Reproduction (1) (1)
Reproduction (1) (1)
Importance of reproduction
(a) It helps in continuation of life.
(b) It helps in perpetuation of species.
(c) It maintains the composition of population.
(d) It introduces and transfers variations.
Q.1 How does DNA act as the blue print for genetic machinery?
Ans-1.DNA(De oxy ribo nucleic acid) is the cellular component that transfers hereditary
information.
DNA has a genetic codewhich helps in synthesizing an efficient enzyme that controls the
synthesis of a particular protein that governs the body design.
Any defect in the genetic code leads to synthesis of less efficient enzymes that hampers the
synthesis of proteins that leads to error in body design.
Ans-2 Populations of organisms occupy well defined places called niches in an ecosystem.
Ans-3. A population of reproducing organisms are found in a particular niche and if any sudden
drastic changes, occur the entire population might get wiped it but a few individuals from the
population with some favourable variations may survive.
Ex- A population of bacteria living in temperate waters are affected by sudden temperature rise
due to global warming but a few variants survived the temperature change and transfer this
characteristic features to the next generation.
Types of Reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Uniparental process Biparental process
Formation and fusion of gametes Formation and fusion of gametes
doesn’t occur. occurs.
Simple process & less time taking. Complex process & more time taking.
More no. of offsprings are produced. Less no. of offsprings are produced.
Offsprings are exactly identical to Offsprings are similar to parents with
parents with less variations. more variations.
As amoeba has an irregular shape binary fission takes place in any plane but Leishmania has a
definite shape with a whip like flagella so binary fission takes place in a definite orientation or
fixed plane.
Multiple fission – It is observed in plasmodium. A parent organism divides to form many
daughter cells.
During unfavourable climatic conditions the organism develops an outer protective covering
called cyst to escape from the climatic changes.
Inside the cyst the nucleus divides multiple times to form a number of nuclei and finally the
cytoplasm divides once.
When favourable conditions reappear the cyst wall breaks the daughter cells are released.
BINARY FISSION MULTIPLE FISSION
Two daughter cells are formed. Many daughter cells are formed.
No cyst is formed. Cyst is formed.
Occurs in favorable conditions. Occurs in unfavorable conditions.
Every nuclear division is followed by division Last nuclear division is followed by division of
of cytoplasm. cytoplasm.
The nucleus present in the yeast cell divides to form two nuclei.
The bud grows in size , gets detached from the parent body to form a new yeast cell.
ii. In hydra ( multicellular coelenterate) repearted cell division at a specific site on its
body forms a projection called bud.
The bud grows in size, develops mouth and tentacles, finally separates from the parent body
and leads its life as an independent individual.
When the body of the algae undergoes maturation it gets divided into multiple fragments & each
fragment develops into a new individual.
Ans-3.In complex multicellular organisms special cells organize themselves into tissues, tissues
form organs, organs are placed in a definite position in the body.
It is difficult to carry out cell by cell division to form tissues & organs in complex multicellular
organisms.
The body of the organism splits into many parts and each part has regenerative cells which
undergo division and sequential development to form a complete organism.
It is not considered as a true form of reproduction as an organism will not always depend on
being cut to be able to reproduce.
(f) VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION – Growing plants using vegetative plants like root, stem &
leaf.
Special vegetative buds appear on roots, stem & leaf which give rise to a new plant.
It is of two types
Ans-4 Vegetative buds appear on the leaf margins of a bryophyllum plant , get deatached from
the leaf, fall on a moist surface and give rise to a new plant.
TISSUE CULTURE/MICROPROPAGATION
Root or shoot apical meristematic tissue from a plant is cut and put in a nutrient medium.
It grows into plantlets. Healthy plantlets are put in soil to develop into plants.
Flower is a modified shoot which takes part in the process of sexual reproduction.
It has five main parts- stalk/pedicel, sepal,petal,stamen & pistil.
Essential whorls or parts of the flowers such as stamen and the pistil help in the sexual
reproduction of plants.
The typical structure of flower contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.
Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in
reproduction.
Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform
photosynthesis if they are green in colour.
Petals, when they are coloured and scented, attract insects for pollination.
Types of flowers
Unisexual flower – Flower with only stamen or pistil, undergoes cross pollination. Ex-
Papaya, Cucumber, Watermelon.
Bisexual flower – Flower with both pistil and stamen, undergoes self pollination. Ex- Rose,
Hibiscus, Mustard.
Pollination
The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the stigma of the same or
different flower present on the same or different plant belonging to the same species.
Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. examples: water, wind, insects,
birds, bats etc.
It is of 2 types –
Fertilization
Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.
Steps in fertilization-
(a) Pollination
(b) Each pollen grain has two cells vegetative cell that gives rise to pollen tube and
generative cell that produces two male gametes.
(c) The pollen tube carries the male gamete, moves through the style to reach the
ovary containing ovule.
(d) Ovule has an embryo sac with female gamete and two polar bodies.
(e) One of the male gamete fuses with the female gamete to produce a diploid zygote
by the process of syngamy or fertilization.
(f) The other male gamete fuses with the two polar bodies to produce a triploid
endsperm by triple fusion which nourishes the developing zygote.
(g) As fertilization takes place twice it is known as double fertilization.
(a) TESTES -
They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body because for production of male gamete
or sperm they need a temperature which is 1 or 2 degrees less than the normal body
temperature.
(b) Epididymis – It is a coiled tube like structure present over testes that connects it with the
sperm duct.
(c) Vas deferens – It is also known as sperm duct. It carries sperms from the testes to the
urethra.
(d) Urethra – It is a common passage for both urine and sperm.
(e) Ejaculatory organ or penis – A muscular organ that delivers sperms or male gamete into
the female reproductive tract.
Glands
Prostate gland, Seminal vesicle provides nourishment to the sperm & lubricate the passage to facilitate
sperm movement.
i. Head – It has nucleus with chromosomes that stores the genetic information.
ii. Middle piece – A tubular structure in which mitochondria is present to provide energy for
sperm movement.
iii. Tail piece –It is the terminal part which helps the sperm to move.
Female reproductive system
The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian
tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.
(a) OVARIES -
FERTILIZATION – The process by which male gamete fuses with female gamete to form a
zygote.
Steps in fertilization
a) The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta, which is a disc-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. Placenta is formed by
the cells of the embryo.
b) It contains finger-like projections called villi on the embryo side and blood spaces on the
mother’s side.
c) Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the mother through the
placenta.
d) When the embryo starts developing all the body parts , it is termed as a foetus.
e) The foetus continues to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the
baby is delivered as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.
What will happen to the egg when fertilization doesn’t take place?
a) Every month one of the ovaries release one ovum/egg to the fallopian tube for
fertilization.
b) In the mean time the uterine lining becomes thick and spongy by collecting blood vessels
and muscle tissue to receive the zygote.
c) If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the lining of the uterus starts shedding off and
there is loss of blood and mucous through the vagina.
d) This process is a periodic event called menstruation which refers to the loss of blood,
mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured cells and tissues of the inner
lining of uterus through the vagina of the female.
e) It is a 28-30 day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from
puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days.
f) In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick and spongy for
nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does not occur.
g) The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as menarche.
h) The stoppage of menstruation when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.
Symptoms of STDs
(a) Release of puss from the genital organs.
(b) Burning sensation while urinating.
(c) Swollen reproductive parts.
A person dies of AIDS as the virus affects the immune system and makes it weak which results
in the person getting affected by multiple disorders.
a) Chemical Method – Taking Oral Contraceptive pills by females prevents release of egg
from ovary. Side effects – Hormonal imbalance leading to weight gain.
b) Surgical Method – It involves vasectomy in males where the vas deferens or sperm duct
is cut and tied ( blocked) for preventing the sperm travel , tubectomy in females which
involves blocking fallopian tube that prevents passage of egg and hence stops
fertilization.
c) Barrier Method – Using condoms by males prevents sperm entry into the female
reproductive tract . diaphragms & cervical caps by females.
d) IUCD – Intra uterine contraceptive device – Copper T is inserted inside the female’s
uterus to prevent implantation.
Side effect – Irritation in the inner lining of uterus.