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TM 1-900
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Paragraphs
SECTION I. General _- ^ 1-2
II. Fundamental operations 3-18
III. Equations and formulas — .19-22
IV. Scales 23-26
V. Graphs 27-29
VI. Angular measurement 30-33
VII, Vectors 34-37
Page
APPENDIX. Miscellaneous units and conversion factors 60
INDEX . 62
SECTION I
GENERAL
Paragraph
Purpose and scope 1
Materials r 2
453568°—42-
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1-4 ' ARMY AIR. FORGES
2
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MATHEMATICS FOB PILOT TRAINEES 4
write down only the right-hand figure and carry the others to the
next column to the left.
(1) Example: Find the sum of 30.53, 6.475, 0.00035, and 3476.
Solution:
CARRY-
OVER
35/3, dndwet,
FIGURE 1.
3
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4-5 ARMY AIR FORCES
(3) 100.001+9.098+5678.91 = ?
(4) 897.1+0.989+900.76+91901.359=93700.208 Answer
(5) 9876 ft.+101.109 ft.+77.007 ft.+92,928 ft,+94.987 ft +
60.768 ft.=?
(6) 19.767+43.542+76.305+58.143 + 13.25=211.007 Answer.
(7) 11.1111 miles+66.667 miles+1.222 miles+125.125 miles+
375.375 miles=?
(8) 78.908+202.202+62.501+0.003594+75=418.614594
^\flfbSfU3P V
(9) 7.8098+20.202+6.2501 + 000.3594+7.5=?
(10) 78.808 yd.+98.15yd.+760yd.+88199.76yd.=89136.718
y. Answer.
5. Subtraction.—a. Subtraction is the operation of finding the
difference between two numbers. In order to subtract one number
from another, write the smaller number below the larger so that the
decimal points are in a vertical column. Beginning with the right
column, subtract the figures in the smaller number from the corre-
sponding figures in the larger number above them.
(1) Example: Subtract 765.3 from 986.7.
Solution: 986.7
765.3
221 4
- Answer.
b. If, however, the figure in the number being subtracted is larger
than the figure directly above it, it is necessary to borrow one unit
from the next figure to the left.
(1) Example: Subtract 765.3 from 843.1.
Solution:
ßoßßov t
732
7653
/71^8\—än#oe* .
U3-6) (as) (//-3J
fri\ \r T • FIGURE 2.
(2) Note.—It is better to learn to do the "carrying over" mentally
so that the preceding solution looks like this:
843.1
765.3 . ,
77.8 Answer.
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 5-6
c. When a column has only one figure in it, zeros must be supplied
in the blank spaces.
(1) Example: Subtract 765.328 from 843.1.
Solution:
ZH\I& EXTRA
7 65 3 28 "*>S
7 7J7 7 2 Omauvi
FIGURE 3.
FlGUBE 4.
multiplied together are called the factors and the result of the multi-
plication is called the product. To multiply two numbers together,
or in other words, to find the product of two factors, first write the
factors one below the other (see illustrative example). It is usually
easier to operate with the smaller number of figures in the second row.
Multiply the factor in the top row by the right-hand figure of the factor
in the.second row, and write this partial product directly under the
second factor. Then multiply the factor in the top row by the second
figure from the right in the second factor, and write this second partial
product so that its right-hand figure is directly under the figure that
was used to find it. These partial products are then added together
to yield the required product.
(1) Example: Multiply 1,653 by 247.
Solution:
2t IS
I I 5
66 I PARTIAL
33 06 PRODUCTS
¥082 9 i-Onaut&t
PßODUCT
FIGURE 5.
b. When there are decimal points, they are ignored until the product
has been found. Then the decimal point is inserted in the product
according to the following rule: Count off the number of figures to tbe
right of the decimal point in each factor. Then the number of figures
to the right of the decimal point in the product is equal to the sum of
the number of figures after the decimal point in each factor.
(1) Example: Multiply 16.53 by 24.7.
Solution:
2 FIGURES +
I FIGURE ■ ' •
^-PRODUCT
FIGURE 6.
have the right-hand figures of all the partial products directly below
their corresponding figures in the second factor.
(1) Example: Multiply 16.53 by 24.07.
Solution:
1/6.5 3
/ / "J
66 I
33o 6
3 9 7,8 77 / Oiiauet
X
PROOUCT
FIGURE 7.
\ if 2 i DIVIDEND
| ±|-v| MEMTAtLV
I 2 V I ^REMAINDER
i Zoj
FlGTJBE 8.
c. When the divisor contains two or more figures, the method used
is known as long division. This is performed as follows: Place the
divisor to the left of the dividend, separated by a line, and place the
quotient above the dividend, as in short division. Using the divisor,
divide the first group of figures of the dividend which gives a number
as large or larger than the divisor (see illustrative example). Place
the first figure of the quotient above the dividend. Then multiply
this figure by the divisor, and place the product below the figures of
the dividend which were used for this division. Then subtract this
product from the figures directly above it. The next figure in the
original dividend is brought down to form a new dividend. This is
repeated until all the figures of the original dividend have been used.
TM 1-900
7 ARMY AIR FORCES
d. It is not very common in both, short and long division to have the
divisor go into the last trial dividend a whole number of times. When
the last trial remainder is not zero, it must be indicated in the answer.
(1) Example: Divide 4,647 by 6.
Solution:
DIVISOR—
/77£±\j]am.
6\V6¥7
REMAINDER
10
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 7
26S85
2 I 26S
53 i 7o
5 3I 7 o
FIGURE 13.
11
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7 ARMY AIR PORC
X
EXTUA
FlGUBE 14.
1112A. "XEXTRA
2 64 o 5 2ER0S
2 1 27 V
5I3 I o
¥25¥8
87 62o
85 of 6
2S24o
2 I 27 4
FIGURE 15.
FIGURE 16.
to express any decimal fraction in fractional form, (1) write the number
without the decimal point and (2) divide it by 1 followed by as many
zeros as there are figures after the decimal point in the given number
(1) Example: Express .023678 in fractional form.
Solution:
.023678 == ■ 23678 „
v um
—v ' /,ooo,ooo
6 FIGURES ——__^T~^ '
^6 ZEROS
FIGURE 17.
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 8
(5) .890625 = ?
(6) 3.828125 = ? 3^ Answer.
15
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8 ARMY'AIR FORCES
(7) .625=?
(8)4.375=? 4% Answer.
(9) 1.6875=?
(10) 2.3125 = ? 2%i Answer,
e. Percent—Percent means per hundred. Thus, for example, 6
percent interest means that the interest is 6 dollars per 100 dollars or
for each 100 dollars. In many applications it is often necessary' to
express a percentage as a decimal and conversely.
(1) To change from percent to a decimal, divide the number of
percent by 100, which is equivalent to moving the decimal point two
places to the left, and omit "percent."
(a) Example: Change 42 percent to a decimal.
Solution: 42 percent=42/100=.42 Answer.
(b) Example: Change .9 percent to a decimal.
Solution: .9 percent=.9/100=.009 Answer.
(2) To change from a decimal to a percent, multiply the decimal
fraction by 100, which is equivalent to moving the decimal point two
places to the right, and add "percent" (or "%").
(a) Example: Express .45 as a percent.
Solution: .45 X 100=45 percent Answer.
(b) Example: Express 6.47 as a percent.
Solution: 6.47 X 100=647 percent Answer.
(3) To find a certain percent of a given number, express the percent
in decimal form and then multiply.
(a) Example: What is 6.2 percent of 115?
Solution: 6.2 percent=.062.
6.2 percent of 115 = .062 X 115 = 7.130 Answer.
(b) Example: 69 percent of the airplanes out of a squadron of 13
airplanes are available for combat. What number of airplanes of the
squadron are available for combat?
Solution: 69 percent= .69
.69 X 13 airplanes=9 airplanes Answer-.
(4) It is common to specify changes in troop strength, population,
enlistments, and even changes in the physical dimensions of pistons,
for example, in terms of percent. The following examples illustrate
the methods of solving this kind of problem.
(a) Example: If the population of the United States was 120,000,-
000 in 1930 and increased 7 percent during that year, what was it
in 1931?
Solution: 7 percent = .07
.07 X 120,000,000 = 8,400,000.
Therefore the population in 1931 was 120,000,000 + 8,400,000=128-
40
°.'°00 Answer.
16
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 8
453568°—42- 17
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8-9
ARMY AIR FORCES
(9) |
19
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10
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K
' 8 4 8 Answer.
W
16 2 ■
U) 2,3 ,5 ,7 ,11 ,13 ,1
"4~r6~r8"1-12~*~12 8 Answer.
20
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 10-11
(5) 9±+8§+7 = ?
15
Hint: Add g and g first.
7
(6) f+9l+11^=? 28
M Answer.
(7) 14§+30^+4=?
(8) A dealer had 16 gallons of oil to sell. He sold 1£ gallons to
one customer, 2-f gallons to another, 7\ gallons to another, and the
remainder to a fourth customer. How much did he sell to the fourth
customer?
4| gallons Answer.
(9) A man can do a piece of work in 13| days. A boy can do the
same piece of work in 19£ days. How much longer does it take the
boy to do the work?
(10) The distance from outside to outside between two holes in a
steel plate is 6f inches. If one hole is 1| inches in diameter and the
other is 2-fa inches in diameter, find the length of metal between the
holes.
m inches Answer.
11. Multiplication of fractions.—a. Two or more fractions
are multiplied by multiplying the numerators together, and multiplying
the denominators together. The product is then a fraction whose
numerator is the product of the several numerators, and whose
denominator is the product of the denominators.
8 17
(1) Example: Multiply g by J5"
Solution:
21
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11-12
ARMY AIR FORCES
c. Exercises.
(1) |X5=?
(3) 12xf=?
(4) 63X2|=?
7
Solution: 63X2§ =63xf =~xf = 140 ' Answer.
(5) 12|xiö|=?
(6) A tank holds 300 gallons of gas. If a pipe empties \ of the
gas in an hour, how many gallons will be left in the tank at the end
of two hours? .
22
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 12-13
(3) 27§-H9 = ?
(4) If TV inch on a map represents 49 miles, how many miles are
represented by 3 inches on the map?
-
Solution: -r—r—
m
=3X-r=30.
l
TU -
Therefore 3 inches represents a distance 30 times as great as 49 miles=
-30X49 = 1,470 miles Answer.
(5) In the blueprint .of a house | inch in the print represents 1
foot in the actual house. Find the dimensions of the rooms that
measure as follows: 2\ by 2\ inches, 4| by 4| inches, 5| by 6 inches,
3^ by 4ft inches, respectively, on the blueprint.
(6) Two places A and B are 24 miles apart on a river that flows 3
miles an hour. A man can row 5 miles an hour in still water. He
goes from A to B and back. Find the time for the journey.
Hint: Man's speed down river is 8 mph. 15 hr. Answer.
(7) A car is going 1.125 miles per hour. How long will it take this
car to go 468f miles?
(8) A layer of No. 8 wire, which is 0.162 inch in diameter, is wound
on a pipe 24| inches long. How many turns of wire are wound on the
pipe? 150.46 turns Answer.
(9) A mechanic can assemble Ü of a motor in one day. How
many motors can he assemble in 3f days?
(10) If a pilot flies 347 miles in 3 hours, 15 minutes, how far will
he travel at the same rate in 7 hours, 45 minutes?
827.46 mi. Answer.
13. Ratio and proportion.—a. Consider two bombs, one weighing
300 lb. and the other 100 lb. The first is 3 times as heavy as the
second, or the second is \ as heavy as the first. This may be
23
TM 1-900
13 ARMY AIR FORCES
expressed as "the ratio of the weight of the second bomb to the weight
of the first bomb is I". In other words, a ratio is the quotient of two
like quantities. In this example,
.. 100 lb. 1
ratl0=
3ÖÖTE:=3
b. The statement that two ratios are equal is called a proportion.
Thus, for example, if the explosive in the first bomb is 270 lb., and
the explosive in the second bomb is 90 lb., then the ratios of the ex-
plosives are also ^, and
100 lb. _ 90 1b.
300 lb. 270 lb.
is called a proportion
c. The utility of a proportion comes from the fact that if only one
of the numbers is not known it can easily be found. Suppose that
two bombs are given, one weighing 450 lb., and the other weighing
150 lb., and that the length of the first bomb is 36 in. The length of
bomb #2 is not known, but if the length of any bomb is "proportional"
to its weight, then
weight of bomb #1 _ length of bomb #1
weight of bomb #2 length of bomb #2
is the proportion expressing this fact. Now some of these quantities
are known:
450 1b._ 36 in.
150 lb. length of bomb #2
Therefore, if the proportion is true, then the length of bomb #2 must
be 12 in.
d. In mathematics, not only are symbols such as +, —, = , and so
on, used to simplify writing, but it is also convenient to introduce
other symbols whenever they will shorten the work. Thus, to con-
tinue the preceding example, one might let
wx=weight of bomb #1
w2=weight of bomb #2
Li=length of bomb #1
Li—length of bomb #2
Then the proportion can be written even more simply as
v>i Li , _
—=y and i2=12 m.
(#2 J-12
This practice of letting letters represent quantities is characteristic of
all mathematics.
24
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 13
CR055-MULTIPLV
6xc « oxd
FIGURE 20.
(1) Example: Let a=15 in., 6=60 in., c=30 yards, and d=120
yards. Check the "cross-multiplication" rule for these quantities.
15 in. 30 yd. ,,
Solution: Since 6lHn-=l2cfyd.' thm
(15 in.) (120 yd.) should equal (30 yd.) (60 in.).
(15 in.) (120 yd.) = l,800 in.-yd. = (30 yd.) (60 in.) . Check,
j. A proportion need not be limited to the equality of only two
ratios. Very often there will be three or more ratios that will be
equal. For example, in the following triangles,
it is clear that
x = y
4 in. 5 in.
To find the quantity x, use only the first two ratios, and cross-multi-
ply: lX:*:=a;=(4)(4 in.) = 16 in. To find y, use only the first and
third ratios, and cross-multiply again:
2/=(4)(5in.)=20in.
25
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13 ARMY AIR FORCES
(2)f= 3 xin.
Solution: Cross-multiplying, 6x=15 in. If 6 x's are 15 inches,
then obviously, one x must be one sixth as much or 2.5 inches. In
all of these problems, if the-factor multiplying x is not 1, divide by
the factor on both sides of the equality sign. Thus
6a; 15 in.
6 6 is the same as 6z=15 in., but 6x/6=x.
Therefore z=(15 in.)/6=2.5 in Answer.
1% Answer.
(5)
(5j -^-1
.75~z
(6) -ö«-«
W .«=10 Answer.
(.5) x
(7) *=«
y b
(8) What is the value of A in the following proportions:
17=14
45 A
3 = 10 A=7.5 Answer.
A 25
3
_£_6
4 A
5
(9) Two pulleys are connected by a belt. The smaller one runs
at a speed of 750 rpm and the larger at 200 rpm. What is the ratio
of their speeds?
(10) An airplane travels 400 miles in 2 hours. Set up a proportion
and determine how far the airplane will travel in 14 hours.
2,800 mi. Answer.
26
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 13-14
ioo"c
POSITIVE
READINGS
O'C
NEGATIVE
READINGS
FIGURE
I
22.
27
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14-15 ARMY AIR FORCES
NEGATIVE
FlGUKE 23.
Negative distances are measured to the left, and positive distances are
measured-to the right.
d. The signs + and — now have additional meanings. They not
only indicate addition and subtraction, but positive and negative
numbers as well. To distinguish the sign of operation from the sign
of quality (positive or negative), the quality sign is enclosed in
parentheses: 25 + (+5), 25 - (+5), 25 + (-5), or 25 - (-5).
For the sake of brevity, the first and second are generally written
simply as 25 + 5, and 25 — 5.
15. Addition of positive and negative numbers.—To add
two numbers which have the same signs, add the numbers and prefix
the common (or same) sign. If the numbers to be added have unlike
signs, find the difference and use the sign of the larger number
(1) Example. (+6) + (-3) = ?
Solution: Since the signs are different, subtract the numbers
to obtain a remainder of 3. Since the sign of the larger number is
positive, the sign of the remainder is also positive: 6+(—3)=3
.,,.,, Answer.
(2) Example: (—3) +(+2) = ?
Solution: Referring to the diagram in paragraph 14c, begin
at -3 and count 2 units in a positive direction. The result is 1 space
to the left of zero. Therefore (—3) + (+2) = —1.
This problem may also be done by using the rule stated in the pre-
ceding paragraph. Since the signs are unlike, subtract 2 from 3 and
prefix the remainder by a minus sign since the larger number is nega-
te (-3) + (+2)= -1 Answer.
28
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MATHEMATICS FOE PILOT TRAINEES 16-17
29
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17-18
ARMY AIR FORCES
na\ °-6118
( ^ "87X 0-007 Answer.
, 18. Miscellaneous exercises.—The following exercises are based
on the topics in section II:
(1) If 1 cu. ft. of water weighs 62.5 lb., what is the weight of 4.18
cu. ft. of water?
(2) How many cu. ft. are there in 180 lb. of water?
(See ex- 1) 2.88 cu. ft. Answer.
(3) Change the following common fractions to decimal fractions:
3. 7_. 51. 17
8' 16' 75' 32'
(4) Change the following decimal fractions to mixed numbers:
1.25; 3.875; 14.375. 1^; 3^; 14§ Answer.
30
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 18
(5) Bolts | in. in diameter and 6 in. long weigh 117 lb. per hundred
bolts. What is the weight of 1,200 bolts?
(6) A certain bomber can carry, a bomb load of 4,500 lbs. How
many 250 lb. bombs can be carried?
18 Answer.
or
(7) Which is larger jK 28?
2-= Answer.
(9) At an altitude of 5,000 ft. and at 10° C, the calibrated air
speed is 190 mph. The true air speed is 206 mph. What is the per-
cent of increase in the two readings?
(10) At an altitude of 11,000 ft. and at 20° C, the calibrated air
speed is 210 mph. The true air speed is 242 mph. What is the
percent of increase in the two readings? 15.2 percent Answer.
(11) The top air speed of an aircraft at 10,000 ft. is 325 mph.
At 15,000 ft. it is 335 mph. What is the percent of increase in the
air speed?
(12) 469 cadets are sent to primary schools in Georgia. This
group represents 14 percent of the class. Find the number of cadets
in the class. 3,350 cadets Answer.
(13) 28 cadets out of a squadron of 196 are on guard duty. What
percent of the squadron is on guard duty?
(14) On a certain flight a bomber used 40.5 gal. of gasoline per
hour. The time of the flight was 3 hr. 48 min. Find the amount of
gasoline used. 153.9 gal. Answer.
(15) An aircraft flies a distance of 160 nautical miles. Find the
distance in statute miles.
(16) The temperature reading on a Centigrade thermometer was
3° C. The reading increased 2° the first hour and decreased 7° the
second hour. What was the final temperature reading?
,—2° C. Answer.
(17) On a certain day, 10 temperature readings were taken on a
Centigrade thermometer. They were 6°, —3°, —7°, —15°, -4°,
0°, 2°, 3°, 5°, 3°. Find the average temperature reading. Hint:
Find the sum and divide by the number of readings.
(18) Find the product in each of the following:
(—6).(—li).(lj) 12 Answer.
(-2)2.(8J).(-f) -25 Answer.
31
TM 1-900
18 ARMY AIR FORCES
(32) A panel is made up of 5 plies which are \ in., f in., £ in., \ in.,
and fs in. thick, respectively. How thick is the panel?
1-fo in. Answer.
32
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 18-20
SECTION III
EQUATIONS AND FOKMULAS
Paragraph
Purpose and scope 19
Equation . -__ 20
Axioms used in solving equations 21
Miscellaneous exercises .. .._ 22
19. Purpose and scope.—The equation is the foundation of
mathematics. In the solution of many problems, the first thing that
is done is to write the given facts in the form of an equation. For-
mulas play an important part in all engineering and technical work.
Laws and principles are written as formulas. In the handling of
formulas the equation must be understood, for as soon as substitu-
tions are made in a formula it becomes an equation. The following
paragraphs contain exercises in setting up simple equations and
handling formulas.
20. Equation.—An equation is a statement of equality between
two equal numbers or symbols for numbers. For example, 17.5 + .2=
17.7 means that the sum of 17.5 and .2 is 17.7, and a=5& means that
the number a is equal to five times the value of 6. An equation of
condition is an equation which is true only for dertain values of a
letter in it. For example, Zx—5=25 is true only if z=10.
Exercises.—Write each of the following statements as an equa-
tion. In each case, state the meanings of your symbols or letters.
453568°—42- 33
TM 1-900
20-21 ARMY AIR FORCES
(1) The sum of five times a and two times b equals ten.
(2) Six times d diminished by nine equals fifteen.
6d—9=15 Answer.
(3) The width of building is eight feet less than the length.
(4) The length of a rectangle exceeds the width by six feet.
W=L-6 or W+6=L (TF=width; Z=length) Answer.
(5) Three times a certain number exceeds the same number by
twelve.
(6) A pilot flies an airplane a distance of 210 miles in 1 hour
12 minutes. Express average ground speed in miles per hour.
34
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 21
Substituting:
56 42
r+90 r
or
56r=42r+3,780
transposing, 56r--42r=3,780
hence 14r=3,780
and ,r=270 mph (speed of bomber).
consequently r+90=360 mpb (speed of pursuit airplane)
Answer.
e. Exercises.
(1) The horsepower required for flying an airplane is found by the
formula:
Solution: ~jr— lp
or P1V1T=PVT1
Divide each side of the equation by PXT:
y-PVTi
P T Answer.
(3) In exercise (2) if P=15 lb./sq. in.,' 7=7° C, P1=20 lb./sq. in.,
V,=450 cu. in., and Tt=27° C, find the value of V.
36
• - . TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 21
37
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21-22 ' ARMY AIR FORCES
38
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MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES ' 22
bicycle traveling at the rate of 9 mph to call the platoons back. How
soon will the messenger overtake the group?
2 hours. Answer.
(9) Members of the Baseball Boosters Association paid $0.30 for
admission to a baseball game and nonmembers paid $0.50. Paid
admissions numbered 278 and total receipts were $97.80. How many
nonmembers attended the baseball game?
(10) Eight cadets agree to buy a tent. Two of them find that they
are unable to pay, so each one of the others has to pay $4.00 more
than he had expected to pay. What is the cost of the tent?
$96.00 Answer.
(11) In curvilinear motion the centrifugal force in pounds is—
■ C——'■—»where ,
gr
W=\he weight of the airplane in pounds
gr=the acceleration of gravity (ft./sec./sec.)
V== the velocity of the airplane in ft./sec.
r=radius of curvature of the flight path in feet
Solve the above equation for r.
(12) In exercise (11) find the radius of curvature in feet if W=2,000
lb., 0=32 ft./sec./sec, F=150 mph, and C=6,000 lb.
504 ft. Answer.
(13) An aircraft has a ground speed of 190 mph. What is its
ground speed in knots? (1 knot=1.15 mph.)
(14) Rate of climb of an airplane in ft./min. is given by the formula
n_33000 (hp)
U
~ W
where (hp)=the excess horsepower available.
W=ihe weight of the aircraft in pounds,
and 33,000 is a constant. Find the rate of climb in ft./min. if
(hp)=894 horsepower, and W= 18,000 pounds.
1,639 ft./min. Answer.
(15) In exercise (14) find the rate of climb in ft./min. if (hp)=360
horsepower and W= 6,000 pounds.
(16) The fuel consumption of a certain type of airplane engine is
given by the formula
C=0.742(hp)<
where C=the number of pounds of fuel consumed in t hours, and
(hp) =horsepower. How many pounds of fuel will be used if an
aircraft having two 750-horsepower engines makes a flight of 3 hours?
3,339 lb. Answer.
39
TM 1-900
22-24 ARMY AIR FORCES
(17) Using the formula in exercise (16) how many gallons of fuel
will be used by an aircraft having a 1,600-horsepower engine in a
flight of 1 hr. 15 min.? (The weight of the fuel is 6 lb./gal.)
(18) The formula for computing the radius of action when return-
ing to the same base is
ttl
^ GSi + GSi
where R/A—r&dius of action in miles
(?Äi=ground speed out in mph
ö/S,2=ground speed back in mph
T=fuel hours minus 25 percent reserve.
Find the radius of action of an aircraft when GvSi = 140 mph, GB^lOO
mph and T=3 hr.
175 miles Answer.
(19) An aircraft flies 330 miles in 2 hr. 12 min., using [61 gallons
of fuel. What was its average speed in mph, and what was its fuel
consumption in gallons/hour? miles/gallon?
(20) Using the formula given in example 21c (1), find the lift when
ic=0.0048, F=180 mph, and A=200 sq. ft.
31,104 lb. Answer.
SECTION IV
SCALES
Paragraph
Scope 23
Models : 24
Maps .. 1__ 25
Miscellaneous exercises .. 26
40
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 24-25
10 O 10
MILES
FIGURE 24.
41
TM 1-900
26 ARMY AIR FORCES
_Stf//woter /
"N / Mechonks-m
j villa i
^^Scheneciady ^/^"^ y\
. TßOY *-"^
*\AIBAMY [
,1"
1
Roveno ■«(
$ Chatham
1 Athens J )
^ Jak W«/s<wi B P/iitmont
"A, /-^fCAT^KILL
FlGUKE 25.
q to
(3) By direct measurement determine the scale for the map in figure
25. From Catskill to Albany is 30 miles.
(4) How far is Sehenectady from Albany? See figure 25, and use
the scale determined in exercise (3). 16 mi. Answer.
42
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 26
(5) By direct measurement, determine the scale used for the map
in figure 26. See exercise (3).
"(6) Is Chatham located properly in figure 26? Why? Its location
is correct in figure 25. No Answer.
■
Beurilnghon
Adams
FIGURE 26.
SECTION V
GRAPHS
Paragraph
Purpose and use . 27
Beading graphs 28-
Construction of graphs from data 29
44
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 28
3 2»
a.
£
S Zoo
lb
a
<o
oc
5 ISo
a
§ too
s
SO 100 150 200 2S0
INDICATED AIR SPEED (mph)
FIGURE 27.—An air speed meter calibration curve.
(1) If the indicated air speed is 110 mph, find the calibrated air
speed.
(2) If the indicated air speed is 165 mph, find the calibrated air
speed. 173 mph Answer.
(3) If the calibrated air speed is 198 mph, find the indicated air
speed.
b. Pressure-temperature graph.—This graph (fig. 28) shows the
relationship between the pressure and the temperature of a gas at
constant volume.
(1) At a temperature of 0° C, the pressure is
(2) If the temperature increases, the pressure .
PRESSURE
(lb./5q.in.)
3o
•
20
■ySl*
0 '
•100* o" too" ZOO* 300*
TEMPERATURE (°C)
FIGURE 28.—Pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume.
45
TM 1-900
28 ARMT AIR FORCES
iScoi
MNi MARI MAY1 JUL1 SEP 1 NOVI JAN 1
DAY
FIQUBE 29.—Sunset graph.
FUEL CONSUMPTION
SO
2
Ho
O
P
Q. 30
s
Z 20
8
3
u. '•
o
0 HO BO 120 160 ZOO
Alß SPEED (mph)
FIGURE 30.—Typical fuel consumption curve.
(a) Hint: Choose a convenient scale so that all the data can be
represented on the graph without crowding. The horizontal axis is
usually used as the time axis. To locate the points for the graph,
follow the vertical line indicating 0100 hour to its intersection with the
horizontal line indicating a temperature of 60° and place a point
there. Repeat this procedure for each hour and its corresponding
temperature. After all the points are located, draw straight lines
connecting them, or if possible a smooth curve through the points.
(6) A solution is given in figure 31-. ■
48
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 29
D 0 3 6 12 18 24 36 45
H 0 2 8 32 72 128 288 450
The height a light must be above sea level to be seen 30 miles out is
yards.
(2) Plot calibrated air speed in knots against indicated air speed in
mph.
Calibrated air speed (knots) • 101 110 119 128 137 146
Indicated air speed (mph) 110 120 130 140 150 " 160
If the indicated air speed is 145 mph, the calibrated air speed in knots
is If the calibrated air speed in knots is 130, the indicated
air speed in mph is
(3) The length of a pendulum and the time it requires to make a
complete vibration are given in the following table. Represent this
data graphically.
Length in
centimeters 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Time in seconds 1.42 1.55 1.68 1.80 1.90 2.01 2.11
453568°—42-
TM 1-900
29-31 ARMY AIR FORCES
ANGULAE MEASUREMENT
Paragraph
Purpose 30
Angle and units of angular measurement 31
Course, heading, drift 32
Exercises 33
50
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 31
FIGURE 32.
PROTRACTOR
51
TM 1-900
31 AKMY AIR FORCES
—NORTH LIME
FIGURE 38.
"HEADING
COURSE
RIGHT LEFT
DRIFT OBIFT
FIGURE 39a. FIGURE 396.
53
TM 1-900
32-33 ARMY AIR FORCES
mm31*
DIRECTION
\
FIGURE 40.
SECTION VII
VECTORS
Paragraph
Purpose 34
Vector 1- 35
Triangle of velocity .- _- : 36
Miscellaneous exercises 37
RESULTANT
FIGURE 42.
55
TM 1-900
36 ARMY AIR FORCES
WIND
VECTOR
A*
TRIANGLE of VELOCITV
FlGUKE 43.
56
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 36
FlGUBE 44.
(5) Remark.—The drift angle is the angle between the air speed
vector and the ground speed vector. Since this is a case of left drift,
the drift angle of 10° is subtracted from the heading 90° to obtain the
course 80°.
d. Exercises.
(1) Given: Wind 30 mph from 315°
Air speed 210 mph .
Heading 160°
Required: Ground speed and course.
(2) Given: Wind 30 mph from 180°
Air speed 150 mph
Heading 90°
,. Required: Ground speed and course.
Ground speed=153 mph
Course=79°. Answer.
(3) Given: Wind 40 knots from 210°
Air speed 160 knots
Heading 270°
Required: Ground speed and course.
(4) Given: Wind 40 mph from 90°
Air speed 180 mph
Heading 215°
Required: Ground speed and course.
Ground speed=206 mph
Course=224° Answer.
(5) Given: Wind 45 knots from 300°
Air speed 180 knots
Heading 45°
Required: Ground speed and course.
57
TM 1-900
36 ARMY AIR FORCES
Qowi-tn
FIGURE 45.
(8) Remark.—The drift angle is the angle between the air speed
vector and the ground speed vector. Since this is a case of right drift,
the drift angle of 11° is subtracted from the course 300° to obtain the
heading 289°.
/. Exercises.
(1) Given: Wind 50 mph from 300°
Air speed 225 mph
Course 270°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
(2) Given: Wind 25 knots from 150°
Air speed 150 knots
Course 345°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
Ground speed=174 knots
Heading=348° Answer.
58
TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOB PILOT TRAINEES 36-37
59
TM 1-900
ARMY AIR FORCES
APPENDIX
Densities.
Gasoline (aviation) weighs 45 lb./cu. ft. or 6 lb./gal.
Oil (aviation) weighs 56 lb./cu. ft. or 7.5 lb./gal.
Water weighs 62.4 lb./cu. ft. or 8.34 lb./gal.
Air (dry) weighs .0765 lb./cu. ft. at 15° C. (59° F.) and stand-
ard atmospheric pressure.
61
TM 1-900
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Addition : 4a 2
Exercises - 4d 3
Of fractions „ 10a 19
Of positive and negative numbers 15 28
Air navigation system of measuring directions 316 50
Exercises 33a, 33* 54
Air speed meter calibration graph 28a 44
Air speed vector 36c(2), 36e(5) 56,58
Angle 316 50
Construction of . 31e 52
Angular measurement 31 50
Exercises 31d 52
Table of 31a(l) 50
Calibrated air speed. 29a(2), 29a(4) 49
Centigrade scale 21c, 21e(4), 29a(5) {37%
Centrifugal force . 22(11) 38
Common denominator 10c 20
Course 36c(4) 56
Decimal fractions . 8a 14
Decimal point 4a, 66, 7/ 2, 6, 11
Dividend. 7a, 7/ 9, 11
Divisor 7a 9
Division 7a 9
Exercises '. 17d 30
Long division 7c 9
Of fractions 12a 22
Of positive and negative numbers 17c 30
Short division 76 9
Drift angle, . 36c(5), 36e(8) 57,58
Drift , : 32c 53
Equations 20 33
Axioms used in solving 21 34
Formation of , 20 33
Factors 6a 5
Rounding off : 6d 7
Fahrenheit scale 21c, 21e(4), 29a(5) L7Sh
Fractions: '
Addition of :. 10a 19
Conversion of J 8a, 9a 14, 18
Division of 12a 22
fl5, 17,
Exercises 8d, 8/, 9d, 10d, lie, 12c {19, 20,
L 22, 23
Multiplication of , 11a 21
Reduction to lowest terms , 8c 15
Subtraction of . ____■ 106 20
62
TM 1-900
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Fuel consumption , 22(16) 39
Graph of ; -.I 28e 47
Maps 25o 41
Materials needed 2 2
Miscellaneous exercises—
On equations 22 38
On fundamental operations 18 30
On scales.... 26 42
On vectors 37a 59
Mixed numbers , 7h 12
Models 24 40
Multiplication.i 6a 5
Exercises &g, &h, 17b 8,29
Of fractions 11a 21
Of positive and negative numbers 17a 29
Percent ,..■._....■.. 8e 16
Positive and negative numbers : 14 27
Addition of-, 15a 28
Division of . - 17c 30
Exercises 166, 176, 17d 29, 30
Multiplication of 17a 29
Subtraction of - 16a 29
Pressure-temperature graph 286 45
Proportion 136 24
Exercises 13<7 26
Protractor, use of 31c 51
Quotient : 7a 9
Scales 23 40
Miscellaneous exercises 26 42
63
TM 1-900
INDEX
Paragraph
Sectional Charts 25b 41
Subtraction -------__-..______._!__! 5a 4
Exercises ; ge g
Of fractions 106 20
Of positive and negative numbers ; 16a 29
Sunset graphs i __. 28d 46
Symbols . _ 4Ci 6e, 7e, 13d, 14d J3, 7, 11
{ 24, 28
Temperature conversion formula - 21c, 21e(4) 35 37
Transposition 216 35
Triangle of velocity 36a 56
Exercises 1.:........:_;.:... 36d, 36/ 57,58
Miscellaneous exercises 37 59
True air speed 296(4) 49
True course 32a 53
True heading 326 53
G. C. MARSHALL,
Ohwf of Staff.
OFFICIAL:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General,
The Adjutant General.
DISTRIBUTION:
R and H1 (6);. 4 (5); IBn 1 and 4 (10).
(For explanation of symbols see FM 21-6.)
64
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1942