Suez University

Faculty of Science

Course No: PHY 322 (Geology-Chemistry program)

Course:
RADIATION PHYSICS

Name of lecturer: Dr. Ehab EL-Falaky

Research Article:
Superconductivity

Prepare by:
Bathom Philip Timothy Aban

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Abstract:
Superconductivity, a remarkable phenomenon in physics, is characterized
by the complete absence of electrical resistance and the expulsion of
magnetic fields in certain materials when cooled below a critical
temperature. Discovered over a century ago, superconductivity has since
spurred significant research and technological development. This paper
provides an overview of superconductivity, covering key concepts such as
zero electrical resistance, critical temperature, the Meissner effect, and types
of superconductors including traditional and high-temperature
superconductors (HTS). The practical applications of superconductivity,
ranging from medical imaging to transportation systems, are highlighted,
emphasizing its importance in various fields. Additionally, recent
advancements in superconductivity research, including the discovery of new
materials and efforts to understand high-temperature superconductivity, are
discussed. This abstract encapsulates the significance of superconductivity
in both fundamental physics and technological innovation, underscoring its
ongoing relevance and potential for future advancements.

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1. Introduction

Superconductivity stands as one of the most intriguing and impactful phenomena in

modern physics. Discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911, it continues to
captivate scientists and engineers alike with its profound implications for both
fundamental science and practical applications. At its core, superconductivity defies
conventional understanding by allowing certain materials to conduct electricity
without any resistance, leading to remarkable properties such as the expulsion of
magnetic fields and the ability to maintain persistent currents indefinitely.

The journey of superconductivity research has been marked by significant milestones,

from the initial discovery in low-temperature materials like mercury and lead to the
groundbreaking advent of high-temperature superconductors (HTS) in the late 1980s.
These HTS materials shattered previous temperature barriers, offering the tantalizing
prospect of practical applications at temperatures more amenable to technological
implementation.

We embark on a journey through the realm of superconductivity, exploring its

fundamental principles, historical milestones, and diverse array of applications. We
delve into the mechanisms that underpin this phenomenon, from the formation of
Cooper pairs to the intricate interplay of quantum mechanics and condensed matter
physics. Additionally, we examine the rich tapestry of applications that
superconductivity enables, spanning fields as diverse as medicine, energy
transmission, and transportation.

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2. Zero Electrical Resistance:

Zero electrical resistance is a defining characteristic of superconductivity, setting it

apart from conventional conductors where resistance leads to energy loss in the form
of heat. In superconductors, this resistance drops abruptly to zero below a critical
temperature, allowing electric currents to flow indefinitely without any dissipation of
energy.

The concept of zero electrical resistance can be understood through the behaviour of
electrons in superconducting materials. At temperatures above the critical temperature,
electrons in a material move chaotically, colliding with impurities and lattice
vibrations, which results in resistance to the flow of electric current. However, as the
material is cooled below its critical temperature, a remarkable transition occurs.

At temperatures near absolute zero, electrons in certain materials form pairs known as
Cooper pairs due to interactions with the crystal lattice. These Cooper pairs, named
after physicist Leon Cooper, who described their behaviour, overcome the repulsive
forces between individual electrons, allowing them to move collectively through the
material without scattering off impurities. This collective behaviour of Cooper pairs is
the key to zero electrical resistance in superconductors.

Moreover, the phenomenon of zero electrical resistance is intimately connected to the

quantum mechanical nature of electrons. In superconductors, electrons behave as
though they are in a coherent quantum state, collectively occupying the lowest energy
level available. This coherence allows them to flow without scattering, resulting in the
absence of resistance.

The implications of zero electrical resistance are profound and have led to numerous
practical applications. For instance, in superconducting magnets used in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) machines, zero resistance enables the creation of strong and
stable magnetic fields necessary for high-resolution medical imaging. Similarly, in
power transmission lines, superconductors with zero resistance could revolutionize
energy distribution by reducing losses during transmission, leading to more efficient
and sustainable power grids.
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3. Critical Temperature

The critical temperature is a fundamental parameter in the study of superconductivity,

representing the temperature threshold below which certain materials transition into
the superconducting state. Above this critical temperature, the material behaves like a
normal conductor, exhibiting electrical resistance and other typical properties.
However, as the temperature decreases below the critical temperature, the material
undergoes a phase transition, entering the superconducting state where it displays zero
electrical resistance and expels magnetic fields (the Meissner effect).

The critical temperature varies from one superconductor to another and depends on
factors such as the material's composition, crystal structure, and external pressure.
Traditional superconductors, such as mercury and lead, have critical temperatures close
to absolute zero (0 Kelvin or -273.15°C), requiring extremely low temperatures to
achieve superconductivity. These materials are often referred to as "low-temperature
superconductors."

In contrast, the discovery of high-temperature superconductors (HTS) in the late 1980s

revolutionized the field by enabling superconductivity at significantly higher
temperatures. HTS materials can exhibit critical temperatures above the boiling point
of liquid nitrogen (77 Kelvin or -196.15°C), making them more practical for various
applications that require less extreme cooling.

Understanding the mechanisms behind the critical temperature and the transition to
superconductivity is a central focus of superconductivity research. The BCS theory
(named after John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer) provides a
theoretical framework for understanding conventional superconductors, explaining
how Cooper pairs form at low temperatures due to the attractive interaction between
electrons and lattice vibrations (phonons). However, the mechanism driving high-
temperature superconductivity remains an active area of investigation and debate
within the scientific community.

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The critical temperature serves as a crucial parameter in the design and implementation
of superconducting technologies. Engineers and researchers aim to develop materials
with higher critical temperatures and better performance characteristics to broaden the
range of practical applications for superconductivity. Advancements in materials
science, condensed matter physics, and quantum mechanics continue to push the
boundaries of superconductivity research, paving the way for new discoveries and
technological innovations.

4. Meissner Effect

The Meissner effect is a fundamental phenomenon observed in superconductors,

wherein they expel almost all magnetic fields from their interior when cooled below
their critical temperature. This effect was first discovered by physicists Walther
Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld in 1933.

When a superconductor transitions to its superconducting state, it actively repels

magnetic fields, causing them to be expelled from its interior. As a result, the magnetic
field lines are forced to bend around the superconductor, creating a region of near-zero
magnetic field within the material. This expulsion of magnetic flux from the
superconductor's interior is one of the hallmark characteristics of superconductivity
and is known as the Meissner effect.

The Meissner effect arises due to the formation of superconducting currents, known as
persistent currents, which flow on the surface of the superconductor in response to the
external magnetic field. These currents generate an opposing magnetic field that
cancels out the applied magnetic field within the material. As a result, the
superconductor becomes diamagnetic, repelling the magnetic field and causing it to
penetrate only to a very shallow depth, typically on the order of the superconducting
coherence length.

The Meissner effect has several important consequences and applications:

1. Levitation: One of the most visually striking demonstrations of the Meissner effect
is levitation. When a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature and placed

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above a magnet, the repulsive force between the expelled magnetic field and the
applied magnetic field causes the superconductor to levitate above the magnet. This
phenomenon has led to the development of superconducting levitation systems used in
applications such as magnetic levitation (maglev) trains and high-speed transportation.

2. Perfect Diamagnetism: The Meissner effect results in the superconductor becoming

a perfect diamagnet, with no magnetic flux penetrating its interior. This property is
utilized in various experimental techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), where superconducting magnets generate strong and stable magnetic fields for
medical imaging.

3. Lossless Transmission of Signals: The absence of magnetic flux penetration in

superconductors due to the Meissner effect enables lossless transmission of signals in
superconducting transmission lines, leading to applications in communication systems
and high-speed data transmission.

Overall, the Meissner effect is a fundamental property of superconductors with

significant implications for both fundamental research and practical applications. Its
discovery has played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of
superconductivity and has led to the development of innovative technologies across
various fields.

5. Applications:

Superconductivity has a wide range of practical applications across various fields,

owing to its unique properties such as zero electrical resistance, the Meissner effect,
and high magnetic field generation. Some of the notable applications include:

1.Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Superconducting magnets are essential

components in MRI machines used for medical imaging. The strong and stable
magnetic fields generated by superconducting magnets enable detailed imaging of soft
tissues and organs in the human body, aiding in the diagnosis and treatment of medical
conditions.
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2. Particle Accelerators: Superconducting magnets play a critical role in particle
accelerators, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), by bending and focusing
particle beams. These powerful magnets, cooled to superconducting temperatures,
enable researchers to study fundamental particles and explore the mysteries of particle
physics.

3. Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs): SQUIDs are highly

sensitive magnetic field detectors based on superconducting loops. They are used in
various applications, including magnetoencephalography (MEG) for brain imaging,
non-destructive testing, and geological exploration.

4. Power Transmission and Storage: Superconducting cables and fault current limiters
can revolutionize power transmission by reducing energy losses during electricity
distribution. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy
in the form of magnetic fields, offering high efficiency and rapid response times for
grid stabilization and backup power.

5. Maglev Transportation: Superconducting magnets enable magnetic levitation

(maglev) trains to float above the track, eliminating friction and allowing for high-
speed transportation with reduced energy consumption and environmental impact.

6. Quantum Computing: Superconducting qubits, which utilize the quantum properties

of superconductors, are promising candidates for building quantum computers.
Superconducting circuits offer scalability and low error rates, making them suitable for
quantum information processing tasks.

7. Fusion Energy: Superconducting magnets are essential components in experimental

fusion reactors, such as tokamaks, where they confine and control the plasma at
temperatures exceeding millions of degrees Celsius. High-temperature
superconductors (HTS) hold promise for more efficient and compact fusion reactor
designs.

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8. Wireless Communication: Superconducting filters and amplifiers can enhance the
performance of wireless communication systems by improving signal processing
capabilities and reducing noise.

9. Scientific Research: Superconductivity research continues to advance our

understanding of condensed matter physics and quantum phenomena. Novel
superconducting materials and devices pave the way for future innovations in
technology and scientific discovery.

6. Types of Superconductors:
➢ Type I Superconductors:

Type I superconductors are a class of superconducting materials characterized by a

well-defined critical temperature Tc below which they exhibit superconducting
behaviour. They were among the first superconductors to be discovered and studied
extensively. Some key characteristics of Type I superconductors include:

1. Abrupt Transition: Type I superconductors undergo a sharp and abrupt transition to

the superconducting state when cooled below their critical temperature. Above Tc, they
behave as normal metals with finite electrical resistance, but below Tc, they exhibit
zero resistance.

2. Complete Expulsion of Magnetic Fields: Below their critical temperature, Type I

superconductors expel nearly all external magnetic fields from their interior, a
phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. This expulsion of magnetic flux results in
the superconductor becoming perfectly diamagnetic, with no magnetic field
penetration into its interior.

3. Single Critical Magnetic Field: Type I superconductors have a single critical

magnetic field Hc above which they transition back to the normal state, losing their
superconducting properties. This critical field is relatively low, and once surpassed, the
superconductor reverts to a resistive state.

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4. Soft Superconductivity: Type I superconductors exhibit what is known as "soft"
superconductivity. This term refers to the gradual penetration of magnetic flux into the
material as the applied magnetic field approaches the critical field Hc. Near the critical
field, the superconductor's ability to expel magnetic flux diminishes, leading to a
gradual increase in resistance.

5. Limited Range of Applications: Due to their low critical magnetic fields and the soft
nature of their superconductivity, Type I superconductors have limited practical
applications. They are primarily used in educational demonstrations, fundamental
research, and low-field applications where precise magnetic field control is not
required.

Examples of Type I superconductors include elemental metals such as mercury (Hg),

lead (Pb), and tin (Sn), as well as certain binary alloys. While Type I superconductors
laid the foundation for the study of superconductivity and provided valuable insights
into the phenomenon, their practical utility is overshadowed by the development of
high-temperature superconductors (HTS) and Type II superconductors, which offer
higher critical temperatures and critical magnetic fields, as well as more robust
superconducting properties for a wider range of applications.

➢ Type II Superconductors

Type II superconductors represent a class of superconducting materials that exhibit

distinct properties compared to Type I superconductors. These materials were
discovered following the observation of Type I superconductors and have garnered
significant interest due to their higher critical temperatures Tc and critical magnetic
fields ( Hcl and (Hc2), as well as their ability to sustain high current densities in the
presence of magnetic fields. Here are some key characteristics of Type II
superconductors:

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1. Mixed State: Unlike Type I superconductors, which expel nearly all external
magnetic fields from their interior, Type II superconductors allow partial penetration
of magnetic flux into their bulk in the presence of a magnetic field. This leads to the
coexistence of superconducting and normal regions within the material, creating what
is known as the mixed state or vortex state.

2. Critical Magnetic Fields: Type II superconductors have two critical magnetic fields:
the lower critical field (Hc1) and the upper critical field (Hc2). Below Hc1, the
superconductor remains fully superconducting, while above Hc2, it transitions
completely to the normal state. Between Hcl and Hc2, the superconductor enters the
mixed state, where vortices of magnetic flux penetrate the material while
superconductivity persists.

3. Flux Pinning: In the mixed state, Type II superconductors can trap magnetic flux
lines within pinning sites, such as defects or impurities in the material. This
phenomenon, known as flux pinning, allows Type II superconductors to maintain
superconductivity and carry electrical currents even in the presence of magnetic fields,
making them suitable for practical applications in high-field environments.

4. Higher Critical Temperatures: Type II superconductors typically have higher critical

temperatures (Tc) compared to Type I superconductors, allowing them to operate at
less extreme cooling conditions. This makes them more suitable for practical
applications in fields such as energy transmission, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
and particle accelerators.

5. Applications: Type II superconductors find applications in a wide range of fields,

including:

- High-field magnets for medical imaging (MRI) and research.

- Power transmission lines for more efficient energy distribution.

- Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems for grid stabilization.

- High-speed transportation systems, such as magnetic levitation (maglev) trains.

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 - Superconducting quantum computing and information processing.

Examples of Type II superconductors include certain ceramic materials, such as

yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO), and some metallic alloys, such as niobium-
titanium (NbTi) and niobium-tin (Nb3Sn). These materials have revolutionized the
field of superconductivity and continue to drive advancements in technology and
scientific research.

7. Superconductivity Materiel

Superconductivity is exhibited by various materials, each with its own unique

properties and characteristics. These materials can be broadly categorized into different
classes based on their composition, crystal structure, and superconducting behaviour.
Here are some of the main classes of superconducting materials:

1. Elemental Superconductors: These are simple metallic elements that exhibit

superconductivity when cooled below their critical temperatures. Examples include:

- Mercury (Hg)

- Lead (Pb)

- Tin (Sn)

- Niobium (Nb)

- Aluminum (Al)

2. Intermetallic Compounds: These are compounds composed of two or more metallic

elements that exhibit superconductivity. Examples include:

- Niobium-tin (Nb3Sn)

- Vanadium-gallium (V3Ga)

- Magnesium-diboride (MgB2)

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3. Cuprate Superconductors: These are complex oxide materials containing layers of
copper oxide (cuprate) that exhibit high-temperature superconductivity. Cuprate
superconductors have critical temperatures well above those of conventional
superconductors. Examples include:

- Yttrium-barium-copper oxide (YBCO)

- Bismuth-strontium-calcium-copper oxide (BSCCO)

- Lanthanum-barium-copper oxide (LBCO)

4. Iron-Based Superconductors: These are materials containing layers of iron atoms

that exhibit superconductivity at relatively high temperatures. Iron-based
superconductors were discovered more recently and have critical temperatures
comparable to or higher than those of some cuprate superconductors. Examples
include:

- Iron-pnictide compounds (e.g., BaFe2As2)

- Iron-chalcogenide compounds (e.g., FeSe)

5. Organic Superconductors: These are organic compounds that exhibit

superconductivity under specific conditions, typically at low temperatures and high
pressures. Examples include:

- Organic charge-transfer salts (e.g., TMTSF)

- Fullerenes (e.g., C60)

6. High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS): This category includes materials with

critical temperatures above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 Kelvin or -
196.15°C). While cuprate superconductors and some iron-based superconductors fall
into this category, HTS materials encompass a broader range of materials with high
critical temperatures.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, superconductivity represents a remarkable phenomenon in physics

with profound implications for both fundamental science and technological innovation.
From its initial discovery over a century ago to the recent breakthroughs in high-
temperature superconductors, the study of superconductivity has captivated
researchers and engineers worldwide.

Throughout this exploration, we have delved into the fundamental principles of

superconductivity, including zero electrical resistance, the Meissner effect, and critical
temperatures. We have examined the different classes of superconducting materials,
ranging from elemental superconductors to complex oxide compounds and organic
materials, each with its own unique properties and potential applications.

Moreover, we have highlighted the diverse range of applications enabled by

superconductivity, from medical imaging and energy transmission to quantum
computing and high-speed transportation. Superconducting technologies have
revolutionized fields such as medicine, power generation, and scientific research,
offering unprecedented levels of efficiency, precision, and performance.

Looking ahead, the field of superconductivity continues to evolve, driven by ongoing

research efforts to discover new materials, understand underlying mechanisms, and
overcome technical challenges. As we strive to push the boundaries of
superconductivity, we unlock new opportunities for innovation and address pressing
societal and technological needs.

In essence, the study of superconductivity not only deepens our understanding of the
fundamental laws of nature but also inspires the development of transformative
technologies that have the potential to shape the future of humanity. As we continue to
harness the power of superconductivity, we embark on a journey of discovery and
innovation that promises to unlock new frontiers and pave the way for a brighter and
more sustainable future.

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References:
1. "Introduction to Superconductivity: Second Edition" by Michael Tinkham - This
textbook provides a comprehensive introduction to the theory and experimental aspects
of superconductivity.
2. "Superconductivity: Fundamentals and Applications" by Werner Buckel and
Reinhold Kleiner - This book covers the basic principles of superconductivity and
explores various applications in science and technology.
3. "Superconductivity: An Introduction" by K. H. Bennemann and J. B. Ketterson -
This introductory text provides an overview of the fundamental concepts and
experimental techniques in superconductivity.
4. "High-Temperature Superconductivity: Experiment and Theory" edited by Kam-
Wah Tsui and Ching-Wu Chu - This book discusses the discovery, properties, and
potential applications of high-temperature superconductors.
5. Research articles published in peer-reviewed journals such as "Physical Review
Letters," "Nature," "Science," and "Journal of Applied Physics" often provide up-to-
date information on the latest developments and discoveries in superconductivity
research.
6. Superconductivity “physic and applications Kristian Fossheim and Asle Sud

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