Engineering surveying I

Levelling-Application
contouring
DEFINITIONS
Contour line.
• The line of intersection of a level surface with the ground surface is
known as the contour line or simply the contour.

• It can also be defined as a line passing through points of equal

reduced levels.

• For example, a contour of 100 m indicates that all the points on this
line have an RL of 100 m . Similarly, in a contour of 99 m , all points
have an RL of 99 m , and so on
contour map.
• A map showing only the contour lines of an area is called a contour
map.
Contour interval
• The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is known
as a contour interval.

• Suppose a map includes contour lines of 100 m , 98 m,96 m, and so

on. The contour interval here is 2 m .
• This interval depends upon:

(i) the nature of the ground i.e. whether.flat or steep

(ii) the scale of the map

(iii) the purpose of the survey.

• Contour intervals for flat country are generally small, e.g. 0.25" "
m,0.50" " m, 0.75 m , etc. The contour interval for a steep slope in a
hilly area is generally greater, e.g. 5" " m,10" " m,15" " m, etc.
• Again, for a small-scale map, the interval may be of 1" " m,2" " m,3" "
m, etc. and for large scale map, it may be of 0.25" " m,0.50" " m,0.75"
" m, etc.

• It should be remembered that the contour interval for a particular

map is constant.
Horizontal equivalent
• The horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours is
known as horizontal equivalent. It is not constant. It varies according
to the steepness of the ground.

• For steep slopes, the contour lines run close together, and for flatter
slopes they are widely spaced.
OBJECT OF PREPARING CONTOUR MAP
The general map of a country includes the locations of roads, railways,
rivers, villages, towns, and so on. But the nature of the ground surface
cannot be realized, from such a map. However, for all engineering
projects involving roads, railways, and so on; a knowledge of the nature
of ground surface is required for locating suitable alignments and
estimating the volume of earth work. Therefore, the contour map is
essential for all engineering projects. This is why contour maps are
prepared.
USES OF CONTOUR MAP
The following are the specific uses of the contour map:
1. The nature of the ground surface of a country can be understood by
studying a contour map. Hence, the possible route of communication
between different places can be demarcated.
2. A suitable site or an economical alignment can be selected for any
engineering project.
3. The capacity of a reservoir or the area of a catchment can be
approximately computed.
4. The intervisibility or otherwise of different points can be established.
5. A suitable route for a given gradient can be marked on the map.
6. A section of the ground surface can be drawn in any direction from the
contour map.
7. Quantities of earth work can be approximately computed.
USES OF CONTOUR MAP
The following are the specific uses of the contour map:
1. The nature of the ground surface of a country can be understood by
studying a contour map. Hence, the possible route of communication
between different places can be demarcated.
2. A suitable site or an economical alignment can be selected for any
engineering project.
3. The capacity of a reservoir or the area of a catchment can be
approximately computed.
4. The intervisibility or otherwise of different points can be established.
5. A suitable route for a given gradient can be marked on the map.
6. A section of the ground surface can be drawn in any direction from the
contour map.
7. Quantities of earth work can be approximately computed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• The contour lines are closer near the top of a hill or high ground and
wide apart near the Hill or high ground and wide apart near the foot
.This indicates a very steep slope toward the peek and flatter slope
toward the foot
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• the contour lines are closer near the bank of a pond or depression
and wide apart towards the centre. This indicates a steep slope near
the bank and a flatter slope at the centre.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• Uniformly spaced, contour lines indicate a uniform slope
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• Contour lines always form a closed circuit. But these lines may be
within or outside the limits of the map
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• Contour Tines cannot cross one another, except in the case of an
overhanging cliff. But the overlapping portion must be shown by a
dotted line
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• When the higher values are inside the loop, it indicates a ridge line.
Contour lines cross ridge lines at right angles
• When the lower values are inside the loop, it indicates a valley line.
Contour lines cross the valley line at right angles
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• A series of closed contours always indicates a depression or summit.
The lower values being inside the loop indicates a depression and the
higher values being inside the loop indicates a summit
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• Depressions between summits are called saddles
• Contour lines meeting at a point indicate a vertical cliff
METHODS OF CONTOURING
There are two methods of contouring-
• Direct
• indirect.
A. Direct Method
There may be two cases, as outlined below.
Case I When the area is oblong and cannot be controlled from a single
station: In this method, the various points on any contour are located
on the ground by taking levels. Then these points are marked by pegs.
After this, the points are plotted on the map, to any suitable scale, by
plane table. This method is very slow and tedious. But it gives accurate
contour lines.
METHODS OF CONTOURING
Procedure:
1 Suppose a contours map is to be prepared for an oblong area. A
temporary bench-mark is set up near the site by taking fly level
readings from a permanent bench-mark.

2. The level is then set up at a suitable position L from where maximum

area can be covered.

3. The plane table is set up at a suitable station P from where the above
area can be plotted.