Chapter 2

Energy, Energy Transfer, and

General Energy Analysis
 Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy transfer
by heat.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms of
mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and mechanisms of
energy transfer to or from a system.
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control volume
carries energy across the control surface in addition to any energy transfer
across the control surface that may be in the form of heat and/or work.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
• Discuss the implications of energy conversion on the environment. (time ?)

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–1 Introduction 1

Energy conservation

If we take the entire room—

including the air and the
refrigerator (or fan)—as the
system, which is an adiabatic
closed system since the room is
well-sealed and well-insulated,
the only energy interaction
involved is the electrical energy
crossing the system boundary
and entering the room.
As a result of the conversion of
electric energy consumed by the
device to heat, the room
temperature will rise. A refrigerator operating with its door open in a well-
sealed and well-insulated room.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–1 Introduction 2

Energy conservation

A fan running in a well-sealed

and well-insulated room will
raise the temperature of air in
the room.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 1

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,

potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes
the total energy, E of a system.

Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.

Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with

respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 2

At least six different forms of energy are encountered in bringing power from a nuclear
plant to your home: nuclear, thermal, mechanical, kinetic, magnetic, and electrical.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 3

Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion
relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field.

The macroscopic energy of an object changes with velocity and elevation.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 4

V2
KE = m ( kJ ) Kinetic energy
2

𝑉2
ke = kJ/kg Kinetic energy per unit mass
2

PE = mgz Potential energy

pe = gz ( kJ/kg ) Potential energy per unit mass

V2
E = U + KE + PE = U + m + mgz ( kJ/kg ) Total energy of a system
2
V2
e = u + ke + pe = u + + gz ( kJ/kg ) Energy of a system per unit mass
2

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 6

The various forms of microscopic

Some Physical Insight to energies that make up sensible energy.
Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the
internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies
of the molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase of a
system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous
amount of energy associated with the
strong bonds within the nucleus of
the atom itself.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 7

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

The internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms of the microscopic energies.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 8

The total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a system,

and thus can be viewed as the static forms of energy.
The forms of energy not stored in a system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as energy interactions.

The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed

system are
– heat transfer
– work

The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy

interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature
difference. Otherwise it is work.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 9

The macroscopic kinetic energy is an organized form of energy and is much more
useful than the disorganized microscopic kinetic energies of the molecules.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 5

Mass and energy flow rates associated with the flow of steam in a pipe of inner
diameter D with an average velocity of Vavg.

Mass flow rate: m = V =  AcVavg ( kg/s )

Energy flow rate: E = me ( kJ/s or kw )

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–2 Forms of energy 12

Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.
P V2 Mechanical energy of a
emech = + + gz
 2 flowing fluid per unit mass

 P V2  Rate of mechanical
Emech = memech = m + + gz 
 2  energy of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass
P2 − P1 V22 − V12
emech = + + g ( z2 − z1 ) ( kJ/kg )
 2
Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

 P2 − P1 V22 − V12 
Emech = memech = m + + g ( z2 − z1 )  ( kW )
  2 
©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–2 Forms of energy 14

Mechanical energy is illustrated by

an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with
an ideal generator. In the absence of
irreversible losses, the maximum
produced power is proportional to (a)
the change in water surface elevation
from the upstream to the downstream
reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the
drop in water pressure from just
upstream to just downstream of the
turbine.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–3 Energy Transfer By Heat 1

Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving force for

Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed heat transfer. The larger the temperature
system in the form of heat and work. difference, the higher is the rate of heat
transfer.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–3 Energy Transfer By Heat 2

Heat transfer per unit mass Energy is recognized as heat transfer only
as it crosses the system boundary.
Q
q= (kJ/kg )
m

Amount of heat transfer when heat

transfer rate is constant

Q = Q t

Amount of heat transfer when heat

transfer rate changes with time
t2

Q =  Qdt (kJ)
t1

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–3 Energy Transfer By Heat 3

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

The relationships among q, Q, and 𝑄ሶ

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–3 Energy Transfer By Heat 5

Heat transfer mechanisms

Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles
of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interaction between particles.

Convection: The transfer of energy between a solid surface and the

adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.

Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the emission of

electromagnetic waves (or photons).

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–3 Energy Transfer By Heat 5

A well-insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating

element. Determine whether this is a heat or work interaction.

A) If the entire oven, including the heating B) if the system is taken as only the air in the
element, is taken to be the system, oven without the heating element

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–4 Energy transfer by work 1

Work: The energy transfer associated Specifying the directions of heat and work.
with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an
electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work
interactions

Formal sign convention: Heat transfer

to a system and work done by a system
are positive; heat transfer from a system
and work done on a system are negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use
the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–4 Energy transfer by work 2

W
w= ( kJ/kg ) Work done per unit mass
m

The relationships among w, W, and W .

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–4 Energy transfer by work 3

Heat vs. Work

Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries.
That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end states).
2
Properties are point functions
have exact differentials (d).  dV =V
1
2 −V1 = V

2
Path functions have inexact
differentials ( )  W = W 12 ( not W )
1

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–4 Energy transfer by work 4

Properties are point functions; but heat and work are path functions (their magnitudes
depend on the path followed).

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–4 Energy transfer by work 5

Electrical Work
We = VN Electrical work Electrical power in terms of resistance R,
current I, and potential difference V.
We = VI (W) Electrical power

When potential difference and

current change with time
2
We =  VI dt ( kJ )
1

When potential difference and

current remain constant

We = VI t ( kJ )

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–5 Mechanical forms of work 1

There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system and its
surroundings to exist:
– there must be a force acting on the boundary.
– the boundary must move.

Work = Force  Distance The work done is proportional to the force applied
(F) and the distance traveled (s).
W = Fs ( kJ )
When force is not constant
2
W =  F ds ( kJ )
1

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–5 Mechanical forms of work 2

Examples Spring work

Shaft work

k ( x2 2 − x12 )
1
Wspring = ( kJ )
2

T  Stretching of a Liquid Film

Wsh = Fs =   ( 2 rn ) = 2 nT ( kJ )
r

Work done in an elastic bar 2

Wsurface =   s dA ( kJ )
1

2 2
dA = 2b dx
Welastic =  F dx =   n A dx ( kJ )
1 1

F = 2b s

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–5 Mechanical forms of work 2

Example
Determine the torque we need to apply to the shaft of a car when it
rotates at a rate of 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm) to generate a
power of 112 hp (1hp = 746 Watt).

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–5 Mechanical forms of work 2

Example
Determine the power required to accelerate a 900-kg car from rest to a
velocity of 100 km/h in 8 s on a level road

100

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 1

The first law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it

(the conservation of energy can only change forms.
principle) provides a sound basis for
studying the relationships among the
various forms of energy and energy
interactions.
The first law states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
First Law: For all adiabatic
processes between two specified
states of a closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless of
the nature of the closed system and
the details of the process.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 2

The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to the amount of heat
transferred to it.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 3

In the absence of any work interactions, The work (electrical) done on an adiabatic
the energy change of a system is equal to system is equal to the increase in the
the net heat transfer. energy of the system.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 4

The work (shaft) done on an adiabatic The work (boundary) done on an adiabatic
system is equal to the increase in the system is equal to the increase in the
energy of the system energy of the system.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 6

Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Energy change = Energy at final state − Energy at initial state

Esystem = Efinal − Einitial = E2 − E1 For stationary systems, ΔKE = ΔPE = 0; thus

ΔE = ΔU.
E = U + KE + PE

Internal, kinetic, and potential

energy changes

U = m ( u2 − u1 )

m (V2 2 − V12 )
1
KE =
2
PE = mg ( z2 − z1 )

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 5

Energy Balance
 Total energy   Total energy   Change in the total 
 − = 
 entering the system   leaving the system   energy of the system 

The energy change of a system during a

process is equal to the net work and heat
Ein − Eout = Esystem transfer between the system and its
surroundings.
The net change (increase or
decrease) in the total energy of
the system during a process is
equal to the difference between
the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system
during that process.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 7

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of process can be expressed
more compactly as
Ein − Eout = Esystem ( KJ )
Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc., energies

or, in the rate form,

as
𝐸ሶ in − 𝐸ሶ out = 𝑑𝐸system /𝑑𝑡 Kw
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal,
by heat, work, and mass kinetic, potential, etc., energies

For constant rates, the total quantities during a time interval Δt are related to the
quantities per unit time as
 dE 
Q = Qt , W = W t , and E =   t ( KJ )
 dt 
©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 8

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

The energy balance can be expressed on a per unit mass basis as

ein − eout = esystem ( KJ/kg )

which is obtained by dividing all the quantities by the mass m of the system.
Energy balance can also be expressed in the differential form as

 Ein −  Eout = dEsystem or  ein −  eout = desystem

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 10

A closed mass involves only heat

transfer and work.
Closed

The energy content of a control

volume can be changed by mass flow
as well as by heat and work
interactions.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 9

Mechanisms of energy transfer:

• Heat transfer
• Work transfer ( )
Ein − Eout = ( Qin − Qout ) + (Win − Wout ) + Emass,in − Emass,out = Esystem
• Mass flow

For a cycle ΔE = 0, thus Q = W.

Wnet,out = Qnet,in or Wnet,out = Qnet,in ( for a cycle )

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 10

Example
Consider a river flowing toward a lake at an average velocity of 3 m/s at
a rate of 500 m3/s at a location 90 m above the lake surface. Determine
the total mechanical energy of the river water per unit mass and the
power generation potential of the entire river at that location. (water
density is equal to 1000 kg/m3).

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–6 The first law of thermodynamics 10

Example
Water is being heated in a closed
pan on top of a range while being
stirred by a paddle wheel. During
the process, 30 kJ of heat is
transferred to the water, and 5 kJ of
heat is lost to the surrounding air.
The paddle-wheel work amounts to
500 N·m. Determine the final
energy of the system if its initial
energy is 12.5 k

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 1

Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in

thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy
conversion or transfer process is accomplished.
Desired output
Efficiency =
Required input

Efficiency of a water heater: The ratio of the energy

delivered to the house by hot water to the energy supplied to
the water heater.

Typical efficiencies of conventional and high-efficiency

electric and natural gas water heaters.

Type Efficiency
Gas, conventional 55%
Gas, high-efficiency 62%
Electric, conventional 90%
Electric, high-efficiency 94%

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 2

Combustion equipment efficiency

Q useful Useful heat delivered by the combustion equipment

comb.equip. = =
HV Heating value of the fuel burned

Heating value of the fuel (HV): The amount

of heat released when a unit amount of fuel at
room temperature is completely burned and the
combustion products are cooled to the room
temperature.
Lower heating value (LHV): When the water
in the combustion gases is a vapor.
Higher heating value (HHV): When the water
in the combustion gases is completely
condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is
also recovered.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 5

Overall efficiency of a power plant

Wnet, electric
overall = comb.equip. thermalgenerator =
HHV×mfuel

Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output to the
mechanical power input.
Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net shaft work output
of the turbine to the heat input to the working fluid.

The overall efficiencies are about 25–30 percent for gasoline

automotive engines, 35–40 percent for diesel engines, and up to 60
percent for large power plants.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 8

Using energy-efficient appliances The efficiency of a cooking appliance

conserve energy. represents the fraction of the energy
supplied to the appliance that is
It helps the environment by reducing transferred to the food.
the amount of pollutants emitted to the
atmosphere during the combustion of
fuel.
The combustion of fuel produces
• carbon dioxide, causes global
warming
• nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons,
cause smog
• carbon monoxide, toxic Energy utilized
Efficiency =
• sulfur dioxide, causes acid rain. Energy supplied to appliance
3 kWh
= = 0.60
5 kWh

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 11

The mechanical efficiency of a fan is the ratio of

the rate of increase of the mechanical energy of air
to the mechanical power input.

V1  0, V2 =12.1m/s
z1 = z 2
p1  patm and p2  patm
Emech , fluid mV22 / 2
mech , fan = =
Wshaft ,in Wshaft ,in
(0.506 kg/s) (12.1 m/s ) / 2
2

=
50.0 W
= 0.741

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 12

Mechanical power output Wshaft,out

Motor : motor = =
Electric power input Welect,in

Electric power output Welect,out

Generator : generator = =
Mechanical power input Wshaft,in

Wpump,u Emech,fluid
pump − motor = pumpmotor = = Pump-Motor
Welect,in Welect,in overall efficiency

Welect,out Welect,out Turbine-

turbine − gen = turbinegenerator = = Generator
Wturbine,e Emech,fluid overall
efficiency
©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 13

The overall efficiency of a turbine– generator is the product of the efficiency of the
turbine and the efficiency of the generator, and it represents the fraction of the
mechanical power of the fluid converted to electrical power.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–8 Energy and Environment 1

The conversion of energy from one form to

another often affects the environment and the air
we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of
energy is not complete without considering its
impact on the environment.

Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil

fuels are responsible for smog, acid rain, and
global warming.

The environmental pollution has reached such

high levels that it became a serious threat to
vegetation, wild life, and human health. Energy conversion processes are often
accompanied by environmental
pollution.

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 2–8 Energy and Environment 2

A 1995 report: The earth has already warmed

about 0.5°C during the last century, and they
estimate that the earth’s temperature will rise
another 2°C by the year 2100.
A rise of this magnitude can cause severe
changes in weather patterns with storms and
heavy rains and flooding at some parts and
drought in others, major floods due to the
melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and Motor vehicles are the largest
source of air pollution.
coastal areas due to rising sea levels, and other
negative results.

How to minimize global warming?

• Improved energy efficiency.
• energy conservation.
• using renewable energy sources.
©2019 McGraw-Hill Education. © Comstock Image/Alamy RF
 Summary

• Forms of energy
• Energy transfer by heat
• Energy transfer by work
• Mechanical forms of work
• The first law of thermodynamics
• Energy conversion efficiencies
• Energy and environment

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.

 End of Chapter 2

©2019 McGraw-Hill Education.