THERMAL SCIENCES

3-1: The scope of thermal sciences encompasses the study of energy transfer in the
form of heat, the laws of thermodynamics, heat transfer processes, and the
behavior of fluids in thermal systems. It involves understanding how energy is
conserved and transformed, and how heat flows in various systems, including
mechanical, electrical, and chemical processes.

3-2: The subcategories of thermal-fluid sciences include:

 Thermodynamics: Study of energy, work, and heat.

 Heat Transfer: Analysis of heat movement between materials.
 Fluid Mechanics: Behavior of fluids at rest and in motion.
 Thermal Systems Design: Design and analysis of systems for efficient
thermal management.
 Combustion: Study of energy release during fuel burning.

3-3: The design of a car radiator involves thermodynamics in managing heat

removal from the engine, heat transfer in the process of cooling the engine coolant,
and fluid mechanics in the flow of coolant through the radiator. The radiator must
effectively dissipate heat to maintain engine performance, requiring an
understanding of fluid flow rates and heat exchanger principles.

3-4: (b) Statics

3-5: (d) Mechatronics

THERMODYNAMICS

3-6: The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. Example: In a closed
system, the heat added to the system equals the work done by the system plus the
change in internal energy.

3-7: The second law of thermodynamics states that in any energy exchange, if no
energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be
less than that of the initial state. Example: Heat naturally flows from hot to cold
bodies.
3-8:

 First Law Violation: A perpetual motion machine that produces more energy
than it consumes would violate the first law.
 Second Law Violation: A process where heat flows spontaneously from a
cold body to a hot body without work being done would violate the second
law.

3-9: The total energy of a system consists of internal energy, kinetic energy,
potential energy, and any energy associated with phase changes.

3-10: Sensible energy refers to the energy that can be sensed or measured by a
change in temperature, while latent energy is the energy absorbed or released
during phase changes without temperature change (e.g., melting or boiling).

3-11: Chemical energy is the energy stored in chemical bonds of molecules, while
nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. Chemical energy is
released during chemical reactions, whereas nuclear energy is released during
nuclear reactions.

3-12: Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of particles in a substance due to
their motion, while heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy from one object to
another due to a temperature difference.

3-13: Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property equal to the internal energy of a

system plus the product of its pressure and volume. Flow energy is the energy
associated with the flow of a fluid, typically expressed as the pressure multiplied
by the volume flow rate.

3-14: Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree Celsius (or Kelvin).

3-15: Constant-volume specific heat (CvC_vCv) is the amount of heat needed to

change the temperature of a substance at constant volume, while constant-pressure
specific heat (CpC_pCp) is the heat required at constant pressure. For ideal gases,
CpC_pCp is always greater than CvC_vCv because CpC_pCp accounts for work
done against atmospheric pressure.
3-16: The mechanisms of energy transfer include:

 Conduction: Transfer of heat through a solid material.

 Convection: Transfer of heat through fluid motion.
 Radiation: Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. Differentiation
is based on the medium through which the heat is transferred and whether
mass is involved (convection involves mass movement).

3-17: The amount of heat transfer refers to the total energy transferred, while the
rate of heat transfer refers to how quickly the energy is transferred. Proper units
include:

 Amount: kJ, Btu, kcal

 Rate: kW, hp, Btu/s

3-18:

3-19: Mass flow rate (m˙\dot{m}m˙) is the mass of fluid passing through a section
per unit time, measured in kg/s, while volume flow rate (V˙\dot{V}V˙) is the
volume of fluid per unit time, measured in m³/s. Units:

 Mass flow rate: kg/s, g/s

 Volume flow rate: m³/s, L/s

3-20: Mass and volume flow rates remain constant when there are no changes in
density and when the fluid flow is steady with a constant cross-sectional area.

3-21: A pressure cooker cooks faster because it increases the boiling point of water
through increased pressure, allowing food to cook at a higher temperature than in
an ordinary cooker.

3-22: Water vapor can be condensed by cooling it below its dew point temperature
or by increasing the pressure to convert it back to liquid form.
3-23: Yes, during a phase change at a fixed pressure, the temperature remains
constant until the phase change is complete.

3-24:

 Latent Heat: The energy required for a phase change.

 Latent Heat of Fusion: The energy required to change a substance from
solid to liquid at constant temperature and pressure.
 Latent Heat of Vaporization: The energy required to change a substance
from liquid to gas at constant temperature and pressure.

3-25: It takes more energy to vaporize water at 150°C than at 100°C due to the
higher temperature.

3-26: Vaporizing 1 kg of water at 100°C requires less energy than melting 1 kg of

ice at 0°C because the latent heat of vaporization is higher than that of fusion.

3-27:

3-28:
3-41:

3-42:

3-43:

3-44: (a) Sensible

3-45: (d) Internal

3-46: (a) Sensible

3-47: (c) Flow

3-48: (e) Internal energy

3-49: (a) 4.18 kJ/kg·K

3-50: (e) The specific heat of a substance depends on the temperature only.

3-51: (e) A rotating shaft is an example of work interaction.

3-52: (d) hp

3-53: (c) kcal

3-54: (d) When the mass flow rate remains constant during a process for an ideal
gas, so does the volume flow rate.

3-55: (e) Melting at 0°C

3-56: (a) Boiling at sea level

HEAT TRANSFER

3-57:

 Modes of heat transfer: Conduction, convection, and radiation.

 Driving force for heat transfer: Temperature difference between two
bodies or within a body.
 Direction of heat transfer: Heat always flows from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature.

3-58:

 Conduction: The transfer of heat through a solid or fluid without the

movement of the material as a whole.
 Mechanisms of conduction:
o Solids: Primarily through the vibration of atoms and the transfer of
free electrons.
o Liquids: Molecular collisions and interactions, with some convection
effects.
 o Gases: Primarily through molecular collisions, with less efficient
conduction due to larger distances between molecules.

3-59:
Heat conduction through a medium depends on:

 Material properties (thermal conductivity)

 Temperature gradient (difference in temperature)
 Thickness of the material
 Surface area through which heat is being transferred

3-60:

 Thermal conductivity (k): A measure of a material's ability to conduct

heat.
 A low value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a poor
conductor of heat, making it suitable for insulation.

3-61:

 Convection: The transfer of heat by the physical movement of fluid (liquid

or gas).
 Difference between forced and natural convection:
o Forced convection: Fluid motion is caused by external forces (e.g.,
fans, pumps).
o Natural convection: Fluid motion occurs due to density differences
caused by temperature variations (e.g., warm air rising).

3-62:

 Radiation: The transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves.

 Difference from conduction and convection: Radiation does not require a
medium; it can occur in a vacuum, while conduction and convection require
matter for heat transfer.

3-63:

 Stefan-Boltzmann law: States that the total energy radiated per unit surface
area of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
  Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ\sigmaσ): Approximately 5.67×10−8
W/m2K45.67 \times 10^{-8} \,
\text{W/m}^2\text{K}^45.67×10−8W/m2K4.
 Blackbody: An idealized physical body that absorbs all incident
electromagnetic radiation and reflects none.
 Blackbody radiation: The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a blackbody in thermal equilibrium.
 Emissivity: A measure of a material's ability to emit energy as thermal
radiation compared to a blackbody, ranging from 0 to 1.

3-64:

3-65:
3-66:

3-67:
3-68:

3-69:
3-70:

3-71:

3-72:
(c) Diffusion is not a mechanism of heat transfer.

3-73:
(b) Buoyancy motion is not a mechanism of conduction.
3-74:
(a) Surface roughness does not affect the rate of heat conduction through a
medium.

3-75:
(c) Wall thickness; as thickness increases, the rate of heat conduction decreases.

3-76:
(d) Decreasing the wall thickness by half doubles the rate of heat conduction.

3-77:
(b) The thermal conductivities of copper and rigid foam insulations are 400
W/m·K and 0.025 W/m·K, respectively.

3-78:
(a) 0.607 W/m·°C is equivalent to the thermal conductivity of water.

3-79:
(a) 97 W/m·K is the thermal conductivity of steel containing 1 percent chrome.

3-80:
(b) Surface conductivity does not affect the convection heat transfer coefficient.

3-81:
(c) Boiling and condensation have the highest convection heat transfer coefficients.

3-82:
(b) The emissivity of white paint is approximately 0.9.

3-83:
(e) The emissivity and absorptivity of a blackbody are both 1.

3-84:
(d) Air temperature does not affect the net rate of radiation heat transfer.

3-85:
(d) kJ/s·ft²·K is not a correct unit for combined heat transfer coefficient.
Fluid Mechanics

3-86:

 Fluid: A substance that can flow and does not have a definite shape,
including liquids and gases.
 Fluid Mechanics: The study of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion and at
rest, analyzing the forces acting on them.

3-87:

 Difference between Liquid and Gas:

o Liquid: Has a definite volume but no definite shape; molecules are
closely packed but can move past each other.
o Gas: Has neither a definite shape nor volume; molecules are widely
spaced and move freely.

3-88:

 Viscosity: A measure of a fluid's resistance to deformation or flow.

o Due to: Interactions between the fluid's molecules.
3-93:

3-94:

 Same approach as question 3-93 using the dimensions and rotation speed
given.

3-95:

3-96:

 Use Darcy-Weisbach to determine the fan power required to overcome

pressure losses in the duct.

3-97:

 Apply the equations for pumping power, using the given flow rate, density,
and viscosity.

3-98:

 Answer: (b) Hydraulics.

3-99:

 Answer: (e) Pa·s/m² is not a correct unit for viscosity.

3-100:

 Answer: (a) Viscosity of a gas increases and viscosity of a liquid decreases.

3-101:

 Answer: (c) Surface roughness does not affect laminar flow.

3-102:

 Answer: (b) 4, as pumping power decreases with the square of the diameter
in laminar flow.

Thermochemistry

3-103:

 Combustible Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and sometimes Sulfur

(S).

3-104:

 LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas; a mixture of propane and butane.

 LNG: Liquefied Natural Gas; primarily methane that has been cooled to a
liquid state.

3-105:

 Fuel: A substance that produces energy through combustion.

 Combustion: A chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, producing
heat and light.

3-106:

 Yes, the total number of moles of reactants equals the total number of moles
of products in a balanced chemical reaction.

3-107:

 Stoichiometric Air: The exact amount of air needed for complete

combustion of a fuel without any excess.
3-108:

 Enthalpy of Reaction: The heat change during a reaction at constant

pressure.
 Enthalpy of Combustion: The heat released when a fuel combusts
completely.
 Enthalpy of Formation: The heat change when 1 mole of a compound is
formed from its elements in their standard states.

3-109:

 The negative sign indicates that energy is released during the formation of
CO₂.

3-110:

 Heating Value: The amount of energy released when a fuel is combusted.

3-111:

 HHV vs. LHV: HHV includes the heat of vaporization of water in the
products, while LHV does not. HHV>LHV\text{HHV} > \
text{LHV}HHV>LHV.

3-112:

 Perform stoichiometric calculations for the combustion of propane to

determine mass fractions and amount of CO₂ produced.

3-113:

 Calculate the mole fractions and air-fuel ratio based on the combustion
reaction with excess air.

3-114:

 Use stoichiometry to find the air-fuel ratio and temperature of the products.

3-115:

 Use the volumetric analysis of the products to calculate air-fuel ratio and
percentage of theoretical air used.
3-116:

3-
117:

 Convert Btu to kJ for HHV calculation.

3-118:

 Use stoichiometric combustion equations to find LHV and HHV for butane.

3-119:

 Use enthalpy of formation values to calculate the enthalpy of combustion of

methane.

3-120:

 Calculate using stoichiometry and compare values from a reference table.

3-121:

 Determine HHV and LHV based on the ultimate analysis using combustion
equations.

3-122:

 Use the combustion enthalpy and mass flow rate to calculate heat transfer.

3-123:

 Use enthalpy values to calculate the required mass flow rate of diesel for
specified heat output.

3-124:
  Conduct energy balance considering the combustion products and enthalpy
of formation.

3-125:

 Answer: (b) Water is not a fuel.

3-126:

 Answer: (c) Greater than; CO₂ produced is more than the mass of the fuel.

3-127:

 Answer: (a) Less than; water formed is less than the mass of the fuel.

3-128:

 Answer: (c) 300% stoichiometric air.

3-129:

 Answer: (d) 75% deficiency of air.

3-130:

 Answer: (b) O₂ cannot be present in products if the fuel is completely

burned.

3-131:

 Answer: (c) CO can be present in incomplete combustion.

3-132:

 Answer: (b) O₂ cannot be present when burning with stoichiometric air.

3-133:

 Answer: (c) Enthalpy of formation.

3-134: Answer: (a) 7658 kJ/kg for lower heating value of CO.