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Chapter

Municipal Solid Waste

Management and the Inland Water
Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
Akindayo A. Sowunmi

Abstract

Municipal solid waste (MSW) composition, natural transformation, dynamics

and impacts on inland water bodies in Nigeria were examined, using dumpsites and
landfills as the common markers. Nigeria is estimated to have over 178.5 million
people and kg/capita/day of 0.26–1.02 MSW, projected to increase with the expan-
sion of the economy which is in need of better articulated MSW management
strategies. The enormous natural inland surface and groundwater resources are
daily challenged directly and indirectly, through decline in physical, chemical and
biological quality. Solid waste disposal along the waterways and leachates from
natural activities on materials at dumpsites and landfills was strongly identified and
recognized as the source of pollutant inputs. The immediate and projected public
health consequences in changes in inland waters were provided for resident aquatic
organisms, some of which serves as food for resident human populations that are
largely dependent on these water bodies for their daily water requirements.

Keywords: Nigeria, inland water bodies, municipal solid wastes, water quality,
public health

1. Introduction

Municipal solid wastes (MSW) refer to all wastes generated, collected, trans-
ported and disposed of within the jurisdiction of a municipal authority. In most
cases, it comprises mainly food waste, discarded materials from residential areas,
street sweepings, commercial and institutional nonhazardous wastes as well as (in
some countries) construction and demolition waste.
MSW has been variously described as aggregation of unwanted materials gener-
ated from a range of human-related activities denominated from domestic to produc-
tion. The origin of what is regarded as MSW can be closely associated with the earliest
attempts by humans to transit from migrant to settler modes of living, which imposed
the need to modify or change the character of raw or primary materials available to
support or sustain the new modes of living and originating human activity.
Nigeria is the dominant country in West Africa, accounting for 47% of West Africa’s
population, with gross domestic product (GDP) growth at an average rate of 5.7% per
year between 2006 and 2016, facilitated by volatile oil prices to a highest of 8% in 2006
and lowest of −1.5% in 2016; Human Development Index value also increased by 13.1%
between 2005 and 2015 [1]. However, the country continues to face massive develop-
mental challenges including, but not limited to, human development indicators and

1
Municipal Solid Waste Management

the living conditions of the population. Last collected in 2012 by the Nigeria National
Bureau of Statistics, the total population of citizens in Nigeria was around 166.2 million
people. In 2016, it was estimated to have over 178.5 million people although the United
Nations’ projections have placed the population as high as 186 million.
While MSW is generally associated with urbanization, recent developments
in manufacturing processes have lowered the cost of production, enhancing the
ability of manufacturers to produce goods that captures different income groups in
population. The resultant effects are that areas hitherto considered as rural areas
now experience both technological and economic penetrations. These penetrations
will be accompanied by the penetration of MSW problems, hitherto restricted to
urban centres. The developmental pressure experienced by major Nigeria cities has
precipitated the upsurge in establishment of satellite towns, with attendant increase
in human activity range and hence of waste generation.
Nigeria is considered one of the countries endowed with appreciable natural
water resources in the world with the presence of the Niger River which is the third
largest in Africa [2]. Natural water resources in Nigeria include enormous yearly
rainfall, large surface bodies of water of rivers, streams and lakes, as well as in
abundant reservoirs of underground water whose extent and distribution have not
been fully assessed. The country is well drained with a reasonably close network of
rivers and streams (Figure 1). Some of these rivers, particularly the smaller ones,
are, however, seasonal, especially in the northern parts of the country where the
rainy season is only 3 or 4 months in duration. In addition, there are natural water
bodies like lakes, ponds as well as lagoons, particularly in the coastal areas [3–5].
The hydrology of Nigeria is dominated by two great river systems, the Niger-Benue
and the Chad systems. With the exception of a few rivers that empty directly into
the Atlantic Ocean (Cross River, Ogun, Oshun, Imo, Qua Iboe and a few others),

Figure 1.
Inland surface water resources of Nigeria (Source: [3, 4]).

2
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921

all other flowing waters ultimately find their way into the Chad Basin or down the
lower Niger to the sea. Nigeria lies between longitudes 2° 49′E and 14° 37′E and
latitudes 4° 16′N and 13° 52′ North of the equator. The climate is tropical, character-
ized by high temperatures and humidity as well as marked wet and dry seasons,
though there are variations between south and north. Total rainfall decreases from
the coast northwards. The south (below latitude 8°N) has an annual rainfall ranging
between 1500 and 4000 mm and the extreme north between 500 and 1000 mm.
The country has a vast expanse of inland freshwater and brackish ecosystems
with an extensive mangrove ecosystem of which a great proportion lies within the
Niger Delta. Freshwaters start at the northern limit of the mangrove ecosystems
and extend to the Sahelian region. The major rivers, estimated at about 10,812,400
hectares, make up about 11.5% of the total surface area of Nigeria which is esti-
mated to be approximately 94,185,000 hectares. Lakes and reservoirs have a total
surface area of 853,600 ha and represent about 1% of the total area of Nigeria. Thus
the total surface area of water bodies in Nigeria, excluding deltas, estuaries and
miscellaneous wetlands, is estimated to be about 14,991,900 ha or 149,919 km2 and
constitutes about 15.9% of the total area of Nigeria. This review provided an insight
on interactions between MSW, as indexed by dumpsites and landfills in Nigeria,
and inland surface and groundwater in their vicinity.

2. Municipal solid waste generation in Nigeria

Generation of MSW in Nigeria is a daily occurrence, arising from diverse and

varied human activities; hence the character of solid waste generated is never
homogenous (Plate 1a–k). The differences can be a function of several indica-
tors which include but not limited to originating tasks, income bracket, location,
population density, population characteristics, culture, consumption pattern and
seasons [6]. The quantity of MSW generated across cities in Nigeria is closely
associated with population, economic, political and commercial activities. All these
variables are however tied to the human element, as the driver of these changes.
Changes in population pattern have been closely associated with changes in waste
generation, even in the presence of optimally articulated management approaches.
Table 1 presented the close relationship between population and waste generation
for the world’s regions. It is noteworthy that regions with increasing or high per
capita for MSW are the regions with high income. Nigeria had a population increase
of between 2.6 and 2.7% annually between 2010 and 2018 and oscillated around 2%
since 1965 [7]. The per capita income also increases steadily [1] which translated to
increased purchasing power and consumptions of more products, with attendant
waste generation. However, apart from Lagos State, waste generation data are not
readily available or limited in coverage. The MSW per capita per day for different
Nigerian cities is presented in Table 2, while Figure 2 showed MSW per capita for
low- (Agric), middle- (Bariga and Ojodu) and high-income (Lagos Island) loca-
tions in Lagos State over a period of 30 days. These values are comparable to the
suggested per capita for the African region (Table 1).The data presented further
extended the suggestion of a direct relationship between economic success and
waste generation.
Accordingly, solid waste can be classified into four different types [13] depend-
ing on their source, which include:

a. Household waste, generally classified as municipal waste.

b. Industrial waste, as hazardous waste.

3
Municipal Solid Waste Management

c. Biomedical waste or hospital waste, as infectious waste.

d.Electronic waste (e-waste).

Plate 1.
Selected sources and disposal of municipal solid wastes in Nigeria. (a) Waste paper, (b) Cassava peels and chaff,
(c) mixed wastes, (d) waste labels, (e) waste bottles, (f) sorted wastes, (g) dumpsite in Sango-Ota(Ogun State),
(h) dumpsite in Benin (Edo State), (i) Kara abattoir (Ogun State), (j) Ona River (Oyo State), (k) Mile 2
canal (Lagos State), and (l) Ikpoba River (Edo State).

4
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921

Region Current available data Projections for 2025

Total Urban waste generation Projected population Projected urban waste

urban
population Per capita (kg/ Total (tons/ Total Urban Per capita Total (tons/
(millions) capita/day) day) population population (kg/capita/ day)
(millions) (millions) day)
AFR 260 0.65 169,119 1152 518 0.85 441,840

EAP 777 0.95 738,958 2124 1229 1.5 1,865,379

ECA 227 1.1 254,389 339 239 1.5 354,810

LCR 399 1.1 437,545 681 466 1.6 728,392

MENA 162 1.1 173,545 379 257 1.43 369,320

OECD 729 2.2 1,566,286 1031 842 2.1 1,742,417

AR 426 0.45 192,410 1938 734 0.77 567,545

Source: World Bank Group [1].

AFR, Africa Region; EAP, East Asia and Pacific Region; ECA, Europe and Central Asian Region; LCR, Latin
America and Caribbean Region; MENA, Middle East and North Africa Region; OECD, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development; SAR, South Asia Region.

Table 1.
Current and projected generation pattern for different regions of the world.

City Kg/capita/day

Lagos 0.63

Kano 0.56

Ibadan 0.51

Kaduna 0.58

Port Harcourt 0.60

Makurdi 0.48

Onitsha 0.53

Nsukka 0.44

Abuja 0.45–0.74

Ado Ekiti 0.71

Akure 0.54

Abeokuta 0.60–0.66

Aba 0.46

Ilorin 0.43

Lafia 0.39–1.02

Gombe 0.26–0.29

Makurdi 0.37–0.62

5
Municipal Solid Waste Management

City Kg/capita/day

Jimeta 0.39–1.02

Gboko 0.41–0.49

Source: Refs. [8–11].

Table 2.
Per capita wastes for Nigerian cities.

Figure 2.
Daily per capita waste generation of different incomes and densities from Lagos State, Nigeria. Modified
from [12].

It is important to mention that until recently in Nigeria, MSW disposal methods

(Table 3) received very little attention because wastes were considered an entity
with homogenous properties [26, 27] or largely dominated by organic/decomposable
wastes. Previous reports [28, 29] clearly supported this position and also suggested
that study of wastes in Nigeria started in the 1970s. The components of MSW from
different parts of Nigeria are presented in Tables 4–8, which showed that MSW are
still largely dominated by organic/decomposable components. Shift in waste charac-
teristics is however gradually becoming apparent reflecting changes from previously
ignored traditional household electronic wastes to high-profile ubiquitous wastes of
a technology-driven economy, in the form of heterogeneous components, popularly
referred to as electronic wastes (e-wastes) and related components. The wastes from
traditional household electronics have also increased with better purchasing power
over time.
E-wastes were largely unacknowledged in Nigeria and considered part of MSW
until the Koko waste incidence of 1988. This led to the separation of discarded
household, ICT and personal electronic devices as e-wastes [48, 49]. The avail-
ability of cheaper versions of everyday ICT and personal electronic devices now
provides additional source of consistent waste volume arising from short life
cycle of substandard products. The volume and characteristics of MSW showing

6
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
Collection methods Aba Abeokuta Abuja Akure Akoko Edo Gombe Birnin Kebbi Maiduguri Makurdi Yola Ughelli Benin
Waste collection contractor X X X X X X X X

Deposited at waste dump X X X X X X X X X X X X

Solid to other industries/ X X X X X X

recycling

Deposited in the river X X X

Deposited in drainage X X X X X
Compositing X X X X

Incinerating/burning X X X X X X X X X X X X

Burying X X X X X X X X X

Open space/plot dumping X X X X X X X X X

Government trucks X X X X X X X
Modified from [8–10, 14–25].

Table 3.
MSW disposal methods from different Nigeria cities.
Municipal Solid Waste Management

Waste components Aba Abeokuta Maiduguri Gombe Ilorin Kano Warri

Abia Ogun Borno State Yobe Kwara Kano Delta

State State State State State State
Rubber 11.30–
18.50
Plastics 6.25 24.95 18.10 23.00– 2.35–4.89
27.80
Papers 9.90 25.57 7.50 22.00– 3.84–23.55 0.48–4.19
26.00
Glass 4.69 5.75 4.30 20.00– 12.00– 2.75–20.55 4.16–10.41
24.00 26.10
Aluminum scraps 9.90 2.20–9.49 0.52–4.69
Metal scraps 10.41 5.26 9.10 27.25–31.01
Tins and cans 8.71–20.71
Ceramics 0.35–3.74
Wood 1.19–4.39
Textiles 9.48 3.90 3.80–9.30 0.39–2.84
Compostable (e.g. food and 47.39 25.80
wood)
Food waste only 28.00– 24.00– 4.20–
32.00 30.90 31.56
Leaves and human feces 6.50–
14.10
Vegetables 13.30– 0.26–7.62
23.00
Water sachets and 11.45 4.99–9.08
cellophane packages
Hazardous wastes 2.69
Ash 21.50 1.10–
22.54
Miscellaneous/others 9.80 22.00– 15.60– 1.74–6.35 20.71–
28.00 21.00 34.91
[15] [8] [23] [24] [30] [31] [32]

Table 4.
Waste components from Nigerian cities. I.

Waste components Kaduna Zaria Onitsha Yenagoa Yola Jos Gboko Makurdi

Kaduna State Anambra Bayelsa Adamawa Plateau Benue State

State State State State
Rubber 35 36 10.1 20.7–24.6

Plastics 17.9 18.3 6.2–7.89

Papers 8.1 13.6–14.7 17.7–22.3 10.0– 2.1–10.9
14.0

Glass 4.5 9.4–10.9 3.0 7.9–13.1 7.0–10.0 0.1–6.9

Aluminum scraps

Metal scraps 8.7 5.7–5.9 5.8 6.3–7.5 9.0– 0.7–3.4

11.0

Tins and cans

Water sachets and 6.3–9.9 15.0– 5.9–10.2

cellophane packages 22.0 (+plastics)

8
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921

Waste components Kaduna Zaria Onitsha Yenagoa Yola Jos Gboko Makurdi

Kaduna State Anambra Bayelsa Adamawa Plateau Benue State

State State State State
Ceramics
Textiles 5 1 10.1 67.6 5.7–8.6 9.0– 0.3–6.1
12.0

Wood 16 26 10.1 2.5–3.6 5.5–12.6

Compostable (e.g. food 6.5 15.0– 23.4–57.5
and wood) 21.0

Food waste only 40.50 40.8– 12.2–14.2

42.8
Vegetables 13.4–15.2

Leaves and human feces 29 19

Hazardous wastes 20 14
Leather 3.8–6.6

Ash/fines 2.1–2.8 10.0– 21.0–48.7

12.0
Miscellaneous/others 3.7 5.3 8.0– 1.7–28.9
10.0

[33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [21]

Table 5.
Waste components from Nigerian cities. II.

Waste components Abuja

Rubber 0.2–3.4 8.1–26.7

Plastics 16.2–21.3 3.4 2.3 –13.9

Papers 6.9–13.6 25.3 3.2–13.4

Glass 4.1–5.5 3.00 0.8 –6.5

Metal scraps 3.3–6.7 3.14 1.0–7.9

Tins and cans

Ceramics 0.1–8.8

Textiles 0.1–4.7 3.0 0.2–4.8

Compostable (e.g. food and wood) 42.6 44.1–65.1

Food waste only 52.0–65.3

Leaves and human feces

Vegetables

Water sachets and cellophane packages 14.5 7.8–18.6

Hazardous wastes 2.8 1.1–5.5

Ash 1.0–10.7

Miscellaneous/others 0.6–2.8 2.2 0.9–11.2

[10, 25] [16] [39]

Table 6.
Waste components from Abuja.

9
Municipal Solid Waste Management

Waste components Lagos

Plastics 7.29 3.6 5.0 15 6

Papers 10.2 12.5 10.0 10 6

Glass 2.8 1.8 2.0 5 8

Aluminum scraps
Metal scraps 4.1 2.1 3.0 5 10

Water sachets and cellophane packages 7.7 9.0

Textiles 3.8 5.0 4 6

Compostable (e.g. food and wood) 29.8 68.2 8 8

Food waste only 66.0

Leaves and human feces

Vegetables 45 50
Bones 1.8

Ash/fines 21.2 4.2 8 10

Miscellaneous/others 18.8
[40] [41] [12] [42] [43]

Table 7.
Waste components from Lagos State.

Waste components Port Harcourt

Rubber 7.6
Plastics 1.5–8.3 2.2–4.8 11.5 18.0 9.9

Papers 4.0–16.5 5.6–16.5 12.3 24.2 12.4

Glass 0.2–6.3 0.2–2.5 9.5 10.9 13.5

Metal scraps 0.5–15.0 0.5–4.0 15.2 17.2

Tins and cans 10.9

Water sachets and cellophane packages 9.9–18.5 10.5–14.7

Textiles 7.6
Wood 18.0 8.4

Compostable (e.g. food and wood) 52.1–69.0 60.0–69.0 51.5

Food waste only 29.2

Leaves and human feces

Vegetables 18.0

Miscellaneous/others 2.0–8.1 2.0–6.8 1.8

[11] [44] [45] [46] [47]

Table 8.
Waste components from Port Harcourt.

e-waste proportion from dumpsites or landfills were absent from available studies.
The isolation of e-waste as a unique recent component, activities of scavengers or
pickers, electronic market dumpsites and dedicated studies to e-wastes probably
contributed to the lack of such data.

10
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921

3. Municipal solid waste and inland water bodies in Nigeria

The magnitude of changes experienced by inland water bodies as a result of

MSW in Nigeria could be attributed to inappropriate siting, design, operation
and maintenance of dumps and landfills. The history of the association between
changes in quality of inland waters and MSW generation in Nigeria has not been
adequately documented. However, classical reports [50, 51] provided a different
trajectory to the narratives, where low-level perturbations reported for both the
Ona River and Ogunpa River were associated with generation and disposal of MSW
in Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria. Inland waters in Nigeria have been on the receiving
end of MSW, but the details have been patchy. Inland surface and groundwaters
in the vicinity of dumpsites in Nigeria have been reported to be generally compro-
mised, and leachates have been the most cited reason.
Dumpsites usually undergo modification of wastes [52] in the following five
basic steps:

• Phase I (lag phase/initial adjustment).

• Phase II (transition phase).

• Phase III (acid formation phase).

• Phase IV (methane production/fermentation phase/methanogenic phase).

• Phase V (maturation phase).

The products of these processes include volatilized chemicals as gas, leachate

and changing community of organisms, all of which have profound influence on the
physical, chemical and biological conditions in the immediate surroundings.
Leachates from dumpsites and landfills have been characterized (Table 9) and
associated with contamination of inland surface water (Table 10) and groundwater
(Table 11) resources from different parts of Nigeria with profound physical, chemi-
cal and biological consequences. Aquatic life and recreational criteria [53] sug-
gested compromise in physical and chemical qualities, due largely to the presence
of dumpsites close to these water bodies. Also age and the unique composition or
characteristics of wastes deposited at dumpsites will greatly influence the resultant
water quality. The biotic or biological responses of resident organisms to changes as
elicited by activities associated with dumpsites have not attracted deserved atten-
tion or investigation considering the ecological and public health consequences.
However, limited laboratory studies on aquatic organisms, Chironomus sp. Culex
pipiens, Bufo regularis tadpoles and Clarias gariepinus, using products from dump-
sites in the form of leachates from Oyo [57, 58, 77] and Lagos [77, 78] States showed
pronounced aberrant behavioral responses and gross morphological and genetic
damages. In spite of the limited studies from Nigeria, the reports agreed with com-
parable reports from other parts of the world on the negative influence of products
of dumpsites on surface inland waters.
Groundwater in Nigeria provides water supply for 40.1% of Nigerians [79] and is
considered to be the preferred source of water for different sectors providing about
40% of water public water supply [80] underlying the importance of groundwater
sources. The integrity of such groundwater is therefore of importance because of
direct consequences on human health. The quality of groundwater showed the
presence of substances considered dangerous to human health at concentrations
above standards [53, 68] considered acceptable. The detection of cadmium, nickel,

11
12

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Parameters National criteria Odo Oba (Osun State) Aba Eku (Oyo State) Olusosun (Lagos State) Aba Eku Olusosun Aba Eku

Raw Simulated Raw Simulated

pH 6.5–8.5 6.25 8.6 4.9–5.5 7.30 6.80 7.8 8.1 8.0–8.3

Color Dark brown Dark brown Dark brown

TS 5072.17 3054.50 3281.00–4206.00 3116.67 4100.3 433–2091

TSS 0.75 1085.00 220.00–2490.00 1–460

TDS 3400 1969.50 1716.00–3412.00 0.32 1.32

Total hardness 259.36 540 532 615

Chloride 30 42.00 34–38 770.00 240.00 1106 1099 149–4280.0

BOD 6.0 3.67 2.99–3.83 598.00 590.00 601 594 110.7

COD 30.0 5.50 4.50–5.78 480.00 370.00 512 487 29–338.2

Turbidity 1030.00 440–1875

Phosphate 3.5 895 175.5–450.73 122.02 215.7 ND

Nitrate 40.0 97.94 24.92–170.84 3.86 2.46 54.4 72.3 38.6–95.1

Sulphide 1.21 0.29–2.28

Sulphate 500 102.5 101.05–122.10 68.58 48.20 114.34 218.12 10–252

Ammonia 0.08 47.34 41.48–95.16 0.86 78.68 86.4 122.1 83.9

Ammonium 2.0 0.1–7.0

Alkalinity 480.00 300.00 502 623

Calcium 180 2570.00 2500.00–3751.40 30–182

Potassium 120 1800.00 1340.00–2250.00

Sodium 50 79.20 126.50–7740.00

Mg 40 2.40 4.00–12.00 18–175

13

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
Parameters National criteria Odo Oba (Osun State) Aba Eku (Oyo State) Olusosun (Lagos State) Aba Eku Olusosun Aba Eku

Raw Simulated Raw Simulated

Cu 0.01 0.0935 4.50 5.30–20.00 0.77 0.44 2.44 3.86 ND–0.103

Pb 0.1 0.0588 2.20 3.60–8.80 1.40 0.69 2.08 2.00 0.008–73.3

Fe 0.5 8.321 1.90 0.83 3.20 4.71 0.30–50.5

Cd 0.01 0.0385 2.20 3.65–8.82 0.58 0.46 1.44 2.20 0.4–5.7

Ag 0.0163
Mn 0.253 2.80 4.20–15.00 0.79 0.46 2.90 3.10 0.6–23.8

Ni 0.1 0.249 3.60 1.80–5.12 1.88 2.51 ND–0.10

Ar 2.26 3.63–8.83
Zn 0.2 3.60 5.00–18.00 0.3–3.5

Hg 0.0005 2.38 2.14–8.75 0.41 0.23

Cr 0.5 2.28 2.50–8.70 2.32 2.43 0.04–2.5

As 0.36 0.27 1.50 2.60

[53] [110] [54] [55] [56] [57, 58]

All in mg/l except pH and colour.

Table 9.
Leachate characteristics from dumpsites and landfills from Southwest Nigeria.
14

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Parameters National criteria Effurun Nnewi Agbani Abakaliki Onitsha Aba Akoko Edo Ibadan (Ona River)
2002 1997

Delta State Anambra State Enugu Ebonyi Anambra Abia Ondo Oyo State
EC 628.0–694.5 140.3–197.0 18.6–790.2 43.4–48.60 366–611 160–600

TDS 80.3–694.5 12.28–16.82 10.0–30.0 10.3–855.8 320–364 408–2054 90–250

Total solids 16.81–21.7 40.0–380.0 80.0–81.7 535.0–600.0 460–2160

Turbidity 180.0–338.54 0.04–32.1 3.62–5.91

TSS 0.25 171–265 38–170

2+
Ca 180 8.0–39.0 1.60–28.10 13.3–158.2 ND–4.0

Mg2+ 40 12.0–214.0 ND–97.30 4.60–10.00

2+
Fe 0.05 0.08–1.82 0.17–1.89 0.10–0.80 19.61–32.14 0.03–0.6
Na2+ 120 65.89–118.72 184–358
2+
K 50 45.91–49.19 2.0–8.0

Nitrate 9.1 0.87–1.25 0.22–2.43 0.20–8.20 8.04–8.28

Phosphate 3.5 3.60–50.34 6.13–7.25 0.20–10.40 1.39–1.41 700.0–1129

Sulphate 100 64.0–100.5 211.66–239.17 27.4–103.8 63.0–74.0 386–480

Chloride 300 40.5–240.6 122.93–164.82 2.00–47.90 12.1–184.0 143–190 45.0–70.0

Alkalinity 24.97–33.87 3.1–3.3 40.9–175.8

Acidity 2.0

Ammonia-nitrogen ND–2.2

Ammonium 0.05 1.02–3.24

Total hardness 4.0–40.0 18.1–168.2 129–320

%TOC 2.98–3.01
15

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
Parameters National criteria Effurun Nnewi Agbani Abakaliki Onitsha Aba Akoko Edo Ibadan (Ona River)
2002 1997

Delta State Anambra State Enugu Ebonyi Anambra Abia Ondo Oyo State
Phenol 1.2–2.0

pH 6.5–8.5 6.8–7.0 6.77–6.97 3.5–6.0 6.1–6.8 6.43–7.24 7.2–8.9

DO >6.0 43.04–63.93 1.4–4.9 5.6–11.3 0.9 –22.1

BOD 3.0 6.8–8.9 12.67–20.55 5.0–18.0 3.8–37.9 0.00–11.4

COD 30.0 55.0–95.0 264.89–342.45 60.0–320.0 5.6–53.0

Zinc 0.01 0.40–1.42 0.14–0.16 0.30–1.30 0.48–0.57 2.10–2.5 0.007–0.5

Aluminum 0.2 23–76

Copper 0.001 0.40–0.08 0.9–1.0 010–0.90 0.001 ND

Chromium 0.001 0.02–0.04 0.001 3.0–4.0 ND–0.03

Cadmium 0.005 0.02–0.05 0.22–0.99 0.001 ND–2.50 ND–0.01

Iron 0.05 1.46–6.42 17–25

Lead 0.01 0.23–0.31 0.06–0.08 0.11–1.99 0.06–0.09 32–51 ND–0.06

Nickel 0.01 0.053–0.06

Arsenate 0.05 0.21–2.6

Mercury 0.001 0.3–1.8

Cobalt 0.02–0.2

Manganese 0.01–0.17

[53] [59] [60] [61] [62] [2] [63, 64] [65] [66] [67]

Table 10.
Quality of inland surface waters receiving dumpsite/landfill effluent/products from Nigerian cities.
16

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Parameters National criteria Abuja Ilokun Effurun Minna Onitsha Ota Akoko Lagos Ibadan
Edo
Olusosun/ Ring Aba Eku
Ojota road

Ekiti State Delta Niger Anambra Ogun Ondo Lagos Oyo State
State State State State State State
Electrical 1000.0 30–213 20.3– 344.0– 15–1572 13.6– 107.0– 172–868 106.9–
conductivity (μS/ 1200.0 1191.0 51.8 4043.0 696.0
cm)

Total dissolved 500.0 65–132 9.7–765.4 210.0– 8–836 102.0– 40.0– 147–1100 53.9–347.0
solids(mg/l) 738.9 415.0 2021.0
Suspended solids 15–35 13.0– 14.0– 0.00–
(mg/l) 52.0 85.0 246.0

Total solids 1500.0 115.0– 500.0– 160–1620 53.4–347.0

430.0 1370.0
Turbidity (NTU) 5 1–9 4.5–38.7 1.2–2.3

Phenol 2.0 0.001 0.20–1.0

pH 6.5–9.2 6.5–8.5 6.8–7.2 6.3–7.1 7.2–8.4 4.5–6.01 5.8–7.0 3.8–7.0 5.56–8.22 7.4–8.3
Fe 1.0 0.3 ND–0.32 0.12–0.5 0.001–1.9 0.5–2.91 2.4–4.5 0.06–5.5 ND–21 ND–16.9

Mg 150.0 20.0 3.5–5.2 0.1–1.5 ND–18.72 1.5–13.1 4.6–74.9 1.6–84.9

Zn 15 3.0 0.2–0.4 0.18–0.60 2.0–3.1 1.01–2.7 0.9–3.6 ND–2.5

Mn 0.5 0.2 0.1–0.3 ND–0.55 0.7–0.9 0.03–1.3 ND–0.5

K 5.8–32.2 2.1–2.9 1.0–4.1 0.6–2.5 0.9–52.4

Na 200.0 10.7–65.4 5.8–7.1 4.0–13.4 104–292

Ca 200 29.1–72.1 11.3–38.0 71.0– 4.0–89.9 4.0–98.2 1.0–9.0 3.7–87.5
327.0
17

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
Parameters National criteria Abuja Ilokun Effurun Minna Onitsha Ota Akoko Lagos Ibadan
Edo
Olusosun/ Ring Aba Eku
Ojota road

Ekiti State Delta Niger Anambra Ogun Ondo Lagos Oyo State
State State State State State State
Cd 0.006 0.003 ND–0.001 0.22–0.24 0.004– ND–3.6 0.01–0.2
0.007

Ni 0.075 ND–0.007 ND–0.03 0.01–0.03 0.02–0.03 ND–0.22

Cr 0.03 0.05 0.007–0.01 ND–0.002 0.01–0.03 0.009–0.12 1.0–6.0 ND–0.05

Cu 0.075 1.0 0.02–0.4 0.03–0.2 0.29–0.67 0.04–0.6 ND–0.04

Pb 0.075 0.01 0.001–0.03 0.19–0.5 ND–0.03 0.003–0.08 ND–58 ND–0.2

As 0.06 0.01 0.001– 0.003–0.5

0.001

Silver ND–0.02

Aluminum 0.2 ND–0.007 19–42

Molybdenum ND–0.9

Mercury 0.0003 0.001 0.002–0.4

Cobalt 0.1 ND–0.081 0.025–

0.001
Cl 600 250.0 39.6–216.7 8.9–225.0 28.1– 70.9– 126.0– 53.1–726.0 20.00– 1.5–68.9
167.9 186.5 304.0 118.00

Sulphate 400 100.0 20–231 2.6–6.2 ND–24.3 11–278 54.0– 2.0–735.0 114–700 1.6–43.2
130.0
Nitrate (N) 50 50.0 3.6–8.0 0.08–56.0 1.3–16.7 4.4–8.8 ND–45.0 0.1–44.2

NO3 0.2–41.5 0.02–0.2 9.3–66.0

18

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Parameters National criteria Abuja Ilokun Effurun Minna Onitsha Ota Akoko Lagos Ibadan
Edo
Olusosun/ Ring Aba Eku
Ojota road

Ekiti State Delta Niger Anambra Ogun Ondo Lagos Oyo State
State State State State State State
Nitrite 2 0.2 ND 0.001– 0.06–0.98
0.2
Ammonium ND–0.9 0.16–96.0 0.03–0.7

Total hardness 19.4–79.0 112.0– 10–212 45.0–367.0 78.8–428

444.0
Hardness (Ca) 500 150.0 28.7–48.7
CaCO3

Hardness (Mg) 28.7–48.7

CaCO3

Total alkalinity 4.00–74.0

(mg/l)

Phosphate as 0.01–0.2 ND–0.3 ND–8.3 0.3–0.9 10.3–42. 0.4–0.9 0.02–40.8 257–1040

phosphorus
BOD ND–16.4 4.1–8.1 40.0–
3427.0

COD ND–35.0 1.8–3170.0 4.2–18.7

DO 3.6–9.5 0.5–0.7
[53] [68] [69] [70] [59] [71] [2, 72] [73] [64] [72, 74, 75] [66] [76]

Table 11.
Quality of inland groundwaters receiving dumpsite/landfill effluent/products from Nigerian cities.
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921

chromium, copper, lead, arsenic and aluminum and cobalt in groundwater from
most locations should be a cause for concern and perhaps necessitates detailed
nationwide surveillance, considering the proportion of population dependent on
groundwater. The intake of these metals has been implicated in a variety of human
ailments leading to severe problems via disruption of metabolic functions in two
ways [81]:

1. They accumulate and thereby disrupt function in vital organs and glands such
as the heart, brain, kidneys, bone, liver, etc.

2. They displace the vital nutritional minerals from their original place, thereby
hindering their biological function.

Residents around the dumpsites are partly or wholly dependent largely on

either surface or groundwater for direct or indirect daily water requirements.
Thus contact with these water bodies is inevitable, even at distances considered
areas with no likely effects. Determination of the health implications of such
contacts at present has not been clearly defined, from very limited reports
on public health aspects of dumpsite managements. This is because it has not
been possible to separate consequences of dumpsite contaminated surface and
groundwater contacts from medical conditions associated with population living
around dumpsites. Studies [82–85] reported the following: inhalation of odor,
exposure to dust, exposure to smoke, exposure through water sources, consump-
tion of plant materials, consumption of animal materials, exposure through
organisms (vectors), noise from vehicles, exposure to fire, dermal contacts and
exposure through domestic animals as possible routes of human exposure and
contact with dumpsites and products of dumpsite modifications. Medical condi-
tions reported from the population living close to dumpsites in different parts
of Nigeria are presented in Table 12, which have been observed in Nigeria from
areas of regular contacts with contaminated water [90] but not from dumpsites
or landfills. The implication of the above is that symptoms may indicate condi-
tions from multiple exposures or contacts. Inland waters in Nigeria have been
subjected to inundations with inputs from multiple sources with resultant
changes in quality. The almost hidden nature of contamination and contamina-
tion routes by dumpsites reinforces the dangers of not paying required attention
to dumpsites, associated activities and value chain. This is because each step or
link has an effect on inland water and hence human population making these
sources of contamination very dangerous and harmful. Therefore, numerous
health hazards associated with waste dump sites in major economic centres in
Nigeria [27, 91, 92] can be said to be largely denominated by the resident and/or
dominant waste components.
Radionuclides have also been reported and associated with dumpsites and
landfills in Lagos State [93–95], Oyo State [95–97], Ogun State [98–100], Plateau
State [101], Benue State [101], Ekiti State [95], Rivers State [102–105] and Delta
State [106]. These dangerous natural and artificial radiation materials from
unregulated and unmanaged dumpsites and landfills released into inland water
sources pose risks to resident organisms and population of humans, dependent
directly on water for domestic purpose and consumption of resident aquatic
organisms.
Radionuclides have been reported in leachates [102] and groundwater
[102, 105, 107] and rivers [107, 108] with identified sources being the human activi-
ties, inclusive of dumpsites [102, 105] and abattoir wastes [109]. Dumpsites and
landfills are therefore potential sources of radionuclide inputs into inland surface

19
Municipal Solid Waste Management

Lagos Port Harcourt/Owerri/Aba

Asthma High temperature and fever/typhoid

Bronchitis Watery stool/frequent stooling

Chest pain Vomiting

Lung disease Catarrh and cough

Nose/throat problems Loss of appetite

Breathing Pains in the abdomen and body

Tuberculosis Dizziness

Skin infection Blood spotted stool

Headaches/nausea/diarrhea/dysentery Urinary tract infection

Children’s diseases Acute osteomyelitis

Accident/injury

Malaria

[84, 86, 87] [88, 89]

Table 12.
Ailments associated with population living near dumpsites.

and groundwaters; the above-cited reports indicated the presence of radionuclides

in soils around target dumpsites, confirming the migration of substances from
dumpsites, as reported [108], using time-lapsed vertical electrical sounding (VES).
This migration of materials into ground- and surface waters will facilitate exposure
of resident and non-resident population to radioactive material by direct or indirect
intake, respectively. Low cancer risks from chronic exposure to radiation from
dumpsites in Nigeria have been suggested [97] even at the low level, thus further
establishing the need for urgent management strategies for MSW in Nigeria.

4. Conclusion and recommendation

Nigeria’s development is currently enjoying active support of multilateral agen-

cies, with the sole aim of expanding and diversifying the economy through, but not
limited to, multinational manufacturing and small- and medium-scale enterprises.
These are desirable and needed to improve socioeconomic status of the populace.
However, complementary in-depth consideration of the ecological consequences
of expanded economy must include increased generation of MSW, which usually
begin with unregulated and undocumented dumpsites associated with penetration
of economic activities. The inability of agencies responsible for waste manage-
ment to anticipate and plan for the increase of MSW is the major reason for the
surge in MSW generation and persistence. These will eventually become sources of
sometime unexplained inland water contamination and/or public health problems
or outbreaks. In view of this, the following be deeply considered to minimize the
negative impacts of MSW on inland waters:

1. Collection of dumpsite and landfill history and location data in each local
government area (LGA) nationwide.

2. Characterize wastes associated with each dumpsite and landfill, to provide

data for risk assessment of dumpsite or landfill products.

20
Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84921

3. Information on nearby surface and groundwater and their utilization by

residents.

4. Information on geophysical assessment of pollutant movements in soil.

5. Regular determination of inland water quality in the vicinity.

6. Create awareness on the need to sort waste from source before disposal.

7. Encourage adoption of recycle and reuse of wastes to reduce wastes generated.

8. Undertake spatial analyses of population or residents’ socioeconomic char-

acteristics to predict waste profiles and determine appropriate management
MSW strategy.

Conflict of interest

I declared no conflict of interest.

Author details

Akindayo A. Sowunmi
Department of Zoology, Hydrobiology and Fisheries Unit, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

21
Municipal Solid Waste Management

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