Ge: Developmental psychology

BA(hons) History

Elaborate on the psychoanalytic perspective of psychological development using

relevant examples. Compare and analyse Freud’s and Erickson’s theories.

The psychoanalytic perspective of psychological development is a theoretical approach that

emphasizes the role of unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts in
shaping personality and behavior. This perspective suggests that much of human behavior is driven
by unconscious motives, and that the experiences and interactions of early childhood play a critical
role in forming an individual’s psychological state and personality. The theory is largely based on the
work of Sigmund Freud, who introduced the idea that unconscious processes and early life
experiences are central to understanding human development. Freud believed that unresolved
conflicts during childhood could lead to psychological issues later in life, as early experiences have a
profound impact on the psyche. Erik Erikson, building on Freud’s work, expanded the theory with his
concept of psychosocial development, which emphasized the influence of social and environmental
factors throughout the lifespan. While Freud and Erikson both highlighted the importance of early
experiences, their theories differ significantly in their emphasis on different aspects of development,
particularly the stages of development and the driving forces behind psychological growth.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is grounded in the idea that personality develops through a series of
psychosexual stages, each of which is focused on a specific area of the body, referred to as an
"erogenous zone." Freud described five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic,
latency, and genital. In each stage, the individual’s sexual energy, or “Libido,” is concentrated on a
different part of the body, and unresolved conflicts or issues in any of these stages can result in a
fixation. For instance, a fixation at the oral stage could lead to behaviors like excessive smoking or
overeating later in life. Freud argued that if a child’s emotional needs or desires are not
appropriately met during any of these stages, the individual may develop certain personality traits or
psychological difficulties as an adult. Freud’s theory places a strong emphasis on the unconscious
mind and its influence on human behavior, suggesting that much of our thoughts and actions are
driven by hidden, unconscious motives that are shaped during these early developmental stages.

The oral stage (birth to 1.5 years), the infant gets pleasure “orally” through
mouth to satisfy its libido. Sucking, biting, and chewing are the sources of
pleasure for this stage, and fixation at this stage could result in behaviours such
as smoking, overeating, or nail-biting in adulthood. Freud said that oral
stimulation can lead to oral fixation in later life, leading to a personality that is
overly dependent on others or prone to aggression. Adults with behaviours like
smoking, overeating, or nail-biting may be experiencing oral fixation due to
abrupt or inconsistent handling of weaning during the oral stage. E.g., Adults
struggling with relationships or professional competence may have experienced
difficulties during the latency stage, contributing to later developmental
challenges such as difficulty in forming peer relationships or hobbies.

The anal stage (1year to 3 years) is focused on controlling bowel movements,

with the “anus” serving as the source of pleasure “erogenous zone”. This stage
revolves around the child’s superego ability to achieve control and autonomy,
primarily through toilet training. Freud posited that overly harsh or too relaxed,
toilet training could lead to an anal-retentive or anal-expulsive personality. An
anal-retentive personality, shaped by too much control, might be tidiness,
obsessively neat, or perfectionistic, while an anal-expulsive personality,
developed from too little control, could be disorganized, messy, or untidiness.

The phallic stage (3 to 6 years), focuses on the child’s genitalia, and this is the
period when the Oedipus and Electra complexes arise. Freud argued that during
this stage, boys experience unconscious sexual feelings for their mothers and
hostility towards their fathers (Oedipus complex), on the other hand girls
experience similar feelings for their fathers (Electra complex). This stage is
crucial for gender identity formation and moral development. If unresolved,
Freud believed it could lead to problems in adult relationships and identity
confusion.

The latency period (6 years to puberty OR 12-13 years), where sexual energy is
repressed, allowing children to focus on school, friendships, hobbies, and
developing social skills. Finally, the genital stage (from puberty onward) marks
the resurgence of sexual energy, but now it is to develop relation other than
family, towards forming mature, adult relationships. Freud believed that success
in the genital stage is dependent on the resolution of conflicts in earlier stages. A
well-adjusted adult, according to Freud, would be capable of love and work, with
their sexual and aggressive urges under control.

Finally, the genital stage (from puberty onward) marks the resurgence of
sexual energy directed towards mature, intimate relationships. Freud argued
that successful development during earlier stages would allow individuals to
form healthy, adult relationships in this stage. Any unresolved conflicts from the
past would affect the quality of relationships and personal identity. Freud’s
theory has been significantly revised by psychoanalytic theorists, with many
arguing that Freud overemphasized sexual instincts and placed more emphasis
on cultural experiences. Unconscious thought remains central, but thought plays
a greater role than Freud envisioned. Erik Erikson, an important revisionist,
further elaborates on these ideas. Erik Erikson developed a psychosocial model
of development that spanned the entire lifespan. While Freud emphasized
unconscious drives, particularly sexual and aggressive instincts, Erikson focused
on social and cultural influences, suggesting that personality develops through a
series of eight stages, each characterized by a specific conflict or crisis that the
individual must resolve. Unlike Freud, who believed development ended with
adolescence, Erikson argued that growth and development continue throughout
life. Erikson’s theory outlines eight stages of development, each with a unique
task that presents a crisis that must be resolved. These crises are not
catastrophes but turning points marked by increased vulnerability and enhanced
potential. Successfully resolving these crises leads to healthier development.

The 1st stage, "Trust vs. mistrust” (birth to 18 months) is the first stage in
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage similar to Freud’s
stages of develop begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age.
During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, they
develop trust in the world and others and looks towards their primary caregiver
for stability and consistency of care. The 2nd stage, "Autonomy vs. Shame
and doubt” (18 months to 3 years), occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood.
Infants gain trust in caregivers and discover their behaviour is their own.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence’ Over-
restriction or harsh punishment can lead to a sense of shame and doubt in
infants and toddlers. The 3rd stage "Initiative vs. Guilt” stage (3 to 6 years),
Erikson’s third stage, initiative versus guilt, occurs during preschool years when
children face new challenges and require active, purposeful behaviour. However,
feelings of guilt may arise if they are irresponsible or feel too anxious. If children
are encouraged in their efforts, they feel capable of initiating activities and
making decisions. Conversely, if they are overly controlled or criticized, they may
develop feelings of guilt. Encouraging children to plan and execute activities
fosters initiative and capability, influencing them into proactive adults willing to
take on leadership roles. Punishment or criticism can lead to guilt and hesitant
actions.
The 4th stage, "Industry vs. Inferiority” (6 years to puberty), occurs in
elementary school years. Children develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments, focusing on mastering knowledge and intellectual skills,
potentially leading to a sense of inferiority, feeling incompetent and
unproductive. Such as mastering new skills or forming peer relationships.
Success fosters confidence and industry, while repeated failure or lack of
encouragement can lead to feelings of inferiority and decreased motivation.
Students who excel academically or receive praise may develop a strong sense
of industry, while those struggling may feel inferior.
The 5th stage, "Identity vs. Role Confusion” (adolescence), during this stage,
adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense
exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. A healthy exploration of roles
and a positive path can lead to a positive identity, while identity confusion can
arise if not properly addressed. Successfully resolving this crisis leads to a stable
sense of self, while failure can result in role confusion and insecurity. This stage
underscores Erikson’s view that development continues into later life, unlike
Freud’s theory, which cantered primarily on early childhood.
The 6th stage, "Intimacy versus Isolation” (ages of approximately 18 to 40
yrs.) occurs in early adulthood, where individuals form intimate, loving
relationships with other people. If healthy friendships and intimate relationships
are formed, intimacy is achieved, while if not, isolation occurs.
The 7th stage, "Generativity vs Stagnation” (40-65 year)occurs in middle
adulthood, focusing on helping the younger generation develop and lead useful
lives. This stage contrasts with stagnation, where individuals focus on building
their lives through careers, families, and societal contributions, feeling they have
done nothing to help the next generation.
The 8th stage, "Ego Integrity vs. Despair” (65- till dead), during this stage,
individuals reflect on their past achievements and cultivate integrity if we
perceive ourselves as leading a successful life. These stages reflect the ongoing
process of resolving social and emotional conflicts as individuals age, showing
Erikson’s more optimistic and flexible view of development. Erikson’s theory
emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in shaping psychological
development throughout the lifespan. It differs from Freud’s psychosexual
development theory, which focuses on internal drives and conflicts, and
emphasizes the influence of interpersonal relationships and societal expectations
on growth. Erikson’s eight-stage model goes beyond childhood into adulthood,
allowing for growth and change in later years.

Freud’s theory is more biologically oriented, concentrating on unconscious desires and their
interaction with societal expectations. In contrast, Erikson, building on Freud’s ideas, extended the
concept to psychosocial development, placing greater emphasis on the influence of social and
cultural factors throughout life. Erikson critiqued Freud for focusing too narrowly on psychosexual
stages, suggesting that development involves more than just early childhood experiences. He
proposed that developmental change occurs across the entire lifespan, with both early and later life
experiences shaping personality. While both Freud and Erikson underscore the importance of early
experiences, they differ in their approach to human development. Erikson expanded the
developmental timeline into adulthood and old age, recognizing that individuals face ongoing social
challenges throughout life. He emphasized the role of the ego and the process of negotiating social
conflicts in personality development, adopting a strengths-based perspective that highlights human
potential and the healthy progression through life’s stages.