DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Short Note

This short note module contains three courses, these are

Introduction to Biochemical engineering
Reaction Engineering
Prepared By:
Tsegazab Kasa
Tariku Tenaye

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 Chapter one
Biochemical Engineering Introduction, History, Scope and
Applications
Biochemical engineering is a branch of chemical engineering or biological engineering that
mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes that involve biological
organisms or molecules, such as bioreactors. Biochemical engineering is often taught as a
supplementary option to chemical engineering or biological engineering due to the similarities
in both the background subject curriculum and problem-solving techniques used by both
professions. Its applications are used in the food, feed, and pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and
water treatment industries.

Microorganisms have been of enormous social and economic important throughout history
without even being aware of their existence. Very early on in history man was using them in
the production of food and beverages.

Biochemical Engineering
Biochemical engineering, often considered a branch of chemical engineering, deals with
applying the advancements in science and technology to biological systems and materials.
It is a multi-disciplinary field that carries the knowledge from chemistry, biology,
mathematics, engineering and designing for environmentally friendly and economically
yielding large scale bio-process development. Biochemical engineers study and use the
principles of mechanical, industrial and electrical engineering for scale-up and
development of living cell based processes or those that utilize the biological components.
It is a broad field that involves designing equipment, planning and process build-up, study
and maintenance of processes taking place in living organisms or those that involve
biomolecules for achieving certain research or commercial goals as ecofriendly solid waste
management systems, health care, waste water treatment, biopharmaceuticals, producing
paper from bio-materials, bioreactor and fermenter design and development, food
biotechnology and biofuels etc.

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History
The use of living processes for developing products dates back in human history when
man used the lactic acid activity of lactobacillus for producing yogurt without knowing
what actually happens to the milk in this process. In the mid of 19 century, Louis Pasteur
studied the role of living organisms in fermentation. He also developed the pasteurization
process to prevent the growth of microorganisms in milk and this process is still in use in
21 century.

In the early twentieth century, microorganisms were used at industrial scale though
biochemical engineering was not recognized as a separate and important field. The discovery
of penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming led to the development of biochemical engineering in
1928. After this research on exploiting and utilizing the biological activity of living organisms
boomed and characterization of microorganisms began. After years and years of hard work in
biochemical engineering, today we are enjoying the products from the bioprocesses from a
number of organisms at a large scale.

Biochemical Process Development

The biochemical process mostly exploits the bio capabilities of microorganisms for the desired
product yield. The microorganism may be used as such or can be genetically modified by
adding gene regulators for improved gene expression and thus product yield. So, the first step
is to design the process and optimize condition determination at laboratory scale and then
gradual scale up is done.

Moving gradually in terms of the quantity is very important as a larger venture without
substantiated and well-established process design and optimal conditions would result in raw
material loss and loss of time and efforts. To better understand the process, complete and
detailed study of the microbiology along with the agent’s molecular biology and genetics help
determine the required optimal conditions and thus add to process effectiveness. Then proper
calculations, computational analysis, product analysis and cost analysis is done to check the
constructive effect of the efforts. Proper upstream processing is followed by detailed and
careful harvest of the product. The product obtained is not in its pure form and is thus subjected
to purification process under downstream processing.

Applications of Biochemical Engineering Applications in Food Industry

Biochemical engineering is at the heart of modern food processing as the world is moving
back to organic methods and is avoiding synthetic and chemical methods. Biochemical

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engineering is involved in product synthesis, packaging, storage and protections. As of
1985, around 58% of $185 million US market of enzymes was utilized in food industry.
The food industry employs several enzymes as proteases, amylases and carbohydrases.
Rennin enzyme which is a chymosin is predominantly sold as it is used in biochemical
engineering process for cheese manufacture. Glucoamylase is an enzyme used in
cornstarch processing and accounts for 85% of total carbohydrate enzyme sales.

Applications in fermentation industry

Fermentation is a widely exploited procedure from bread making to brewing to

pharmaceuticals and even in enzyme production. Genetically modified strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae are utilized by brewing industries for better quality and quantity.
Bioreactor design is in accordance with the biochemical engineering principles. In bread
making and other food processing industries, complex designed fermenters are used to get the
required yield and quality of the product. Biochemical engineers also ensure their smooth
execution as well.

Applications in Agriculture
Synthetic and chemical fertilizers and pesticides not only affect the environment adversely but
also put the living organism at verge of harm and sometimes even death. In bioprocessing living
organisms with potential to kill pests and add to soil fertility are used as biopesticides and bio
fertilizers respectively. Complex machinery is designed by biochemical engineers for their
synthesis, packaging and special dispersal equipment is also sometimes designed. Though at
early stages, biochemical engineering has great applications in field of agriculture in near
future.

Applications in Biopharmaceuticals
Certain living organisms are used as pharmaceuticals are have proven benefits. Pharmaceutical
and research companies as Monsanto, Amgen etc. are exploiting biochemical engineering to
produce biopharmaceuticals. For example, today insulin is produced via genetically engineered
bacteria in complex bioreactors through proper upstream and downstream processing.
Similarly, in case of immunizations/ vaccinations the causative agent is either killed or
weakened using biochemical engineering equipment, tools and techniques to get the desired
concentration and quality of vaccine. Secondary metabolites such as penicillin is produced in
specialized fermenters under controlled conditions.

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Applications in Energy generation
Biofuels are getting immense importance these days mainly due to the proven harms of Petro
chemical use and reduction in fossil resources. Living organisms as certain algae and fungi are
utilized to produce biofuel. Similarly, specialized equipment designed by biochemical
engineers is used to produce biogas from animal dung.

Applications in Waste management

Waste management is an important issue of the present-day world. Biochemical engineers in
India have made and designed machinery that takes the solid waste and crushed and processes
it to rigid cement that can be used for manufacture purposes. Similarly, complex recycling as
in Japan is a fruit of hard work of biochemical engineers.

Applications in Conservation of environment

Biochemical engineering is bringing the living organisms to the forefront reducing the room of
chemical and synthetic toxic pollutants. In his way, this field is doing a favor to the
environment. Oil spill treatment in marine environment is on example of application of
biochemical engineering in the conservation of environment.

Applications in biological warfare

Biochemical engineering has the potential to design deadly biological warfare. There are very
strict regulations on this but the devastating potential of microorganisms to cause disease and
death can be used as a weapon in war. Bioreactors for the growth of deadly infectious agents
can be designed and then dispersed as a strategy in biological warfare.

Biochemical engineering and biotechnology

Biotechnology and biochemical engineering go hand in hand. The intracellular mechanisms
are very complex and thus biochemical engineering needs to work in collaboration with
biotechnology to bring about biological systems and functions to the industrial scale.

Scope of Biochemical Engineering Work activities of biochemical engineers

Planning, designing, construction and maintenance of pharmaceutical and certain biochemical
plants Engineering service provision to bio-based organizations Production, modification and
optimization of biological processes Maintenance of production areas, machines and reactions
Development of bioprocess system framework Installment, adjustment, maintenance, repair
and technical services provision for the biochemical and biomedical devices and equipment
Training paramedical staff and researchers to use biomedical machinery properly Research on

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the engineering domains of living systems Designing and manufacture of healthcare equipment
and machinery such as CT scan machine, X rays machine Quality control, research and
development in biochemical engineering

Specialty areas in Biochemical Engineering

Biomaterials Bioinstrumentation
Biotechniques
System physiology
Biomechanics
Rehabilitation engineering
Clinical engineering
Limitations
❖ The complexity of biological systems and their difficult maintenance is a great hurdle
that biochemical engineers have to overcome
❖ Inadequate funding in this field because the research process tends to be slow and
business men and investors need immediate results
❖ High cost of maintenance of complex cell lines
❖ Lack of interest of government towards development in this area especially in
underdeveloped countries
❖ In order for nanotechnology to advance, molecular engineering using improved
molecular dynamic simulations will be essential
❖ Use of materials that can be reprocessed into similar products, or if not possible, into a
cascade of products of lower value, with the final end-products being completely
biodegradable.
Conclusion
Biochemical engineering has great potential and bright future aspects for the fact that it is
ecofriendly and the products produced are comparatively safer than synthetic and chemical
products. The role of biochemical engineering in the healthcare area is enormous in terms of
development of complex biological systems monitoring machinery. All in all, the interest of
world community in biochemical engineering is increasing with time.

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Chapter Two
Introduction to microbiology
Why we study Microorganisms? We study them b/s they are either beneficial or harmful,
decompose organic wastes, are producers in the ecosystem by photosynthesis (algae,
cyanobacteria, etc), Produce industrial products such as enzymes, vaccines, antibiotics, solvents
(e.g. ethanol and acetone), fermented foods such as vinegar, cheese, bread, beer, wine etc.
They can also use aa a probiotic. “Probiotic” refers to added microbes to our diet, produce
products used in manufacturing (e.g. cellulose) and treatment of diseases (e.g. E. coli can make
insulin), currently it is getting acceptance in genetic Engineering (recombinant DNA technology).
Primary sources of microorganism
 Soil and water :- G.lamblia Bacillus,Clostridium,entrobacter,Escherichia
 Plants/ products:- Bacillus,Lactobacillus,Citrobacter
 Gastro-intestinal Tract:-Citrobacter, Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella,vibrio, C.Parvum,
E.histolytica,G.lamblia
 Animal Feeds :- Staphylococcus, Clostridium,Enterococcus, Salmonella
 Animal Hides:- Bacillus, Clostridium,Enterococcus,Lactococcus,Serratia
 Air and Dust:-Bacillus, Clostridium,Micrococcus,Acinetobacter
Important Classes of Microbes
The major classes of microbes fall into two categories
 Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes
 Fungi
 Algea
 Protozoa
 Prokaryotes
 Bacteria
 Blue –green algea
Growth & Environmental Requirements of Micro-organisms
Cell Growth
 Growth is autocatalytic

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  Characterized by specific growth rate, μ
cells + substrate → extracellular products + new cells + original cells
1 dX
=
X dt
Cell concentration can be measured directly and/or indirectly. Direct: mass or cell number basis.
Cell number counting: hemocytometer, plate counts and particle counts.
Factors affecting the growth and survival of microorganisms in foods
What do organisms need for growth?
Nutrient: like water, Carbon source, Nitrogen source, Organic growth factors, Minerals.
Favorable environment: Temperature, Gas mixture, pH, No inhibitors, Time.
Parameters of BIOREACTOR affect microbial growth?
I. Intrinsic parameters: Ph, moisture content, oxidation-reduction potential, nutrient content,
antimicrobial constituents, biological structures.
I. Extrinsic parameters: temperature of storage, relative humidity, gases in the environment.

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Chapter Three
Enzyme Kinetics
Enzymes are biological catalysts that are protein molecules in nature. They are produced by living
cells: animal, plant, and microorganism. Are absolutely essential as catalysts in biochemical
reactions. Almost every reaction in a cell requires the presence of a specific enzyme. A major
function of enzymes in a living system is to catalyze the making and breaking of chemical bonds.
Therefore, un like any other catalysts, they increase the rate of reaction without themselves
undergoing permanent chemical changes.
Catalysts are chemicals which alter or speed up the rate/speed of reactions. Biological catalysts
speed up biological reactions only. Enzymes are biological catalysts that are protein molecules in
nature. They are produced by living cells (animal, plant, and microorganism) and are absolutely
essential as catalysts in biochemical reactions. In living cells, enzymes serve as biological
catalysts.
The enzymes produced commercially can be classified into three major categories:-
1. Industrial enzymes, such as amylases, proteases, glucose isomerase, lipase, catalases, and
penicillin acylases
2. Analytical enzymes, such as glucose oxidase, galactose oxidase, alcohol dehydrogenase,
hexokinase, muramidase, and cholesterol oxidase
3. Medical enzymes, such as asparaginase, proteases, lipases, and streptokinase

Difference b/n biological and non biological catalyst

Biological Non biological
Specific and selective: there is specific type of Non Specific and selective: many reactions can be catalyzed by
catalyst for a specific type of reaction. Adv:- may be catalyzed by wide range of catalysts
minimize down stream processing cost and result
high desired product amount
Efficient in small amount ( high turn over) Non efficient in small amount
Enzymatic rate of reaction is usually much faster than Reaction directed by non biological catalysts is slower than enzym
reaction directed by non biological catalysts.
Lower activation energy (Ea) Higher activation energy (Ea)
Highly sensitive to processing conditions o
(advantages:- low energy requirement ) Less sensitive: can work at high T c & P. So, require high energ

Nomenclature of Enzymes
Originally enzymes were given non descriptive names such as:
✓ Rennin - curding of milk to start cheese-making processor
✓ pepsin - hydrolyzes proteins at acidic pH

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 ✓ trypsin - hydrolyzes proteins at mild alkaline pH
The nomenclature was later improved by adding the suffix –ase

As

more enzymes were discovered, this system generated confusion and resulted in the formation of
a new systematic scheme
❖ International Enzyme Commission in 1964. The new system
❖ Categorizes all enzymes into six major classes depending on the
❖ General type of chemical reaction which they catalyze.
Therefore, each enzyme can be designated by a numerical code
Table 1. partial out lines of systematic classification of enzymes

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Commercial Application of Enzymes
Enzymes have been utilized commercially since the 1890s. Fungal cell extracts were first added
to brewing vats to facilitate the breakdown of starch into sugars. The fungal amylase taka diastase
was employed as a digestive aid in the United States as early as 1894.
Alpha-amylase, glucoamylase, and glucose isomerase serve mainly to convert starch into high-
fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Alkaline protease is added to laundry detergents as a cleaning aid.
Proteins often precipitate on soiled clothes or make dirt adhere to the textile fibers. The stain can
be dissolved easily by addition of protease to the detergent.

Enzyme Components
Although some enzymes consist entirely of proteins, most consist of both a protein portion, called
an Apo enzyme, and a non protein component, called a cofactor. Ions of iron, zinc, magnesium,
or calcium are examples of cofactors. If the cofactor is an organic molecule, it is called a
coenzyme.
Apo enzymes are inactive by themselves; they must be activated by cofactors. Together, the Apo
enzyme and cofactor form a holo enzyme, or whole, active enzyme. If the cofactor is removed,
the Apo enzyme will not function.
The Mechanism of Enzymatic Action
1. The surface of the substrate contacts a specific region of the surface of the enzyme
molecule, called the active site.
2. A temporary intermediate compound forms, called an enzyme–substrate complex.
3. The substrate molecule is transformed by the rearrangement of existing atoms, the
breakdown of the substrate molecule, or in combination with another substrate molecule.
4. The transformed substrate molecules—the products of the reaction—are released from the
enzyme molecule because they no longer fit in the active site of the enzyme.
5. The unchanged enzyme is now free to react with other substrate molecules.

Simple Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics deals with the rate of enzyme reaction and how it is affected by various chemical
and physical conditions. Kinetic studies of enzymatic reactions provide information about the
basic mechanism of the enzyme reaction and other parameters that characterize the properties of
the enzyme. The rate equations developed from the kinetic studies can be applied in calculating
reaction time, yields, and optimum economic condition, which are important in the design of an
effective bioreactor.
Assume that a substrate (S) is converted to a product (P) with the help of an enzyme (E) in a reactor
as:

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The rate of reaction can be expressed in terms of either the change of the substrate CS or the

product concentrations CP as: or

In order to understand the effectiveness and characteristics of an enzyme reaction, it is important
to know how the reaction rate is influenced by reaction conditions such as substrate, product, and
enzyme concentrations.
Simple Enzyme Kinetics
Brown (1902) proposed that an enzyme forms a complex with its substrate. The complex then
breaks down to the products and regenerates the free enzyme. The mechanism of one substrate
enzyme reaction can be expressed as:

The “lock and key” theory accounts for the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex. There is
a topographical, structural compatibility between an enzyme and a substrate known as active site
which optimally favors the recognition of the substrate.

From these curves we can conclude the following:

1. The reaction rate is proportional to the substrate concentration (that is, first-order
reaction) when the substrate concentration is in the low range.
2. The reaction rate does not depend on the substrate concentration when the substrate
concentration is high, since the reaction rate changes gradually from first order to zero
order as the substrate concentration is increased.
3. The maximum reaction rate Vmax is proportional to the enzyme concentration within
the range of the enzyme tested.

The reaction rate equation can be derived based on the following assumptions:
1. The total enzyme concentration stays constant during the reaction, that is, CEo = CES + CE
2. The amount of an enzyme is very small compared to the amount of substrate. Therefore, the
formation of the enzyme-substrate complex does not significantly deplete the substrate.

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3. The product concentration is so low that product inhibition may be considered negligible.
In addition to the preceding assumptions, there are three different approaches to derive the rate
equation:
1. Michaelis-Menten approach: It is assumed that the product releasing step is much slower
than the reversible reaction and the slow step determines the rate, while the other is at
equilibrium. V=K2 ǀESǀ
2. Briggs-Haldane approach: The change of the intermediate concentration with respect to
time is assumed to be negligible, that is, d(CES)/dt = 0.
3. Numerical solution: Solution of the simultaneous differential equations developed
without simplification.
NB: For deriving equation for enzyme kinetics & Exercise please refer Text book: James Lee
Evaluation of Kinetic Parameters
The values of the Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters, Vmax or rmax and KM, can be
estimated, as follows:
 Make a series of batch runs with different levels of substrate concentration at a constant
initial enzyme concentration and measure the change of product or substrate concentration
with respect to time.
To do so Plot rate against [S]/ concentration
The asymptote for V will be Vmax and Km is equal to [S] when V= 0.5Vmax. Estimation of Km
and Vm will be difficult as determination of asymptote is impossible. Thus, Michael-Menten
equation should be rearranged and plotted. This can be achieved in three ways:
✓ The Line weaver-Burk (double reciprocal) plot
✓ Eadie-Hofstee plot
✓ Langmuir (Hanes and Woolf) plot
Inhibition of Enzyme Reactions
Modulator (or effector) is a substance which can combine with enzymes to alter their catalytic
activities. Inhibitor is a modulator which decreases enzyme activity. It can decrease the rate of
reaction either
✓ Competitive inhibition
✓ Non-competitive inhibition
✓ Uncompetitive inhibition
For further calculation & information refer Text book

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Chapter four
Immobilized Enzymes
Introduction
Enzymes are expensive, they should be utilized in an efficient manner. As catalytic molecules,
enzymes are not directly used up. After the reaction the enzymes cannot be economically recovered
for re-use and are generally wasted. This enzyme residue remains to contaminate the product and
its removal may involve extra purification costs.
Simple and economical methods must be used to separate the enzyme from the reaction product.
Separation of enzyme and product using a two-phase system can be employed. One phase
containing the enzyme •The other phase containing the product this is known as Immobilization.
Enzyme immobilization is a process of confining the enzyme molecules to a solid support over
which a substrate is passed and converted to products.

Enzyme Immobilization
An immobilized enzyme is one whose movement in space has been restricted either completely
or to a small limited region.
Rationale for Immobilization
Protection from degradation and deactivation. Re-use of enzymes for many reaction cycles,
lowering the total production cost of enzyme mediated reactions. Its ability to stop the reaction

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rapidly by removing the enzyme from the solution. And enhanced stability i.e. easy separation of
enzyme from the product.

Immobilization Criteria
An ideal carrier matrix for enzyme immobilization should be:
✓ Inert, physically strong and stable, Cost effective, Regenerable, Reduction in product
inhibition.
There are a number of requirements to achieve a successful immobilization:
✓ The biological component must retain substantial biological activity after attachment
✓ It must have a long-term stability
✓ The sensitivity of the enzyme must be preserved after attachment
✓ Overloading can block or inactivate the active site of the immobilized biomaterial,
therefore, must be avoided
Immobilization Techniques
The three methods of enzyme Immobilization are:
✓ Entrapment(c,d)
✓ Surface immobilization(a,b)
✓ Cross linking
A. Entrapment
 Entrapment is the physical enclosure of
enzyme in a small space, simply trapped
inside the polymer matrix.
 Enzymes are held or entrapped within the
suitable gels or fibers.
 It is done in such a way as to retain protein
while allowing penetration of substrate.
Two types
✓ Matrix entrapment
✓ Membrane entrapment(microencapsulation)
B. Surface Immobilization
Adsorption
❖ Involves the physical binding of the enzyme on the surface of
carrier matrix
❖ Carrier may be organic or inorganic.
❖ The process of adsorption involves the weak interactions like
Vander Waal or hydrogen bonds.
C. Cross-linking

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 ❖ Cross linking involves intermolecular cross linking of enzyme molecules in the
presence/absence of solid support.

Chapter Five
Industrial Application of Enzymes
Three major categories:
Industrial enzymes: transform its substrate into the desired product
Analytical enzymes; determine the concentration of their substrates (as analytes)
Medical enzymes: potential therapeutic (disease treatment) applications
Today, most application for industrial enzymes are in Food industry, Beverage industry, Detergent
industry, tanning and textile industry.

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Industrial Enzyme Substrates in most industrial applications, the common substrates are
considered to be Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates constitute organic compounds, including sugars,
starches, and celluloses.
Carbohydrates are classified into three major groups:
1. Monosaccharides(simplest carbohydrate units),
2. Oligosaccharides(two or more of monosaccarides), and
3. Polysaccharides(hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides)
Case study 1 Production of HFCS
Starch comprises a large percentage of cereals, potatoes, corn, and rice. Complete hydrolysis of
starch yields glucose, but partial hydrolysis gives maltose as well. Starch can be separated into two
fractions by treatment with hot water.
The insoluble component (10 percent to 25 percent) is amylose, the soluble component (75
percent to 90 percent) is amylopectin.
Amylose and amylopectin are degraded by α - and β -amylase, which are found in the
pancreatic juice and saliva of animals.
NB: Try to understand more by doing some cases regarding industrial applications.

Chapter Six
Cell Kinetics & Fermenter Design
Cell Kinetics deals with the rate of cell growth, and how it is affected by various chemical and
physical condition. Understanding the growth kinetics of microbial cell is important for the design
and operation of fermentation system employing them.
The ultimate objective of cell kinetics is quantitative description of the combined effects of genetic
makeup and environment on the rate process in the population. Kinetic models can only account
for certain aspects of the complex biological phenomena, accurate mathematical modeling of
growth kinetics is impossible.

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Models for Cell Kinetics

Definitions

Growth cycles in batch cultivation

Inoculate unicellular microorganisms into a fresh sterilized medium. Measure the cell number
density with respect to time. Plot it.
There are six phases.
1. Lag phase: A period of time when the change of cell number is zero.
2. Accelerated growth phase: The cell number starts to increase and the division rate increases
to reach a maximum.
3. Exponential growth phase: The cell number increases exponentially as the cells start to
divide.
4. Decelerated growth phase: After the growth rate reaches a maximum, it is followed by
the deceleration of both growth rate and the division rate.
5. Stationary phase: The cell population will reach a maximum value and will not increase
any further.
6. Death phase: the rate of cell death overcomes the rate of cell production.
Exponential Growth Phase

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A bacterial culture undergoing balanced growth mimics a first-order autocatalytic chemical
reaction.
➢ The rate of the cell population increase at any particular time is proportional to the number
density (CN) of bacteria present at that time:
➢ where the constant µ is known as the
specific growth rate [hr-1]

NOTE: specific growth rate should not be confused with the growth rate
➢ Comparing the preceding equations, shows that

Factors Affecting Specific Growth Rate

Substrate concentration; described in terms of Monod kinetics equation and other models in cell
growth.
where
➢ Cs is concentration of limiting substrate,
➢ Ks is system coefficient and is equal to the concentration after
➢ Specific growth rate reaches half of its maximum value.
➢ Further increase in the nutrient concentration after specific growth rates reaches it
maximum value doesn’t affect the specific growth rate

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NB: Please use the text book for deriving and solving equations

Fermenter Basics
Bioreactor is a device within which biochemical transformations are caused by the action of
enzymes or living cells. Fermenter is a bioreactor that employs a living cell for biochemical
transformations.
➢ Stirred tank fermenters(STF) are commonly used for aerobic/nonaerobic applications.
➢ Mechanical agitation & aeration are used to suspend cells, oxygenate, mix the medium and aid
heat transfer
Basic Design Criteria
I. Microbiological and biochemical characteristics of the cell system (microbial,
mammalian, plant)
II. Mass and heat transfer characteristics in the fermenter
III. Kinetics of the cell growth and product formation
IV. Aseptic equipment design
V. Capital and operating costs of the Fermenter
General Requirements
I. Keep sterility from the start point to end of the process.
II. Optimal mixing with low, uniform shear.
III. Adequate mass transfer, oxygen.
IV. Clearly defined flow conditions.
V. Feeding substrate with prevention of under or overdosing.
VI. Suspension of solids.
VII. Gentle heat transfer.
Fermenter Design Considerations
The basic points of consideration while designing a fermenter:
❖ Productivity and yield
❖ Fermenter operability and reliability
❖ Product purification
❖ Water management
❖ Energy requirements
❖ Waste treatment
❖ Creating contamination free environment
❖ simple and reliable process control an instrumentation

Fermenter Construction Features

To achieve the previous requirements the fermenter should have:
❖ Heat and oxygen transfer configuration
❖ Sterilization procedures

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 ❖ Foam control
❖ Fast and thorough cleaning system
❖ Proper monitoring and control system
❖ constructed from non-toxic, corrosion- resistant materials(SS and glass).

1. Mechanical foam breaker (a

supplementary impeller).

2. Chemical antifoam agents (may reduce the rate of oxygen

transfer).

3. Aseptic operation (3-5% of fermentations in an industrial

plant are lost due to failure of sterilization.

4. Construction materials (glass for small bioreactors,

e.g., < 30 liters and corrosion- resistant stainless steel for large
reactors)

5. Sparge design (three designs: porous, orifice andnozzle)

6. Evaporation control due to dry air input

1) Mixing method: Mechanical agitation
❖ Baffles are usually used to reduce vortexing
❖ Not needed for anaerobic fermentation
❖ The agitator (impeller) for mixing
2) The sparger (aeration) meant for introducing air into liquid
3) Control of Temperature
4) Microbial sensor
Operation Models
Operation of industrial fermenters can be classified as
❖ Batch,
❖ Semi batch( Fed batch) and
❖ Continuous
Batch& Plug Flow Fermenter Design
PFF is an ideal tubular flow fermenter without radial variations. It is hard to find in reality though
some packed bed fermenter can be approximated to be a PFF. Though steady state PFF is operated
in a continuous mode, cell concentration of an ideal batch fermenter after time ‘t’ will be the same
as that of steady state PFF at the longitudinal location where the residence time is equal to t, Thus,
analysis of PFF and BF are the same.

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If liquid medium is inoculated with a seed culture, the cell will start to grow exponentially after
the lag phase.
❖ The change of cell concentration in a batch fermenter is equal to the growth rate of cells
in it
❖ Integrating the above equation
to obtain

The time to is the time after lag phase since rx must be greater than zero.
According to equation 6.21 above, the batch growth time t-to is the area under the 1/ rxvs Cx curve
between Cxo and Cx as shown below.

If Monod kinetics is represented by specific growth rate during exponential period:

Difference between Monod and Michealis-menten equation

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 VS

❖ There is a Cx term in the Monod equation not found in Michaelis-Menton equation

❖ For a cell cultivation, Initial rate of reaction in a batch run is always zero due to the presence
of lag phase.
Chapter Seven
Downstream Processing
Biochemical products production consists of an upstream, reactor and downstream sections.

INTRODUCTION
❖ Upstream: upstream section in a biochemical process consists of facilities for the
preparation of micro-organism and media, sterilization of raw materials and inoculation of
the micro-organism.
❖ Bioreactor/fermenter: reactor section is the fermenter or a reactor/bioreactor and the
associated machinery and accessories.
❖ Downstream process: downstream is where the product is recovered, purified, formulated
and stabilized. Recovery of side product is also carried out in the downstream section. In
addition, waste treatment facilities can be considered under this unit.
Downstream Processing-Overview
Desired product is either inside the cells that means microorganism or it is in the medium
or in the broth. Even though, the product is in the medium or broth, the concentration is very low
so the idea is to recover, concentrate, purify to the required specification. For drug, it has to be
extremely pure (zero impurity levels).

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For bulk products impurity may be 5 or 10 %. So, depending upon the type of application, the
purity levels are decided upon actually.

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 Chemical Reaction Engineering –I
1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL REACTION ENGINEERING

Chemical reaction engineering is the discipline that quantifies the interactions of transport
phenomena and reaction kinetics in relating reactor performance to operating conditions and feed
variables and also Chemical reaction engineering is needed in the development of new and the
improvement of existing technologies.

The subject of chemical reaction engineering initiated and evolved primarily to accomplish the
task of describing how to choose, size, and determine the optimal operating conditions for a reactor
whose purpose is to produce a given set of chemicals in a petrochemical application.

• The principles of chemical reaction engineering are presented in such rigor to make possible a
comprehensive understanding of the subject. Mastery of these concepts will allow for
generalizations to reacting systems independent of their origin and will furnish strategies for
attacking different problems.

• Reactor design uses information, knowledge, and experience from a variety of areas-
thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer, and economics.
Chemical reaction engineering is the synthesis of all these factors with the aim of properly
designing a chemical reactor.

1.2 The General Mole Balance

A mole balance is the basis for calculating and assessing the quantity of a particular molecular
species (reactant or product) in a given system volume of reaction. In the process of balance, it
takes a small volume of the reactor to observe what happens there in the small interval of time. A
material balance on any reactant species can be drawn up through the following equations:

Conducting a mole balance on species j at any given instant of time which obeys the following
equation format.

24
Using this basis of equation, the design equation can be developed for various types of industrial
reactors.

1.2.1 Kinetics in the chemical process

Chemical kinetics: is the study of the rate and mechanism in the reactor. gives us a quantitative
description of how fast chemical reactions occur, and the factors affecting these rate. Kinetics is
relevant to many branches of science and has different understanding of it. As illustration, the
chemist uses kinetics as a tool to understand fundamental aspects of reaction pathways
(mechanisms), then uses this understanding to devise new and/or better ways of achieving desired
chemical products. The chemical engineer uses kinetics for rational reactor design and/or analysis
of performance of chemical reactors to operate safely & in an efficient manner.

Reaction. Mechanism: In chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of

elementary reactions by which overall chemical change occurs.

Stoichiometry: is the study of quantitative relationships between substances involved in chemical

change Provide the basis for the relationships between the reactants and products in chemical
reaction

Single Reaction stoichiometry can always be written as

The stoichiometric relationship explains: how many molecules of one species will be formed
during a chemical reaction when a given number of molecules of another species disappear.

25
In a chemical reaction, the composition of the reaction mixture can be expressed in terms of one
variable, the extent or conversion of the reaction. The conversion of species A in a reaction is
equal to the number of moles of A reacted per mole of A fed.

Conversion is only defined for reactants and never for products.

Conversion of reactant A is defined as

Law of Definite Proportions are expressed

To determine concentration as a function of conversion, for a change of volume during reaction

aA + bB → cC + dD we proceed as

Table: Review of stoichiometry

26
 1.3. Reactors

The economics of the overall process is largely decided by the chemical step. To carry out a
chemical step. Best reactors are used so chemical reactor may be thought as a heart of the chemical
process. Chemical reactor is used so chemical reactor may be thought as a heart of the chemical
process. Chemical reactors vary widely in size and shape and method of operations/ mode of
operation. Based upon the shape of reactor, we have tank reactors and tubular reactors. As per the
mode of operations (mode of operation refers to how reactants are fed to and how the products are
discharged from reactors), we have batch reactors, semi-batch reactors and continuous flow
reactors. Batch reactors are used when relatively small amounts of material are to be treated while
continuous flow reactors are used when large quantities of material are to be treated. The semi
batch reactor is used when good control of reaction is required as the reaction proceeds only when
reactants are added.

1.3.1. Batch reactor

27
In case of batch reactor, the reactants are charged at the beginning in to a container, left to react
for certain time period in the reactor under agitation during which no material is fed or removed
from it, and the resultant product mixture is withdrawn at a subsequent time.

Batch reactor consists of a vertical cylindrical vessel equipped with an agitator/stirrer for stirring
the contents. It is providing with either external jacket coil or both for heating or cooling the
reactor contents/

Advantages of batch reactor

• It is simple in construction’
• It is simple to operate
• It has flexibility of operations
• Its cost is relatively low.
• It required small instrumentation and less supporting equipment
• It can give high conversation that can be obtained by leaving the reactant in the reactor
for long periods of time.

Disadvantage of batch reactor

• High labor costs per unit volume of production

• Requires considerable time to empty, clean out and refill
• Poorer quality control of product. It is difficult to maintain the same quality in different
batches.
• Large scale production

Application of batch reactor: Batch reactors are often used for liquid phase reactions when the
required production rates are low. i.e. a batch reactor is used for small scale production, to
produce many different products from the same piece of equipment to carry our reactions have
having long reactions times. For testing new process that have not been fully developed, for
kinetics study and for
manufacture of

28
expensive products such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, dye intermediate.

Mass balance:

1.3.2. Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)

It is also referred to as back mix or mixed flow reactor t is very commonly used in industrial
processing. It has provisions for continuous inflow of reactants and outflow of the product mixture.
a certain pool of reactions mixture is always maintained in it. It normally runs at steady state and
is usually operated so as to be quite well-mixed. So there is no variation of concentration,
temperature or reaction rate throughout the reactor volume.

It is relatively easy to maintained good temperature control with CSTR. It is possible to operate
CSTR under isothermal conditions even when heat of reaction is high. CSTR required large
volumes so they provide long residence time. The isothermal nature together with long residence
time permits the use of CSTR at the optimum temperature for long reaction time CSTR may be
used in single or in series.

Application CSTRs: are normally employed on commercial scale. Many for liquid phase
reactions at low or medium pressures. These can be used when the heat of reactions is high only if
the temperature level obtained in their normal operations is satisfactory from other stand points.

Mass balance:

1.3.3. Plug Flow Reactor

Tubular reactor (plug flow reactor) consists essentially of a single continuous long tube or several
tubes arranged in parallel. The reactants enter at one end and product mixture leaves from the other
end with continuous variation of composition of reactions mixture in between (along length).

Plug flow reactors are relatively easy to maintained as there are no moving parts and gives the
highest conversation per unit volume of reactor of any of the flow reactors.

It is difficult to control the temperature with the reactor a hot spot can occur in case of exothermic
reaction system

29
 • In this reactor type the content of the reactor of the reactor is perfectly mixed in the radial
direction
• No mixing takes place in axial direction. This conditions provides the concentration,
temperature, rate of formation etc.to vary continuously in the axial direction; Hence the
material balance has to be applied to differential element of volume.
• ideal steady-state tubular flow reactor
• composition varies axially but is time-independent
• flow highly turbulent and no radial variation in concentration residence time in the
reactor is the same for all elements of fluid

Application of plug flow reactor: PFR have a wide variety of applications in either gas or liquid
phase systems. Common industrial uses of tubular reactors are in gasoline production, oil cracking,
synthesis of ammonia from its elements, and the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.

Mass balance:

Example

The reaction A B is to be carried out isothermally in a continuous-flow reactor. Calculate

both the CSTR and PFR reactor volumes necessary to consume 99% of A (i.e. CA=0.01CAO)
when the entering molar flow rate and The entering volumetric flow rate is 5mol/hr. and
10dm3/hr. assuming the reaction rate –r A is:

(a) –r A=KCA with K=0.0001s-1

Solution

Reaction: A B

Constant volumetric flowrate: isothermal: continuous flow reactor

FAO=5.0mol/hr., Vo=10dm3/hr. (CAO=0.5mol/dm3)

CSTR

30
 𝑉𝑂(𝐶𝐴𝑂−𝐶𝐴)
Mole balance in terms of concentration: 𝑉𝐶𝑆𝑇𝑅 = ,Rate law: -r A=KCA
−𝑟 𝐴

𝑉𝑂(𝐶𝐴𝑂−0.01𝐶𝐴𝑂) (10𝑑𝑚3/ℎ𝑟)(0.99)
Combine: 𝑉 = = = 2750𝑑𝑚3
𝐾(0.01)(𝐶𝐴𝑂) (0.0001/𝑠)(0.01)(3600𝑠/ℎ𝑟)

PFR

𝑑𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝐴
Mole balance in terms of concentration: 𝑑𝑣 = Rate law: -r A= KCA
𝑉𝑂

𝑣 𝑣𝑜 0.01𝐶𝐴𝑂 𝑑𝑐𝐴
Combine: ∫𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫𝐶𝐴𝑂
𝑘 𝐶𝐴

10𝑑𝑚3
𝑣𝑜 0.01𝐶𝐴𝑂 −( )
ℎ𝑟
VPFR= − (𝑙𝑛 )= 0.0001 3600𝑠 ln(0.01) = 128𝑑𝑚3
𝑘 𝐶𝐴𝑂 ( )( )
𝑠 ℎ𝑟

2. Chemical kinetics

chemical kinetics is a study of rates at which chemical reactions occur and effect of parameters
such as temperature, pressure and reactant concentrations/composition on the reaction rates? The
chemical kinetics provides us information about reaction mechanisms, speed of a chemical
reactions and type of rate equation (that represents satisfactory a given chemical reactions) which
is to be used in design of reactor.

Rate of reaction (rate law), kinetic expression, depends on a number of parameters, the most
important of which are usually”

• The nature of the species involved in the reaction

• Concentrations of species
• Temperature
• Catalytic activity
• Nature of contact of reactants; and Wave-length of incident radiation.

Rate Equation: We have discussed that the rate expression must be determined experimentally.
If it is found by experiment, that the expression for the rate of reaction depends on the state of the
system mainly through temperature, pressure, and composition of the species, the rate can be
represented as,

31
Experiments show that there exists a simple relation between rate of reaction and concentration.
𝑑𝐶𝐴
The rate which is proportional to the decrease in concentration of reactant A, − is found to
𝑑𝑡
depend on the product of concentration terms of reactants.

Where k is the proportionality constant, and is called the rate constant that is independent of
concentration, markedly influenced by the temperature and may be subject to the influence of
pressure, pH, kinetic isotopes, and the presence of catalysts are orders of
reaction with respect to individual reacting components.

Reaction Rate: Rate of reaction of a chemical species will depend on the local conditions
(concentration, temperature) in a chemical reactor.

Rate Law: is an algebraic equation (constitutive relationship) that relates reaction rate to species
concentrations. Rate law is independent of reactor type

Dimension of rate constant

Effects of Temperature on the Rate Constant.

Generally, the vast majority of the chemical reaction rate of reaction increases rapidly with the rise
of temperature. This is one of the reasons that heating is often used in a chemical process.

32
Activation Energy: there is a minimum amount of energy required for reaction

The rate constant is more affected by the temperature and for that reason, when the effect of
temperature is considered on the rate of reaction, it can be implied that it has the effect in the
change in rate constant.

This dependency of rate constant on temperature, for an elementary process, follows the Arrhenius
equation, which is derived from the thermodynamics considerations,

where A is the frequency factor and E is the activation energy.

In the logarithmic form

If the rate constant is found at two different temperatures and, we have for the same concentration
order of reaction and E stays constant.

3. Kinetics of Homogeneous Simple Reactions

The Chemical Engineer needs the rate of reaction in order to design a reactor. The study of the
rate of reaction is very important. Rate equation can be found only experimentally. When we said
experimentally, of course rates cannot be measured directly but must be obtained by interpreting
data measured in a reactor.

Let us consider the first order irreversible reaction carried out in a batch reactor

The rate reaction is expressed as,

33
To find the rate of reaction for this reaction we need to know the change of concentration with
time for already known rate constant k and that rate can be found out by using experimental data.
This can be done by:

• Measuring variation of concentration with time and recording the data

• Proposing the rate equation and deriving concentration as a function of time for a batch
reactor concentration as a function of volume for the flow reactor by using integral or
differential method.
• Inserting the experimental data to the proposed rate equation and checking the linear
relationship between concentration and time.
• If the experimental data fits the proposed equation, then to find the order of reaction and
rate constant.
3.1.Zero-Order Reactions

This occurs, when the rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of the reacting
species, the rate is said to be zero-order with respect to that species. This can happen under
two conditions.

• When the species are not participants in the reaction

• When the species are supplied in such an abundance that their concentration are nearly
constant during the reaction.

• If two reactants A & B are involved in the reaction, experiments can be carried out
with A in large excess, so that the rate equation is independent of CA. In this case the
concentration of B can be varied and its order can be determined.
• The conversion obtained in a zero order reaction in a given time interval depends
upon initial concentration
3.2.First-Order Reactions

A first – order reaction is the one in which the rate of the reaction is proportionate to the
concentration of only one of the reacting substances. We can write the rate of reaction as,

34
By analyzing the above equation, we can conclude the following:

• The dimensions of the first-order rate constant correspond to the reciprocal time (t-1) and
it can be expressed in reciprocal seconds, minutes and hours etc.
• Since the concentrations are expressed in the form of a ratio, it is evident and immaterial
that in what units they are to be expressed.
• It is important that in the first-order reactions in the identical time intervals, there exists
the corresponding identical fractions of the substance that has reacted

The conversion of a first order reaction increases exponentially with time. A first order reaction
never goes to completion in finite time. The conversion obtained for a first order reaction in a
given time is independent of initial concentration.

3.3.Second-Order Reactions

When the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration raised to power unity of
two different reactants or to the square of concentration of one reactants, the reaction is said to be
of second order

35
A reversible reaction: proceeds in both directions, i.e. forward and backward, depending on the
concentrations of reactants and products relative to the corresponding equilibrium
concentrations.

chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present at
concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time.

No chemical reaction is completely irreversible. However, for many reactions, the equilibrium
point lies so far to the product side that these reactions are treated as irreversible reaction

Chemical (dynamic) equilibrium establishes when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate
as the reverse reaction.

4. Methods of analysis of rate data

In order to obtain a size of a chemical reactor by making use of appropriate design equation one
must know the rate equation/rate law for a specific reaction as the term-rate of reaction is
involved in the design equation of reactor

36
 The experimental methods used in kinetics may be classified into two categories, namely
chemical and physical.
• In Chemical analysis, it is possible to determine directly the concentration of one of
the reacting substances or products against time (or more specifically of residence
time)
• In Physical Analysis, the physical change during the course of reaction is measured.

A batch reactor is a simple vessel. In its experimental data are measured against time. These
data are the change of concentration for a given component, the change of total pressure, and
change of volume etc. The experimental batch vessel is usually operated isothermally and at
constant volume. This is because it is easy to interpret the results of such measurement runs and
are used for obtaining homogenous kinetic data.

A flow reactor vessel is used primarily in the study of kinetics of heterogeneous reaction. Raw
Data obtained from the batch or flow reactor experiments are analyzed in one of the following
ways:

• The differential method

• The integral method
• The initial rate method
• The half-life method
• The least-square method

To find out the specific reaction rate and reaction order with respect to one of the reactants, integral
and differential methods of rate analysis requires only one experiment. On the other hand, the
methods of half-life and initial rates requires many experiments at different initial conditions to
determine rate constant and the reaction order.

Under isothermal experimental conditions the temperature of any point of the reaction mixture
in the reactor should be the same and constant (equal to the desired experimental temperature) at
all times during the run.

Adiabatic experimental conditions are achieved when the reaction mixture does not exchange
any heat with the surroundings (other than sensible heat of the inflow and outflow stream in flow

37
reactors) and no work is done on or by the reaction mixture (other than PV work of the fluid
entering and leaving the vessel in flow reactors).

5. Kinetics of Homogeneous Reactions in Plug Flow Reactors

In this section we consider the fundamentals of reaction in continuous isothermal reactors. There
are two perspectives to define the rate namely, the rate is derived from the material balance and
the rate is expressed in terms of kinetics.

The first one depends mostly from the type of systems like batch or continuous reactors. The
second one depends on so many factors like concentration, pressure, temperature etc. but does not
depend on the type of system.

The performance measures of flow reactors are the space time and the space velocity just as the
reaction time (t) which is the natural measure of the performance of a batch reactor.

Space time: it is the time required to process one reactor volume of feed at specified conditions.
It is denoted by symbol (τ) and has units of time

Space velocity: it is the number of reactor volumes of feed at specified conditions which can be
treated in unit time. It is denoted by symbol (ϴ) which is reciprocal of (τ)

Thus a space velocity of 3h-1 means that three reactor volumes of feed at specified conditions are
being fed into the reactors per hour. Space time of 3 hours means that in every 3 (ϴ) hours one
reactor volume of feed at specified conditions is being treated by the reactor.

The reactions in which the rate equation corresponds to a stoichiometric equation are called
elementary reaction.

The reactions in which there is no correspondence between stoichiometry and rate equation are
known as Non-elementary reaction.

The number of molecules involved in the reaction is called Molecularity.

The sum of the powers of the concentration terms involved in the rate equation of a reaction is
called Order of that reaction

Many variables affect the rate of reaction of a chemical reaction. In homogeneous systems the
temperature, pressure, and composition are obvious variables. In heterogeneous systems, material
38
may have to move from phase to phase during reaction; hence, the rate of mass transfer can be
important. In addition, the rate of heat transfer may also become a factor.

5.1.Kinetic equations for liquid-phase of plug flow reactor conditions: for constant
volume

5.2.Variation of volume with conversion for gas phase reaction in plug flow reactor

39
6. Kinetics of Homogeneous Complex Reactions

The multiple reactions represented by more than one stoichiometric equation require more than
one kinetic expression (rate equation) to represent the progress of reaction i.e. to follow the
changing composition of all the reaction components.

Chemical reactions that occur with more than one reaction in a single process to produce a stable
product are called complex reactions. These type of reactions are consisting of:

Series (i.e., consecutive) reactions.

Simultaneous reactions

6.1.Irreversible reaction in parallel

40
Consider the simplest case, A decomposing by two competing paths, both elementary reactions

Let us consider the following reaction,

As per the rate laws, we get

Therefore, the sum of the rate of disappearance of A can be given as,

where α and β are positive order of the reaction. Thus, maximum desired product is

41
obtained, when the rate of formation of B is as high as possible compared to the rate of

formation of C

Case 1: when α > β

In this case the reaction order of the desired product is greater than the undesired product order.
Let α − β = n, a positive number, then the above equation is given as,

The ratio of the desired product to the undesired product will be high, if the reactant concentration
can be kept as high as possible. This can happen when: In gas phase run without inert and
conducted under high pressure conditions. In liquid phase, dilution is avoided.

Case 2: when β > α

That is where the order of the undesired product is greater than the order of the desired product,

β −α = n, is negative and then the equation becomes,

In order for above equation to yield highest desired product, the reactant concentration should be
as low as possible. This may be effected by diluting the concentration of A with inert.

Case 3: when α = β

42
Here, the selectivity is of zero order and is not influenced by the reactant concentration but only
can be influenced by the ratio of the rate constants

Generally, for reactions in parallel, the concentration level of reactants is the key to proper control
of product distribution. A high reactant concentration favors the reaction of higher order, a low
concentration favors the reaction of lower order, while the concentration level has no effect on the
product distribution for reaction of the same order. If all the above cases are examined, the factor
of the temperature influence is ignored. In other words, it can be said that it occurs under isothermal
conditions.

Case 4: when EB > EC

For such cases, the rate constant of the desired product increases more rapidly with the increasing
temperature than the undesired product i.e., we obtain high rate of formation of B. Thus, we apply
high temperature to maximize selectivity.

Case 5: when EC > EB

Reactions should be carried out at low temperature up to the level, where the reaction can proceed

6.1.Chain Reactions

Chain reactions can be classified into the following types of reactions:

• The reaction of combustion and slow oxidation in the gas phase

• The various reactions involving hydrocarbons
• Photochemical reactions i.e., reactions effected by light absorption
• Nuclear chain reactions

In chain reaction, an intermediate is formed during the first reaction itself, which is known as chain
initiation step. The chain initiation step can be affected in various ways as follows:

• Absorption of light
• Collision

43
 • Chemical
6.2.Autocatalytic Reactions

Autocatalytic reactions take place as soon as some product has been formed, or in other words the
product of the reaction are either catalyzed or promotes further reaction of the reactants. By nature,
autocatalytic reactions are different from other types of reactions, where the rate at the start is low
because very little amount of product is present which gradually increases to maximum product
formation and then drops again to a low value when the reactant is consumed.

7. Kinetics of heterogeneous reaction

heterogeneous catalysts are distinguished from homogeneous catalysts by the different phases
present during reaction. homogeneous catalysts are present in the same phase as reactants and
products. usually liquid, while heterogeneous catalysts are present in different phase, usually solid.

The main advantage of using heterogeneous catalysts is the relative ease of catalyst separation
from the product stream that aids in the creation of continuous chemical processes. additionally,
heterogeneous catalysts are typically more tolerant of extreme operating conditions than their
homogeneous analogues

Catalyst is a material which initiates and enhances the rate of a chemical reaction without being
consumed by that reaction.

The catalyst involves at least one phase which is not a net reactant, yet its presence alters the speed
of the reaction and its mechanism.

While the catalyst very much participates in the reaction, yet it does not itself appear in the overall
reaction at the end, or on the other hand, it does not enter into the stoichiometry of the reaction.

7.1.Mechanism of catalytic reactions

A gas phase reaction, which is catalyzed by solid surface (catalyst) occurs on the surface of the
catalyst. For such reaction to take place, at least one reactant must become attached to the surface.

Mechanism of Heterogeneous Catalysis:

• Bulk Diffusion of reacting molecules to the surface of the catalyst.

• Pore Diffusion of reacting molecules into the interior pores of the catalyst.

44
 • Adsorption of reactants (chemisorption) on the surface of the catalyst.
• Reaction on the surface of the catalyst between adsorbed molecules.
• Desorption of products.
• Pore Diffusion of product molecules to the surface of the catalyst
• Bulk Diffusion of product molecules

Reference
1. . Levenspiel O. (2002) Chemical Reaction Engineering, John Wiley& Sons, 3rd edition
2. Folger, HS (1992) Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering, Prentice-Hall Inc.
3. Smith, JM (1981) Chemical Engineering Kinetics, McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition
4. Fremont, GF and Bischoff, KB (1999), Chemical Reactor Analysis and Design, John
Wiley & Son

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