Statistics M.H.

Gendoo

Methods of Sampling

CLUSTER SAMPLING

In cluster sampling, instead of selecting all the subjects from the entire population
right off, the researcher takes several steps in gathering his sample population.

First, the researcher selects groups or clusters, and then from each cluster, the
researcher selects the individual subjects by either simple random or systematic
random sampling. The researcher can even opt to include the entire cluster and not
just a subset from it.

The most common cluster used in research is a geographical cluster. For example, a
researcher wants to survey academic performance of high school students in Spain.

1.He can divide the entire population (population of Mauritius) into different clusters
(cities).

2.Then the researcher selects a number of clusters depending on his research through
simple or systematic random sampling.

3.Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected cities) the researcher can either
include all the high school students as subjects or he can select a number of subjects
from each cluster through simple or systematic random sampling.

The important thing to remember about this sampling technique is to give all the
clusters equal chances of being selected.

TYPES OF CLUSTER SAMPLE

ONE-STAGE CLUSTER SAMPLE

Recall the example given above; one-stage cluster sample occurs when the researcher
includes all the high school students from all the randomly selected clusters as
sample.

TWO-STAGE CLUSTER SAMPLE

From the same example above, two-stage cluster sample is obtained when the
researcher only selects a number of students from each cluster by using simple or
systematic random sampling.

1
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLUSTER SAMPLING AND STRATIFIED

SAMPLING
The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling lies with the
inclusion of the cluster or strata.

In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is sampled while in
cluster sampling, the researcher only randomly selects a number of clusters from the
collection of clusters of the entire population. Therefore, only a number of clusters are
sampled, all the other clusters are left unrepresented.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING

•This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an entire
country when using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate his limited
resources to the few randomly selected clusters or areas when using cluster samples.

•Related to the first advantage, the researcher can also increase his sample size with
this technique. Considering that the researcher will only have to take the sample from
a number of areas or clusters, he can then select more subjects since they are more
accessible.

•From all the different type of probability sampling, this technique is the least
representative of the population. The tendency of individuals within a cluster is to
have similar characteristics and with a cluster sample, there is a chance that the
researcher can have an overrepresented or underrepresented cluster which can skew
the results of the study.

•This is also a probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling

error. This is brought by the limited clusters included in the sample leaving off a
significant proportion of the population unsampled.

2
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling refers to a sampling method that has the following
properties.

■The population consists of N elements.

■The population is divided into H groups, called strata.
■Each element of the population can be assigned to one, and only one, stratum.
■The number of observations within each stratum Nh is known, and N = N1 + N2 +
N3 + ... + NH-1 + NH.
■The researcher obtains a probability sample from each stratum.
we will assume that the researcher draws a simple random sample from each stratum.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Stratified sampling offers several advantages over simple random sampling.

■A stratified sample can provide greater precision than a simple random sample of
the same size.
■Because it provides greater precision, a stratified sample often requires a smaller
sample, which saves money.
■A stratified sample can guard against an "unrepresentative" sample (e.g., an all-male
sample from a mixed-gender population).
■We can ensure that we obtain sufficient sample points to support a separate analysis
of any subgroup.
The main disadvantage of a stratified sample is that it may require more
administrative effort than a simple random sample.

Proportionate Versus Disproportionate Stratification

All stratified sampling designs fall into one of two categories, each of which has
strengths and weaknesses as described below.

■Proportionate stratification, with proportionate stratification, the sample size of each

stratum is proportionate to the population size of the stratum. This means that each
stratum has the same sampling fraction.

•Proportionate stratification provides equal or better precision than a simple random

sample of the same size.
•Gains in precision are greatest when values within strata are homogeneous.
•Gains in precision accrue to all survey measures.

■Disproportionate stratification, with disproportionate stratification, the sampling

fraction may vary from one stratum to the next.

3
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

•The precision of the design may be very good or very poor, depending on how
sample points are allocated to strata. The way to maximize precision through
disproportionate stratification is discussed in a subsequent lesson.
•If variances differ across strata, disproportionate stratification can provide better
precision than proportionate stratification, when sample points are correctly allocated
to strata.
•With disproportionate stratification, the researcher can maximize precision for a
single important survey measure. However, gains in precision may not accrue to other
survey measures.

Sampling Fraction

The sampling fraction is the proportion of a population to be included in a sample.

The sampling fraction is equal to the sample size divided by the population size, n/N.

Homogeneous

When something is homogeneous, it is made up of things (people, events, objects,

etc.) that are similar to each other.

4
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by

researchers for its simplicity and its periodic quality.

In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or
subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each nth subject from the
list.

The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done
manually and the results are representative of the population unless certain
characteristics of the population are repeated for every nth individual which is highly
unlikely.

The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic

progression.

1.Starting number:
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals
in the population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.

2.Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference
between any two consecutive numbers in the progression.

The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size

For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12
subjects. He first picks his starting number, 5.

Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be
individuals 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 97.

Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they
first identify the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the
population with the sample size to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction
is then used as the constant difference between subjects.

5
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

•The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is
its simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the
random selection of subjects.

•Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is

the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in
simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is
systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.

DISADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

•The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the
population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the
sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the sample is
compromised.

NOTES

•Since systematic random sampling is a type of probability sampling, the researcher

must ensure that all the members of the population have equal chances of being
selected as the starting point or the initial subject.

•The researcher must be certain that the chosen constant interval between subjects do
not reflect a certain pattern of traits present in the population. If a pattern in the
population exists and it coincides with the interval set by the researcher, randomness
of the sampling technique is compromised.

6
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

STRATIFIED SAMPLING METHOD

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher

divides the entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly
selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata.

It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having

overlapping subgroups will grant some individuals higher chances of being
selected as subject. This completely negates the concept of stratified sampling as
a type of probability sampling.

Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability
sampling within the different strata.

The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender,
socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and educational attainment.

USES OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

•Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a
specific subgroup within the population. This technique is useful in such
researches because it ensures the presence of the key subgroup within the
sample.

•Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe
existing relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random
sampling technique, the researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he
wants to observe are represented equally or proportionately within the sample.

•With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the
smallest and most inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the
researcher to sample the rare extremes of the given population.

•With stratified sampling technique, you have a higher statistical precision

compared to simple random sampling. This is because the variability within the
subgroups is lower compared to the variations when dealing with the entire
population.

Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires
a small sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the
researchers.

7
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

TYPES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

PROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the

population size of the stratum when viewed against the entire population. This
means that the each stratum has the same sampling fraction.

For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes
respectively. And the researcher chose a sampling fraction of ½. Then, the
researcher must randomly sample 50, 100 and 150 subjects from each stratum
respectively.

Stratum A B C
Population Size 100 200 300
Sampling Fraction ½ ½ ½
Final Sample Size 50 100 150

The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling
fraction for each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the
strata. It is much like assembling a smaller population that is specific to the
relative proportions of the subgroups within the population.

DISPROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random

sampling is their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the
different strata have different sampling fractions.

The precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction

allocation of the researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting
sampling fractions, a stratum may either be overrepresented or underrepresented
which will result in skewed results.

8
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

APPLIED TO RESEARCH

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are

selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. The
subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the
researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire
population.

In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most
cases, the population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual.
This is the reason why most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience
sampling, the most common of all sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this
sampling technique because it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily
available.

EXAMPLES
One of the most common examples of convenience sampling is using student
volunteers as subjects for the research. Another example is using subjects that are
selected from a clinic, a class or an institution that is easily accessible to the
researcher. A more concrete example is choosing five people from a class or choosing
the first five names from the list of patients.

In these examples, the researcher inadvertently excludes a great proportion of the

population. A convenience sample is either a collection of subjects that are accessible
or a self selection of individuals willing to participate which is exemplified by your
volunteers.

USES
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it
also has other research advantages.

In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to
obtain basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using a
randomized sample.

This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a

substance or phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very
useful for detecting relationships among different phenomena.

9
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

CRITICISMS
The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the
sample is not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest
disadvantage when using a convenience sample because it leads to more problems and
criticisms.

Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference
between the results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire
population. It is not rare that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample
differ significantly with the results from the entire population. A consequence of
having systematic bias is obtaining skewed results.

Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in

generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is
not representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the
entire population. This results to a low external validity of the study.

NOTES
When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would
differ from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to
describe the individuals who might be left out during the selection process or the
individuals who are overrepresented in the sample.

In connection to this, it is better if you can describe the possible effects of the people
who were left out or the subjects that are overrepresented to your results. This will
allow the readers of your research to get a good grasp of the sample that you were
testing. It will also enable them to estimate the possible difference between your
results and the results from the entire population.

10
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

What is a convenience sample?

A convenience sample is a sample where the patients are selected, in part or in whole,
at the convenience of the researcher. The researcher makes no attempt, or only a
limited attempt, to insure that this sample is an accurate representation of some larger
group or population. The classic example of a convenience sample is standing at a
shopping mall and selecting shoppers as they walk by to fill out a survey.

In contrast, a random sample is one where the researcher insures (usually through the
use of random numbers applied to a list of the entire population) that each member of
that population has an equal probability of being selected. Random samples are an
important foundation of Statistics. Almost all of the mathematical theories upon
which Statistics are based rely on assumptions which are consistent with a random
sample. This theory is inconsistent with data collected from a convenience sample.

In general, the Statistics community frowns on convenience samples. You will often
have great difficulty in generalizing the results of a convenience sample to any
population that has practical relevance.

Still, convenience samples can provide you with useful information, especially in a
pilot study. To interpret the findings from a convenience sample properly, you have to
characterize (usually in a qualitative sense) how your sample would differ from an
ideal sample that was randomly selected. In particular, pay attention to who might be
left out of your convenience sample or who might be underrepresented in your
sample.

Also note whether the people who were left out might behave differently than the
people in your convenience sample. An interview on the street corner, for example,
would exclude non-ambulatory patients. If your outcome measures are not strongly
related to this factor, you might be okay. An assessment of eye colour is probably safe
in this setting. But a street corner interview would be a disaster if you were measuring
something like the degree of disability.

You also have to be careful to qualify your findings appropriately. Findings from a
convenience sample would be considered less definitive and would usually require
replication in a more controlled setting. You can also qualify your results by
extrapolating them only to a much more targeted and narrowly defined population.

11
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

Nonprobability Sampling

The difference between non probability and probability sampling is that

nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling
does. Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't representative of the
population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot
depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample,
we know the odds or probability that we have represented the population well. We are
able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With nonprobability samples, we
may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know
how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random
sampling methods over nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate
and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where
it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we
consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives.

We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or
purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually
approach the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important
distinctions among these types of sampling methods are the ones between the
different types of purposive sampling approaches.

Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling

One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles listed
here. I would include in this category the traditional "man on the street" (of course,
now it's probably the "person on the street") interviews conducted frequently by
television news programs to get a quick (although nonrepresentative) reading of
public opinion. I would also argue that the typical use of college students in much
psychological research is primarily a matter of convenience. (You don't really believe
that psychologists use college students because they believe they're representative of
the population at large, do you?). In clinical practice, we might use clients who are
available to us as our sample. In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking
for volunteers. Clearly, the problem with all of these types of samples is that we have
no evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in
generalizing to -- and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not.

Purposive Sampling

In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have

one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever
run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are
stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are
conducting a purposive sample (and most likely they are engaged in market research).
They might be looking for Caucasian females between 30-40 years old. They size up
the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category they stop to ask if
they will participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify that the
respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive sampling
can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly
and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive

12
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are also
likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.

All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive sampling
methods. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in modal
instance, expert, or quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as in heterogeneity
sampling. Or, we might capitalize on informal social networks to identify specific
respondents who are hard to locate otherwise, as in snowball sampling. In all of these
methods we know what we want -- we are sampling with a purpose.

Modal Instance Sampling

In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution. In

sampling, when we do a modal instance sample, we are sampling the most frequent
case, or the "typical" case. In a lot of informal public opinion polls, for instance, they
interview a "typical" voter. There are a number of problems with this sampling
approach. First, how do we know what the "typical" or "modal" case is? We could say
that the modal voter is a person who is of average age, educational level, and income
in the population. But, it's not clear that using the averages of these is the fairest
(consider the skewed distribution of income, for instance). And, how do you know
that those three variables -- age, education, income -- are the only or even the most
relevant for classifying the typical voter? What if religion or ethnicity is an important
discriminator? Clearly, modal instance sampling is only sensible for informal
sampling contexts.

Expert Sampling

Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or

demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a
sample under the auspices of a "panel of experts." There are actually two reasons you
might do expert sampling. First, because it would be the best way to elicit the views
of persons who have specific expertise. In this case, expert sampling is essentially just
a specific sub case of purposive sampling. But the other reason you might use expert
sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another sampling approach you
have chosen. For instance, let's say you do modal instance sampling and are
concerned that the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to
criticism. You might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with
acknowledged experience and insight into that field or topic and ask them to examine
your modal definitions and comment on their appropriateness and validity. The
advantage of doing this is that you aren't out on your own trying to defend your
decisions -- you have some acknowledged experts to back you. The disadvantage is
that even the experts can be, and often are, wrong.

Quota Sampling

In quota sampling, you select people non randomly according to some fixed quota.
There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In
proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the
population by sampling a proportional amount of each. For instance, if you know the
population has 40% women and 60% men, and that you want a total sample size of

13
Statistics M.H.Gendoo

100, you will continue sampling until you get those percentages and then you will
stop. So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but not the sixty men,
you will continue to sample men but even if legitimate women respondents come
along, you will not sample them because you have already "met your quota." The
problem here (as in much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific
characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education
race, religion, etc.?

Nonproportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you specify
the minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. Here, you are not
concerned with having numbers that match the proportions in the population. Instead,
you simply want to have enough to assure that you will be able to talk about even
small groups in the population. This method is the nonprobabilistic analogue of
stratified random sampling in that it is typically used to assure that smaller groups are
adequately represented in your sample.

Heterogeneity Sampling

We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and we
are not concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for
this is sampling for diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes
(including concept mapping), we would use some form of heterogeneity sampling
because our primary interest is in getting broad spectrum of ideas, not identifying the
"average" or "modal instance" ones. In effect, what we would like to be sampling is
not people, but ideas. We imagine that there is a universe of all possible ideas relevant
to some topic and that we want to sample this population, not the population of people
who have the ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the ideas, and especially the
"outlier" or unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of
participants. Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal
instance sampling.

Snowball Sampling

In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know
who also meet the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative
samples, there are times when it may be the best method available. Snowball
sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach populations that are
inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are
not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people within a specific
geographical area. However, if you go to that area and identify one or two, you may
find that they know very well who the other homeless people in their vicinity are and
how you can find them.

14