International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-022-00897-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Dimensional parameters and non-dimensional numbers

in micro-plasma arc welding of SS 316L sheets
B. Chinna Ankanna1,2 · K. Govindarajulu1

Received: 29 January 2022 / Accepted: 12 April 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Stainless steel SS 316L alloy is the most preferred material in the vehicle manufacturing industry on account of superior
structural attributes even at an elevated temperature. In fact, the development and advancement in micro-plasma arc welding
process have been extended in joining thin metal sheets due to high accuracy and processing capability. The focus of the
present work is to examine the effect of weld variables and material properties of SS 316L combinedly through a group of
elemental parameters and non-dimensional numbers on weldment characteristics. The elemental parameters such as interac-
tion energy, linear energy and melting efficiency are a function of weld variables and thermal properties are considered to
examine the variation of aspect ratio and melting efficiency rate relative to arc power and welding speed. On the contrary,
dimensionless numbers considered in the present analysis are non-dimensional linear energy, non-dimensional heat input
index, Fourier number and Marangoni number. The dimensionless factors will provide fundamental insight of thermal and
fluid flow characteristics during the weld pool development of SS 316L. Based on the results, it is determined that higher
aspect ratio in SS 316L weldments promotes thermal and structural damage to the material on account of higher convection
heat transmission rate with in the melt pool.

Keywords Micro-plasma arc welding · Dimensional parameters · Non-dimensional numbers · SS 316L

1 Introduction arc welding methods. Therefore, advanced welding tech-

niques such as laser and electron beam welding processes
The application of thin sheets in different industrial domain are employed to join thin sheets in manufacturing domain.
can be increased by enhancing material attributes such as Since, these joining methods offers nominal weld distortion
formability, machinability and weldability. In fact, weld- with enhanced weld joint integrity and high energy efficiency.
ing is one of the most solicited joining techniques for However, its higher operating cost and longer production
manufacturing industrial parts in masses. However, the phys- cycle limits the application of laser and electron beam weld-
ical challenges confronted during welding thin sheets are ing methods for joining thin sheets as an industrial practice.
burn-through, joint surface mismatch, distortion, wrapping, In this respect, micro-plasma arc welding procedure is
buckling and twisting along longitudinal and transverse a much more promising joining technique which can join
direction of the weld joint [1]. These limitations of joining thin sheets with minimum overall production cost. Indeed,
thin sheets are primarily due to uncontrolled and exces- it is an advanced arc joining method with better arc sta-
sive heat delivered during welding process by conventional bility, higher energy density and produces weld joint with
enhanced physical, microstructural and structural attributes
[2, 3]. Moreover, the arc intensity in plasma arc welding
process is closer to beam intensity in laser beam welding
B B. Chinna Ankanna
[email protected] procedure. Hence, micro-plasma arc welding technique is
often referred as more efficient and effective procedure for
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru joining thin sheets when compared with advanced laser and
Technological University Ananthapuramu, Ananthapuramu,
electron beam welding methods.
Andhra Pradesh 515002, India
Proper selection of weld variables for joining procedure
2 Rajeev Gandhi Memorial College of Engineering and
is a vital step for obtaining weld joint with minimal defects
Technology, Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh 518501, India

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

and enhanced material attributes. In fact, weld variables have weld boundary geometry in conduction regime weldments.
great influence on weld joint characteristics either individ- Similarly, Elsen et al. presented dimensionless number set
ually or combinedly. The key variables that influence the and its significance in selective laser melting [12].
weld joint attributes are arc voltage, current, welding speed, De and Debroy et al. established a mathematical model
stand-off distance, flow rate of plasma gas and orifice diam- based on non-dimensional linear energy that can evaluate
eter. Other principal variables that have an effect on weld viscosity and thermal conductivity in fusion welding process
quality are plasma arc intensity, flow rate and purity of inert for SS 304 weldments [13]. Debroy et al. established a rela-
gas, clamping force, fixture material and geometry, material tionship between geometry of 5182 Al alloy, sodium nitrate,
attributes such as geometry, thickness, dimensional toler- steel and gallium alloy weldments with dimensionless fac-
ances between surfaces to be joined, thermal and physical tors such as Marangoni and Fourier numbers during laser spot
properties [4]. These principal variables when combined welding [14]. Wang et al. performed heat transmission and
together results in several dimensional or non-dimensional fluid flow analysis for plasma arc welded and TIG welded
factors which will determine welding efficiency, heat trans- SUS 304 stainless steel alloy. The authors have incorporated
mission mode, characteristics of molten metal. Moreover, various fluid flow forces such as Lorentz force, buoyance
the dimensional and non-dimensional factors will reduce the force, Marangoni force and drag force due to plasma effect
inspection of process parameters individually and forms the while solving the equation of mass, momentum and energy.
basis for parametric analysis. Therefore, the current work is Moreover, dimensionless variables are employed for rela-
focused on examination of dimensional and non-dimensional tive comparison of fluid flow forces with that of convection
variables on weldment characteristics for micro-plasma arc and conduction heat transmission process. From results, the
welding method. authors confirmed that convection is the primary driving
Several studies were undertaken in the recent past to deter- force which determines the geometry of SUS 304 weldments
mine the effects of key weld parameters on characteristics and [15]. Faraji et al. performed fluid flow and heat transfer anal-
efficiency of weld joints. Prasad et al. demonstrated the weld- ysis for laser-TIG AA 6082 alloy weldments. The authors
ing of thin SS sheets with a series of experimentations with incorporated several dimensionless numbers to recognize the
respect to the effects of heat input and process parameters influential parameters which governs the fluid flow char-
on the measured weld quality parameters [5]. Some of the acteristics of the melt pool. The authors determined that
researchers have developed the plasma arc welding system Marangoni force is the most influential fluid flow force which
for joining of dissimilar SS plates and examined the effect determine the weldment geometry [16]. Moreover, some
of heat input with reference to microstructures and mechani- of the investigators have examined the plasma arc welding
cal properties of maraging steel welds, ultra-high strength process by means of mathematical and convolutional neu-
steel and aluminum alloy welds using Al–Si and Al–Cu ral network models without using non-dimensional numbers
fillers [6–8]. Fuerschbach and Knorovsky determined a non- [17–20].
dimensional variable that can evaluate melting efficacy in two From aforementioned literature, it is determined that a
dimensional and three-dimensional form for SS 304 and Ni parametric analysis on micro-plasma SS 316L weldments by
200 plasma arc and gas tungsten arc weldments. The authors utilizing dimensional and dimensionless variables have not
validated the computed melting efficiency against experi- been investigated and reported yet. Hence, the current work is
mentally measured melting efficiency results and determined focused on examination of a group of dimensional elements
a good approximation [9]. Fuerschbach established a dimen- and dimensionless factors relative to weld parameters and
sionless parameter model using Rykalin and Christensen material properties combinedly on SS 316L weldment char-
parameters for gas tungsten and plasma arc welding pro- acteristics. The elemental parameters which are considered
cesses to estimate weld size, arc power and welding speed in the present analysis are linear energy, interaction energy
range based on thermal properties of SS 304, 1100 Al alloy and melting efficiency that will determine the influence of
and 200 Ni alloy. Also, the dimensionless model is efficient weld variables on aspect ratio factor and melting efficiency
in estimating melting efficiency at low heat input conditions rate. On the contrary, dimensionless numbers such as non-
[10]. A fundamental relation between numerically com- dimensional linear energy, non-dimensional heat input index,
puted weld profile, temperature field, fluid flow pattern and Fourier number and Marangoni number will determine the
dimensionless numbers such as Prandtl number, Marangoni thermal and fluid flow characteristics during weld pool for-
number, Peclet number and heat input is presented by Wei mation. Moreover, comprehending material behavior from
et al. [11]. The authors identified that Marangoni and Prandtl elemental factors will provide a fundamental overview of
number are the most effective parameters for determining plasma arc welding process.

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2 Dimensional parameters for melting per unit volume from ambient temperature to liq-
and non-dimensional numbers uidus temperature. It is mathematically defined as [26–29]

The dimensional elements such as linear energy (L E ), inter- P ×t

NHI    (5)
action energy per unit volume (IE ) and melting efficiency ρ Cp (Tm − T0 ) + L πr 2 s
(ηmelt ) are considered in the present work to characterize SS
316L weldments. The linear energy signifies arc energy trans- where s, r and t indicate substrate thickness (mm), nozzle
mitted per unit weld length and it is defined as a function of radius (mm) and welding time (s) respectively. The ther-
arc power (P) to weld velocity (v). Interaction energy param- mal and fluid flow characteristics in weldment is interpreted
eter is employed to take into account the influence of power by Marangoni number and Fourier number. Marangoni
density variable and welding time combinedly. It is defined number is used to determine melt pool velocity which in
as ratio of linear energy (P/v) to orifice area of plasma (Ao ). effect governs geometrical configuration, microstructural
The weld joint efficiency is determined by melting efficiency and structural characteristics. It is represented as ratio of sur-
parameter. It signifies the amount of arc energy utilized for face tension to viscous force in the melt pool. While, Fourier
melting the substrate effectively. Melting efficiency (ηmelt ) is number signifies heat transmission rate through conduction
represented as ratio of arc energy needed for melting metal mode and it is represented as ratio of diffusive heat trans-
to absorbed energy by substrate. The mathematical repre- mission rate to heat storage rate. The Marangoni number and
sentation of interaction energy, linear energy and melting Fourier number are expressed mathematically as [24, 25]
efficiency is represented as [21–23]
dϒ wT
Ma  (6)
P dT μα
LE  (1)
v
Fo  (αt)/l 2 (7)
IE  P/( Ao v) (2)
where w, T , dU/dT , α, μ and t represents molten pool
 
v Aρ Cp (Tm − T0 ) + L width in mm, difference in temperature between liquidus and
ηmelt  (3) solidus state of the substrate in K, surface tension gradient
(1 − R) × P
in N m−1 K−1 , thermal diffusivity in m2 s−1 , viscosity in
where P, v and Ao are arc power in W , weld speed in m s−1 kg m−1 s−1 and welding time in s respectively. Although,
and plasma orifice area in mm2 respectively. The terms A, R, the welding time can be represented as characteristics length
ρ, T m , T 0 , C p , and L represent area of fusion zone in mm2 , of weld bead to weld speed. Hence, Fourier number can be
reflectivity, density in kg m−3 , liquidus temperature in K, expressed as [24, 25]
reference or initial temperature in K, heat capacity in J kg−1
K−1 and latent heat of fusion in kJ kg−1 respectively. Fo  α/(ul) (8)
The physics involved during a welding process for a spe-
cific material can be assessed by dimensionless variables.
The basic dimensionless variables which are considered for
present analysis are non-dimensional linear energy (L NI ), 3 Experimental procedure
non-dimensional heat input index (N HII ), Fourier number
(F o ) and Marangoni number (M a ). N LE is defined as an ana- In order to analyze the non-dimensional numbers and dimen-
lytical interpretation of input thermal energy per unit weld sional parameters, the experiments are considered from
length. N LE is mathematically expressed as [24, 25] an independent literature [30]. The micro-plasma welding
experiments are performed in ARCRAFT Plasma semi-
LE P/v automatic digital equipment of model type MP: 50. The
L NI   (4)
L Low PLow /vLow butt aligned welding experiments are performed on austenitic
stainless steel 316L sheets of dimensions 150 mm × 100 mm
where L NI , L Low , PLow and vLow represent non-dimensional × 0.5 mm. A constant arc voltage of 25 V was maintained
linear energy, lowest linear energy (J mm−1 ), lowest incident during the experiments and the current source was varied
arc power (W) and lowest welding speed (m s−1 ) from the between 1 and 50A. A tungsten electrode of diameter 1.2 mm
entire processing conditions set. The interpretation of alloy was employed and the nozzle was made of copper which is
properties and operating variables is represented by non- having 1.2 mm as diameter. The nozzle tip angle was main-
dimensional heat input index parameter. It is represented as tained at an inclination of 10° angle from the vertical axis.
ratio of incident thermal energy density to enthalpy required Pure argon gas of 99.99% purity is employed as shielding and

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Table 1 Chemical composition

of parent material SS316L sheet Cr Ni Mo Mn Si S P C Fe
(in weight %)
17.4 10.4 1.9 1.1 0.5 0.02 0.1 0.03 Balance

Table 2 Processing conditions

for micro-plasma arc welding of Weld sample Arc voltage (V) Welding current (A) Welding speed Weld area
SS 316L sheets (mm/s) (mm2 )

S1–S3 25 8 2.7, 3.7, 4.7 0.55, 0.35,

0.132
S4–S6 25 9 2.7, 3.7, 4.7 0.68, 0.402,
0.230
S7–S9 25 10 2.7, 3.7, 4.7 1.08, 0.49,
0.34
S10–S12 25 11 2.7, 3.7, 4.7 0.73, 0.57,
0.35

plasma gas with a flow rate of 0.033 L/s. To avoid any mis-
alignment and displacement of weldments during welding
experiments, fixture with two clamp plates at the top section
and copper backing plates at the bottom section are designed.
Moreover, a motor driven rail track was inbuilt whose speed
is varied from 1 to 10 mm s−1 in order to enable smoother
movement of welding torch. In plasma arc welding proce-
dure, one of the most important aspect is proper alignment
of the electrode with the weld line. And, a slight displace-
ment of electrode yields in improper joining due to smaller
plasma arc size.
Prior to joining operation, SS 316L sheets were rubbed
with emery papers and cleaned with acetone to remove the
presence of any dirt or oxide. The After welding experi- Fig. 1 Relation between interaction energy and aspect ratio of SS 316L
welded sheets
ments, metallographic analysis of SS 316L welded sheets
was carried out to evaluate weldment characteristics such as
dimension and profile. The SS 316L sheets are cut in trans-
verse direction to the weld joint and polished with emery and elemental variables are considered from an independent
paper of different grades. Henceforth, SS 316L samples were source [13, 24–26].
electrochemically etched with Villella’s reagent solution to Figure 1 represents the relationship between aspect ratio
obtain macro-structural features. The weld penetration, width and Interaction energy of SS 316L welded sheets. From the
and area are recorded corresponding to each experimental plot, it can be observed that there is a steep increase in aspect
condition. The chemical composition of the parent material ratio from 376.10 to 537.46 J/mm3 . However, the variation
in weight percentage is given Table 1. The processing condi- in aspect ratio becomes almost constant when interaction
tions considered for micro-plasma welding of SS 316L sheets energy is increased from 537.46 to 657.02 J/mm3 . Subse-
is presented in Table 2. quently, the aspect ratio magnitude again rises linearly from
657.02 J/mm3 onwards. The domain where aspect ratio mag-
nitude remains almost constant with increase in interaction
energy per unit volume can be defined as transition phase.
Since, the weld penetration and width of SS 316L weld-
4 Results and discussion ment remains almost constant in transition phase regardless
of increase in arc power for constant welding speed. This
In the following section, the integral influence of operating phenomenon is primarily due to imbalance in forces between
variables and material properties on weldment characteristics surface tension force and vapour pressure of SS 316L alloy-
is analyzed. The thermal and physical variables of SS 316L ing elements [31]. Figure 2 presents the weld penetration
which are taken into account for evaluating dimensionless variation with respect to interaction energy per unit volume.

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 2 Relation between interaction energy and weld penetration of SS Fig. 4 N HI versus welding speed for plasma arc welded SS 316L sheets
316L welded sheets

Fig. 5 Influence of welding speed on melting efficiency in plasma arc

Fig. 3 Variation of weld penetration with respect to linear energy for SS 316L welded sheets
SS 316L welded sheets
represents the amount of energy density deposited from heat
From the graph, it is recognized that there is a linear increase source and enthalpy required to form welded joint. And, a
in weld penetration from 376.10 to 537.46 J/mm3 . Although, declining trend in N HI magnitude with increasing weld veloc-
the variation in weld penetration is nominal from 537.46 to ity demonstrates that for constant arc power lower thermal
657.02 J/mm3 . energy density is deposited at higher welding velocity when
Figure 3 represents variation of weld penetration with compared with lower welding velocity. The percentage drop
respect to linear energy for SS 316L welded sheets. It can in N HI magnitude for plasma arc welded SS 316L sheets for
be identified that the plot shows same trend as in Fig. 2. In constant arc power when welding speed is increased from 2.7
fact, the interaction energy is the ratio of linear energy to to 4.7 mm/s is 27.8%. Based on the results, it can be inferred
plasma orifice diameter and in the present analysis the diam- that for producing high integrated weld joint the welding
eter of plasma orifice is maintained constant therefore, the velocity should be optimal such that thermal energy density
graph displays same trend. The weld penetration increases incident on the substrate should be maximum.
linearly from 42.5 to 67.5 J/mm. Thereafter, a nominal vari- Melting efficiency parameter determines the efficiency of
ation in weld penetration magnitude is observed from 67.5 to arc energy in producing weld joint. Fundamentally, it gov-
101.8 J/mm. And, again a steady rise in depth of penetration erns the rate of heat conduction from melt pool to the parent
magnitude is determined from 101.8 J/mm. metal section. And, it relies on operating variables such as
Figure 4 represents non-dimensional heat input index vari- weld speed and arc power and it is also a function of thermal
ation relative to welding speed for plasma arc welded SS and physical attributes of weld material. Figure 5 presents the
316L sheets at different arc power. It is determined that with influence of welding speed on melting efficiency parameter
increasing welding speed N HI magnitude diminishes linearly in plasma arc SS 316L weldments. It is observed from the plot
for constant arc power. Also, the magnitude of N HI is rela- that there is a liner increase in melting efficiency with increas-
tively higher at 275 W as against 200 W. The N HI magnitude ing welding speed for constant arc power. It can be recognized

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 6 Effect of arc power on melting efficiency in plasma arc SS 316L Fig. 7 Effect of L NI on Marangoni number in plasma arc welded SS
welded sheets 316L sheets

that with rise in welding speed from 2.7 to 4.7 mm s−1 , the
melting efficiency curve rises almost linearly. The above data
also suggest that for constant arc power, lower welding speed
(2.7 mm s−1 ) contributes to a lower thermal energy conduc-
tion rate from the melt pool zone to the parent metal zone.
Since, at lower welding speed, the thermal energy incident
on the surface will be restrained for a longer duration which
will increase the weld penetration. This in effect, will result
in turbulence formation with the melt pool and a decrease in
thermal energy conduction rate from the weld metal zone to
parent metal region. Hence, a reduced melting efficiency is
determined at lower welding velocity for constant arc power.
Moreover, from the results it can be inferred that plasma arc
SS 316L welded sheets have higher ability to conduct thermal Fig. 8 Effect of L NI on Fourier number in plasma arc welded SS 316L
energy on account of higher thermal diffusivity. sheets
Figure 6 represents the variation of arc power with respect
to melting efficiency in plasma arc welded SS 316L sheets. It
is identified that there is a linear increase in melting efficiency 225 W, 250 W and 275 W. Moreover, the Marangoni number
with increase in arc power from 200 to 275 W for constant factor is determined to be relatively higher at high L NI due
welding speed. At low arc power, 200 W and low welding to higher convective heat transmission effect within the melt
velocity, 2.7 mm s−1 , the thermal energy from heat source pool on account of keyhole formation. In fact, convection
will be utilized for increasing weld penetration and width. heat transfer is least at lower L NI and conduction mode heat
And, the heat conduction rate from melt pool to base metal transmission prevails. Moreover, higher Marangoni number
section will be minimal. Therefore, the efficiency of melting signifies higher molten metal velocity and increased charac-
is maximum in plasma arc welded SS 316L at high plasma teristics length of weld bead at high aspect ratio.
arc power and at an optimum range of welding speeds. The structural damages in the weldment such as distortion,
In plasma arc weldments, the weldment characteristics fatigue stress and welding induced stress can be identified by
is primarily governed by the velocity of molten metal in Fourier number parameter. Figure 8 demonstrates the effect
the melt pool, heat transmission mode and weld bead char- of L NI on Fourier number in plasma arc SS 316L welded
acteristics length. In the present analysis, these factors are sheets. It is recognized from the plot that the magnitude of
represented by dimensionless constants such as L NI , Fourier Fourier number reduces linearly relative to L NI . Fourier num-
number and Marangoni number. Figure 7 demonstrates the ber obtained for the given welding conditions (Table 2) is
influence of Marangoni number relative to L NI . From the vary from 0.1264 to 0.311. A higher Fourier number repre-
plot, it can be identified that Marangoni number increases sent lower weld bead characteristics length, lower melt pool
from 362 to 466 almost linearly with increase in L NI from velocity and lower heat storage rate on account of higher ther-
1 to 1.74 for constant welding arc power 200 W. A similar mal diffusivity. Although, a lower Fourier number denotes
trend can be observed for other welding arc powers such as higher weld bead characteristics length due to slower thermal

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

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