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Overview

 Continuous or analog signals

 Discrete-time signals
 Basic analog signals
 Basic discrete signals
 Quantized signals
 Digital signals
 Causal signals
 Random signals
 Representation of signals in MATLAB

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 17
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Signal A signal is a physical quantity, or quality, that Example: voice of my friend is a signal
changes wrt time, space or any other which causes me to perform certain
variable(s) which conveys information actions or react in a particular way
My friend's My action or
voice is reaction is called
called an a response
excitation

Model of learner

Store

Perform Response
Perceive Test
(Concept) (output)
Stimulus(input)
Retrieve
Attention (idea)

Motivation (intrinsic ,
Reinforcement
extrinsic)
Basic needs .
 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 18
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Signal processing Iteration Bound
The conversion from excitation to response is called signal processing
A typical reason for signal processing is to eliminate or reduce an undesirable signal
We convert the original signal into a form that is suitable for further processing
One fundamental representation of a signal is as a function of at least one independent variable

Excitation Response

Model of learner

Store

Perform Response
Perceive Test
Stimulus(input) (Concept) (output)

Retrieve
Attention (idea)

Motivation (intrinsic ,
Reinforcement
extrinsic)
Basic needs .
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SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”

Waveform Iteration Bound

 The variation of the signal value as a function of the independent variable is called a waveform
 The independent variable be time, frequency, space etc,
 We define a signal as a function of one or more independent variable (s) that contains
information about the behavior or nature of a phenomenon
 Continuous signal is a signal that exists at  A signal defined only for discrete
every instant of time values of time is called a discrete-time
signal or simply a discrete signal
 In the jargon of the trade, a continuous signal
is often referred to as  Discrete signal can be obtained by
continuous time or analog taking samples of an analog signal at
discrete instants of time
 The independent variable is a
continuous variable  Digital signal is a discrete-time signal
whose values are represented by digits
 Continuous signal can assume any value
over a continuous range of numbers

3
analog signal
digital (quantized)
2

x(t), xq(kT)
1

-1

-2
0 10 20 30
t

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 20
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
Sinusoidal signal

x s (t )  X s sin(2f s t   s )
Amplitude Phase in
radian (rad)
xs (t) = X s sin(2  f s t + s )
2

Time in
seconds (s)

Frequency in
0
s

Hertz (Hz)
x

-2
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2
t
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 21
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Review of Signals
MATLAB code for sine signal x s (t )  X s sin(2f s t   s )
Xs = 1.8;
x s (t) = Xs sin(2  fs t +  s )

fs = 10; 2

fi = pi/3; 1.5

t1 = -0.1; 1

tstep = 0.01; 0.5

t2 = 0.2; 0

xs
t = t1:tstep:t2; -0.5

x = Xs*sin(2*pi*fs*t+fi); -1

plot(t, x) -1.5

xlabel('t') -2
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
ylabel('x_s') t

title('x_s(t) = X_s sin(2 \pi f_s t + \phi_s)')

grid on

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 22
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Review of Signals
Common Periodic Waveforms
sawtooth(T) generates a sawtooth wave with period 2*pi for the elements of time vector T. sawtooth(T) is like
SIN(T), only it creates a sawtooth wave with peaks of +1 to -1 instead of a sine wave. Same for square(T).

>> fs = 10000;t = 0:1/fs:1.5;x = sawtooth(2*pi*50*t);plot(t,x), axis([0 0.2 -1 1])

1
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

>> fs = 10000;t = 0:1/fs:1.5;x = square(2*pi*50*t);plot(t,x), axis([0 0.2 -1 1])

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 23
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Review of Signals
Common Aperiodic Waveforms
chirp Swept-frequency cosine generator.
Y = chirp(T,F0,T1,F1) generates samples of a linear swept-frequency signal at
the time instances defined in array T. The instantaneous frequency at time 0 is F0
Hertz. The instantaneous frequency F1 is achieved at time T1. By default, F0=0,
T1=1, and F1=100.
>> t = 0:1/1000:2; y = gauspuls(t,10,1,-
>> t = 0:1/1000:2; y = chirp(t,0,1,150);
150);specgram(y,256,1000,256,250)
specgram(y,256,1000,256,250)
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 350

300 300
Frequency

Frequency

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Time . Time
 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 24
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
1
Review of Signals
The pulstran Function 0.8
Y=pulstran(T,D,'func')
generates a pulse train based 0.6
on samples of a continuous
function, 'func'. The function is 0.4
evaluated over the range of
0.2
argument values specified in
array T, after removing a scalar
0
argument offset taken from the
vector D. Thus, the function is -0.2
evaluated length(D) times, and
the sum of the evaluations Y = -0.4
func(t-D(1)) + func(t-D(2)) +
... is returned. -0.6
Note that 'func' must be a
vectorized function which can -0.8
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
take an array T as an
argument. >> T = 0:1/50E3:10E-3;
D = [0:1/1E3:10E-3;0.8.^(0:10)]';
Y = pulstran(T,D,'gauspuls',10E3,0.5);
plot(T,Y,‘r')
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 25
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Review of Signals

The Sinc Function

The sinc function computes the mathematical sinc function for an input vector
or matrix x. The sinc function is the continuous inverse Fourier transform of the
rectangular pulse of width 2π and height 1.
1
>> x = linspace(-5,5);
0.8
y = sinc(x);
0.6 plot(x,y)

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 26
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
The Dirichlet Function
The toolbox function diric computes the Dirichlet function, sometimes called
the periodic sinc or aliased sinc function, for an input vector or matrix x.
The Dirichlet function is
1 x  2  k , k   1,  2, ..
k ( n 1


diric ( x )   sin n x / 2
 n sin x / 2 oth erw ise

n=7
1
1
n=8
x=
0.8 0.8
linspace(0,4*pi,3
0.6
00);
0.6
0.4
plot(x,diric(x,7));t
0.4 0.2
itle('n=7');
0.2
0
x=
-0.2
linspace(0,4*
0 -0.4
pi,300);plot(x
-0.2
-0.6
,diric(x,8));titl
-0.8
e('n=8')
-0.4 -1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 27
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Review of Signals
x s (t) = Xs sin(2  fs t +  s )
2
Advanced MATLAB code
1.5

Xs = 1.8; 0.5

fs = 10; 0

xs
fi = pi/3;
-0.5

-1
t1 = -0.1;
-1.5
t2 = 0.2;
-2
t = [t1, t2]; -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05
t
0.1 0.15 0.2

x = inline('Xs*sin(2*pi*fs*t+fi)','t','Xs','fs','fi');
fplot(x,t,2e-3,1,'-',Xs,fs,fi)
xlabel('t'); ylabel('x_s'); grid on
title('x_s(t) = X_s sin(2 \pi f_s t + \phi_s)')
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 28
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
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bt
Exponential signal
xe (t )  X e e
x = inline('Xe*exp(b*t)','t','Xe','b');
x e(t) = Xe eb t
Xe = 0.8; 0.8

b = -0.5; 0.7

t1 = 0; 0.6

t2 = 8; 0.5

t = [t1, t2];
xe 0.4

fplot(x,t,2e-3,1,'-',Xe,b)
0.3
xlabel('t')
0.2
ylabel('x_e')
0.1
title('x_e(t) = X_e e^{b t}')
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
grid on t

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SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Unit step signal 1, t  0

u (t )  
0, t  0
Unit step signal
x = inline('t>0', 't');
1
t1 = -2;
t2 = 6; 0.8

t = [t1, t2];
0.6
fplot(x, t)
u
xlabel('t') 0.4

ylabel('u')
0.2
title('Unit step signal')
axis([t -0.1 1.1]) 0

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t

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SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

1
 , 0t 
Pulse signal p (t )   
0, otherwise

x = inline('(1/e)*((t>0)&(t<=e))','t','e');
e = 1/100;
t1 = -1; Pulse function,  = 1/100

t2 = 5; 100

t = [t1, t2]; 80
fplot(x,t,1e-5,1000,'-',e)
60
p (t)
set(gca,'FontSize',16)
xlabel('t') 40

ylabel('p_\epsilon(t)') 20
axis([t -0.1 1.1/e])
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
title('Pulse function, \epsilon = 1/100') t

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 31
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Unit impulse signal (Dirac delta)

 (t )  lim p (t )
 0

 (t )  0, t  0


  (t ) dt  1


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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 32
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Causal signals

 A signal is causal if it is zero for t < 0

 Causal signals are readily created by multiplying any continuous signal by the unit
step signal
 The instant when the signal begins is called the starting time
 We usually take the starting time to be zero

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 33
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Causal signals in MATLAB

B = 0.02; 1.5
a = 0.1; u(t)
f = 0.53; 1
phi = 3*pi/4;
t = -5:0.05:10;
0.5
x = B^a*exp(-a*t).*sin(...

x(t)
0
2*pi*f*t+phi);
xu = x.*(t>0);
-0.5 x(t)*u(t)
u = (t>0);
plot(t,x,t,u,t,xu) -1 x(t)
ylabel('x(t)')
xlabel('t (s)') -1.5
-5 0 5 10
text(0,1.2,'u(t)')
t (s)
text(-4,-1.1,'x(t)')
text(5,-.6,'x(t)*u(t)')
axis([t(1) t(end) -1.5 1.5])

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SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
What is sampling?
 Sampling is capturing a signal at an instant in time
 Sampling means taking amplitude values of the signal at certain time instances
 Uniform sampling is sampling every T units of time

xk  x(kT )  x(t ) t 0,T ,2T ,3T ,

Sampling
frequency or 1 3
sampling F0  analog signal
digital (quantized)
rate T 2

x(t), xq(kT)
1
time step or
sample interval 0

-1

-2
0 10 20 30
. t
 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 35
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Discrete-time signal – Sequence

 A sequence (discrete-time signal, discrete signal, data sequence, or sample set)

is a collection of ordered samples
 In practical applications we process
finite-length sequences
 The existing sequence is often a
sampled version of a continuous signal

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 36
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
Sinusoidal sequence
1
x s ,k  X s sin(2 k  s )
Ns
Amplitude Phase in
radian (rad)
x s,k = X s s in(2  (1 /N s ) k +  s )
2

1 Sample index

0
s
x

Period
-1

-2
-5 0 5 10
k

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 37
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Exponential sequence
xe, k  X e a k
Xe = 0.8;
xe,k = Xe ak
a = 0.75; 0.8
k1 = 0;
k2 = 10; 0.6
k = k1:k2;
x = Xe*a.^k; 0.4
xe

stem(k, x)
xlabel('k') 0.2
ylabel('x_e')
title('x_{e,k} = X_e a^k') 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
k
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 38
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Unit step sequence

1, k  0
uk  
0, k  0
k1 = -5; Unit step sequence

k2 = 10; 1
k = k1:k2;
0.8
x = (k>=0);
stem(k, x) 0.6
uk
xlabel('k') 0.4
ylabel('u_k')
0.2
title('Unit step sequence')
axis([k1 k2 -0.1 1.1]) 0
-5 0 5 10
k
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 39
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

1, k  0
Unit impulse sequence
k  
k1 = -5;
0, k  0
Unit impulse sequence
k2 = 10;
1
k = k1:k2;
x = (k==0); 0.8

stem(k, x) k 0.6
xlabel('k')
0.4
ylabel('\delta_k')
title('Unit impulse sequence') 0.2

axis([k1 k2 -0.1 1.1]) 0

-5 0 5 10
k
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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 40
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Causal sequence

 A sequence that is nonzero only over a finite interval of indices is called a finite-
length sequence
 A sequence whose samples are zero-valued for negative indices is causal
 Anti-causal sequence can have
nonzero samples only for negative indices

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 41
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
Causal sequences in MATLAB
2
B = 0.94; a = 0.1; f = 0.32;
k = -10:1:20;
0

uk
x = (B.^k).*cos(2*pi*f*k);
u = (k>=0);
-2
ux = x.*u; -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
subplot(3,1,1)
2
stem(k,u,'g')
ylabel('u_k','FontSize',14)
0

xk
axis([k(1) k(end) -2 2])
subplot(3,1,2)
-2
stem(k,x,'b') -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
ylabel('x_k','FontSize',14) 2
subplot(3,1,3)
xk uk

stem(k,ux,'r')
0
ylabel('x_k u_k','FontSize',14)
xlabel('k')
-2
axis([k(1) k(end) -2 2]) -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
k

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 42
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Quantized signal

 The purpose of sampling a continuous signal is to transmit, store, or process a

limited number of samples that are represented by a limited number of digits
 By using fewer digits we attain faster transmission and smaller storage
requirements for the information
 We utilize the quantized samples rather than the true samples of infinite accuracy

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SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Choice of digits for quantization

 Choice of digits for quantization should be done properly: in

transmitting, storing, and processing we prefer less digits
 With too small a number of digits we can lose information from the
original signal
 Two opposing requirements must be satisfied:
 Minimize number of digits to facilitate the signal transmission or
storing, and
 Maximize number of digits to keep the quantization error as low as
necessary in order to preserve the information

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SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Digital signal in MATLAB

3
t = 0:30; analog signal
x = 0.2+2*sin(0.245*t+0.15); digital (quantized)
2
d = 0.5;
xq = d*round(x/d);

x(t), xq(kT)
1
plot(t,x)
hold on
stem(t,xq,'r') 0
hold off
ylabel('x(t), x_q(kT)') -1
xlabel('t')
legend('analog signal',...
-2
'digital (quantized)') 0 10 20 30
t

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 45
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound

Deterministic and random signal

 Signal that can be described by an explicit mathematical form is

deterministic
 Deterministic signal can be periodic or aperiodic
 Periodic signal consists of a basic shape of finite duration that is
replicated infinitely
 Signal that cannot be described in an explicit mathematical form is called
random, also known as nondeterministic or stochastic

.
 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 46
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
Random signal in MATLAB
xk = 0:1:50;
x = rand(size(k));
m = mean(x);
s = std(x);
Uniformly distributed samples
1
stem(k,x)
random seq
hold on
mean
plot([k(1) k(end)],…
std
[m m],'r',...
[k(1) k(end)],… xk
[s s],'g') 0.4777
hold off
xlabel('k')
0.2665
ylabel('x_k')
ytick = [0 s m 1]; set(gca,'YTick',ytick)
legend('random seq',…
0
'mean','std') 0 10 20 30 40 50
title('Uniformly distributed samples') k

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 “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLSI DIGITAL 47
SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM”
Iteration Bound
Random signal in MATLAB
k = 0:1:50;
x = randn(size(k)); Normally distributed samples
m = mean(x);
s = std(x); random seq
stem(k,x)
mean
2
hold on
std
plot([k(1) k(end)],…
[m m],'r',… 0.9008
xk
[k(1) k(end)],…
[s s],'g') 0.0305
hold off
xlabel('k')
ylabel('x_k')
legend('random seq',…
'mean','std')
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50
ytick = sort([-2 s m 2]); k
set(gca,'YTick',ytick)
title('Normally distributed samples')