinders their according to the type of agriculture & region.
performance and came in the way of success. For example, in Asia and Latin America, women
almost do not have any rights in the agriculture
 Gender differences in education have limited
system. The farmer’s chance to enter the export
women’s access to new employment opportunities.
sector leads to conflicts with respect to gender
In agriculture, besides having a positive impact
because the returns are always biased against
on productivity, education improves farmer’s
capacity to adopt new methods of improving women.
results. But because of lower education levels,  Export opportunities are not available in equal
female producers experience more constraints in manner to women all over the world. In some
accessing international markets than males. countries, women can enter the international
 Gender responsibilities can prevent women from market like men, but it is noticed that in some
seizing new opportunities in the commercial country’s women adapt slower than men to the
sector, if no other household member can take export opportunities.

Previous Year Questions

1. Give an assessment of the Feminist critique of contemporary global issues. 2017/150/10
2. Identify the role and place of Gender in the global economy. 2013/ 200/15
3. State the place of Gender Justice in the global political agenda. 2013/ 150/10

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Chapter - 11.3

Environment

What Is Environment? the main issue that has been posing major threat
to most of the countries experiencing high levels
 Environment is constituted of all that nature of pollution.
bestows upon mankind irrespective of the  Deforestation- The felling of trees at
boundaries which politics carves over the unprecedented levels and the gradual
face of earth. To put it simply, the land, air, disappearance of forest areas poses major
rivers, oceans, ponds, forests and the total threat to conservation efforts. The Rio Summit
flora and fauna existing on planet earth forms discussed the deforestation issue and charted
environment, but it is much more than this pretty few non-binding
tree and tiger syndrome. It is a compact of all  Conservation of Biodiversity- Biodiversity
those ecological relationships prevailing over conservation includes a wide range of issues like
earth at a given time in history. Thus, it is not protection of wildlife, forests, flora and fauna,
just the natural resources but the relationship endangered species and so on. For any country,
of men, women, and all living creatures. Nature the conservation of biodiversity is a necessary
does not distinguish and discriminate among its step if the balance is to be maintained in the
users and its resources are free for all use, but natural environment. Loss of biodiversity is the
mankind has consistently raised armies against loss of life for all beings. The Convention on
nature in the form of developing conspicuous Biological Diversity was signed at the Rio
Summit in 1992.
technology and an opaque financial regime
which fosters a growth paradigm to counter  Freshwater Resources- The drying up of rivers
nature and subduing it rather than for improving due to increased heat is a major concern today.
its relationship with nature. One of the major issues that dominate the urban
life is the lack of water resources. The increasing
population and the movement of rural population
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES to urban areas have been putting enormous
pressure on the resources and access to water is
 Ozone Layer Depletion- The depletion of the definitely a major issue. Watershed management
and protection of international waterways are
ozone layer and the consequent ill-effects of
extremely important today.
ultraviolet rays affecting the balance of nature
have been widely discussed at all the international  Protection of Marine Resources- One of the
meetings. The 1985 Vienna Convention and the most important issues relating to marine resource
Montreal Protocol of 1987 on the protection conservation is that of protecting the life of
water creatures. The UN Convention on the
of the ozone layer are the most important
law of Seas categorically spells out the rules and
agreements in this context.
regulations regarding this aspect. The increasing
 Climate Change- One of the agreements that levels of ocean and sea water pollution, excessive
was signed by the nations in 1992 during the Rio fishing and whaling are some crucial issues. The
Summit was the Framework Convention on the disappearing coral reefs along the coastal areas
Climate Change. The emission of toxic gases is of different nations are a cause of concern.

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GREEN POLITICS: REFORMISM OR nature and also from the share of others. Their
RADICALISM flamboyant growth is rooted into overkill,
over dig and overspill which have pushed this
spaceship earth towards its final dissolution. The
Conventional political thought has subscribed greed to accumulate and the subsequent rise
to a human-centered approach to understanding, of the materialistic and consumeristic culture
often called anthropocentrism. Moral priority has brought about by the industrial revolution has
therefore been given to the achievement of human overstressed the carrying capacity of earth and
needs and ends, with nature being seen merely as broken the harmony of human life. Nations have
a way of facilitating these needs and ends. In the gone to war for natural resources such as timber,
words of the early liberal UK philosopher John Locke, coal, steel, oil, and other minerals and now there
human beings are ‘the masters and possessors of are increasing incidents of nations indulging full-
nature’. Environmental thought, by contrast, is fledged battles for water.
based on the principle of ecology, which stresses the
network of relationships that sustain all forms of REFORMIST ECOLOGY
life including human life. However, green politics
encompasses two broad traditions, which can be
 Reconcile the principle of ecology with the
called reformist ecology and radical ecology.
central features of capitalist modernity
(individual self-seeking, materialism, economic
CLASSICAL UNDERSTANDING OF growth and so on), which is why it sometimes
ENVIRONMENT called ‘modernist’ ecology. It is clearly a form of
humanist or ‘shallow’ ecology.

 The early transcendentalist writers like Thoreau,  The key feature of reformist ecology is
Whitman, and Emerson “preached the notion the recognition that there are ‘limits to
growth’, in that environmental degradation
of a bio-ethic, a sense of responsibility for
ultimately threatens prosperity and economic
the earth and a plea for a basic ecological
performance.
understanding before tampering with its
resources” [O’Riordan and Turner].  Focusses on sustainable development.
 The alienation and ruthlessness of this kind of  From the reformist perspective, damage to the
industrial growth has led human beings to an environment is an externality, or ‘social cost’.
abyss of material accumulation. By taking account of such costs, modernist
ecologists attempted to develop a balance
 Thus, nature should best be left to itself. between modernization and sustainability.
Such transcendentalists form the core of the
 The chief ideological influence on reformist
environmental movements all over the world.
ecology is utilitarianism.
 John Muir, the American environmentalist
 Peter Singer (1993) justified animal rights on the
who formed the Sierra Club, the powerful
grounds that all species, and not just humans,
environmental group in USA and gave his life have a right to avoid suffering.
fighting the Woodrow Wilson’s government
to prevent the construction of the Yoshemite  It maximizes the welfare or happiness of people,
National Park or Sunderlal Bahuguna fighting taking account of both the living and of people
who have yet to be born.
the Tehri Dam or Medha Patkar leading the
struggle against the Sardar Sarovar Dam or Ken  It tends to advocate three main solutions to
Saro Wiwa fighting for the Ogoni people in Nigeria environmental degradation:
are few examples of radical environmentalists.  ‘Market ecologism’ or ‘green capitalism’.
 It is wrongly being subsumed that they are blind This involves attempts to adjust markets to take
to the needs and pains of mankind. Man through account of the damage done to the environment,
his control over technology is a dominant race making externalities internal to the businesses
in nature which has usurped the rights of all or organizations that are responsible for them.
other creatures to the extent of threatening Examples of this include green taxes.
their existence and leading them to extinction.  Human ingenuity and the development of green
Even amongst men those with greater control technologies (such as drought resistant crops,
over technology have maneuvered larger energy-efficient forms of transport and ‘clean’
benefits from nature thereby overdrawn from coal).

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 International regimes and systems of RADICAL ECOLOGY

transnational regulation. Global governance
offers the prospect that the impact of ‘Tragedy  Encompasses a range of green perspectives that
of the commons’ can be reduced, even though it call, in their various ways, for more far-reaching,
can never be removed. and in some cases even revolutionary, change.
 These theories view capitalist modernity, and
CONTEMPORARY UNDERSTANDING OF its values, structures, and institutions, as the
ENVIRONMENT root cause environmental degradation.
 A variety of these perspectives can collectively
As nations grow and become materially prosperous be categorized as forms of social ecology, in
these resources deplete and the plain truth is that that they each explain the balance between
there can be no progress without the use of these humankind and nature largely by reference to
social structures.
resources. Yet this progress can be moulded in a
manner that resources are used more justifiably  The advance of ecological principles
and judiciously in a manner that there is ample therefore requires a process of radical
time given for their regeneration and recharging. social change. However, this social change
The growth should also be balanced between the is understood in at least three quite
share of the present generation and that which would different ways: Eco socialism advances an
environmental critique of capitalism. For
come later as well as the share of all living creatures
eco-socialism, capitalism’s anti-ecological
at a given time.
bias stems from the institution of private
property and its tendency towards
RADICAL UNDERSATANDING ‘commodification’. These reduce nature to
ENVIRONMENT mere resources and suggest that the only
hope for ecological sustainability is the
construction of a socialist society.
 Environment brings with it the problem of
socio-economic disparity between nations.  Eco-anarchism advances an environmental
critique of hierarchy and authority. For
By sheer power of technology and science the
eco-anarchists, domination over people
rich nations of the North have extracted
leads to domination over nature. This implies
out the resources of the poor nations of the
that a balance between humankind and
South and in their effort to survive these poor
nature can only be restored through
nations have sold off their precious resources the abolition of the state and the
to the North on very low rates. The landscape establishment of decentralized, self-
of earth has become a hostage in the hands of managing communities (Bookchin)
the technologically aggressive and materially
 Ecofeminism advances an environmental
egoistic nations. The global institutions of trade
critique of patriarchy. For ecofeminists,
and commerce such as GATT (now WTO), G-7
domination over women leads to domination
(now G-8 with the addition of Russia) IMF over nature (Merchant). As men are the
and World Bank have been structured to assist enemy of nature because of their reliance on
this policy of resource use. Thus, the revelations instrumental reason and their inclination to
about degenerating environmental conditions control or subjugate, respect for nature requires
have consolidated the affected nations and the creation of a post-patriarchal society.
societies against the powerful nations of the
While social ecology views radical social change
North. This world of the 21st century encounters
as the key to ecological sustainability, so-called
the daunting challenge of 6 billion population ‘deep’ ecology goes further in emphasizing the
which is soon going to be around 10 billion need for paradigm change, a change in our core
ambitiously speeding towards higher living thinking and assumptions about the world. This
standards through the limited and disappearing involves rejecting all forms of anthropocentrism
resources available from earth. This battle is in its and embracing ecocentrism instead. Deep ecology
most crucial stage as it moves into its last great therefore advocates a radical holism that implies that
wave of decision making which would ensure the the world should be understood strictly in terms of
survival of earth and in it our own survival. interconnected-ness and interdependence.

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GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS being set targets for reductions of 8 per cent and
7 per cent respectively, while other states, such as
Australia, were allowed to exceed their 1990 levels.
International Cooperation Over Climate However, the Kyoto Protocol also had significant
Change limitations.
 First, the targets set at Kyoto were, arguably,
A basic characteristic of the climate is that it can
inadequate in terms of achieving the
be considered as a public good. Public goods are
Protocol’s goals of preventing ‘dangerous
defined by their non-excludability, no private
anthropogenic interference with the climate
ownership, and their non-rivalry meaning
system’. For example, the EU, which has taken a
everybody has access to it. As a consequence, for a
leading role in the campaign to address climate
sustainable solution every state or at least the main
change, had called for greenhouse gas cuts of 15
causes of the problem have to be included in the
percent by 2010, almost three times greater than
negotiations process to secure its effectiveness, as
the Kyoto cuts and over a shorter time span.
states are still the dominant actors in the international
system.  Second, the USA’s failure to ratify the treaty,
first through the Clinton administration’s fear
No authority exists above the state level which
that the US Senate would not ratify the treaty and
can claim the sovereignty to sign and ratify legally
later through the Bush administration’s outright
binding agreements. If this is not the case, states may
opposition, dealt Kyoto a fatal blow and set the
be tempted to free ride (meaning non-participation).
process of tackling climate change back for over a
They benefit from the emission reductions of others,
decade. This was not only because the USA, then
but do not themselves contribute with their own
the world’s largest emitter, accounted for about
reduction measures. This free-riding problem was
25 per cent of all greenhouse gas emissions, but
observable when the Clinton administration signed
also because US non-participation ensured
the Kyoto-Protocol, but the US senate refused to ratify
that developing states, and especially China
it. To circumvent the challenge of non-excludability,
and India, would remain outside the Kyoto
all parties have to be included in an agreement like in
process.
Rio in 1992, where 194 states signed the UNFCCC and
committed to prevent “dangerous anthropogenic (i.e..,  Third, the decision to restrict binding targets to
human-caused) interference of the climate system” as developed states alone seriously compromised
stated in article 2 of the convention. the Kyoto process from the outset. The USA
consistently used the exclusion of China and
The Rio ‘Earth Summit’ of 1992 was the first
international conference to give significant attention India as a justification for its non-participation.
to the issue of climate change. It did so by establishing Moreover, China’s carbon emissions continued
the FCCC as a ‘framework convention’, calling for to rise steeply, and have exceeded those of the
greenhouse gases to be stabilized at safe levels on USA since 2008, meaning that climate change
the basis of equity and in accordance with states’ could no longer be seen merely as a developed
‘common but differentiated responsibilities and world problem.
respective capabilities. However, although it was The faltering progress associated with Kyoto meant
accepted by 181 governments, the FCCC was no that, by 2005, global carbon dioxide emissions were
more than a framework for further action, and it rising four times faster than they were in the 1990s.
contains no legally binding targets. This was just One consequence of this has been a shift in emphasis
as well for developed states, whose carbon emissions away from ‘mitigation’ towards ‘mitigation and
continued to rise during the 1990s. The exclusion adaptation’.
of developing states in fact meant that the rate of Nevertheless, there are signs that greater
increase got steeper, particularly due to the economic scientific agreement on the existence, causes and
emergence of China and India. implications of climate change, together with
The most significant international agreement shifting public attitudes, in part through the work of
on climate change was the Kyoto Protocol to environmental NGOs, has strengthening international
the FCCC, negotiated in 1997. The significance of cooperation on the issue. Russia ratified the Kyoto
the Kyoto Protocol was that it set binding targets Protocol in 2004, as did Australia in 2007. Most
for developed states to limit or reduce their significantly, the election of Barack Obama in 2008,
greenhouse gas emissions by 2012. National together with Democrat control of both houses
targets varied, however, with the EU and the USA of Congress (until 2011), appeared to mark a

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key shift in US policy, creating a willingness to  The bigger questions in global environmental
participate in formulating a successor to the Kyoto politics are: who is supposed to take the
Protocol, which runs out in 2012. What is more, responsibility for climate change, who will
despite China’s unapologetic emphasis on largely be setting the standards for controlling the
coal-based industrial growth, the environmental costs emissions of ever more GHGs, and how can the
of carbon industrialization have become increasingly necessary actions be implemented to protect and
apparent, though, for instance, heavily polluted cities control the environment? Even though both the
(eight out of ten of the world’s most polluted cities wealthier and poorer States suffer from climate
are in China), shrinking glaciers on the Tibet-Qinghai change, the poorer South is most vulnerable
plateau and falling water tables across the country. to this entire environmental phenomenon.
This has created a growing likelihood that China and
other developing countries would be more willing to  The northern view is that the defining goal
address the issue of climate change and recognize of the enterprise is to improve the state
that they have an interest in tackling it. of the global environment. The southern
view defines the central problem as the
uneven, unfair, and inappropriate state of the
NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE ON global system and particularly of North-South
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES relations. These two competing views reflect the
different “northern” and “southern” perspectives
The debate between the developed and the on global environmental politics that Dauvergne
developing countries – to identify, limit and considered as the North-South debate.
minimize the ever-increasing threat of global Dauvergne suggests that “the distinction is
climate change – is often known as the North- not only about the different environmental
South debate in global environmental politics. priorities of the North and the South; it is about
The “North-South” divide, signifying the differences the different ultimate goals that each seeks
between the more industrialized economies of the from the global environmental politics”.
global “North” and the relatively less developed
and developing countries of the global “South”,  Inequality and justice have been central issues
has continued to be a defining feature of global at every major environmental conference
environmental politics. The North-South divide since the 1972 UN Conference on the Human
is a simple geopolitical distinction to describe Environment in Stockholm, Nairobi in 1982,
the spill of the global power politics since the Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Rio+5 in New York; and
Second World War. The rich nations which have Johannesburg in 2002. The developed world
attained a certain level of a comfortable industrial of G-8 is more interested in trade monopoly
development are led by the Group of the Eight or and empowerment for liberalizing market
G-8, whereas the less developed nations of the transactions, the developing world consistently
South have consolidated into Group of seventy- strived to achieve more justice and equitable
seven nations or G-77. sharing in the global trade agenda which was
Since the Stockholm conference of 1972 it was more appropriately a redistributive agenda for
becoming increasingly clear that the priorities achieving environmental justice grounds.
of the developed and the developing countries  At all these conferences, and particularly in
were prominently different and both aspired the Kyoto Protocol (gave the clear division
to achieve them through lobbying in the global between Annex I i.e., developed countries
environmental conferences. The debates which and non-Annex I i.e., developing nations), it
emerged out of the different perspectives of the was recognized that the developed countries
developed and the developing countries centered are mainly liable for the present high levels of
round the issues of the consumer needs vs. the basic GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of
needs, the relationship of physical environment to more than 150 years of industrial activity. Thus,
intractable rural poverty in the Third World and the they are bound to tackle this problem as the
policy priorities of their governments, the semantics Protocol puts an excessive burden on developed
as well as the terminology used by the developed northern nations under the principle of “common
countries in conservation measures differed from that but differentiated responsibilities”. Even so,
used in the developing world as the environmental powerful industrialized developed countries are
policies in the former were largely influenced by the not willing to accept the responsibility and have
global corporations. refused to curtail their own excesses unless poor

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nations did the same. Thus, the debate between and also financial backwardness. For these
the North and the South regarding environmental nations of the South, it was walking on the razor’s
politics has become prominent, intensified, and edge to obtain funding from the North but also
still prevailing. to prevent any imposition of eco- imperialism
 According to Tuna, “the emergence of which comes as a condition to aid.
environmental scarcities has added a new
controversy to the longstanding debate over US AND CLIMATE CHANGE NEGOTIATIONS
the structure of relationships between the
North and the South”. From the southern
point of view, environmental issues are just The U.S. accounts for 15% of global GHG emissions,
another means for developed countries to but it is the biggest legacy contributor of atmosphere-
continue to control and exploit the economies warming gases.
of less developed countries, while the northern  In the Obama era, the U.S. played an active
perspective suggests that environmental threats role in climate negotiations, although the
could be used as an opportunity for global Copenhagen UN Framework Convention on
cooperation. Climate Change (UNFCCC) conference in 2009
 The problem is that the North does not want failed to produce a consensus, and member-
to accept responsibility for the environmental countries only acknowledged the science,
destruction caused by their previous industrial without committing themselves to greenhouse
activities and are putting pressure on the gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets. By 2015,
South to be careful about environmental the negotiations progressed with the Obama
degradation. On the other hand, the administration engaging in diplomacy,
stakeholders and leaders of the South have resulting in the Paris Agreement premised on
been ignoring environmental concerns in voluntary targets for national emissions cuts.
many ways. The main focus of the South is to
be industrialized and developed. Raul Prebisch  The withdrawal from the Paris Agreement
suggested that the North should contribute 1 under the Trump era meant that the U.S.
per cent of their GNP towards the development was no longer bound by its national pledge
of the South since market prosperity of North made under the pact: to achieve an economy-
is directly linked with the economic and social wide reduction of its GHG emissions by 26%
well-being of the Less Developed Countries of -28% below the 2005 level in 2025 and to make
the South. best efforts to reduce emissions. America also
 During the Rio Summit the divisions between the stopped its contribution to the UN’s Green
North and the South were quite pronounced Climate Fund, to which it had pledged $3 billion,
in case of the biodiversity Convention. The after transferring an estimated $1 billion.
developed countries wanted the developing  On the contrary, the Trump regime focused
countries to act for the preservation and on, among other things, relaxing controls
conservation of their biodiversity resources. on emissions from fossil fuel-based industries,
However, the cost of the most basic biodiversity diluting standards on air quality and vehicular
protection programmes was in the range of $ 10 to emissions, hydrofluorocarbon leaking and
$14 billion per annum whereas the technological
venting from air-conditioning systems. But there
benefits derived from the genetic resources would
is a shift under the Biden administration.
go into the pockets of the Western Transnational
Restoring America’s participation in the United
Corporations (TNCs) [World Conservation
Nations Paris Agreement on climate change was
Monitoring Centre: 1992]. Therefore, the ticklish
problems of ‘Biotechnology’, ‘Patents’, ‘Role one of the first orders of Joe Biden.
of TNCs’ and the much debated ‘Intellectual  Mr. Biden has placed climate change front and
Property Rights’ added further complications to Centre among his priorities. He has promised
the acceptance of the Biodiversity Convention. an “enforcement mechanism to achieve net-
 Another issue of debate is regarding transfer zero emissions no later than 2050”, including a
of technology. The G-8 controls the monetary target no later than the end of his term. In 2025,
wealth and technology through which it is able aided by a planned federal investment that will
to make benefits out of the raw materials which total $1.7 trillion over ten years, besides private
the South is forced to sell due to its technological investments.

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ENVIRONMENT FOCUSED INSTITUTIONS  GEF-funded projects that reduce greenhouse

gases average about $3 million per project, and
It is natural to expect environment-focused institutions are implemented primarily by the World Bank,
to play a major role in combating climate change. Yet UNDP, and UNEP. Each year, the GEF grants $250
while most such institutions’ missions mean that they million to projects relating to energy efficiency,
will contribute to global climate efforts, they generally renewable energy, sustainable land use, forestry,
do not have the capacity or stature to play leading and transportation.
roles. Climate change poses a challenge whose scope  Since its inception, it has devoted $2.7 billion
dwarfs past environmental issues, like ozone or to climate-related projects. These projects have
deforestation; as a result, existing institutions do not generated $17.2 billion in cofinancing; it estimates
have experience or capabilities at the scale presented that these projects have reduced GHG by one billion
by climate change. tons (“GEF Fact Sheet on Climate Change,”). The
GEF also provides administrative support for the
United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC-mandated Adaptation Fund. The GEF
has a mixed record. It is, in principle, financially
 It monitors and reports on the state of the
global environment through publications efficient: only 3 percent of its budget is allocated
such as its Global Environment Outlook and for administrative needs, largely because it draws
works to inform national and global policy on other agencies to implement projects.
responses to environmental issues through  The GEF’s clear funding mandate and
direct work with national governments. relatively transparent governance structure
It also hosts the secretariat to several major mean that it often has an easier time securing
international environmental agreements. UNEP donor funding than other UN organizations.
is best suited to a policy advice and capacity- Also, since it can draw on a range of agencies
building role. It has technical expertise on a as project implementers, it has the advantage,
range of environmental issues, largely through in principle, of being able to select the most
its global network of partner research centers. efficient project operator. Moreover, it can
It has helped developing countries (mostly the provide a useful screen on World Bank spending:
least developed) to create national plans for many developing countries are wary of the Bank
adaptation and assisted in their preparations for but are more comfortable with money routed
UNFCCC negotiations. through the GEF.
 In addition, UNEP is working to create a
network of research centers to increase The Montreal Protocol
the availability of adaptation information.
UNEP’s lack of a long-term strategy has led it to The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
undertake activities more determined by funding the Ozone Layer came into force in 1989. It has
sources than institutional priorities. been successful in slowing or eliminating use of
the most important ozone depleting substances,
 It has also faced difficulty defining itself within
in both the developed and developing world.
the larger UN system (Maria Ivanova, “Can the
Anchor Hold? Rethinking the United Nations Since many of these substances are also potent
Environment Program for the 21st Century”). greenhouse gases, the protocol has had important
It has, however, recently completed a medium- payoffs in mitigating climate change. The protocol is
term strategy defined by six priorities, including supported by a Multilateral Fund, created in 1990,
climate change, which it hopes will bring greater which pays the incremental cost of developing-country
focus and continuity to its work program. compliance. The fund has a grant budget of about
$165 million per year and has supported six thousand
Global Environment Facility projects in developing countries. It is supported by a
small secretariat and is implemented mainly by the
 The Global Environment Facility acts as a central World Bank, UNDP, UNEP, and the United Nations
funding body for sustainable development Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
projects. As the only crosscutting financial
instrument for major international Informal Leader-Level Forums
environmental conventions, including the
UNFCCC, its mandate is to provide funding to Most leader-level forums have, in the past, been
developing countries to help the world achieve focused on the economy. The G8 has long been the
the goals of those conventions. most prominent. As the global financial crisis has

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confronted policymakers with the reality that the in energy intensity of 25 percent or more by 2030
wealthy G8 members are severely limited in what (with 2005 as baseline) (“Sydney APEC Leaders’
they can accomplish alone, the G20 has taken a more Declaration on Climate Change, Energy Security
prominent role, though it remains focused primarily and Clean Development,” Asia Pacific Economic
on financial issues; both institutions are examined Cooperation). APEC can also create low-level
here. Similar institutions that operate at a regional multilateral initiatives to support targets, such as its
level complement these. The Asia- Pacific Economic energy efficiency auditing service, which facilitates
Cooperation (APEC) forum, for example, has information sharing between member countries
played a role in recent climate and energy efforts. on best practices for energy efficiency policies and
measures. APEC also collaborates with other
Group of Eight and Group of Twenty international energy organizations, such as the
International Energy Agency, to work on clean energy
The G8 has, in recent years, become somewhat more technology and other climate- related areas.
inclusive, with five large developing countries joining
parts of its meetings as the G8+5. In September Sectorally Focused Institutions
2009, G20 leaders declared that the forum would
replace the G8 as the main venue for coordinating International governance is already fairly broad
international economic policy. That will likely be and deep for three major energy-related sectors:
accompanied by a shift in discussion of climate international aviation, global shipping, and nuclear
change from the G8 to the G20. The G20 has not power. International aviation and global shipping
been involved in energy or climate until recently and, both present significant challenges for climate change
as a result, it has a thin track record. The G8, however, mitigation. Their governing organizations— the
has made important contributions. For example, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and
the G8+5 agreed in 2008 to collectively scale up the International Maritime Organization (IMO)—
investment in demonstration projects for carbon might be able to make important contributions to
capture and sequestration; when stimulus funds made helping cut their sectors’ emissions.
a rapid increase in energy-related spending possible,
that objective was fulfilled. The G8, together with International Civil Aviation Organization
China, India, and Korea, also spurred the formation
Carbon dioxide emissions from civil aviation
of the International Program on Energy Efficiency
account for 2 percent of global greenhouse gas
Cooperation (IPEEC), which aims to provide for
emissions and constitute 13 percent of global
the exchange of energy efficiency best practices, emissions from transport. Without policy controls,
in 2008. The G20 is still in its infancy in dealing with aircraft emissions are expected to grow by 3 to 4
climate change. Because of its heterogeneity, it will percent annually. Reducing these emissions will
have more difficulty coming to agreement on issues become increasingly important over time (“Group
than the G8; for the same reason, though, agreement on International Aviation and Climate Change
within the G20 will be considerably more valuable. Report,” International Civil Aviation Organization,
June 1, 2009). The International Civil Aviation
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Organization, a specialized agency of the UN, sets
Forum international standards for the sector. The Kyoto
Protocol assigned ICAO responsibility for tackling
The APEC forum is the most prominent regional emissions from international civil aviation, and
organization (other than the European Union) that the organization periodically reports to the
regularly addresses climate change issues. An UNFCCC on its emissions reduction activities. So
intergovernmental forum of twenty-one Asia- far, however, those have been limited. It has created
Pacific countries, it works primarily to encourage emissions standards for nitrogen oxides (a set of
trade liberalization and economic growth in greenhouse gases) in the form of engine certification
the region. Its member economies are, however, requirements, and compliance has been high. It is
responsible for about 60 percent of world energy exploring creating a similar CO2 efficiency standard for
demand, making their regular meetings potentially engines. ICAO has conducted analysis of different
useful in dealing with climate change. In practice, options for reducing aviation emissions, but its
APEC has yielded very modest climate efforts. In members have not been able to achieve consensus
their September 2007 declaration on climate change, on which system to adopt or how it would be
energy security, and clean development, for example, implemented. An ICAO working group was set up
APEC leaders agreed to work toward a reduction to create a plan of action on climate change, which

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proposed creating a “basket” of individual measures to take positions related to global climate change
and policies from which countries could choose to governance even when that might have seemed
meet aspirational emissions reduction goals. The plan desirable. In particular, it has remained neutral on
also recommended pursuing a 2 percent annual gain whether nuclear power should, like other low-
in fuel efficiency for the sector—roughly what the carbon technologies, be eligible for subsidies
industry achieves without any new effort. (“Group on through the Clean Development Mechanism.
International Aviation and Climate Change Report”)

International Maritime Organization NON-BANK DEVELOPMENT FOCUSED

INSTITUTIONS
Emissions from international shipping pose similar
problems as those from international aviation: they Economic development is intimately related to climate
are substantial, growing, and not clearly subject to change mitigation and adaptation. As countries
any national authority. Emissions from international bring themselves out of poverty, their energy use
shipping accounted for 2.7 percent of global will increase. Efforts to steer that growth in a low-
carbon dioxide emissions in 2007. In the absence of emissions direction will be essential. Development
emissions reduction policies in the shipping industry, can, similarly, lead to large changes in land use
the absolute emissions from shipping are expected patterns and in agricultural activities, both of which
to roughly triple by 2050 (“Second IMO GHG Study are major sources of emissions. Again, initiatives that
2009,” International Maritime Organization, 2009). help ensure that these activities are consistent with
The IMO has had greater success in meeting its climate change mitigation will be invaluable. In both
mandate than ICAO, but that success has still been cases, institutions that support development have
limited. It has created technical and operational the potential to make important contributions to
guidelines for reducing greenhouse gas emissions mitigating climate change. Adaptation to climate
in shipping. These include an energy efficiency index, change will also need to become an integral part
which allows ship operators to track their energy of economic development effort. Four major
use, and guidelines for reducing energy use in both development-focused institutions merit attention:
the design and operation of ships. The IMO has The World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture
experience promulgating mandatory standards Organization (FAO), United Nations Development
as well. It has done this through its pollution Programme, and the World Health Organization.
convention (MARPOL) for sulphur dioxide and These are the largest international development
nitrogen oxides. Its experience regulating and institutions involved in significant climate-related
monitoring these emissions (in this case through activities other than the multilateral development
fuel quality standards and engine standards) could banks (which are addressed in the next section).
be extended to include carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases. Like ICAO, the IMO has considered Food and Agriculture Organization
but not been able to agree on creating any market-
based measures, such as emissions trading systems FAO is a specialized UN agency that works to reduce
or taxes on fuel, for reducing greenhouse gas global hunger by improving agricultural productivity
emissions. and increasing access to food. It has a biennial budget
of $930 million (half is contributed by member nations
International Atomic Energy Agency and half comes from voluntary contributions), which
supports 3,600 staff in offices around the world. FAO’s
Nuclear power is the world’s largest source of near- staff compiles local and regional data on agriculture,
zero-carbon energy, providing 6 percent of global forestry, and fisheries, and analyses this information
primary energy, 15 percent of electric power, and 8 to predict vulnerabilities and forecast trends, such
percent of generating capacity. Analysts differ widely as the effects of climate change on agricultural
as to its future potential. At a minimum, a sharp decline productivity. It also monitors and reports on
in the use of nuclear power could make cutting global global land cover, which offers a useful metric
emissions even harder than it might otherwise be at for measuring the effects of climate change and
another extreme, strong growth in the use of nuclear human efforts to mitigate them. These analyses are
power could make a big contribution to solving the synthesized into policy briefs, topical and regional
climate change problem. The IAEA does not carry out reports, and other publications, many of which have
any explicitly climate-oriented activities. Almost climate-relevant analyses, such as the biennial State
all its work, however, implicitly supports climate of the World’s Forests, or its recent reports on food
mitigation. Indeed, the agency has been careful not security and bioenergy.

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World Food Programme (WFP) United nation Climate Change

The World Food Programme is a specialized agency UNFCCC Process-and-meetings- United Nations
of the United Nations with a mission to reduce Framework Convention on Climate Change. The
global hunger by delivering food supplies in UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. Today,
emergencies. It also works to reduce chronic food it has near-universal membership. The 197 countries
insecurity through its development operations. that have ratified the Convention are called Parties
The WFP’s greatest climate-related strength comes to the Convention. Preventing “dangerous” human
from its established ability to respond to food interference with the climate system is the ultimate
emergencies. The WPF, for example, already has a aim of the UNFCCC.
strong field presence in much of the world’s most
climate vulnerable populations—91 percent of its Kyoto Protocol
10,200 staff operates on the ground in more than The Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United
seventy countries. It has a network of about 120 Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
technical specialists who conduct assessments of food by committing industrialized countries and
security around the world. In partnership with other economies in transition to limit and reduce
UN agencies, it operates a satellite monitoring greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance
system that provides geographic data to help with agreed individual targets. The Kyoto Protocol
predict emerging vulnerability. WFP’s recovery is based on the principles and provisions of the
assistance after emergencies and other development Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It
efforts has other indirect adaptation effects. These only binds developed countries and places a heavier
include building coastal embankments and other burden on them under the principle of “common
defenses to reduce flooding in vulnerable areas but differentiated responsibility and respective
and creating sustainable land management plans to capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are
reduce erosion and increase agricultural productivity. largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG
The World Food Programme also contributes to emissions in the atmosphere.
climate change adaptation in a more limited way
through its work in building states’ own resilience The Paris Agreement
to events and pressures that might otherwise
The Paris Agreement builds upon the Convention
lead to food emergencies, such as providing food
and for the first time brings all nations into a
as payment for work on irrigation or reforestation
common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to
projects.
combat climate change and adapt to its effects, with
enhanced support to assist developing countries
United Nations Development Programme
to do so. The Paris Agreement central aim is to
The United Nations Development Programme strengthen the global response to the threat of
helps developing countries attract aid and use climate change by keeping a global temperature
it for economic and social development. UNDP’s rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above
advantage compared with other UN organizations is pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the
its strong presence on the ground, with operations temperature increases even further to 1.5 degrees
in more than 166 countries, many of which face Celsius.
significant climate challenges. As developing countries
Conference of the Parties (COP)
will be among the most vulnerable and the least
able to adapt to climate change, UNDP can play an The COP is the supreme decision-making body of
important role in helping them respond to climate the Convention. All States that are Parties to the
change through capacity-building activities and Convention are represented at the COP, at which
through advocacy work. UNDP also conducts they review the implementation of the Convention
adaptation work. It is helping developing countries and any other legal instruments that the COP adopts
integrate adaptation into their national development and take decisions necessary to promote the effective
strategies, using UNDP-created metrics and analytical implementation of the Convention, including
tools to assess their specific vulnerabilities. institutional and administrative arrangements.

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 Kyoto Protocol adopted- The Protocol legally

binds
Kyoto, Japan. 1997 COP 3, 1997
 developed countries to emission reduction
targets.

 A major breakthrough is achieved at the second

part of the sixth Conference of the Parties meeting
Bonn, Germany COP 6-2 in Bonn, with governments reaching a broad
political agreement on the operational rulebook
for the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.

 Resulted in the Marrakesh Accords, setting the

stage for ratification of the Kyoto
 Protocol. This formalized the agreement on
Marrakech, Morocco, 2001 COP 7 operational rules for International Emissions
Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and
Joint Implementation along with a compliance
regime and accounting procedures

 The Delhi Declaration focuses on the development

New Delhi Climate Change needs of the poorest countries and the need
COP 8
Conference - October 2002 for technology transfer for mitigating climate
change

 Parties agreed on the Bali

Bali Climate Change  Road Map and Bali action plan, which charted the
way
Conference - December COP13
2007  towards a post-2012 outcome. The Plan has
five main categories: shared vision, mitigation,
adaptation technology and financing.

Poznan Climate Change  The launch of the Adaptation Fund under

Conference - December COP 14, the Kyoto Protocol and The Poznan Strategic
2008 Programme on Technology Transfer

Copenhagen Climate  Copenhagen Accord drafted. Developed countries

Change pledge up to USD 30 billion in fast- start finance
COP15 for the period 2010-2012
Conference - December
2009

 Resulted in the Cancun Agreements, a

comprehensive package by governments to
Cancún Climate Change
assist developing nations in dealing with climate
Conference - November COP 16
change. The Green Climate Fund, the Technology
2010
Mechanism and the Cancun Adaptation
Framework are established.

 Governments commit to a new universal climate

Durban Climate Change
change agreement by 2015 for the period
Conference - November COP 17
beyond 2020. (Resulted in the Paris Agreement of
2011
2015)

Doha Climate Change,  The Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol

Conference - November COP18 is adopted. COP18 also launched a second
2012 commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol.

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 Further advancing the Green Climate Fund and

Warsaw Climate Change Long-Term Finance, The Warsaw Framework for
Conference - November COP 19 REDD Plus and the Warsaw
2013
 International Mechanism for Loss and Damage.

 To keep global temperatures

 Well below 2.0C (3.6F) above pre-industrial
times and endeavor to limit them even more, to
Paris Climate Change 1.5C. Rich countries should help poorer nations
Conference - November COP 21 by providing
2015  climate finance to adapt to
 climate change and switch to renewable energy.
The agreement requires rich nations to maintain
a $100bn a year funding pledge beyond 2020

 To move forward on writing

Marrakech Climate Change
 the rule book of the Paris
Conference - November COP22
2016  Agreement. Launched the Marrakech Partnership
for Climate Action.

 Countries continued to negotiate the finer details

of
 how the agreement will work from 2020 onwards.
First set of negotiations since the US, under the
presidency of Donald Trump, announced its
Bonn, Germany. 2017 COP23 intention earlier this year to
 withdraw from the Paris deal. It was the first COP
to be hosted by a small island
 developing state with Fiji taking up the
presidency, even though it was being held in
Bonn.

Katowice Climate Change  Countries stressed “the urgency of enhanced

Conference – December COP 24 ambition in order to ensure the highest possible
2018 mitigation and adaptation efforts” by all Parties.

Cop26  India has also joined the consensus and

announced its net-zero target of 2070. This is a
 New Global and Country Targets: The Glasgow step ahead of India’s past position where it never
Summit has urged countries to consider accepted the need to reduce emissions.
strengthening their 2030 targets by COP27 to be
 Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda: A potentially
held in Egypt in 2022.
important development that emerged out of
 The summit targeted global warming not to COP26 (but outside the COP process) is the
exceed +1.5°C and got about 140 countries to Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda endorsed by 42
announce target dates for bringing emissions countries (including India).
down to net zero.
 This is a cooperative effort to accelerate
 The achievement is significant as in the Paris the development and deployment of clean
Agreement, the developing countries did not technologies and sustainable solutions in areas
agree to reduce emissions but just the “emissions- such as clean power, road transport, steel and
intensity” of GDP. hydrogen.

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 Phasing-Down Coal Consumption: Coal is the Some other key outcomes of COP 26
dirtiest of fossil fuels and an early phasing out
of coal is clearly desirable. European countries  The pact asks nations to consider further actions to
have pushed hard for its phase-out; however, curb potent non-CO2 gasses, such as methane,
developing countries have resisted this. and includes language emphasizing the need
 A middle path, as suggested by India, was to “phase down unabated coal” and “phase-out
referred to at the COP26 calling for a “phase- fossil fuel subsidies.” This marked the first-time
down” of coal-based power. Best Case Scenario: negotiators have explicitly referenced shifting
An early assessment by Climate Action Tracker away from coal and phasing out fossil fuel
(CAT), an independent organization, suggests subsidies in COP decision text.
that the targets declared, if fully achieved, could  In 2009, rich nations committed to mobilizing
limit global warming to around +1.8°C. $100 billion a year by 2020 and through 2025 to
 However, it also warns that the targets for 2030 support climate efforts in developing countries.
are insufficiently ambitious. Unless significantly In the Glasgow Climate Pact, it was noted: “with
tightened, the world is more likely to end up deep regret” that developed countries failed to
seeing global temperatures rise by 2.1°C to meet that goal in 2020 (recent OECD estimates
2.4°C. show that total climate finance reached $79.6
billion in 2019).
Setbacks of the Meeting:  They identified a wide range of options to ensure
 Voluntary Targets: The targets set at the an inclusive and robust technical process to
meeting are voluntary with no mechanism for develop this new goal and established an Ad Hoc
enforcement or penalties for non-compliance. Work Programme to convene technical experts
Many targets are conditional on the availability and ministers to flesh out the details.
of adequate financial support.  Developed countries also agreed to at least
 Lack of Specific Details and Actions: Many double funding for adaptation by 2025, which
countries have not provided details on specific would amount to at least $40 billion. This is a
actions to be taken which would determine significant milestone to address the persisting
the actual trajectory to net zero which creates imbalance between funding for mitigation and
uncertainty about what will be achieved. adaptation efforts;
 Failure in Securing Climate Finance: The  COP26 adopted the Glasgow-Sharm-el-Sheik
summit’s mild admonition only urges the work programme for the GGA. This will take
developed country parties to scale up their place between 2022 and 2024 — to help improve
provision of climate finance. It failed to firmly assessment of progress toward the adaptation
secure funding commitments from developed goal and enable its implementation — through
nations. regular workshops and work on methodologies
 Unequal Distribution of Carbon Budget: The to assess progress.
world’s top three largest emitters (China, USA,  Countries also agreed to operationalize and fund
Europe) which account for about 30% of the the Santiago Network on Loss and Damage,
world’s population, would take up 78% of the established at COP25 in Madrid, and to catalyze
carbon budget. the technical assistance developing countries
 China intends to hit peak emissions only by 2030, need to address loss and damage in a robust and
before going down to net zero in 2060; it would effective manner.
take up 54% of the global carbon budget against
 International Carbon Markets: After five
a global population share of only 18.7%.
years of negotiations, the world’s governments
 The US, with 4.2% of the total population, would settled on the rules for the global carbon market
take up 14.2% of the budget and Europe, with under the Paris Agreement’s Article 6. One of
6.8%, would take up 9.5%. the most contentious issues in recent years, the
 This problem reflects the fact that focusing on net- negotiations tried to balance finally reaching
zero dates does not ensure a fair apportioning of an agreement on the rules while ensuring they
the available carbon space if the initial position didn’t undermine climate ambition but instead
in terms of emissions varies so greatly. maintained environmental and social integrity.

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 Common Time Frames: In Glasgow, countries risks. Innovative technologies such as minimum
were encouraged to use common timeframes for tillage, crop insurance, and Happy Seeder offer a
their national climate commitments. This means sustainable way of reducing agriculture’s carbon
that new NDCs that countries put forward in footprint while paving the way to a climate-
2025 should have an end-date of 2035, in 2030 resilient future
they will put forward commitments with a 2040  South-South and triangular cooperation is
end-date, and so on. seen as a means by which developing countries
 Aligning NDC targets’ dates around five-year can voluntarily assist each other in undertaking
cycles will hopefully help spur ambition and action their climate change actions, in the context of the
in the near term, facilitate a better understanding implementation of the Paris Agreement under
of global progress, ensure countries take action the United Nations Framework Convention on
over the same period and keep pace with the Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Paris Agreement’s five-year cycle to strengthen  As part of the South-South Cooperation Action
their plans. The use of the term “encouraged,” Plan adopted by United Nations principles as a
rather than stronger language, may how substantive pillar to support the implementation
 Transparency-In Glasgow, all countries agreed of the Secretary-General’s Climate Change
to submit information about their emissions and Engagement Strategy, UNOSSC has developed a
financial, technological and capacity-building series of initiatives highlighting the importance
support using a common and standardized set of sharing knowledge, best practices and
of formats and tables. This will make reporting experiences voluntarily is, in the implementation
more transparent, consistent and comparable. of the 2030 Agenda.
 International solar alliance India has been
SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION AND leading the world in its pursuit of enhanced solar
CLIMATE CHANGE POLITICS energy capacity through the International Solar
Alliance.
 Developing countries suffer from a significant  BioInnovate Africa is developing a gel fuel from
gap in terms of scientific research related to local organic fruit waste as an affordable and
climate change, a new study shows, even though low-carbon emission alternative to firewood and
they contain the communities and people most charcoal.
vulnerable to extreme weather, rising sea levels  In Latin America, Santiago´s resilience
and other serious impacts of climate change. office in Chile is working with its Mexico
 Southern populations, including those in the City counterpart to prepare risk maps for
least developed countries (LDCs), landlocked their respective communities.
developing countries (LLDCs) and small island
developing States (SIDS), have been those most
INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE
intensely affected by a changing climate.
 EbA-Funded by the Global Environment
Why is climate change relevant to India?
Facility, a project worked with communities i.e.
Seychelles – along with Mauritania and Nepal –  India is among the countries most vulnerable to
to use nature to adapt to the impacts of climate climate change. It has one of the highest densities
change, a strategy termed ecosystem-based of economic activity in the world, and very large
adaptation (EbA). numbers of poor people who rely on the natural
 EbA South is seen as a flagship initiative resource base for their livelihoods, with a high
for South-South cooperation – enabling an dependence on rainfall. By 2020, pressure on
exchange between countries in the Global South India’s water, air, soil, and forests is expected to
in the form of technology transfer, capacity- become the highest in the world.
building, policy support or fundraising.  One of the most significant ways that climate
 The CGIAR Research Program Climate Change, change will impact the lives of people in India
Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) has been will be through its water resources. While water
working in Africa, Latin America, and Asia together sustains life, it all too often wreaks havoc through
with its partners to promote CSAclimate-smart devastating floods and droughts. A changing
agriculture)and help countries manage climatic climate will only aggravate these shocks.

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India’s response to climate change  India’s proactive role in mitigating climate change
is due to the domestic compulsion of tackling
 India’s response to Climate Change National issues like the need for poverty eradication,
Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): food and nutritional security, universalization of
outlines existing and future policies and programs health and education, water security, sustainable
addressing climate mitigation and adaptation. energy, employment.
The Action Plan identifies eight core “national
 India is of the opinion that the developing
missions” running through to 2017: Solar Energy;
countries’ need for inclusive growth, sustainable
Enhanced Energy Efficiency; Sustainable Habitat;
development, poverty eradication and universal
Water; Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem;
access to energy must be the fundamental
Green India; Sustainable Agriculture; and Strategic
differentiation between them and the developed
Knowledge for Climate Change. Most of these
nations. Currently, the Conventions recognise
missions have strong adaptation imperatives.
the historical emissions of the developed nations
 National Clean Energy Fund: The Government as the basis for differentiation between the
of India created the National Clean Energy Fund developed and developing nations.
(NCEF) in 2010 for financing and promoting  International Solar Alliance: ISA was launched
clean energy initiatives and funding research at the United Nations Climate Change Conference
in the area of clean energy in the country. The in Paris on 30 November 2015 by India and
corpus of the fund is built by levying a cess of France, in the presence of Mr Ban Ki Moon,
INR 50 (subsequently increased to INR 100 in former Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2014) per tonne of coal produced domestically
or imported. COP26 and India’s commitment
 Paris Agreement: Under the Paris Agreement,
India has made three commitments. India’s  India’s Commitments at the Summit: While
greenhouse gas emission intensity of its GDP delivering his national statement on India’s
will be reduced by 33-35% below 2005 levels by behalf, the PM presented five commitments
2030. Alongside, 40% of India’s power capacity from India towards climate action at COP26.
would be based on non-fossil fuel sources. At These include:
the same time, India will create an additional  Taking India’s non-fossil fuel energy capacity to 500
‘carbon sink’ of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of Co2 gigawatts (GW) by 2030. Fulfilling 50% of India’s
equivalent through additional forest and tree energy requirements through renewable energy by
cover by 2030. 2030. Bringing down the carbon intensity of India’s
 International Solar Alliance: ISA was launched economy by more than 45% by 2030. Cut down
at the United Nations Climate Change Conference its net projected carbon emission by 1 billion tons
in Paris on 30 November 2015 by India and from now until 2030. Achieve the target of net-zero
France, in the presence of Mr Ban Ki Moon, carbon emission by 2070.
former Secretary-General of the United Nations.  Climate Equity Monitor: India has also been
 Bharat Stage (BS) Emission Norms: Emissions pushing for climate equity in terms of actions that
from vehicles are one of the top contributors to air need to be taken by the developed countries to
pollution, which led the government at the time achieve climate and energy goals. According to
to introduce the BS 2000 (Bharat Stage 1) vehicle the climate equity monitor, which tracks various
emission norms from April 2000, followed by BS- aspects of climate change, countries including
II in 2005. BS-III was implemented nationwide in the US, Russia, Australia and most European
2010. However, in 2016, the government decided nations have exceeded their fair share of the
to meet the global best practices and leapfrog to global carbon budget whereas India, China and
BS-VI norms by skipping BS V altogether. countries from Africa and South America have
consumed less than their fair share.
India in the international forums on  India as a Role Model: India has taken a firm
climate change: stand and came out very clear which is also an
indication of how the developing countries are
 India is currently setting up voluntary targets willing to take firm decisions regarding climate
in the international forums to commit itself change. Looking at the historical responsibilities
to the mission to combat climate change. It is with respect to the rate of emissions of different
also playing a major role in climate change parts of the world, India’s response is much
mitigation. better than what is seen in the developed world.

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Samir Saran  In the case of the ambitious Smart Cities Mission

(SCM), sustainability and climate resilience lie at
 India’s INDC predicates the success of India’s the heart of the programme.
ambitions on the availability of technology  In February 2019, SCM launched the Climate
(some of which are listed) and financial flows (not Smart Cities Assessment Framework—a first-
aid) at commercial, competitive rates from the of-its-kind public assessment framework on
financial system. Specifically, on financial flows, climate-relevant parameters. The rationale for
the INDC’s call for new and additional finance for developing this framework was to (a) ensure
climate change, recognising the fact that there is urban develop malignancy with India’s declared
currently a huge shortfall in supply and demand Intended Nationally Determined Contributions;
for climate finance. and (b) create a repository of all climate-related
data, across all departments, programmes,
 The International Energy Agency (IEA) has stated
terminologies and indices.
that except for a “breakthrough at the Paris
UN climate conference in 2015,” the existing  It seeks to strike the perfect balance between
international framework and market structures growth and development; it simultaneously
will be unable to mobilize funds for climate addresses social progress and environmental
action at the required pace or scale. Simply put, conservation
the fewer the impediments to access technology
Suhasini Haider
and finance, the greater the probability of success
for India to lead an ambitious effort on climate  India’s record since the 2015 Paris Accord
change. and initiatives such as the International Solar
Alliance (ISA) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Hardeep S. Puri Infrastructure (CDRI), as a part of what Mr
Modi (along with other leaders) launched the
 “India’s initiative for Coalition for Disaster ‘Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS)’
Resilient Infrastructure will help in the at the World Leaders Summit at COP26, were
development of appropriate infrastructure widely welcomed. The announcement of India’s
to face the least developed and developing new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
countries with natural calamities”.- Narendra and the “Panchamrit” or five goals for the future
Modi elicited applause from across the audience.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the five proposals made by India in the recent COP26 conference held in Glasgow.
2021/150/10
2. Examine the role of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
and other major efforts by the UN to address the global environmental crisis.2020/200/15
3. Would you agree that the on-going debates on international environmental polities continue
to be marred by a new North-South ideological divide over historical responsibility and
developmental mode)? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples. 2018/200 /15
4. The recent move of USA to withdraw from the Paris Climate Agreement is a in the consensus
achieved on protecting the world environment. In this context, assess the future prospectives
on climate control. 2017/250 /20

**********

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Chapter - 11.4

Terrorism

INTRODUCTION of violence or the credible threat of violence other

members of that group or class are put in a state of
chronic (fear). This group or class, whose members’
Most of the formal definitions of terrorism have some
sense of security is purposefully undermined, is the
common characteristics: a fundamental motive to
target of terror.
make political/societal changes; the use of violence
or illegal force; attacks on civilian targets by “non-
state”/” Subnational actors;” and the goal of affecting THEORIES OF TERRORISM
society. This finding is listing three components of
terrorism:
 Acts or threats of violence
Instrumental Approach
 The communication of fear to an audience In the opinion of Crenshaw, the instrumental approach
beyond the immediate victim suggests that the act of terrorism is a deliberate
choice by a political actor. As per this approach, the
 Political, economic, or religious aims by the
terrorist organization acts to achieve political ends.
perpetrator(s).
Different acts of terrorism are explained as responses
Thus, terrorism is a violence action, which is knowingly, to external stimuli, like government policies (say,
premeditated and preplanned by political, economic, infrastructure development). Some of the key facets
or religious motivations against non-military targets of this approach are
by the terrorist including organized or non-organized
 Violence is assumed to be intentional for a
groups. In terms of the strategic framework, Martha
terrorist organization. Therefore, violence is
Crenshaw stated, “terrorism is a means to political
not the end.
end” (Crenshaw, 1987); i.e., the act of terrorism is
intentional.  Terrorists are not lunatics who violate for the
sake of violation.
Crenshaw further quoted, “terrorism is a bargaining
process with the opponent. It is a coercive method  Attaining the political ends are important, so the
based on ‘the power to hurt’ and to intimidate the survival of the terrorist organization even though
enemy.” Hence, it is the intention of a terrorist group the ultimate aims cannot be achieved could
to carry out a terror act to communicate its objectives be explained by the achievement of so-called
to the established institutions and governments. The intermediary aims.
objective might be short term or long term; it may be  Intentions of actors are inferred from their
achieved directly or indirectly. behavior
According to Schmid and Jongman, “Terrorism Crenshaw suggests terrorism survives because the
is a method of combat in which random or terrorist organizations achieve their tactical aims
symbolic victims serve as an instrumental target such as publicity and recognition. This explanation
of violence. These instrumental victims share makes sense considering some political changes that
class characteristics which form the basis for their terrorist organizations were able to achieve, despite
selection for victimization.” Through previous use their failure to reach their ultimate political ends.

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Crenshaw quoted, “This approach is intellectually stimuli than they are to government actions. Related
satisfying and provides researcher with an easier to the assumptions mentioned above, emphasizing
context of study since information requirements organizational maintenance explains why terrorist
about secretive terrorist organizations are relaxed. organizations survive although they never achieve
It is substantially influenced by conflict studies, so their ultimate goals.
its range is extremely broad as it is applied to all
manner of conflict regardless of the identity of the
actors.”
TERRORISM AS POLITICAL
COMMUNICATION
Organizational Approach
This approach suggests that terrorism is employed
The organizational approach suggests a terrorist
for communicative purposes. Concisely, it means
organization’s main goal is ‘survival,’ like any
terrorism is a set of actions that uses political
other organization such as a state institution or a
violence for communicative aims. Hence, the aim of a
commercial enterprise. Hence this approach explains
terrorist organization in general is to spread political
terrorism because of an organization’s struggle for
messages and make some segments of the society or
survival, usually in a competitive environment.
state do something they want.
 Leaders of the organization deliver benefits and
To sum, terrorism’s ends can vary – they can be a
incentives to the members to provide for the
religious, leftist, or right-wing terrorist organization
survival of the organization.
– however, all these acts are designed to influence
 The organization responds to pressures from the relationship between individuals in society and
outside by changing incentives offered to the state (Kaplan). Terrorism as a communication
members or through innovation. approach is different from organizational or
 Terrorist actions do not necessarily or directly instrumental approaches because their focus of
reflect ideological values. inquiry is on the impact of terrorism according to the
advocates of this approach. Causes of terrorism are
 Organizational theories suggest that what
not purely political ends or organizational goals.
defines the actions of a terrorist organization are
not purely political.  This approach is successful in bringing the
communication dimension into the theory-
 Terrorist acts are assumed to appear inconsistent,
building processes in studies of terrorism.
erratic and unpredictable because terrorists do
not act according to external pressures, like from  It is difficult to construct a comprehensive theory
governments. of terrorism without considering the terrorist
action’s impact on intended and unintended
 Terrorists do not make cost benefit analysis of
audiences and how these actions change and
purely political actions, and act strategically.
defi ne relationships in society.
So, although the instrumental theories and economic
 This approach is not comprehensive. It is not
approach allows us to explain even surprise attacks
capable of explaining the political ends of these
that can be stimulated from external pressures,
organizations.
organizational theories do not provide such an
insight, or it is at least difficult to explain the actions  It is insightful to suggest that action-reaction
of terrorists by the organizational approach since we dynamics are to be understood. But why are
can have little information about the inner processes these actions taken, and on what grounds they
of these organizations. are taken, with which political aims are at least as
Another basic argument about this approach is that important as the communication characteristics.
terrorist organizations are like firms. Albert O. Likewise, organizational aspects of the subject
Hirschman’s. can be used to explain the maintenance are treated as unimportant in this approach.
of the organization in a competitive environment. This  This interpretation can be better explained by
line of literature suggests that terrorist organizations providing four different arguments from the
are like fi rms competing in an environment in which supporters of this approach.
they will always try to survive.  They claim that economic analysis can account
Other terrorist organizations are like rivals in a for strategic interactions among opposing
marketplace: the Irish Republican Army competes interests. These relationships include terrorist-
with the Irish National Liberation Army. Moreover, government, or two targeted countries relations
organizations are more sensitive to their members’ in transnational terrorism cases.

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 Not only economic methodology, but also God and a way towards heaven. Criminology
theories of economics are assumed to be useful further explains these religious creeds mingled
in explaining terrorism. Sandler suggests that with political interests.
the theory of market failures can underscore  In this regard, for the achievement of their
how independent pursuits of wellbeing by political will, the religious figures first blame
the agents at odds with socially efficient
their own country’s politicians for neglecting
outcomes.
the important historical part and lessons of
 This approach is useful in understanding their religious issues then they blame foreign
government failures: they can also stem from well- influence/prevailing international system for
intentioned policies too. Fourth it is suggested influencing their religious culture. These blames
that various economic empirical methods can be are inclusive of three reasons.
applied to evaluate theoretical predictions and
 The foreign influence/system does not serve the
policy recommendations.
religion’s survival interests. The system competes
and has animosity with world’s different religion
RELIGION AS PHILOSOPHY OF and the system is depicted as evil as force or
TERRORISM influence
 Simply, the militant religion considers
In David Rapoport’s highly influential wave theory secularization, modernization, and westernization
the fourth and current wave of terrorism is as the most specific enemies. Therefore, the
characterized by religious terrorism. This evolution religious movements start violent campaign
of terrorism is believed to have become prominent against it as the legitimate defender of faith and
in the 1990s terrorism. Since 9/11 there has emerged they justify their actions posing themselves only
a large school of ‘new terrorism’ scholars who argue accountable to God who has chosen them for
that the new wave of ‘religious’ terrorism has been the sacred mission.
revolutionary and is distinct from earlier ‘secular’  Religious movements can be quite violent,
terrorism. ferocious, extreme, and carry pre-emptive
Some of the prominent scholars include Daniel attacks in their nature. Simply, in its extremist
Benjamin and Steven Simon, Bruce Hoffman, and form religious groups adopt terrorism as a last
Walter Laqueur. There are certain key features that are resort to their campaign. In its tactics religious
believed to be unique to new terrorism. These include, terrorism is quite extremist and full of injustices
in order of prominence, “Increased violence/more and maltreatment.
deadly, New organizational structures, religious
 Strategically it supports pre-emptive attacks for
motivation [non-political], WMD/CBRN, New
the fear of an existing threat from the opposite
technologies, Transnational terrorism/diaspora.”
faith and ideology. Because of applying this
However, upon reflecting on the history of terrorism tactic religious groups and leaders cannot plan
these features are either not unique or are a result of their actions rationally and select inappropriate
the evolving historical context. Changes in ‘religious’ time and places of target that causes human
terrorism are of degree rather than kind. Therefore, sufferings.
the new wave of terrorism is not distinct from earlier
 Most of the religious attacks and avenges
terrorism but is merely an evolution of it.
are related to the historical events; religious
Some of the key tenets of this theory are: terrorism is based on the idea of never forget the
 The negative elements associated with this form past wounds and previous grievances, they are
of terrorism believe that it is demand of God that more rigid in their actions and more dangerous
is why their actions are legitimized and for the in consequence of failure of actions; in this term
protection of their religion in present and future. here is the example of Irish terrorism.
Under this sense aspiration for vengeance works  In fact, terrorism in the name of religion aims at
as driving force for terrorism in the form of political motives. Believers of the religious group
suicide bombing, war against other faiths and consider it righteous to adopt violent means in
imperialism. defines of their faith against other religions. They
 They consider these acts as test of their sincerity consider their religion universal and assume it
with the religion and accomplishment of assigned their great responsibility to propagate their faith
duty by God and the way to achieve the will of by all violent means.

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 Current Terrorism is mostly religion based; suicide to acquire a territory or to intervene to protect the
bombing, martyrdom and the use of weapons rights of an ‘oppressed’ minority in a neighboring
are symbolic features of it. The significant country, (i.e., The Nazi Party in Germany). Violence
means of these terrorist networks are Internet, against migrant communities also comes under this
international media, and satellites. category of terrorist violence. Examples of these are:
Nazism in Germany, Fascists in Italy, white supremacy
movements in the US known as Ku Klux Klan (KKK),
TYPES OF TERRORISM the Green Jackets of Denmark in the 1980s etc.

State-sponsored Terrorism
Ethno-nationalist Terrorism
State-sponsored terrorism or warfare by proxy is as
Terrorism motivated by ethno-nationalist and
old as the history of military conflict. However, state-
separatist aspirations became prominent only after
sponsored terrorism on a massive scale reappeared
the Second World War and dominated the terrorist in international politics in the 1960s and 1970s, and
agenda around the world for more than 50 years until today along with religious terrorism, state sponsored
religious terrorism came to occupy the center stage. terrorism has considerably altered the nature of
Ethnic terrorism can be defined as deliberate violence terrorist activities around the world. In recent times,
by a subnational ethnic group to advance its cause. some countries have embraced terrorism as a
Such violence usually focuses either on the creation deliberate instrument of foreign policy. One distinction
of a separate State or on the elevation of the status of of state sponsored terrorism from other forms of
one ethnic group over others. Tamil Nationalist groups terrorist activity is that it is initiated to obtain certain
in Sri Lanka and insurgent groups in Northeast India clearly defined foreign policy objectives rather than
are examples of ethno-nationalist terrorist activities grabbing media attention or targeting the potential
as conducted by Lal Denga, General Phizo, etc. audience. In a cost-benefit analysis, state-sponsored
terrorism is the most effective means of terrorism
Left-Wing Terrorism from the perspective of the perpetrator. State-
sponsored terrorism was widely employed in Central
Violence against the ruling elite, mostly by the peasant
Asia in the nineteenth century. Russians supported
class motivated by what is called leftist ideologies, has
their fellow Slavs in the Balkans. Bulgaria used the
occurred repeatedly in history. However, a concrete
Macedonian revolutionary terrorists against former
ideological base for the left and subsequent violent
Yugoslavia after World War I. The Western powers
movements was inspired by the writings of Marx
under the auspices of the US supported all kinds of
and Engels. This was supported by the writings and
nationalist and anti-communist rebels throughout
speeches of later communists like Lenin and Mao Tse-
the Cold War. The Soviet Union was no different in
tung (Mao Zedong). Leftist ideologies believe that
its operations during this period. Countries like Iran,
all the existing social relations and state structures Iraq, Sudan, Libya North Korea have been engaged in
in the capitalist society are exploitative in character sponsorship of political violence of different nature
and a revolutionary change through violent means in their ‘enemy’ countries. India has been facing this
is essential. Examples of leftist ideologies that have problem from Pakistan since Independence.
resorted to the use of terror are numerous. These
include; the Red Army Faction or Baader Meinhof Narco Terrorism
Gang in the former West Germany, the Red Brigades
in Italy, the 17 November Movement in Greece, the The term was first used in 1983 by the former President
Shining Path of Peru, People’s Revolutionary Army and of Peru, Belaunde Terry to describe campaigns by drug
the Montoneros of Argentina and the Maoist groups traffickers using terrorist methods such as the use of
in India and Nepal are the most easily identifiable car bombs, assassinations, and kidnapping. against the
groups closer home. anti-narcotics police in Columbia and Peru. Though
initially used in the context of drug trafficking related
Right-Wing Terrorism terrorism in South America, the term has come to be
associated with terrorist groups and activities around
Right-wing groups seek to maintain the status quo the world and more so in the Central and South-
or to return to some past situation that they feel East Asia. Narco-terrorism has been defined as `the
should have been conserved. Sometimes groups attempt by narcotics traffickers to influence the
espousing rightist ideologies might assume ethnic/ policies of the Government by systematic threat
racist character too. They may force the government or use by violence.’ However, it is also possible to

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view narco-terrorism as a means of terrorism or at Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional

any rate as a means of funding terrorism. As the term release or dissemination of biological agents. These
itself suggests, narco-terrorism combines two criminal agents are bacteria, viruses, insects, fungi, and/or
activities; drug trafficking and terrorist violence. toxins, and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-
Narco-terrorism is motivated by economic reasons as modified form, in much the same way as in biological
it helps the terrorist organizations raise huge sums of warfare. Further, modern agribusiness is vulnerable to
money with minimum cost for their activities. Thus, anti-agricultural attacks by terrorists, and such attacks
the political, ideological, religious and the ethno- can seriously damage economy as well as consumer
nationalist motives associated with terrorism are confidence. Bioterrorism may be favored because
secondary to the economic gains associated with it. biological agents are easy and inexpensive to obtain,
In a survey conducted by the United Nations, links can be easily disseminated, and can cause widespread
between drug traffickers and terrorist groups were fear and panic beyond the actual physical damage
observed in 19 out of 38 countries. These countries
include Algeria, Colombia, Comoros, Ecuador,
Cyberterrorism
Germany, Guernsey, India, Italy, Japan, Kenya,  Cyberterrorism is the use of the Internet to
Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Mauritius, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, conduct violent acts that result in, or threaten,
the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the loss of life or significant bodily harm, to
Uzbekistan, and Yemen. Major terrorist groups achieve political or ideological gains through
operating on these lines in these countries are: Al threat or intimidation. Acts of deliberate, large-
Qaeda, the Colombia-based AUC (United Defenses of scale disruption of computer networks, especially
Columbia), ELN (National Liberation Army), Colombia, of personal computers attached to the Internet
and FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia), by means of tools such as computer viruses,
the tri-border Islamic Group in Argentina, Paraguay computer worms, phishing, malicious software,
and Brazil, the Shining Path in Peru, the PKK (Kurdistan hardware methods, programming scripts can all
Workers Party) in Turkey, IMU (Islamic Movement be forms of internet terrorism.
of Uzbekistan) in Uzbekistan, the Islamic Jihad in
Palestine, Hezbollah in Lebanon, and the RIRA (Real  There have been several major and minor
Irish Republican Army) in Northern Ireland. Islamist instances of cyberterrorism. Al-Qaeda utilized
terrorist groups in India supported by the Pakistan ISI the internet to communicate with supporters
are reported to be active in drug trafficking along the and even to recruit new members. Estonia, a
Kashmir Valley and in other parts of the country. Baltic country which is constantly evolving in
terms of technology, became a battleground
Agroterrorism/Bioterrorism for cyberterrorism in April 2007 after disputes
regarding the relocation of a WWII soviet statue
Agroterrorism, also known as agriterrorism and located in Estonia’s capital Tallinn.
agricultural terrorism, is a malicious attempt to  Cyberterrorism ranks among the highest
disrupt or destroy the agricultural industry and/or potential security threats in the world. It has
food supply system of a population through “the become more critical than the development of
malicious use of plant or animal pathogens to cause nuclear weapons or the current conflicts between
devastating disease in the agricultural sectors”. It is nations. Due to the pervasiveness of the internet
closely related to the concepts of biological warfare, and the amount of responsibility assigned to
chemical warfare and entomological warfare, except this technology, digital weapons pose a threat
carried out by non-state parties. to entire economic or social systems. Some of
A hostile attack towards an agricultural environment, the most critical international security concerns
including infrastructures and processes, significantly include.
damages national or international political interests.  Case of India: To counter the cyber terrorists, also
The first public use of agroterrorism was in a report by called “white-collar jihadis”, the police in India
Dr. Brown which was then reprinted in a front-page has registered private citizens as volunteers who
article of The New York Times on September 22, patrol the internet and report the suspected cyber
1999, by reporter Judith Miller. Dr. Brown’s article in terrorists to the government. These volunteers
2,000 for Emerging Diseases of Animals (American are categorized in three categories, namely
Society for Microbiology) made these words a “Unlawful Content Flaggers”, “Cyber Awareness
permanent fixture, and they soon ended up as part Promoters” and “Cyber Experts”. In August
of everyday use. 2021, police arrested five suspected white-collar

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jihadis who were preparing a hit list of officers, world’s fastest growing and most-deadly terrorist
journalists, social activists, lawyers, and political groups.’ The poor socio-economic conditions,
functionaries to create fear among people. The ideological trends, and weak governance have been
white-collar jihadis are considered “worst kind of causes for terrorist outfits laying inroads into African
terrorists” as they remain anonymous and safe in countries. Studies indicate that women play active
other nations but inflict “immeasurable” amount roles in sustaining and facilitating extremist activities
of damage and brainwashing. on the continent.
 Women play multiple active and passive roles
Nuclear Terrorism in carrying out terrorist activities. They are
strategic as well as tactical actors for a terrorist
Nuclear terrorism refers to any person or persons
organization. Each parental organization, such as
detonating a nuclear weapon as an act of terrorism
the ISIS, their affiliates, or independent terrorist
(i.e., illegal, or immoral use of violence for a political
organizations, have relied on women to varying
or religious cause). Other aspects of nuclear terrorism
capacities to attain their goals.
include the sabotage of a nuclear facility and/or
the detonation of a radiological device, colloquially  Women have assumed the roles of propagandists,
termed a dirty bomb, but consensus is lacking. In legal recruiters, and participated in combat operations.
terms, nuclear terrorism is an offense committed if a ISIS, in Kano, Nigeria, has created all-women
person unlawfully and intentionally “uses in any way morality police units, Hisbah, to ensure other
radioactive material … with the intent to cause women toe the line on issues like dress codes,
death or serious bodily injury; or with the intent among others.
to cause substantial damage to property or to the  While groups like the Al-Qaeda have restricted
environment; or with the intent to compel a natural women to their societal roles of a wife and a
or legal person, an international organization or a mother, within the African context, groups such
State to do or refrain from doing an act”, according as Al-Shabaab in Somalia have exploited the
to the 2005 United Nations International Convention society’s regressive understanding of women to
for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. their advantage.
Nuclear terrorism, according to a 2011 report published  Women have been actively used to recruit, gather
by the Belfer Center for Science and International intelligence, disseminate propaganda, and
Affairs at Harvard University, can be executed and shame other men into joining the jihadist cause.
distinguished via the following pathways: They have also raised funds and smuggled goods
across checkpoints, evading security checks.
 The use of a nuclear weapon that has been stolen
or purchased on the black market  The factors that propel women’s involvement
in organizations like the Al-Shabaab stem from
 The use of a crude explosive device built by
avenging the death of their kins on account of
terrorists or by nuclear scientists who the terrorist state-sponsored violence or due to ideological
organization has furtively recruited commitment.
 The use of an explosive device constructed by  Recruiters exploit the fact that everyone in Al-
terrorists and their accomplices using their own Shabaab-controlled territories are mandated to
fissile material receive religious education. Women have also
 The acquisition of fissile material from a nation- married into the group for financial and physical
state. security as the Somali state can provide neither.
 The creation of a device that may give information  Groups such as Boko Haram in Nigeria have used
about the configuration of components needed coercion to recruit young women into their ranks
for a nuclear weapon as suicide bombers. Using a similar strategy as
Al-Shabaab’s, they exploit the regressive gender
narrative and rely on primarily dispensable foot
RECENT TRENDS soldiers, i.e., women and teenage girls, to cause
instability and chaos. During the period 2011–
17, Al-Shabaab had used 244 women as suicide
Role of Women in Terrorism bombers.
As per the Global Terrorism Index 2022, 48 per cent  A predominant factor for women to be involved
of the global terrorism deaths took place in Sub- in violent extremism is economic grievance
Saharan Africa. The Sahel region is ‘home to the and poverty. Many women who have joined

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Al-Shabaab are primarily from deprived areas curfews imposed by the security agencies, and
such as Mijango, Garissa, and Kwale in Kenya. the unending conflict have increased anxiety,
These women are coerced into joining extremist depression, boredom, and psychological stress.”
organizations as fighters or informants, on the  Pakistan has used a dual strategy of sending
pretext of securing job opportunity. drugs as well as weapons to keep the conflict
alive and tear the core of the valley’s social fabric.
Cyberterrorism in Space Heroin smuggled from Pakistan is the most
 Andre Kwock in his article, “The Growing widely used opioid all over Kashmir. The cross-
Threat of Cybercrime in the Space Domain”, border smuggling of narcotics provides oxygen
stated: “Given the enormous reliance on space- to terrorism via finances and, if not curbed soon,
based technologies, satellite jamming can have could ruin the lives of the region’s youth. With
catastrophic effects. Motivated by extremist Pakistan using narco-terrorism as a new weapon
ideology, a successful terrorist cyberattack in its proxy war against India, the Kashmir Valley
has seen a 2,000 percent rise in heroin abuse in
today could lead to unprecedented havoc
the last five years.
involving denial-of-service attacks on critical
space infrastructure, hijacking sensitive
location data, capturing military base EVOLUTION OF UN FOR COUNTERING
locations and troop positioning imagery. TERRORISM
The vast scale of global disorder triggered by
terrorist acquisition of satellites can range
According to scholars like Kabir Taneja, “the threat
from disabling essential telecommunications
of terrorism itself has been fast evolving and far
to triggering a disastrous financial crisis.”
surpasses some of the fundamental challenges
 In 2007, Sri Lanka’s Tamil Tigers rebel group that the UN, UN Security Council, agencies, and
hijacked an Intelsat satellite to broadcast members are continuing to try and navigate —
ethno-nationalist propaganda to Europe and such as defining the term terrorism and developing
Asia. Representing Sri Lanka’s Tamil minority further mechanisms to list terror entities.”
population, the Tamil Tigers fought a devastating
Going into 2023, with the global order in flux, there are
civil war with the Sri Lankan military that led
three critical issues on the counterterrorism front that
to extensive war crimes and crimes against
systems such as the UN need to navigate internally,
humanity.
when it comes to diplomacy, and externally, when
 In recent years, with the growing affordability it comes to quantifiable action in targeting terror
of space technologies alongside the growing groups and individuals involved.
participation of corporations and non-  Technology: Recent advancements ranging from
government organizations, the notion of the drones to online platforms, cryptocurrencies
‘democratization of space’ has come into the to remotely inspired terror attacks using the
public eye. This change in basic assumptions will security of end-to-end encryption and VPNS
realize greater space accessibility for humanity, are new security challenges. All these platforms
undoing the previous reality of exclusive access are for civilian use and purposes but are being
by global superpowers and wealthy corporations. co-opted by militant groups. Whether it is
This is reinforced by the UN Space Benefits the Taliban using Twitter to trend a hashtag in
Declaration, which stresses cooperation and tribute to its suicide bombers, pro-is channels on
equity in outer space. Telegram distributing sophisticatedly produced
ideological publications in video, audio, and text,
Narcoterrorism in Kashmir Valley or the online privacy and end-to-end encryption
 Ajay Wani in his article in ORF, Kashmir’s rising debate also giving safe space to militant groups
narcoterrorism: Why are religious leaders silent? remain issues that demand a realistic discussion
quoted: “The growing influence of radicalization, between tech companies, States, and citizens.
terrorism, and conflict “implemented” from  Big Power Competition: Immense power
across the border since 1989 has eroded this competition has exacerbated due to Ukraine
composite way of life, ripped the societal war. China has a history of blocking any
fabric and mores, and weakened the centuries- blacklisting of Pakistan-based terror groups at
old system. Furthermore, repeated calls for the UN, but these tactics undermine any pan-
strikes by separatists and militants, long-term global understanding against terrorism for

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narrower strategic and tactical gains based on  Globalization has provided some effective
regional requirements. And this, of course, is not economic facilities to terrorist groups.
exclusive to China’s strategic decisions on using Globalization has enhanced new communication
multilateral groupings such as the UN to protect facilities; thus, many powerful equipment’s are
its interests. The removal of the East Turkestan ready to make widespread, faster, and safer
Islamic Movement (ETIM), a Uyghur-led militant relation between members of international
group known to have attacked targets in China’s terrorist groups all over the word. Globalization
restive Xinjiang province, from US anti-terror provides so many public accesses technological
listing in 2020 was an equally problematic and scientific achievements which terrorist
decision. Such moves find their way to the UN, groups and sympathetic individual terrorists as
where power competitions gain a public face well as ordinary people can achieve and equipped
and pedestal. themselves by these kinds of tools and facilities.
 Worrying precedence set on countering terrorism  Globalization has increased the risk of
and extremism through the Us-Taliban deal on the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and
Afghanistan signed in Qatar in 2020. The deal’s biological weapons throughout the world. The
compromising nature, giving the Taliban political worldwide expansion of the Al-Qaeda network
agency after fighting against it has long-term is a prominent example of social globalization
repercussions for the politics of countering causing terrorist military globalization. This
terror. global terrorist organization is believed to
operate in more than 60 countries. Terrorist
GLOBALIZATION AND TERRORISM groups especially Al-Qaeda have some more
possibility for achieving modern technologies,
 Globalization of terrorism has caused terrorist tools, information, and equipment to expand
targeting easier and at the same time, confronting their activity all over the word and as a global
with it more difficult. Scientific and technological network act so fast and more easily than before.
growth and development, communications Globalization is a significant threat to terrorism
and economics have provided new abilities for in the current scenario, and terrorism has a
terrorists so that they can change and defi ne negative effect on globalization. On the contrary,
their goals from subnational and even national to if globalization policies are developed carefully,
transnational, international and global level. This then globalization may be one of the effective
has created a kind of terrorism that can emerge ways to curb terrorism (Murphy 1990, 2002).
individually and act at the global level hiddenly  British sociologist Anthony Giddens determines
and asymmetrically and can affect the whole life that a misleading perception about globalization
of individuals, communities, and societies all exists. This perception indicates that globalization
over the world. is merely the dominance of the West over the
rest of the world, but it affects the United States
 The uniqueness and vastness of activities and
as much as it affects other countries. The best
effectiveness of new terrorism in history is in
example of this scenario is the terrorist attack in
a form that it is known the new phenomenon
the United States on September 11, 2001.
of the present era. Nowadays, terrorists are
more organized, more professional, and more  The Study of Bockenforde (2003) shows that
equipped than their counterparts in the past. The a substantial surge in social globalization has
new phenomenon of terrorism can be fought in prevailed in the last few decades. For example,
information, internet, nuclear, biologic, chemical the mixture of people, ideas, and culture has
(NBC) wars or everything else which can be created new scopes of military globalization,
changed to weapons of mass destruction. terrorism, and humanitarian issues.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the efficacy of global conventions to combat international terrorism. 2022/200/15
2. Is ‘terrorism’ an essentially ‘contested’ concept? What are the different manifestations of
‘terrorism’ as a concept, and as practice? 2012/200 /15

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Chapter - 11.5

Human Rights

Sections to be Covered of human life, dignity and worth. These are the natural
and essential conditions of happy and prosperous
 Aspects of Human Rights living of all the people of the world. The most major
 Vasek’s Three Generations of Rights step in the direction at Promoting and encouraging an
awareness and a movement in favor of human rights
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights was taken in 1948 with the adoption of the Universal
 Human Rights – International Relations Declaration of Human right.

 Defects of International Human Rights International human rights law lays down the
obligations of Governments to act in certain ways
 Universality of Human Rights or to refrain from certain acts, to promote and
 Recent Trends protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of
individuals or groups.
 Women Rights and Human Rights
Kofi Annan, Former Secretary General of the
 Internet Shutdowns as Human Rights Issues United Nations, laid down following human rights
 Artificial Intelligence as a threat to Human challenges:
Rights  Poverty and global inequities
 Nationalism and Human Rights  Discrimination
 Armed conflict and violence
ASPECTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS  Impunity
 Democracy deficits
In the opinion of UN High Commissioner for  Weak institutions
Human Rights, Mary Robinson stated, “Human
Rights are inscribed in the hearts of people; they
were there long before law makers drafted their VASEK’S THREE GENERATIONS OF
first proclamation.” RIGHTS
According to United Nations, Human rights are rights
inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex,  First-generation human rights, often called
nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other “blue” rights, deal with liberty and participation
status. Human rights include the right to life and in political life. They are fundamentally civil
liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom and political in nature: They serve negatively
to protect the individual from excesses of the
of opinion and expression, the right to work and
state. First-generation rights include, among
education, and many more. Everyone is entitled to
other things, the right to life, equality before the
these rights, without discrimination. law, freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial,
Human Rights are rights independent of conditions freedom of religion and voting rights. (United
of social recognition as these are inherent in the States Bill of Rights, Declaration of the Rights of
very nature of a human being as a conscious, seIf- Man and of the Citizen, the English Bill of Rights
respecting human individual. These are the very basis in 1689).

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 Second-generation human rights are related color, sex, language, religion, political or other
to equality and began to be recognized by opinion, national or social origin, property, birth,
governments after World War II. They are or other status.
fundamentally economic, social, and cultural in  Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty,
nature. They guarantee different members of and the security of a person.
the citizenry equal conditions and treatment.
Secondary rights would include a right to be  Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery or
servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
employed in just and favorable condition, rights
prohibited in all their forms.
to food, housing and health care, as well as social
security and unemployment benefits. These  Article 8: Everyone has the right to an effective
rights are sometimes referred to as “red” rights. remedy by the competent national tribunals for
acts violating the fundamental rights granted
 Third-generation human rights are those rights
him by the constitution or by law.
that go beyond the mere civil and social, as
expressed in many progressive documents of  Article 9: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary
international law, including the 1972 Stockholm arrest, detention, or exile.
Declaration of the United Nations Conference  Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and
on the Human Environment, the 1992 Rio international order in which the rights and
Declaration on Environment and Development, freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully
and other pieces of aspirational “soft law. realized.
Criticism: An early critique was offered by Philip  Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration may be
Alston in the early 1980s. Concerned with the speed interpreted as implying for any State, group, or
of the process for the promotion of the third- person any right to engage in any activity or to
generation rights, Alston questioned whether the perform any act aimed at the destruction of any
translation of the needs into specific legal norms at a of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
relevant legislative forum was met and whether there
is no practical blurring of all three stages. Fredman HUMAN RIGHTS – INTERNATIONAL
also mentioned the need to rethink the approach
to the first- and second-generation rights as strictly
RELATIONS
negative and positive correspondingly. She argues
that in the contemporary usage of the concept of Human rights are an instrument to uplift a state’s own
human rights, demarcation between those positive credibility while undermining that of other states. In
and negative duties becomes increasingly blurred. that respect two distinctive ways of twisting human
rights may be discerned: Offensive and defensive
human rights.
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN
 Offensive human rights imply a focus on
RIGHTS violations by other states. Illustrative in this
respect is the usual practice in the relations
The General Assembly, proclaims this Universal between Cuba and the United States.
Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard  The term defensive human rights refer to the
of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the practice of signing and ratifying whatever treaty
end that every individual and every organ of society, possible as well as incorporating human rights
keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall standards in the country’s national constitution,
strive by teaching and education to promote respect not as a first step towards implementation but
for these rights and freedoms and by progressive simply as a point of positive reference whenever
measures, national and international, to secure their questions are asked as to the country’s human
universal and effective recognition and observance, rights record.
both among the peoples of Member States themselves
and among the peoples of territories under their Defects of International Human Rights
jurisdiction. Few of its articles are as follows:
The UN project as envisaged in the Charter was never
 Article I: All human beings are born free and
meant to be legally enforceable by international
equal in dignity and rights.
means. The terminology was remarkably weak from
 Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights the start, with the core expression of “protection and
and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, promotion of human rights” as testimony to its “soft
without distinction of any kind, such as race, law” character.

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 Even when country assessments and cases  Freeman: “Claims based on universal human
of human rights violations are treated as rights are therefore at risk of being a ‘weapon of
profoundly serious matters, there is remarkably cultural hegemony.’ The clearest embodiment
little attention to the follow-up of cases in of this challenge are Asian values, where
which evident violations of human rights were following the incredible economic success of
established. several East/South-East Asian states, leaders
 Effective protection of collectivities requires close and academics pointed to an alternative, more
co-operation between the UN’s political set-up, authoritative standard of rights, stemming
which deals with international peace and security, from Asian conservative cultural values.”
and its juridical branch, which is tuned to the  In the eyes of Donnelly, “Western origins of
“promotion and protection” of human rights. Yet, human rights and the incompatibility of
“mainstreaming” human rights as envisaged in its imposition are argued to prove human
the whole UN system of governance has resulted rights should not and cannot be universally
in documents that reflect policy briefs, reports, applicable. In poor states – particularly with
and policy guidelines rather than the genuine ethnic divisions – human rights can “subvert
operationalization of human rights at all levels social order and thus hinder development.”
and layers.  Donnelly further stated that the Western double
 International human rights are not yet sufficiently standards and “narrow-minded and ham-
focused on the economic, political, social, and handed” policies have been a key reason for
cultural aspects of the distinct environments cultural relativist and imperialist arguments
in which these rights must be realized. Devoid persisting.
of global governance, economic globalization  According to Mutua, “Cultural differences
has increased socio-economic inequality and the right to self-determination must be
while creating an adverse environment for the taken into account for human rights to be
realization of economic, social, and cultural applicable, otherwise they will be irrelevant
rights. Simultaneously, non-state agencies or rejected as imperialism.”
or actors became more relevant in the whole
international endeavor for structural protection
of human dignity. RECENT TRENDS
 There has not been much interest in global
human rights as a common mission of the
Women Rights & Human Rights
“United Nations,” as envisaged in Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Instead, Okin stated, “the very treaties and principles upon
member states appear to believe in setting up which the human rights framework was created
their own human rights mechanisms – not as defend the rights of man and male household
complementary to the international framework heads.”
but as an alternative – rather than committing
Article 12 declares: “No one shall be subjected to
themselves to truly supranational supervision
arbitrary interference with his privacy, family,
and enforcement.
home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon
Universality of International Human his honor or reputation”. For feminists, this is the
ultimate example of the public/private dichotomy in
Rights which domestic matters, and those which most often
In recent decades, a widely contested debate over concern the lives of women, are seen as private and
the universality of human rights has emerged. Rights of no concern to the state.
are certainly not universally applied today, with According to Hilary Charlesworth, all three
oppression, torture and various atrocities committed generation of human rights share the same flaw:
in many parts of the world. A common challenge to “they are built on typically male life experiences
this view is the concept of cultural relativism. What and in their current form do not respond to the
the West may consider universal norms in human most pressing risks women face.”
rights are not applicable in other cultures.  One of the best examples of the lack of
 Langlois stated, “Human rights are argued acknowledgement of women’s lives and
to have developed from Western culture and experiences in international human rights law
thus they are inappropriate in application to can be seen in the scant provision for women’s
other cultures.” reproductive rights.

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 As per Amnesty International, the convention Artificial Intelligence as a Threat to Human

makes no reference at all to women’s sexual Rights
rights, such as freedom to choose whether to
have sex, freedom to have consensual sex and Bachelet stated, “Artificial intelligence can be
sex not linked to reproduction, there is some a force for good, helping societies overcome
limited mention of women’s reproductive some of the great challenges of our times. But AI
rights. However, women are entitled to access technologies can have negative, even catastrophic,
to information, advice, and services for family effects if they are used without sufficient regard to
planning, as well as the information, education how they affect people’s human rights.”
and means to decide on the number and spacing In this context, Peggy Hicks quoted, “it is not about
of their children. the risks in future, but the reality today. Without
 Amnesty International has also raised concerns far-reaching shifts, the harm will multiply with
related to “pregnancy related deaths are the scale and speed, and we will not know the extent
leading cause of mortality for 15 to 19-year- of the problem.”
old girls worldwide.”  United Nations Human Rights Council
 In the eyes of Cook and Fathalla, “It seems published a report that analyzes how AI affects
woefully inadequate when “maternity is people’s right to privacy and other rights,
ranked as the primary health problem in young including the rights to health, education,
women (ages 15 – 44) in developing countries, freedom of movement, freedom of peaceful
assembly and association, and freedom of
accounting for 18 per cent of the total disease
expression.
burden”. The language of the Convention is too
weak, the terms used too vague, and once again  The document includes an assessment of
the greatest threats to women worldwide escape profiling, automated decision-making, and other
the boundaries of international law. machine-learning technologies.
 According to the report, States and businesses
Internet Shutdowns as Human Rights often rushed to incorporate AI applications,
Issue failing to carry out due diligence. It states that
there have been numerous cases of people
Peggy Hicks stated, “When you see a shutdown being treated unjustly due to AI misuse, such
happen, it’s time to start worrying about human as being denied social security benefits because
rights.” At least 27 of the 46 least developed of faulty AI tools or arrested because of flawed
countries have implemented shutdowns between facial recognition software.
2016 and 2021, despite receiving support to increase
 The document details how AI systems rely on
their Internet connectivity.
large data sets, with information about individuals
 The first major internet shutdown took place in collected, shared, merged, and analyzed in
Egypt in 2011, during the Tahrir Square protests multiple and often opaque ways.
that led to hundreds of arrests and killings.  The data used to inform and guide AI systems can
 The official justification for the shutdowns was be faulty, discriminatory, out of date or irrelevant,
unknown in 228 cases reported by civil society it argues, adding that long-term storage of data
across 55 countries. also poses risks, as data could in the future be
exploited in yet unknown ways.
 When a State shuts down the internet, both
people and economies suffer. The costs to jobs,  The report also stated that fundamental questions
education, healthcare, and political participation should be raised about the inferences, predictions,
virtually always exceed any hoped-for benefit. and monitoring by AI tools, including seeking
insights into patterns of human behavior.
 Tim Engelhardt, Human Rights Officer, reported
examples of how hospitals, unable to contact  The document also highlights a need for much
their doctors in cases of emergency, “installed greater transparency by companies and States in
loudspeakers on the hospitals to call them.” how they are developing and using AI.

 The gender gap for online users has widened Current Examples:
from 11 per cent in 2013 to 17 per cent in 2019,
and in the world’s least developed countries, it In 2015, Google Photos, which is considered an
reaches 43 per cent. advanced recognition software, categorized a photo

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of two Black people as a picture of gorillas. When  Afshari and Eagleton devised two approaches
keywords such as ‘Black girls’ were inputted into the to understand how nationalism conflicts with
Google search bar, the algorithm showed sexually human rights by quoting, “nationalism always
explicit material in response. Researchers have also tends to prioritize collective interests over
found that an algorithm that identifies which patients individual rights, whereas the other approach
need additional medical care undervalued the medical underlines the emancipatory characteristics of
needs of Black patients. nationalism and how it serves as the protector
of human rights.”
Facial-recognition technology is now being adopted
in the criminal justice systems of different states –  The primary negative effect of nationalism on
including Hong Kong, China, Denmark and India – human rights is major violent events such as
to identify suspects for predictive policing. Sceptics ethnic conflicts and genocides.
have pointed out that instead of mitigating and  Freeman argues that leaders of ethnic groups,
controlling police work, such algorithms instead who know that conflict increases solidarity
enhance pre-existing discriminatory law enforcement among members, may instigate ethnic conflicts.
practices. The unevaluated bias of these tools has
 Ganguly brought the angle of nationalism of
put Black people at bigger risk of being perceived
necessarily opposing freedom of assembly and
as high-risk offenders, thus, further entrenching association or freedom of speech, it sees no
racist tendencies in the justice and prison systems. harm in suspending such rights if national unity
Such racial discrimination inherited in AI disgraces or security is perceived to be under threat.
its transformative implementation into society and
violates equal treatment and the right to protection.  Nebehay highlighted the difference between
a politically liberal government and nationalist
Nationalism & Human Rights government by stating, “a politically liberal
government may prioritize human rights
Gellner defined nationalism, “as a political principle and avoid resorting to torture, a nationalist
which holds that the political and national unit government is more likely to cite (their broadly
should be congruent” whereas Hobsbawm perceived defined interpretation of) national security
nationalism as “product of invented traditions by as a reason to suspend human rights, despite
political elite to protect their own interests.” any domestic or international criticism that
arises.”
Despite seventy-seven years of multilateralism and
global leadership from institutions like the UN,
nationalism is on the rise. It can be found in countries CULTURAL RELATIVIST APPROACH
like the United States, Europe, China, and Turkey. The TO HUMAN RIGHTS: ASIAN VALUES
U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights warns that DEBATE
nationalism threatens rights such as the right to life,
food, and health. Vulnerable groups like refugees and
the LGBTQ+ community face significant danger under  The growing consensus in the West that human
nationalism. In the coming years, the world will have rights are universal has been fiercely opposed by
critics in other parts of the world.
to reckon with this shift.
 The question is whether human rights as laid
Grace Cheng in his book, “Nationalism and Human
out in the international covenants ignore
Rights: In Theory and Practice in the Middle East,
the traditions, the religions, and the socio-
Central Europe, and Asia – Pacific,” had written,
cultural patterns of what used to be called the
“nationalism is inherently contradictory to human
Third World.
rights. It requires a specific preference ordering
different from other ideologies such as liberalism  Critics of the universal idea of human rights
or socialism. According to this preference ordering, contend that in the Confucian or Vedic traditions,
nationalist political actors have the duty of duties are considered more important than
achieving, and then protecting, national unity at rights, while in Africa it is the community that
any cost and prioritizing national interests over protects and nurtures the individual.
any other concerns. These goals jeopardize certain  Many in the east argue that some human rights
types of human rights, such as freedom of assembly are simply not relevant to their societies. They
and association, freedom of speech, and freedom see the universal conception of human rights
of electoral self-determination, because these as little more than an attempt to impose alien
rights can be used to challenge national unity.” Western values on them.

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 This is the premise behind the so-called Asian  Lastly, it is often argued that developing countries
values case, which attributes the economic often cannot afford human rights as the tasks of
growth of Southeast Asia to the Confucian economic development and nation building are
virtues of obedience, order, and respect for still unfinished in such countries. The argument
authority. Therefore, it would be safe to is that human rights can be sacrificed to attain
presume that the concept of human rights is economic prosperity. For these countries, the
a contested notion between the Eastern and International Covenant on Economic, Social
Western Civilizations. and Cultural Rights take precedence over the
International Covenant on Civil and Political
 The opposition to the UDHR is known as the Rights.
‘Asian Values Debate’ or the ‘East Asian
Challenge’ because the arguments’ are mainly The universalists, on the other hand,
put by China, Indonesia, Malaysia, North Korea, have countered the claims of cultural
Iran and Singapore.
relativists
 Extending the debate Prof. Panikkar, a human
rights philosopher, argues that the notion  First, although the universalists agree that much
of human rights is a Western concept. Yet he of the world was not represented while the
also argues that these human rights are very UDHR was formulated, however, they highlight
necessary for a decent life in the modern world. representation from India, China, Chile, Cuba,
What he and other scholars believe is that Panama, Lebanon and Philippines to show that
these rights need to be adopted and adapted people from diverse cultures and backgrounds
contributed while drafting the UDHR.
to different cultures.
 Second, the UDHR is not totally based on
There are five main arguments used by individual rights. The UDHR highlights the spirit
various supporters who argue that human of brotherhood, community and society as well.
It also recognizes that an individual is constituted
rights are culturally relative and sustained by relationships with others.
 First, the individuals who were involved  Third, the tension between universal and local
in the process of drafting the UDHR were realities is not always contradictory and allows
cosmopolitans having international experiences different kinds of change to emerge in certain
and also had certain privileges in their societies. cases.
There is a difference in the way cosmopolitans  Fourth, the International Covenant on Civil and
and ordinary people interpret human rights. Political Rights and the International Covenant
 Second, human rights reflect Western values that on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are like
put more emphasis on the individual and ignore Siamese twins – inseparable and independent,
units like social groups and families. sustaining and nourishing each other.

 Third, the national governments resist  Fifth, the culturally relative position is
international norms that are against local cultural generally defended by authoritarian regimes
to stay in power, but they do not hesitate to
and social values or their domestic political
domestically crush their culture whenever it
interests.
suits their interests.
 Fourth, Some rights recognised by the UDHR, like
 Former Secretary General of the UN, Kofi
marriage and religious freedom may be against
Annan had rightly said that the problem is not
cultural norms in some non-Western countries in faith, but with the faithful.
and the policymakers in these countries interpret
certain rights as Western cultural impositions.  Lastly, Nobel laureate Amartya Sen has
highlighted there is a general agreement on
 Saudi Arabia had refused to adopt the UDHR policies that help economic development
in 1948, saying that certain freedoms (like – openness to competition, the use of
rights of men and women to marry who they international markets, high level of literacy
choose) were against Islamic principles. The and school education, successful land reforms
Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam and public incentives for investment, export
(1990) said that rights and all moral principles and industrialization – none of them requires
are based on divine authority instead of human authoritarian government and none of them is
authority. incompatible with human rights.

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 He has further argued that the so-called Asian universal freedom of choice, capabilities like
values often invoked to justify authoritarianism education are necessary. Cultural relativism will
are not Asian in any sense as Asia is culturally not be meaningful where it undermines the
diverse. He has highlighted that to achieve capabilities necessary to function.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the importance of personal data protection in the context of human Rights. 2019 /200
/15
2. Critically examine the notion of “Asian Values” in the context of the on-going debates on human
rights. 2018/ 250 /20
3. Do you endorse that the conventional discourse on human rights has failed to include women’s
rights? Explain in the context of feminist theories. 2015/250 /20

**********

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Chapter - 11.6

Nuclear Proliferation

Current Trends Of Nuclear Proliferation  The UK’s ‘Integrated Review of Security,

Defence, Development and Foreign Policy’,
In the contemporary era the phenomenon of new published in early 2021, reversed a policy of
arms race is being observed between major powers reducing the country’s nuclear arsenal and
US, Russia and China at conventional, strategic, and raised its planned ceiling for nuclear weapons
tactical level, space and cyber domain. The trend is from 180 to 260.
being established by doctrinal shifts and massive  China is in the middle of a significant
force modernizations. This is reflected in the extent of modernization and expansion of its nuclear
increase in defence spending, analysed from the SIPRI weapon inventory, and India and Pakistan also
estimates for 2018, which mount up to USD 1.8 trillion appear to be expanding their nuclear arsenals.
showcasing 2.6% rise from 2017. The withdrawal
from INF also indicates the development of a new  North Korea continues to enhance its military
range of medium and intermediate range tactical, nuclear programme as a central element of its
hypersonic, and ballistic missiles, further lowering national security strategy. While it conducted
the nuclear threshold. Moreover, the US has devised no nuclear test explosions or long-range
a budget of USD 1.2 trillion for 2017-2046 nuclear ballistic missile tests during 2020, it continued
production of fissile material and development
force modernization. In addition to this None of the
of short- and long-range ballistic missiles.
nine nuclear-armed states is disarming; instead, all
invest enormously in new and more hazardous nuclear  Hans M. Kristensen- The overall number of
weapons. Nor has any of the 32 states claiming reliance warheads in global military stockpiles now
on another state’s nuclear weapons yet ended such appears to be increasing, a worrisome sign that
reliance. These factors, abrogation of existing nuclear the declining trend that has characterized global
arms control agreements, policies of first nuclear use nuclear arsenals since the end of the cold war
and war fighting, growing armed conflicts worldwide, has stalled.
and increasing use of information and cyberwarfare,
exacerbate dangers of nuclear war. NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION: A
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
SIPRI REPORT 2021
Nuclear weapons are the most powerful and destructive
 Russia and the USA together possess over 90 weapons held in the arsenals of any modern state.
per cent of global nuclear weapons. Both have Since the creation of the nuclear bomb, many have
extensive and expensive programmes under way feared that a nuclear war could lead to the end of life
to replace and modernise their nuclear warheads, on earth as we currently know it. The Treaty on the
missile and aircraft delivery systems, and Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is the
production facilities. Hans M. Kristensen- ‘Both central organisation working towards maintaining
Russia and the USA appear to be increasing the nuclear peace and preventing the further spread
importance they attribute to nuclear weapons in of nuclear arms (Graham). The NPT’s main focus is
their national security strategies,’ . preventing further nuclear proliferation (Ford).

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World nuclear forces, January 2022

Deployed Stored Total Total inventory Total inventory
Country
warheadsa warheadsb stockpileb 2022b 2021b

United States 1744 1964 3708 5428 5550

Russia 1588 2889 4477 5977 6255

United
120e 60f 180f 225f 225
Kingdom

France 280 10 290 290 290

China 350g 350g 350g 350

India 160 160 160 158

Pakistan 165 165 165 165

Israel 90 90 90 90

North Korea 20h 20h 20h [40-50]h

Total 3732 5708 9440 12705 13080

STATE SURVIVAL THEORY be seen as the state survival theory being used as an
excuse or a fear campaign to gain public support for
nuclear development. After China’s first nuclear tests
Realists generally believe that states must fight for
in 1964, India started pushing forward with nuclear
their own survival; this is due to their theory that the
development, with their program starting in 1967,
world is in a state of anarchy (Mearsheimer). The
and first test in 1974. There are many arguments
side to ‘develop a nuclear bomb first would have the
for why India wanted nuclear weapons, mainly
ability to win the war and survive’.
focused on the concept of state survival. For
Carranza argues that using nuclear weapons to example, Riedel believes that the 1962 Himalayan
defend a state can be a positive action, as other border war between India and China was the most
states are less likely to be aggressive towards a influential factor in India’s decision to develop
nuclear-armed state. This highlights the benefits of a nuclear arsenal. This can be seen to emphasise
proliferation and supports the survival theory. Another India’s desire for nuclear weapons as a decision based
reason for less potential aggression from other states on the state’s survival. Furthermore, in 1972 Pakistan
is due to the fear that just one single nuclear exchange started working towards obtaining a nuclear
between two states could lead to devastating effects. capability due to India’s nuclear program and, in
The Cold War saw an acceleration of states that particular, the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War that cost
sought to gain nuclear weapons in the interest of Pakistan a lot of territory.
their survival. In particular, for the UK and France.
A secondary argument relates to ‘great power’ status NATIONAL PRESTIGE THEORY
as the reason for both the UK and France seeking
nuclear weapons. The necessity for the UK’s
It has been argued that many authoritarian regimes
nuclear weapons program has been questioned seek nuclear weapons for national prestige, often
on numerous occasions. For example, Hill argues thought to be a way of becoming an international
that the UK’s nuclear weapons had absolutely no player. For example, North Korea’s recent nuclear
influence at all during the Cold War, and did not weapons proliferation and tests are believed
deter any potential enemies. This highlights that by some to be for national prestige, both
a state’s survival by means of nuclear weapons is internationally and domestically. However, many
not always necessary, but this does not necessarily disagree with the national prestige theory in
remove the desire for proliferation. This could at times the case of North Korea’s motivation for nuclear

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weapons. For example, Faulkner argues that North becomes a political fabric for strategic equations.
Korea’s nuclear program is centred on their Nuclear weapons, undoubtedly, have changed the
Military First Policy And rewarding loyal military doctrine of the use of military capability. The Realist
leaders with the funding and resources necessary to Approaches see Nuclear weapons as the ultimate
produce nuclear weapons. This could imply that Kim weapon in this era, nuclear weapons would become
Jong-Il/ Kim Jong-un sought nuclear weapons as a the answer to enhance military capability according
means to maintain power, by keeping military leaders to the realists. For this reason, these weapons
happy. For North Korea, it can be argued that national become a guarantor for the state’s survival.
prestige may be an internal prestige, one based on Consequently, nuclear weapons become a number
keeping the regime in power. Many also see North one instrument to acquire the national interests. In
Korea’s nuclear program as at least partly due to state offensive realists’ view, nuclear weapons have
survival. This argument is in line with North Korea’s become the key to survival. The anarchy conditions
official reasoning behind its nuclear program. The US make a state vulnerable to invasion. To avoid this
and South Korea have been cited by the North Korean condition, pursuing the highest military capability
government as the biggest threats to their survival. is needed. The defensive realists believe that
Gebru believes that no one theory explains North because of anarchy conditions, states will enhance
Korea’s intentions; rather a mixture of reasons are their military capability. When all states have high
most likely behind their ongoing nuclear program. military capability, invasion will be rare because
This includes national prestige theory, which could the price of invasion is costly. In contrast with the
be used to support the North Korean government’s offensive realists, defensive realists suggest states
public projection of their state’s world power status to adopt moderate strategy in order to avoid
to the North Korean people. expansion behaviour. According to this view, nuclear
states must apply moderate nuclear strategy such as
the no first use principle.
GREAT POWER STATUS
The Liberalist Approach-
Gowing has argued that both the UK and France
entered their respective nuclear programs  The Liberalists believe that the interdependence
because of ‘great power’ status theory. Gowing condition among international politics will
describes ‘great power’ status as the phenomenon of reduce conflict. In terms of nuclear weapons,
past powerful states looking to regain/retain at least the ownership of these weapons among nuclear
a minimal amount of their past or current power.’ states would prevent these countries from
Pifer believes that there were genuine fears about waging a war among each other.
NATO’s reliability, but the desire to retain some  As the liberalists believe that international
power was also a factor in seeking nuclear arms. institutions play an essential part in
Another factor was that the US was seen as having international politics, a nuclear regime is a
too much control over NATO which, considering both necessity. It will regulate the behaviour of the
states’ previous levels of military power, left them states toward nuclear weapons.
feeling powerless.
The Constructivists Approach-
THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS IN  The constructivists believe that anarchy is a
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS product of a state’s own perception. It includes
threat perception as something that is measured
Bernard Brodie described nuclear weapons as by the actor. Reputation becomes an important
absolute weapons. Moreover, he also stated that a part of it. Jonathan Mercer argued that
war which involves the use of the weapons would be reputation is what someone else thinks about
immeasurably more destructive and horrible than any you. In other words, it is not something that you
war the world has ever known. Andrew Krepinevich’s own and control. It is needed in developing a
argument contributed to the understanding deterrence strategy against the adversaries in
about this absolute weapon. He argued that order to gain the objective. The role of nuclear
nuclear weapons had brought a revolution to the weapons in international politics becomes
use of warfare, especially after the assembling of more important since threat perception is
nuclear warheads with ballistic missiles. This nuclear based on the other states measurement.
revolution provided the opportunity for instant Nuclear weapons become essential because the
complete destruction of its target. Furthermore, it fear of weapons destruction power is obvious.

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NUCLEAR ISSUES IN SOUTH ASIA Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicle technology

to take its delivery systems to the next level. On
the other hand, Pakistan is slightly ahead with
 Security dilemma- nuclear proliferation in
165 warheads and is exploring ways to upgrade
South Asia is in part a consequence of the
its delivery systems as part of its ‘full spectrum
security dilemma existing in the subcontinent.
The South Asian nuclear security complex deterrence posture.’
involves several security dilemmas, including  Keerthana Rajesh Nambiar and Samir Patil-
Pakistan/India, India/China, and Russia/ SIPRI’s assessment gives an impression that
United States. Rather, the security dilemma is Southern Asia is in the midst of an arms race,
that of the United States and China since it has and India is rapidly expanding its nuclear
an impact on attitudes in India and Pakistan and arsenal. While this is perhaps true, the nuclear
helps shape their nuclear decisions. dynamics of this region are inextricably linked
 Vertical and horizontal proliferation- Vertical to the larger global scenario, which is today
proliferation takes place as nuclear states characterised by two interlinked aspects: An
modernise their nuclear arsenals with more uncertain fate of the United States–Russia arms
reliable delivery systems and warheads. control cooperation and the bleak prospect of
Countries including the United States, China, nuclear disarmament. Both these factors shape
India, and Pakistan, are in the process of India’s threat perception.
modernizing their arsenals through actions
such as proposals for “a reliable replacement ADDRESSING NUCLEAR- PROLIFERATION
warhead”. Horizontal proliferation is the spread AND DISARMAMENT CHALLENGES IN
of nuclear weapons technology from nuclear
SOUTH ASIA
states to other entities, including aspiring
nuclear weapon states, as well as non-state
actors such as terrorist groups. In the South The NPT centric international nuclear order is
Asian context, this variant of proliferation is based on legal, technical, political, and normative
especially pertinent, given the history of the A.Q. pillars that have proven to be partially successful
Khan network and its assistance to states such as in achieving nuclear non-proliferation goals. For
North Korea and Iran. example, President Kennedy’s prediction – that the
world could see 15 to 25 new nuclear states by the
 Subcontinental Rivalry- There are the
1970s has not yet come to pass. Despite some non-
characteristics of the sub-continental rivalry
proliferation achievements, the nuclear order has
that make nuclear proliferation in South Asia
failed to address challenges associated with India
a crucial security issue. Threat perceptions
and Pakistan that are undermining the spirit of
based on long-standing security disputes shape
the nuclear taboo and challenging the efficiency
nuclear doctrines and proliferation dynamics. The
of the broader nuclear non-proliferation regime.
intensity of disputes brings in security dilemmas
that ensure continued dependence on nuclear What are the challenges to the nuclear
weapons in South Asia.
regime?
 The entry of non-state actors into the realm
of nuclear proliferation. security disputes that  Inflexible NPT that has failed to address nuclear
are the driving forces for nuclear modernization issues-
in South Asia.  The status of new nuclear weapons states
 Emerging technologies and nuclear risk that are outside the NPT- Creating balance
in South Asia- The progress made by India between non-proliferation and peaceful
and Pakistan in a variety of cutting-edge uses of nuclear technologies stabilizing
technologies—including advanced missile deterrence at the regional level in order
technologies, artificial intelligence, autonomous to connect regional states to the global
weapon systems and military applications of disarmament endeavor.
space—remains underexplored as there is an  Complex dynamics in South Asia: India and
existence of the intersection between such Pakistan acquired nuclear deterrence while
technological developments and nuclear risk. staying outside of the NPT. Though nuclear
 SIPRI- New Delhi has approximately 160 weapons have prevented the reoccurrence
warheads, and New Delhi is also modernizing of major conventional wars, deterrence has
its arsenal by developing canisterisation and remained fragile and peace precarious.

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 The South Asian region is at risk of a breakdown  Although the nuclear learning curve
in strategic stability due to the complex dynamics has substantially increased in terms of
that in turn is a challenge for the broader nuclear institutionalisation of command and control
order. (C2) systems, the introduction of robust
 These include both states’ non-NPT safety and security cultures, and active
status, their distinct strategic national participation of the two states in global
directions, unresolved territorial disputes, forums surely helped preserve nuclear
cross-border terrorism, their doctrinal taboo but disarmament remains at best a
ambiguities, huge disparities in states’ distant goal as neither state is bound to
defence budget, growing fabrication of NPT article VI.
weapon grade fissile material, geographical
proximity, inadequate early warning systems
and the absence of Confidence Building HOW TO DEAL WITH THE NON-
Measures (CBMs) PROLIFERATION AND DISARMAMENT
 Gregory Koblentz rightly suggests that CHALLENGES OF SOUTH ASIA?
the concept of strategic stability is no
longer just a product of the interaction
between comparable nuclear forces, but Multilateral Approach
increasingly between nuclear forces and
non-nuclear technologies such as missile The NPT clauses on non-proliferation and
defences, anti-satellite weapons, and peaceful uses require major changes if a better
conventional precision strike weapons. non-proliferation regime is to emerge. The NSG
is under immense stress against the backdrop of
 The South Asian region has undergone
globalization, and the rising demand for energy
an increasing up-gradation of existing
security in developing countries in Asia and shifting
asymmetries in conventional forces,
inducting new non-nuclear technologies global energy trends from fossil fuels to alternative
such as missile defence, anti-satellite energy sources. A new criterion could be devised
weapons and conventional counterforces. by the NSG members to accommodate India and
Pakistan on the basis underlined below:
 Damaged rule-based non-proliferation:
 Have India sign the bilateral moratorium on
 The U.S. political decision on NSG waiver,
non-testing with Pakistan.
offering India an outreach to global
fuels and reactors thus reversing thirty  Have India immediately slow down its fissile
years of history has damaged rule-based material production and sign a bilateral
broader non-proliferation order leading moratorium on fissile material with Pakistan
to encourage horizontal and vertical before the discussion on universal FMCT.
proliferation.
 Initiate a bilateral agreement between India
 A non-NPT state has been offered benefits and Pakistan on a separation plan and open up
of NPT states without getting it to freeze all peaceful facilities for IAEA’s verification and
production of weapon grade fissile material, full-scope safeguards.
sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT), follow International Atomic Energy  NSG membership can immediately lead
Agency’s (IAEA) full scope safeguards, adhere to the institutionalisation of meaningful
to a restraint regime and a meaningful arms arms control agreements between India and
control mechanism. Pakistan to reduce existing stockpiles and stop
future growth. The US should advocate a new
 Inferior Neighbour:
arms control treaty involving China, India and
 Pakistan sought nuclear weapons to establish Pakistan.
deterrence and offset its conventional
inferiority to India. Introduction of new  The problem of Indo-Pakistan nuclear status
technologies such as low yield nuclear outside the NPT can be addressed through the
weapons and short-range missiles (60–70 NSG membership. The NSG would benefit by
km), in response to the Indian Cold Start extending its membership to India and Pakistan.
Doctrine (CSD), is a part of Pakistan’s all- It would allow both states to retain their nuclear
range countermeasures capabilities against weapons and constraint their future nuclear
India. Disarmament is a distant goal growth.

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U.S. Leverage control objectives. As Arms Control and Disarmament

Agency General Counsel George Bunn later wrote,
 The U.S. should adopt a policy of discouraging the Cuban missile crisis catalyzed these efforts by
India and Pakistan from pursuing missile “awaken[ing] American and Soviet interest in
defence capabilities but must ensure China seeking accommodation.” Although many of the
must take a leap in South Asia and the Indian lessons learned from the Cuban missile crisis focus
Ocean region. on its importance for arms control, fewer mention
 An official dialogue process between India its impact on the size of the U.S. and Soviet nuclear
and Pakistan should be resumed to mitigate the arsenals. And yet, between 1962 and 1968, the U.S.
nuclear risks that new technologies continue to stockpile grew by almost 16 percent, while the number
pose. of Soviet warheads nearly tripled. For William J.
Perry, the “decision not to cooperate in reducing
Bilateral Approach arms and tension but rather to reinvigorate the
arms race” underscored the “surreal quality” of the
 India and Pakistan should discuss the stability post-crisis environment. These insights suggest that
of nuclear deterrence in the region, the status the war in Ukraine may have a chilling effect on
of Kashmir, and relations with Afghanistan. arms control—even if it shows policymakers why
Pakistan should understand and address India’s they must reduce the threats posed by nuclear
reservation against China’s aggressive military, weapons. Among the highest barriers to overcome
naval presence at Gwadar and Gilgit Baltistan. will be the anger, mutual suspicion, and mistrust
Both countries should immediately revive the that now define the U.S.-Russia relationship. This
Lahore Declaration (1999), Shimla Agreement environment will make it difficult for negotiators to
(1972) and resume all existing nuclear CBMs show the flexibility necessary to reach an agreement
thereby immediately opening up suspended while encouraging a fixation on “ironclad” verification
communication channels. that could come at the expense of negotiations as
a whole. For e.g. the Strategic Stability Dialogue
 Promote transparency with each other on their
process, which Putin and his U.S. counterpart Joe
nuclear doctrine, posture, and modernization
Biden initiated last year to “lay the groundwork for
plans through budgetary constraints. Such
future arms control and risk reduction measures.”
transparency is necessary for a substantive
The United States has now suspended these talks
dialogue to build mutual understanding and
in response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
pave the way for future reductions.
 Sarah Bidgood- Russia’s invasion of Ukraine
 Discussing the consequences of using nuclear
brought fears of nuclear war back into the
weapons, building training centres to reduce
public consciousness. The present crisis raises
the risks of nuclear escalation, and empowering
questions about the future of nuclear arms
the academic community in both countries, are
control and a return to Cold War-style arms
a necessary step to enhance escalation control
racing, this time with new and more dangerous
strategies.
features.
 The two countries should endeavour to find
 Carlos D. Sorreta
common ground on the settlement of the
bilateral disputes, especially over Kashmir.  NATO seems to have decided to ignore
Also, the two states should promote trade and Russia’s diminished military capabilities
build interstate cooperation where it is possible. and instead place its faith in stronger
This process would help to secure peace thereby defence – a decision which will inevitably
making the nuclear taboo resilient in South Asia lead to a new conventional arms race and
leading India and Pakistan to become part of increased tensions. The emerging narrative
global endeavour for disarmament. is that NATO must increase its defence
spending to build and produce more and
better arms – whatever the outcome of
A NEW NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IS A the current conflict.
POSSIBILITY?  The conflict in Ukraine has led to the
reprioritisation of resources to face the
The invasion has drawn comparisons to the 1962 Russian threat, as evidenced by the German
Cuban missile crisis which led to feelings of deep decision to commit 100 billion euros for its
mistrust between Washington and Moscow. The 2022 defence budget, almost double the
Cuban missile crisis enabled Kennedy to promote arms 2021 budget.

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 2014 Military Doctrine of Russia, which states against accidents or miscalculations. The more
that: “The Russian Federation shall reserve the nuclear weapons the world has, and the more fearful
right to use nuclear weapons in response to the countries are that their adversaries will launch pre-
use of nuclear and other types of weapons of emptive strikes, the more acute the risks become. By
mass destruction against it and/or its allies, as bolstering the case for more nuclear weapons in
well as in the event of aggression against the Asia, Putin’s war in Ukraine could decimate what
Russian Federation with the use of conventional little is left of the region’s strategic stability. This
weapons when the very existence of the state is not only poses an existential threat to Asia; it would
in jeopardy.” also deliver yet another blow to the global non-
 it is likely to erode trust in America’s nuclear proliferation regime, making it even harder to
umbrella, the effectiveness of which, as a prevent the spread of such weapons in other
2020 study showed, was declining long regions.
before Russia began its war against Ukraine.
The only way a country can credibly protect
THE NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION
itself from attack by a nuclear power, is to
maintain nuclear weapons of its own. REGIME
 For Ukraine, this is particularly frustrating.
In 1994, after the end of the Cold War, the The international nuclear non-proliferation and
country surrendered its nuclear arsenal – disarmament regime comprises principles, norms,
then the world’s third largest – in exchange rules, and practices regulating nuclear weapons.
for security assurances that turned out to Historically, the regime is built on the 1968 Treaty
be meaningless. Not surprisingly, some on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons
officials have indicated that they regret (NPT). While regarded as the cornerstone of the
disarmament. international non-proliferation and disarmament
regime, the NPT has been undermined by the
 In recent times North Korean dictator Kim
lack of implementation of its disarmament pillar.
Jong-un has conducted several high-profile
In addition to this the regime also includes the
missile tests, including a failed test of a new
Nuclear Suppliers group, CTBT. A new treaty, the
intercontinental ballistic missile.
2017 Treaty on the Prohibition of nuclear weapons
 The deepening cold war with the US changed (TPNW), seeks to promote disarmament in line
China’s strategic calculations. According to with the NPT’s disarmament pillar by strengthening
the US Department of Defense, China was the stigma around nuclear weapons.
seeking to double its nuclear stockpile by 2027
and amass 1,000 warheads by 2030. Following
the Ukraine war, China will surely strengthen THE TREATY ON THE NON-
these efforts. This would place East Asia’s non- PROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
nuclear states, such as Japan and South Korea,
in a quandary. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons
 The SIPRI has noted that the uncertainty over (NPT) is an international framework designed
arms control is directly feeding not just the to uphold the nuclear nonproliferation regime.
Russian and American drive to diversify and It opened for signatures in 1968 and entered into
refine their nuclear arsenal but also Beijing. In the force in 1970. As a result of the obligations enshrined
last decade, China has advanced its nuclear triad within the NPT, the nuclear weapons states (NWS)
capabilities—from historically strong land-based agree not to assist the non-nuclear weapons states
intercontinental ballistic missiles to inducting (NNWS) to either develop or acquire nuclear
Julang-2 submarine-launched ballistic missiles weapons, while the NNWSs are required to refrain
and planned introduction of the Xian H-20 from developing and/or acquiring nuclear weapons
strategic stealth bomber. These developments (Articles I and II). To verify the NNWSs’ compliance
are, in turn, driving India’s nuclear modernization with the principles of the NPT, they accept the
efforts. imposition of safeguarding measures, including
The world has long depended on the principle of inspections and monitoring by the International
mutual assured destruction to prevent nuclear Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), in relation to all
war. But, even if MAD deters countries from the nuclear materials held within their territories
launching premeditated wars, it cannot protect (Article III). In exchange, all the signatories to the

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NPT pledge to facilitate the peaceful use of nuclear those countries that had exploded a nuclear
energy through the exchange of nuclear materials, device prior to January 1, 1967. That meant China
equipment, and technology (Article IV). Finally, would be included, and India excluded both have
the NWSs are required to engage in negotiations a history of restrained relations.
concerning the cessation of the nuclear arms race  India was also sceptical about whether states
and the pursuance of nuclear disarmament (Article with advanced nuclear programmes would
VI). Member states agreed to indefinitely extend the honour Article IV regarding universal access to
treaty in 1995, and more than 130 member states peaceful nuclear technologies.
have now ratified the additional protocol to the NPT.
This protocol strengthened safeguards that allow
IAEA inspectors to access all parts of a state’s nuclear 3rd WORLD PERSPECTIVE ON NPT
fuel cycle, all buildings on an inspection site on short
notice, all manufacturing and import locations in the  Dominated by West- International institutions
state, and all environmental samples beyond declared such as the UN and the nuclear non-proliferation
locations. regime “are largely the product of interstate
diplomacy dominated by Western great powers,”
INDIA’S PERSPECTIVE ON NPT (Barkawi & Laffey).
 Discriminatory in nature- The five NWS states
The UN Security Council adopted unanimously also hold the five permanent member seats on the
resolution 1887 on nuclear non-proliferation United Nations Security Council (UNSC), leading
which among other actions called on states not some to criticise the NPT for legitimising
party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) to join and institutionalising nuclear power at the
it. However, India responded to the resolution by hands of the very few, and at the same time
declaring categorically that it will not join the NPT prohibiting the pursuit of nuclear security by
as a non-nuclear weapon state since nuclear weapons the rest of the world (Biswas).
constitute an integral part of India’s security.  The indefinite and unconditional extension
 India’s stated position on the NPT is that it of the NPT in 1995 continues to legitimise the
“cannot accept externally prescribed norms or existence of nuclear weapons in the hands of
standards on matters within the jurisdiction the NWS/P-5, allowing them to modernise
of its Parliament or which are not consistent their nuclear arsenals, and engage in vertical
with India’s constitutional provisions and nuclear proliferation without interference from
procedures or are contrary to India’s national the international community (Singh).
interests or infringe on its sovereignty.”  Represents colonial legacy- The exclusive
 India finds the NPT discriminatory in nature nature of the NPT and the alignment of NWS
as it leaves intact the monopoly of nuclear status with the UNSC P-5 is indicative of an
weapons with the P-5 (USA, UK, Russia, France, international regime that perpetuates logics
and China) while debarring all other countries of colonial violence, oppression, and inequity
from possessing or developing them. Till date, as represented by the emblematic clash between
the NPT recognises only the five permanent nuclear “haves” and nuclear “have-nots” (Biswas
members of the UN Security Council (US, ,Peterson).
Russia, UK, France, and China) as nuclear weapon  Resistance to Northern domination of the
powers and mandates that other countries can international system is often delegitimised by
be a party to the NPT only as a non-nuclear the West, leading to labels such as ‘rogue states’
weapon state. or ‘terrorism’. The term ‘rogue state’ is used in
 The Indian delegate VC Trivedi at the 18-nation political science literature to describe, “a class of
Disarmament Committee (ENDC), convened in states that combines the seeming irrationality
Italy in July 1965 to begin negotiating the NPT and fanaticism of terror groups with the military
viewed NPT as analogous to the case of a 17th assets of states,” (Rose).
century Indian emperor who banned drinking  The purported lack of rationality on the part of
while being a drunkard. other states, particularly revolutionary regimes
 A troubled neighborhood of India also shaped like Cuba or Iran, is routinely invoked to explain
India’s perspective on NPT as it became clear why they cannot be trusted with nuclear
that the treaty would recognize as NWS only weapons,” (Barkawi & Laffey).

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 This is coupled with the common perception in the international trade and cooperation in the nuclear
West that, “while we can live with the nuclear field is not hindered unjustly in the process. These
weapons of the five official nuclear nations guidelines include-
for the indefinite future, the proliferation of  One, nuclear export recipients pledge not to use
nuclear weapons to nuclear-threshold states the transferred material for nuclear explosives of
in the Third World, especially the Islamic any kind.
world, would be enormously dangerous,”
(Gusterson).  Two, transfer of sensitive nuclear technology was
to come under this safeguards system.
The Eurocentric nature of international relations,
institutions, treaties, and the elitism of the nuclear
non-proliferation regime to be an unjustifiable 3rd WORLD PERSPECTIVE ON NUCLEAR
concentration of power in the hands of a very SUPPLIER GROUP
few at the expense of the vast majority of the world.
The current nuclear non-proliferation regime The North-South dynamic has always been present in
merely serves to reinforce and perpetuate logics NSG activities. The Group’s membership and export
of colonial violence and inequality. Alex H. Chung control arrangements from the very beginning
says - In my opinion, as per India’s nuclear policy, the transcended the East-West dividing line, and the
only fair and just security solution is the following: “in would-be proliferators (with the exception of
a world of nuclear proliferation lies either in global Israel and South Africa) were traditionally situated
disarmament or in the exercise of the principle of in “the South.” Hence, the NSG export control
equal and legitimate security for all,” (Singh 1998, measures were primarily aimed at those parts of the
p. 41). world. This, in turn, conditioned the attitude of some
Third World countries toward the Group.
NUCLEAR SUPPLIER GROUP AND ITS  They characterized the London “Club” as a
OBJECTIVES cartel and accused it of discriminatory political
and commercial motives and practices.
In 1975, seven countries formed what became  Another charge directed at the NSG concerned
the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in response the “unnecessary” extension of the obligations
to India having detonated a nuclear explosive ensuing from the NPT and the IAEA safeguards
device; it contained materials that Canada and system.
the United States asserted had been diverted by  The emergence of new suppliers of nuclear
India to a non-peaceful use in violation of bilateral material in the 1980s nuclear material,
nuclear trade agreements. Following the Indian test, equipment, and technology emerging from
several countries informed the IAEA of their intention outside the traditional West-East perimeter held
to enforce the IAEA safeguards on their nuclear a critical view of the NSG. These new suppliers
exports. This memorandum included a ‘trigger list’ of — Argentina, Brazil, for example — voiced
materials and items and was to become the first major support for peaceful uses of nuclear energy
agreement on the supply list of nuclear materials. Two and principles of nonproliferation. The
major issues were discussed: Under what conditions, emergence of new supplier states confronted
technology and equipment for enrichment and the NSG with the crucial problem of attracting
reprocessing be transferred to non-weapon states; them to and ultimately integrating them into
and whether transfers are made to states unwilling the Group.
to submit to full scope IAEA safeguards. The NSG’s
 The NAM too is understandably not a supporter
founding members accounted for nearly all states that
of many of the actions of the NSG, nor have they
possessed the technological and industrial capacity
shown much support for the idea of fuel banks.’
to build nuclear weapons from scratch. They pledged Since the inception of the NSG, “the measures
to vigorously restrain the transfer of nuclear wares to brought about protest and suspicions of
would-be proliferators. non-aligned States not represented in the
Group.””
The Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines-
 The Third World have argued that after
The aim of the NSG Guidelines is to ensure having accepted the NPT they should have
that nuclear trade for peaceful purposes does access to nuclear technology for peaceful
not contribute to the proliferation of nuclear uses. The Weapon states however point out
weapons or other nuclear explosive devices, and that that even under the NPT system the transfer of

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technology is not unrestricted and as such would  Little progress has been made on nuclear
have to be placed under safeguards. These disarmament, a key objective of the NPT, another
restraints appear to have slowed down the issue that agitates NNWS as there are still more
pace of nuclear related developments in the than 10,000 nuclear warheads on Earth.
Third World and have also put a restraint on the
 But the most important challenge that the
missile programmes of some of the countries.
nonproliferation regime faces is the breakdown
in the consensus about non-proliferation.
CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE : Such noncompliance with the basic purpose
of the treaty can lead other NPT non-nuclear
Two major challenges now face the NSG. The first weapon states (NNWS) to also seek their own
one is the phenomenon of suppliers who, if they are not nuclear weapons, thus unravelling the treaty.
somehow bound by NSG export control norms, might  The CTBT too in present form, is not intended
undermine the effectiveness of these norms and of the to make the weapon free world, free from
non-proliferation regime. The other challenge comes nuclear weapons. It would neither actually reduce
from countries of proliferation concern, which have the number of nuclear weapons nor decrease
shown considerable “ingenuity” in seeking nuclear- the present offensive capabilities of the nuclear
related equipment and technology for non-peaceful weapon states.
nuclear uses. Meeting these principal challenges,
Tadeusz Strulak says ,will set the agenda for the Michael O’Hanlon
NSG for the years to come. In addition to this -
 The arsenals of the United States and Russia
 Western experts have warned that in coming
still account for more than 90% of the total
years, export activities by Russia and China
number of warheads on Earth today. The
might result in a competitive weakening of
United Kingdom, France, China, India, and
global standards related to nuclear security,
Pakistan each likely possesses between 150 and
safety, intellectual property protection, and
300, with Israel’s unconfirmed arsenal totaling
transparency of management and oversight.
almost 100 bombs. North Korea probably has a
 Suppliers may not likely respond to concerns couple dozen nuclear weapons.
about weakening nuclear industry standards
for safety or security by including in the NSG  That said, the situation is not entirely grim.
guidelines additional conditions for nuclear While nuclear proliferation continues, and nine
supply. Instead, they would seek to address countries are known to possess nuclear weapons,
nuclear safety and security challenges using the fear once expressed by John F. Kennedy
specific pertinent multilateral agreements, that at least a couple dozen countries could
treaties, conventions, and resolutions concerned have the bomb by the 21st century has not
with these issues. panned out. And of course, nuclear weapons
have not been used again in combat.
 Rakesh Sood- ( in context of Ukraine invasion
by Russia) “Whichever way the conflict ends, Frank Rose
one outcome is clear: Nuclear weapons are
here to stay and any prospects for nuclear The NPT has played in advancing nonproliferation
arms control and nuclear disarmament have and international security since it entered into force
receded further”. 50 years ago. But disagreements between nuclear
weapons states and non-nuclear weapons states
THE NON-PROLIFERATION REGIME over the future of nuclear disarmament will likely
make reaching consensus on a final document at
FACES A CRISIS TODAY the upcoming NPT Review Conference extremely
difficult to achieve. This is due, in part, to the fact
 A nonnuclear member state, North Korea, that the international security environment has
has withdrawn from the NPT Treaty and gone changed fundamentally since the NPT was extended
nuclear, and another non-nuclear member state, indefinitely in 1995.
Iran, is threatening to do the same.
 The NSG waiver granted to India for UN chief Antonio Guterres
international nuclear commerce despite India
building a nuclear arsenal and not being a “We need a legally binding system; we need a clear
signatory to the NPT is also seen as a challenge verification mechanism; we need the CTBT to enter
to the non-proliferation regime. into force”.

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CSE ALL INDIA

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AIR-53 AIR-68 AIR-83 AIR-86 ARI-137 ARI-150 AIR-184 AIR-187 AIR-211 AIR-240 AIR-245

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AIR-44 AIR-54 AIR-107 AIR-121 AIR-123 AIR-145 AIR-155 AIR-164 AIR-170 AIR-176 AIR-210

AIR-240 AIR-251 AIR-274 AIR-283 AIR-308 AIR-426 AIR-527 AIR-537 AIR-619 AIR-683 AIR-780