Strain and Stress

MAE 311 Part 2

Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation
Textbook Sections 12.3 – 12.10
November 7, 2024

1
Definitions1
 Strain is any forced change in the dimensions and/or
shape of an elastic element. A stretch is a tensile strain; a
shortening is compressive strain and an angular distortion
is a shear strain.
 Stress is internal force per unit area exerted on a
specified surface.

1 W. C Young and R.G. Budynas, “Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 7th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2002. 5
Definitions
 Elastic: Capable of sustaining stress without permanent
deformation; the term is also used to denote conformity to
the law of stress-strain proportionality (Hooke’s Law).1
 Plastic deformation is permanent deformation of the
material causing a change in shape.

1 W. C Young and R.G. Budynas, “Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 7th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2002. 6
 4.1 mm
Metal Film Strain Gages
 Metal film on a polymer backing
material.
 Small in size and reusable as long as
they are not plastically deformed.
 The basis for many different
measurements.
 Strain
 Force

 Pressure

 Low cost
Micro-Measurements Metal
Film Strain Gage 7
http://www.vishay-measurements.ca/pdf/strain/precision-strain-gages-sensors-linear.pdf
Strain Gage Resistance
How does the resistance 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙
change with strain? 𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴

R is resistance, ρ is electrical resistivity, l is length and A is cross-sectional area.

𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷2
For a generalized area A, C is a constant and D is some measure of length
(i.e. C = 1 for a square and C = π / 4 for a circle).

Differentiating:
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌 2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2
+ 2
−
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷2 2

Rearranging: 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2
𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 − 2𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
8
Strain Gage Resistance
How does the resistance 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙
change with strain? 𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2
𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 − 2𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷

Divide by R:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌
= −2 +
𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝐷 𝜌𝜌

Divide by dl / l:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝜌𝜌
=1−2 +
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⁄𝑅𝑅
is how resistance changes with strain!
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙 9
Strain Gage Resistance
How does the resistance 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝜌𝜌
=1−2 +
change with strain? 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙

𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 = axial strain = 𝜀𝜀𝐿𝐿 = lateral strain
𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝐷

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝐷𝐷
𝜈𝜈 = Poisson′s ratio = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝐿𝐿

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝜌𝜌
Gage Factor 𝐹𝐹 = = 1 + 2𝜈𝜈 +
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝑙𝑙
Resistance change Resistance change Resistance change due
due to length change due to area change to piezoresistance effect
10
Strain Gage Resistance
𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴
 Tensile strain increases length and ρ,
and decreases A. All of these cause
an increase in resistance.
 Compressive strain decreases length
and ρ, and increases A. All of these
cause a decrease in resistance.

11
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
 Vin is the excitation voltage
 Vg is the bridge output

 R1, R2, R3, R4 are precision resistors

with very similar resistance.
 Standard resistors are 120, 350, and
1 kΩ.
 Quarter Bridge
 Full Bridge
 One resistor is a strain gage  Allresistors are
 Half Bridge strain gages
 Two resistors are strain gages 12
Wheatstone Bridge

 A Wheatstone bridge is a balance

circuit.
 One-half of the circuit is a voltage
divider.
 If all resistors have equal
resistance Vout = 0 V.
 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)
can be used to increase the
sensitivity of the output.
13
Quarter Bridge Three Wire Configuration
 A third wire is added to the bridge to make bridge
balancing easier.
Each wire has resistance Rw

3
Rw R
w
2
R4

Rw
1
1 2 3 14
Strain Gage Conditioner (MM P3 Used in MAE 375)

15
Homework #5

 Design a load cell out of a cantilever beam.

 Choose beam dimensions for high sensitivity

 Design in a safety factor of 2 (Maximum load is less than

half of the yield stress of the materials).

16
Homework 5
 Strain gages are assigned based on your Charger ID.
 Strain gages Selection Criteria:
 https://intertechnology.com/Vishay/pdfs/TechNotes_TechTips/TN-505.pdf
 Strain gage calculators:
 https://www.micro-measurements.com/calculators#/
 Strain Gage Reference Guide:
 https://docs.micro-measurements.com/?id=8690
P
G

Wall

L
F P

y
A
17
Gage Nomenclature and Gage Factor

Foil Alloy Gage Factor

A 2.05
D 3.2
K 2.1
P 2.0 18
Gage Pattern Data Sheets

 Important measurements from the Gage Pattern Matrix Width

Data Sheet
 Gage Length is used in the Optimal Bridge Excitation
Calculator (for patterns not listed in the calculator)

Matrix Length

Gage Length
 Grid Width is also used in the Optimal Bridge Excitation
Calculator (for patterns not listed in the calculator)
 Matrix Length used for spacing of the gage on the beam
Gage Width
from the support
 Matrix Width used for determining minimum beam width
19
http://www.vishay-measurements.ca/pdf/strain/precision-strain-gages-sensors-linear.pdf
Beam Dimensions
Maximum Beam Stress ≠ Gage Stress  Length (L)
Maximum Beam Stress
 Not excessively long
Gage Stress where beam weight
affects the strain
 Long enough to fit the
strain gage
 Length from Load to
Support
 Too long and max stress
is too large
 Too short and not enough
room to fit the gage

20
Beam Dimensions
 Width (b)
 Wide enough to fit the
strain gage
 Thickness (t)
 Thick enough for a
straight beam

21
Optimal Bridge Excitation
Calculator
 Test Type (Static)
 Accuracy Requirements (High)
 Heat Sink Conditions (Varies based on beam
material and match beam material to Self
Temperature Compensation (STC))
 Gage Resistance (From assigned gage)
 Gage Pattern (From assigned gage)
 Length and Width Calculates a range of
excitation voltages (High voltages are more
stress sensitive).
Full Bridge, Bending Loads,
Transducer Output Calculator
 Load (10 lbs)
 Elastic Modulus (For beam material)

 Distance from Load

 Width (b)

 Thickness (t)

 Gage Factor (From assigned gage)

 Strain (microstrain)

 Bridge Output (EO/Ei multiply by

excitation voltage to get output in mV)
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
Wire a Full Bridge

T C

T
T
T C
C
C
Incorrect – No Output

24
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
Wire a Full Bridge

C C

T
T
T T
C
C
Incorrect – No Output

25
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
Wire a Full Bridge (Acceptable Wiring #1)

C T

S+ S–
T
T
T C
C
C Correct – Good Output

26
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
Wire a Full Bridge (Acceptable Wiring #2)

T C

S– S+
T
T
C T
C
C Correct – Good Output

P+ Positive Power
P- Negative Power
S+ Positive Signal
S- Negative Signal
27
Homework 5
 Step 1 – Determine the gage factor, the thermal
expansion coefficient of the beam, and the gage
resistance for your assigned gage.
 Step 2 – Determine an acceptable excitation voltage for
the gage and beam material using Optimum Bridge
Excitation Calculator on the Micro-Measurements website.
 Step 3 – Select beam dimensions and determine strain
gage output using Full Bridge, Bending Loads, Transducer
Output Calculator on the Micro-Measurements website.

28
Homework 5
 Step 4 – Calculate the Op-Amp gain to calibrate the load
cell (A calibrated load cell will have 10 V output for 10 lbs
load). Repeat Step 3 if the gain is too high.
 Step 5 – Calculate the load that will yield the beam and
compare it to requirements. Repeat Step 3 if the stress is
too high.
A workable load cell will have a maximum stress less than
half of the yield and a required gain of less than 1000.

29
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
Side Loads Acceptable Wiring #2

C T

C
T
C T
C
T
No Output
for Side Load

Side Load
30
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
Side Loads Alternative Acceptable Wiring #2

C C

C
T
T T
C
T
No Output
for Side Load

Side Load
31
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
End Loads (All acceptable wiring)

C C

C
C
C C
C
C
No Output for
End Loads

End Load
32
Cantilever Beam Strain Gage/Load Cell
End Loads (All acceptable wiring)

T T

T
T
T T
T
T
No Output for
End Loads

End Load
33