9.7.2020 Ch-8. How do Organisms reproduce?

Reproduction – It is a biological process by which living organisms produce new individuals

which may be similar or identical to the parents.

Importance of reproduction
(a) It helps in continuation of life.
(b) It helps in perpetuation of species.
(c) It maintains the composition of population.
(d) It introduces and transfers variations.

Basic events of reproduction

a) DNA Copying or DNA replication – It is the process of creating a carbon copy of

DNA.
Importance of DNA copying
i. DNA maintains the body design features of an organism.
ii. Any error in DNA copying may lead to variations which is the basis of evolution
of species.
b) Creation of an additional cellular apparatus.

Q.1 How does DNA act as the blue print for genetic machinery?

Ans-1.DNA(De oxy ribo nucleic acid) is the cellular component that transfers hereditary
information.

DNA has a genetic codewhich helps in synthesizing an efficient enzyme that controls the
synthesis of a particular protein that governs the body design.

Any defect in the genetic code leads to synthesis of less efficient enzymes that hampers the
synthesis of proteins that leads to error in body design.

Variations – Differences observed in morphology(external structure) , anatomy (internal

characteristic features), physiology (functioning) among individuals of same species.

Cause of variations – i. Error in DNA copying.

ii.Random fusion of gametes during fertilization.

Importance of variation- Accumulation of variations over millions of years leads to

evolution of a new species.

Q.2 How is reproduction linked to stability of a species population?

Ans-2 Populations of organisms occupy well defined places called niches in an ecosystem.

They increase their number by the process of reproduction.

Consistency in DNA copying during reproduction is important for maintaining the body design
features and allows the organisms to live in a particular niche.

Q.3 Why is variation beneficial for a species not for an individual?

Ans-3. A population of reproducing organisms are found in a particular niche and if any sudden
drastic changes, occur the entire population might get wiped it but a few individuals from the
population with some favourable variations may survive.

Ex- A population of bacteria living in temperate waters are affected by sudden temperature rise
due to global warming but a few variants survived the temperature change and transfer this
characteristic features to the next generation.

13.7.2020 Ch-8. How do Organisms reproduce?

Types of Reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Uniparental process  Biparental process
 Formation and fusion of gametes  Formation and fusion of gametes
doesn’t occur. occurs.
 Simple process & less time taking.  Complex process & more time taking.
 More no. of offsprings are produced.  Less no. of offsprings are produced.
 Offsprings are exactly identical to  Offsprings are similar to parents with
parents with less variations. more variations.

Types of Asexual reproduction

(a) Fission - Binary fission & Multiple fission.
(b) Budding.
(c) Spore formation.
(d) Fragmentation .
(e) Regeneration.
(f) Vegetative propagation.
(a) FISSION – It is a process by which an organism splits or divides to form two or more
daughter cells.
o It occurs by division of nucleus i.e. karyokinesis and division of cytoplasm i.e.
cytokinesis.
o Depending on the number of daughter cells produced fission is of two types:-
Binary fission – It is observed in organisms during favourable climatic conditions. It
is seen in Amoeba, Paramecium, Leishmania.
The following events occur during binary fission :-
i. The organism fully grows in size.
ii. The nucleus divides into two nuclei by the process of karyokinesis.
iii. It is immediately followed by the division of cytoplasm by cytokinesis.
 iv. This results in the formation of two daughter cells.

As amoeba has an irregular shape binary fission takes place in any plane but Leishmania has a
definite shape with a whip like flagella so binary fission takes place in a definite orientation or
fixed plane.
Multiple fission – It is observed in plasmodium. A parent organism divides to form many
daughter cells.

During unfavourable climatic conditions the organism develops an outer protective covering
called cyst to escape from the climatic changes.

Inside the cyst the nucleus divides multiple times to form a number of nuclei and finally the
cytoplasm divides once.

When favourable conditions reappear the cyst wall breaks the daughter cells are released.
 BINARY FISSION MULTIPLE FISSION
Two daughter cells are formed. Many daughter cells are formed.
No cyst is formed. Cyst is formed.
Occurs in favorable conditions. Occurs in unfavorable conditions.
Every nuclear division is followed by division Last nuclear division is followed by division of
of cytoplasm. cytoplasm.

(b)BUDDING – It is seen in hydra and yeast.

i. In yeast ( unicellular fungus) a lateral outgrowth or projection appears on its body
known as bud.

The nucleus present in the yeast cell divides to form two nuclei.

One of the nucleus migrates to the bud.

The bud grows in size , gets detached from the parent body to form a new yeast cell.

ii. In hydra ( multicellular coelenterate) repearted cell division at a specific site on its
body forms a projection called bud.
The bud grows in size, develops mouth and tentacles, finally separates from the parent body
and leads its life as an independent individual.

(c) Spore formation – It is seen in fungi like mushroom & rhizopus.

During spore formation, the organisms form knob or blob like structures called
sporangium.
This happens during unfavourable conditions in an inadequate supply of moisture and
nutrients.
The sporangium contain numerous minute asexual reproductive bodies called spores that
develop into new individuals and when the conditions are favourable the sporangium
bursts , spores fall on a moist surface and develop further.
Importance of spores
i. The spores are covered by thick walls that protect the spores until they come in
contact with moisture and begin to grow.
ii. Being in light in weight they can be easily transferred through air, water and animals.
iii. They remain inactive till favourable conditions reappear.
15.7.2020 Ch-8. How do Organisms reproduce?
(d) FRAGMENTATION – It is seen in filamentous algae like spirogyra.

When the body of the algae undergoes maturation it gets divided into multiple fragments & each
fragment develops into a new individual.

Q.3 Why can’t complex multicellular organisms use fragmentation as a method of

reproduction?

Ans-3.In complex multicellular organisms special cells organize themselves into tissues, tissues
form organs, organs are placed in a definite position in the body.

It is difficult to carry out cell by cell division to form tissues & organs in complex multicellular
organisms.

(e) REGENERATION – It is seen in hydra & planaria.

The body of the organism splits into many parts and each part has regenerative cells which
undergo division and sequential development to form a complete organism.

It is not considered as a true form of reproduction as an organism will not always depend on
being cut to be able to reproduce.

(f) VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION – Growing plants using vegetative plants like root, stem &
leaf.

Special vegetative buds appear on roots, stem & leaf which give rise to a new plant.

It is of two types

i. Natural methods – By roots – Carrot, Sweet potato.

By stem – Potato, Ginger.
By leaves- Bryophyllum.
ii. Artificial methods – By cutting – Rose, Hibiscus.
By layering – Grapes, Grass, Jasmine.
By grafting – Mango, Apple.
By tissue culture – Ornamental plants like money plant & orchids.
Q.4 How does a bryophyllum reproduce?

Ans-4 Vegetative buds appear on the leaf margins of a bryophyllum plant , get deatached from
the leaf, fall on a moist surface and give rise to a new plant.

ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

i. The offsprings are genetically identical to the parent.

ii. Plants grown by this method bear fruits and flowers earlier.
iii. Plants like banana, rose & jasmine which have lost the capacity to produce seeds can be
grown by this method.

DISADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

i. Diseases are easily transferred from the parents to offsprings.

TISSUE CULTURE/MICROPROPAGATION

Root or shoot apical meristematic tissue from a plant is cut and put in a nutrient medium.

The tissue dedifferentiates to form an unorganized mass of cells called callus.

The callus is shifted to a fresh nutrient medium with growth hormones.

It grows into plantlets. Healthy plantlets are put in soil to develop into plants.

It is used for growing ornamental plants like money plant, orchids.

23.7.2020 Reproduction in Plants

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

 Flower is a modified shoot which takes part in the process of sexual reproduction.
 It has five main parts- stalk/pedicel, sepal,petal,stamen & pistil.
 Essential whorls or parts of the flowers such as stamen and the pistil help in the sexual
reproduction of plants.

Non-essential parts of flowers

 The typical structure of flower contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.
 Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in
reproduction.
 Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform
photosynthesis if they are green in colour.
 Petals, when they are coloured and scented, attract insects for pollination.

Essential whorls of flowers

 Stamen and pistil are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a flower.

  Stamen is the male reproductive part which produces pollen grains containing male
gametes.It has anther which bears these pollen grains and a filament which holds the
anther.
 Pistil has a sticky, receptive stigma that holds pollen grains , style through which pollen
grain travels and ovary with ovules which produces female gamete.

Types of flowers

Unisexual flower – Flower with only stamen or pistil, undergoes cross pollination. Ex-
Papaya, Cucumber, Watermelon.

Bisexual flower – Flower with both pistil and stamen, undergoes self pollination. Ex- Rose,
Hibiscus, Mustard.

Pollination
The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the stigma of the same or
different flower present on the same or different plant belonging to the same species.
Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. examples: water, wind, insects,
birds, bats etc.

It is of 2 types –

Self Pollination Cross Pollination

The process of transfer of pollen grains from The process of transfer of pollen grains from
anther of one flower to the stigma of the same anther of one flower to the stigma of a different
 or different flower present on the same plant. flower present on a different plant belonging to
the same species.

Seen in bisexual flowers. Seen in unisexual and bisexual flowers.

No variations produced Variations are seen.

Fertilization
Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.
Steps in fertilization-
(a) Pollination
(b) Each pollen grain has two cells vegetative cell that gives rise to pollen tube and
generative cell that produces two male gametes.
(c) The pollen tube carries the male gamete, moves through the style to reach the
ovary containing ovule.
(d) Ovule has an embryo sac with female gamete and two polar bodies.
(e) One of the male gamete fuses with the female gamete to produce a diploid zygote
by the process of syngamy or fertilization.
(f) The other male gamete fuses with the two polar bodies to produce a triploid
endsperm by triple fusion which nourishes the developing zygote.
(g) As fertilization takes place twice it is known as double fertilization.

 Post Fertilisation changes

(a) Ovary develops into fruit.
(b) Ovules become seeds.
(c) Style, Sepal, Stamen, Petal dry and fall off.
(d) The unicellular zygote undergoes cell divisions to form a multicellular embryo.
 Structure of seed
Seed is a fertilized ovule which has
1. an outer protective seed coat
2. cotyledon or seed leaves to provide nourishment to the growing embryo.
3. Embryo axis with radicle that forms root system and plumule that forms shoot
system.
 Advantage of seed formation – Seed contains the future plant or embryo that germinates
under appropriate conditions of temperature and moisture into seedlings.

28.7.2020 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Sexual Reproduction

Types of Cell division

Two types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:
Mitosis

 Takes place in somatic cells

 Maintains the chromosome number
 Produces two diploid daughter cells
 Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell replacement and
regeneration
Meiosis

 Takes place in sex cells.

 Reduces the number of chromosomes by half.
 Produces four haploid daughter cells
 Required for sexual reproduction i.e gamete formation

The Reproductive System

Male reproductive system – It comprises of different organs and accessory glands.

(a) TESTES -

 The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

  They produce the male sex cells called sperms male sex hormone testosterone that
controls the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics.

 They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body because for production of male gamete
or sperm they need a temperature which is 1 or 2 degrees less than the normal body
temperature.

(b) Epididymis – It is a coiled tube like structure present over testes that connects it with the
sperm duct.
(c) Vas deferens – It is also known as sperm duct. It carries sperms from the testes to the
urethra.
(d) Urethra – It is a common passage for both urine and sperm.
(e) Ejaculatory organ or penis – A muscular organ that delivers sperms or male gamete into
the female reproductive tract.
Glands

Prostate gland, Seminal vesicle provides nourishment to the sperm & lubricate the passage to facilitate
sperm movement.

Structure of male gamete or sperm

Sperm has three essential parts-

i. Head – It has nucleus with chromosomes that stores the genetic information.
ii. Middle piece – A tubular structure in which mitochondria is present to provide energy for
sperm movement.
iii. Tail piece –It is the terminal part which helps the sperm to move.
Female reproductive system
The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian
tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.

(a) OVARIES -

 The main reproductive organ in a female is a pair of ovaries.

 It is located inside the abdomen.
 They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex
hormones called estrogen and progesterone.
 The egg stock which the female child has to produce in her entire life time is already
generated when she is inside her mothers womb.
 One egg matures every month and is released by one of the ovaries.

(b) FALLOPIAN TUBE –

 It is also known as oviduct.
 It has finger like structures called fimbrae to receive the egg on its release.
 It is the site of fertilization.
 (c) UTERUS – It is a pear shaped, muscular organ where the embryo gets implanted
(attachment of the growing embryo to the inner lining of the mothers uterus) and
develops.
The wall of uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels for nourishing the
embryo.
(d) VAGINA – It is a muscular tube like structure which serve as a site for sperm
entry. It is also known as the birth canal.
Date - 4.8.2020

FERTILIZATION – The process by which male gamete fuses with female gamete to form a
zygote.

Steps in fertilization

a) The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation.

b) Every month one ovum is released by one of the ovaries into the fallopian tube by the
process of ovulation.
c) The sperms travel upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the
ovum to form the zygote.
d) The zygote is unicellular , it divides and redivides to form a multicellular embryo
e) As it descends into the uterus , the embryo gets implanted in the inner lining of uterus
called endometrium.
f) The endometrium thickens by collection of blood vessels and muscles so as to receive the
embryo.
 Development of embryo

a) The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta, which is a disc-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. Placenta is formed by
the cells of the embryo.
b) It contains finger-like projections called villi on the embryo side and blood spaces on the
mother’s side.
c) Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the mother through the
placenta.
d) When the embryo starts developing all the body parts , it is termed as a foetus.
e) The foetus continues to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the
baby is delivered as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

What will happen to the egg when fertilization doesn’t take place?

a) Every month one of the ovaries release one ovum/egg to the fallopian tube for
fertilization.
 b) In the mean time the uterine lining becomes thick and spongy by collecting blood vessels
and muscle tissue to receive the zygote.
c) If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the lining of the uterus starts shedding off and
there is loss of blood and mucous through the vagina.
d) This process is a periodic event called menstruation which refers to the loss of blood,
mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured cells and tissues of the inner
lining of uterus through the vagina of the female.
e) It is a 28-30 day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from
puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days.
f) In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick and spongy for
nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does not occur.
g) The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as menarche.
h) The stoppage of menstruation when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

Date – 6.8.2020 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

STD - Sexually Transmitted diseases – The diseases which get transferred from
an infected person to a healthy person through sexual contact.

Types of STDs – (a) Bacterial STD – Syphilis , Gonorrhoea

Viral STD – HIV AIDS , Genital herpes, Genital warts.

Symptoms of STDs
(a) Release of puss from the genital organs.
(b) Burning sensation while urinating.
(c) Swollen reproductive parts.

HIV AIDS – Acquired Immune deficiency syndrome . It is caused by Human Immune

deficiency virus. It spreads by

(a) Sexual contact with infected person.

(b) Sharing infected needles.
(c) Blood transfusion from an infected person.
(d) From infected mother to baby

Symptoms can be reduced by taking anti retro viral drugs ( Zidovudine).

A person dies of AIDS as the virus affects the immune system and makes it weak which results
in the person getting affected by multiple disorders.

CONTRACEPTION – Avoiding pregnancy by adopting different techniques like

a) Chemical Method – Taking Oral Contraceptive pills by females prevents release of egg
from ovary. Side effects – Hormonal imbalance leading to weight gain.
b) Surgical Method – It involves vasectomy in males where the vas deferens or sperm duct
is cut and tied ( blocked) for preventing the sperm travel , tubectomy in females which
involves blocking fallopian tube that prevents passage of egg and hence stops
fertilization.
c) Barrier Method – Using condoms by males prevents sperm entry into the female
reproductive tract . diaphragms & cervical caps by females.
d) IUCD – Intra uterine contraceptive device – Copper T is inserted inside the female’s
uterus to prevent implantation.
Side effect – Irritation in the inner lining of uterus.

FEMALE FOETICIDE – Killing a girl child either by abortion or after birth. It is

drastically reducing the sex ratio. To stop this govt. has banned ultrasound usage to
determine the gender of a child.