US

lu&oo ™1"900

WAR DEPARTMENT

TECHNICAL MANUAL

MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT

TRAINEES
Aprü 22,1942

CHRYSLER CORPORATION I
L 13 'J : I t L_L i* i riG LIBRARY |
DETROIT, MICH. i

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENTA
Approved tor Public Release
Distribution Unlimited

Reproduced From
Best Available Copy

20000518 144
 TM 1-900
l

TECHNICAL MANUAL! WAR DEPARTMENT,

No. 1-900 / April 22, 1942.
WASHINGTON,

MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES

Paragraphs
SECTION I. General _- ^ 1-2
II. Fundamental operations 3-18
III. Equations and formulas — .19-22
IV. Scales 23-26
V. Graphs 27-29
VI. Angular measurement 30-33
VII, Vectors 34-37
Page
APPENDIX. Miscellaneous units and conversion factors 60
INDEX . 62

SECTION I
GENERAL
Paragraph
Purpose and scope 1
Materials r 2

1. Purpose and scope.—a. The purpose of this manual is to

provide, in convenient form, a review of some topics of arithmetic
and related material which the pilot trainee must understand in order
to practice simple air navigation and to cope with other problems of
the practical airman.
b. Briefly, the scope includes the elementary operations of arithmetic,
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, percent,
ratio and proportion, angular measurements, scales, the use of graphs
and formulas, and the graphical solution of the more common prob-
lems involving the triangle of velocity.
c. In mathematics, as in learning to fly, no amount of reading can
replace actual practice. For this reason, many exercises have been,
included in each paragraph, and at the end of each section a collection
of miscellaneous exercises has been added based on the material con-
sidered in that section. It is not contemplated that every student
will do all of the exercises. However, an ample number of exercises
has been" inserted to provide an opportunity for those trainees who«
may feel the need for extra practice. The answers to the even num-
bered exercises are given to enable each student to check his own work

453568°—42-
 TM 1-900
1-4 ' ARMY AIR. FORGES

if he wishes. Illustrative examples are profuse and should help to

clarify difficult points which may arise.
. d. Undoubtedly, some of the topics will seem very simple to many
of the trainees. It must be remembered, however, that the mathe-
matical proficiency demanded of a pilot not only involves an under-
standing of the various operations, but also the ability to perform these
operations accurately and quickly, and often under trying circumstances.
Therefore the time spent in practicing, such a simple operation as
addition, for example, will not necessarily be so much time wasted-
no matter how clearly the process is understood.
2. Materials.—In addition to pencil and paper, the student will
need a ruler, a protractor, and a few sheets of graph paper.
SECTION II '
FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
-_ Paragraph
Furpose and scope __ 3
Addition _____ 4-
Subtraction K
Multiplication __ _ fi
Division. __ _ »
Conversion of decimal fractions to common fractions _ 8
Conversion of common fractions to decimal fractions 9
Addition and subtraction of fractions _ __ 10
Multiplication of fractions 11
Division of fractions _ ^
Ratio and proportion ' »
Positive and negative numbers __ 14
Addition of positive and negative numbers __ 15
Subtraction of positive and negative numbers _ _ _, ig
Multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers. 17
Miscellaneous exercises 1__. _ __ _ is

3. Purpose and scope.—The purpose of this section is to provide

a review of the four fundamental operations of arithmetic: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. They are called the funda-
mental operations because all other mathematical operations are
based on them. Every calculation that is made must use one or
more of these operations.
4. Addition.—a. Addition is the operation of finding the sum of
two or more numbers. To add.several numbers, place the numbers
in a vertical column so that the decimal points are all in a vertical
line. (When no decimal point is indicated, it is assumed to be on the
right.) Then add the figures in the right-hand column and place the
sum under this column. If there is more than one figure in this sum,

2
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOB PILOT TRAINEES 4

write down only the right-hand figure and carry the others to the
next column to the left.
(1) Example: Find the sum of 30.53, 6.475, 0.00035, and 3476.
Solution:

CARRY-
OVER

35/3, dndwet,
FIGURE 1.

b. Units.—Almost all the numbers which arise in practical arith-

metic have to do with definite quantities such as 78 jeet, 239 miles,
25 degrees, 160' miles per hour, 210 pounds, and so on. In these
examples, the words in italics, which state what the quantities are in
each case, are called the units. When adding several quantities
together, it is clear that the units must all be the same. For example,
"the sum of IS jeet and 160 miles per hour" is a completely meaningless
statement. ~ "
(1) Units are so important and occur so often that standard abbre-
viations have been adopted for them. A list of the correct abbrevi-
ations and the relations which exist between some of the units are
given in the appendix to this manual.
(2) Example: Find the sum of 78 feet and 3 miles.
Solution: In this case since 1 mile is the same as 5,280 feet (see
appendix), then 3 miles is the same as 15,840 feet. Therefore 78 feet
and 15,840 feet may be added together to give 15,918 feet. But the
student is cautioned that unless there is a relation between the various
units so that all the quantities may be expressed in terms of the same
units, the addition cannot be performed.
c. Symbols.—In arithmetic and in other branches of mathematics,
much space and effort is saved by using symbols. Thus, in order to
write "find the sum of 70.765 and 301.4", the plus sign (+) is used
and then this phrase can be written simply as "70.765 + 301.4 = ?."
When more than two numbers are to be added, the plus sign is repeated:
70.765 + 301.4 + 765.84 = 1,138.005, for example.
d. Exercises.
(1) 30.53 in. + 6.475in. = ?
(2) 648.03 cm+37.895 cm+219.921 cm+.08376 cm=
905.92976 cm. Answer.

3
 TM 1-900
4-5 ARMY AIR FORCES

(3) 100.001+9.098+5678.91 = ?
(4) 897.1+0.989+900.76+91901.359=93700.208 Answer
(5) 9876 ft.+101.109 ft.+77.007 ft.+92,928 ft,+94.987 ft +
60.768 ft.=?
(6) 19.767+43.542+76.305+58.143 + 13.25=211.007 Answer.
(7) 11.1111 miles+66.667 miles+1.222 miles+125.125 miles+
375.375 miles=?
(8) 78.908+202.202+62.501+0.003594+75=418.614594
^\flfbSfU3P V
(9) 7.8098+20.202+6.2501 + 000.3594+7.5=?
(10) 78.808 yd.+98.15yd.+760yd.+88199.76yd.=89136.718
y. Answer.
5. Subtraction.—a. Subtraction is the operation of finding the
difference between two numbers. In order to subtract one number
from another, write the smaller number below the larger so that the
decimal points are in a vertical column. Beginning with the right
column, subtract the figures in the smaller number from the corre-
sponding figures in the larger number above them.
(1) Example: Subtract 765.3 from 986.7.
Solution: 986.7
765.3
221 4
- Answer.
b. If, however, the figure in the number being subtracted is larger
than the figure directly above it, it is necessary to borrow one unit
from the next figure to the left.
(1) Example: Subtract 765.3 from 843.1.
Solution:
ßoßßov t
732

7653
/71^8\—än#oe* .
U3-6) (as) (//-3J
fri\ \r T • FIGURE 2.
(2) Note.—It is better to learn to do the "carrying over" mentally
so that the preceding solution looks like this:
843.1
765.3 . ,

77.8 Answer.
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 5-6

c. When a column has only one figure in it, zeros must be supplied
in the blank spaces.
(1) Example: Subtract 765.328 from 843.1.
Solution:

ZH\I& EXTRA
7 65 3 28 "*>S
7 7J7 7 2 Omauvi
FIGURE 3.

d. A problem in subtraction may be checked by adding the answer

to the number directly above it. The sum should always be the
number in the top row.
(1) Example: Check the answer to the preceding example (5c(l)).
Solution:

ADD ^-7 6 5, ,3 2 8 > CHfCK

FlGUBE 4.

(2) Units.—As in addition, care must be exercised to be sure that

the units of the two quantities in a subtraction are the s'ame.
e. Exercises.—In each of the following exercises subtract the smaller
number from the larger. The symbol used to indicate subtraction is
the minus sign (—). Therefore an expression such as "1,205.789—
980.833==?" means "What is the remainder when 980.833 is subtracted
from 1,205.789?".' The number following the minus sign is always
subtracted from the number preceding the sign.
(1) 1,205.789 in. —980.833 in. = ?
(2) 19.52 —.78 = 18.74 Answer.
(3) 760,591-674,892 = ?
(4) 73.44 cu. in.—8.7375 cu. in.=64.7025 cu. in. Answer.
(5) 89.73-10.0045 = ?
(6) 941.7—87.372 = 854.328 Answer.
(7) 1,004.78 miles—1,004.164 miles=?
(8) 100,433 sq. ft. —99,857 sq. ft. = 576 sq. ft. Answer.
(9) 1,000,000.3-998,757.4 = ?
(10) 3,756.04—2,489.7 = 1,266.34 Answer.
6. Multiplication.—a. Multiplication is a short method of adding
a number to itself a certain number of times. The numbers which are
 TM 1-900
6 ARMY AIR FORCES

multiplied together are called the factors and the result of the multi-
plication is called the product. To multiply two numbers together,
or in other words, to find the product of two factors, first write the
factors one below the other (see illustrative example). It is usually
easier to operate with the smaller number of figures in the second row.
Multiply the factor in the top row by the right-hand figure of the factor
in the.second row, and write this partial product directly under the
second factor. Then multiply the factor in the top row by the second
figure from the right in the second factor, and write this second partial
product so that its right-hand figure is directly under the figure that
was used to find it. These partial products are then added together
to yield the required product.
(1) Example: Multiply 1,653 by 247.
Solution:

2t IS
I I 5
66 I PARTIAL
33 06 PRODUCTS

¥082 9 i-Onaut&t
PßODUCT
FIGURE 5.

b. When there are decimal points, they are ignored until the product
has been found. Then the decimal point is inserted in the product
according to the following rule: Count off the number of figures to tbe
right of the decimal point in each factor. Then the number of figures
to the right of the decimal point in the product is equal to the sum of
the number of figures after the decimal point in each factor.
(1) Example: Multiply 16.53 by 24.7.
Solution:
2 FIGURES +
I FIGURE ■ ' •

^-PRODUCT
FIGURE 6.

c. When the second factor contains zeros, the partial products

corresponding to these zeros need not all be written down. Only the
right-hand zero is written down. However, care must be exercised to
6
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 6

have the right-hand figures of all the partial products directly below
their corresponding figures in the second factor.
(1) Example: Multiply 16.53 by 24.07.
Solution:
1/6.5 3

/ / "J
66 I
33o 6
3 9 7,8 77 / Oiiauet
X
PROOUCT
FIGURE 7.

d. Although there is no very simple way to check a multiplication,

it is good practice to anticipate the approximate size of the product
before beginning a long multiplication. This is done by "rounding-
off" the factors to permit easy mental multiplication. Although by
no means an accurate check, this will frequently catch mistakes in
addition or in the location of the decimal point which would otherwise
result in nonsensical answers.
(1) Example: What is the approximate product of 15.73 multi-
plied by 187.04?
Solution: Round-off 15.73 to 15, and 187.04 to 200. Then the
product is roughly 15 by 200=3,000. It is clear then that the
product of 15.73 and 187.04 cannot be 150.6 or 6,030.3745, for
example.
e. Symbols and units.—The more common symbol for multiplication
is X • However, it is quite common simply to write the numbers in
parentheses next to each other: (3.04)(17.78)=3.04X17.78=54.0512,
for example.
(1) When the same number is to be multiplied by itself, for example
3.04X3.04, this is usually indicated by a smaU 2 placed above and to
the right of the number: 3.04X3.04=3.042. This is read as "3.04
squared," and 3.042 is the "square of 3.04.'-' If the number is to be
used as a factor 3 times, then a small 3 is used: 3.04X3.04X3.04=
3.043. This is read as "3.04 cubed," and 3.043 is the "cube of 3.04."
(2) Unlike addition and subtraction, different units may be multi-
plied together. The product is then expressed in a unit which is
itself the product of the units of the factors.
(a) Example: Multiply 5 pounds by 7 feet.
Solution: (5 pounds)(7 feet)=35 pounds-feet=35 lb.-ft.=
35 ft.-lb. ^ Answer.
TM 1^-900
6 - ARMY AIR FORCES

(b) Example: Multiply 9 feet by 17 feet.

Solution: (9 feet)(17 feet)=153 feetXfeet=153 (feet)2=153
ft. ("ft.2" is read "square feet").
2
Answer.
J. In arithmetic, as in other operations, there are many tricks which
often simplify the work. One such trick which is often useful and
easy to remember is the following:
To multiply any number by 25, move over the decimal point in the
given number two places to the right; then divide by 4.
(1) Example: Multiply 16.53 by 25.
Solution: Moving the decimal point over two places, 16.53
becomes 1653. Dividing this by A: 1653/4=413.25. Therefore
16.53X25=413.25. Answer,
g. Exercises.—To each of the following exercises 3 answers have
been given. Eliminate the answers which are obviously wrong by
rounding-off the factors and finding the approximately correct
answers mentally.
[25632.81
(1) 600.3X42.7= 1200.62
[4273.21
[30,740
(2) 180X76= 13,680
[25,580
[400.785
(3) 12.45X18.3= 60.785
1227.835
[472.6
(4) 88X3.2= 281.6
I 31.7
[63,743.68
(5) 1751.2X36.4= 6,374.368
(12,743.68
[3652.925
(6) 903X8.475= 7652.925
176.52925
h. Exercises.—Perform the indicated multiplications.
(1) .0734in.X70. 34in. = ?
(2) 831.43X71.46 = 59,413.9878 Answer
(3) 1.0073 in.X6.4ft. = ?
(4) 8.94X9.37=83.7678 Answer
(5) 8,374.5X9,378.46 = ?
(6) 10,742 lb.X737.2 ft.=7,919,002.4 ft.-lb. Answer
(7) 23.1X847.4=?
(8) 9,034X10.06=90,882.04 Answer.
8
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 6-7

(9) 8^037 ft.X24.2lb. = ?

(10) .0074X371.5=2.7491 Answer.
7. Division.—a. Division is the process of finding how many times
one number is contained in another. The number to be divided is
called the dividend, and the number by which it is divided is called the
divisor. The result of the operation, or the answer, is called the
quotient.
b. When the divisor contains but one figure, the method commonly
used is known as short division. To perform short division, place the
divisor (one figure) to the left of the dividend, separated by a vertical
line (see illustrative example). Then place ä horizontal line over the
dividend. Divide the first or the first two figures of the dividend, as
is necessary, by the divisor and place the quotient over the line. If the
divisor does not go an even number of times, the remainder is prefixed
to the next figure in the dividend and the process is repeated.
(1) Example: Divide 4,644 by 6.
Solution:
^QUOTIENT
P1VI3QB im—OnouVL

\ if 2 i DIVIDEND

| ±|-v| MEMTAtLV
I 2 V I ^REMAINDER
i Zoj
FlGTJBE 8.

c. When the divisor contains two or more figures, the method used
is known as long division. This is performed as follows: Place the
divisor to the left of the dividend, separated by a line, and place the
quotient above the dividend, as in short division. Using the divisor,
divide the first group of figures of the dividend which gives a number
as large or larger than the divisor (see illustrative example). Place
the first figure of the quotient above the dividend. Then multiply
this figure by the divisor, and place the product below the figures of
the dividend which were used for this division. Then subtract this
product from the figures directly above it. The next figure in the
original dividend is brought down to form a new dividend. This is
repeated until all the figures of the original dividend have been used.
TM 1-900
7 ARMY AIR FORCES

(1) Example: Divide 6,646,250 by 10,634.

Solution:
QUOTIENT
i CfoWMt
/o6 3 f\6(,¥62
DIVISOR
63 8 of -DIVIDEND
2 6585
2/268
5 3 I 7 o)
5 3 1 7o
V"REMAINDER
FlOUKE 9.

d. It is not very common in both, short and long division to have the
divisor go into the last trial dividend a whole number of times. When
the last trial remainder is not zero, it must be indicated in the answer.
(1) Example: Divide 4,647 by 6.
Solution:
DIVISOR—

/77£±\j]am.
6\V6¥7

REMAINDER

(2) Example: Divide 6,646,257 by 10,634.

Solution:
Divisoe
/, Vo634 GUM.
I o63H]ll4 6257
638of
REMAINDER

10
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 7

e. Symbols.—"4,647 divided by 6" may be indicated in symbols in

several ways. The division sign may be used: 4,647-^-6. The "stroke"
is more convenient to use on the typewriter; 4,647/6. Finally, the
division may be indicated as & fraction: —^— The fact that 4,647
divided by 6 is 774 with a remainder of 3 may be written as "4647-^-6 =
774+|" or "4,647/6=774+1" or <<i6il=774+|."
/. Decimal point.—To locate the decimal point in the quotient when
decimal points are present in either the divisor or the dividend, do
the following: Move the decimal point in the divisor to the right of
the right-hand figure. Then move the decimal point in the dividend
to the right the same number of places that the point was moved in
the divisor. When dividing be careful to place the quotient so that
each figure of the quotient is directly above the right-hand figure of
the group of figures which were used in the dividend. Then the
decimal point in the quotient will be directly above the new position
of the decimal point in the dividend.
(1) Example: Divide 4.644 by .06.
Solution:
7 7|V On.
£5WW
FlGUKE 12.

(2) Example: Divide 6.646250 by 10.634.

Solution:
l6}2 5 dnc.
5o

26S85
2 I 26S
53 i 7o
5 3I 7 o
FIGURE 13.

g. If decimal points are involved in a division, it is not customary

to indicate the remainder when the division does not come out "even".
In lieu thereof extra zeros are added to the dividend, and the division
is continued until the quotient has as many figures as desired. The
number of figures to obtain in the quotient is largely a matter of
common sense.

11
 rui 1-900
7 ARMY AIR PORC

(1) Example: Find 46.47/0.6.

Solution:
7 7.4/S On».

X
EXTUA
FlGUBE 14.

(2) Example: Find 6,646250-5-10.637.

Solution:
A2¥SZ* Or*.

1112A. "XEXTRA
2 64 o 5 2ER0S
2 1 27 V
5I3 I o
¥25¥8
87 62o
85 of 6
2S24o
2 I 27 4
FIGURE 15.

h. Mixed numbers.—In paragraph 7e it was mentioned that

4647 ==774: 3
"—ö~ + Q'" When the plus (+) sign is omitted, then 774f is
called a mixed number. A mixed number is simply the sum of a whole
number and a fraction written without the plus sign. To convert a
mixed number to a pure fraction, multiply the whole number by the
denominator of the fractional part, and add the numerator. This is
the new numerator; the denominator does not change.
(1) Example: Change 78£ to a pure* fraction.
Solution:
78XS+4 =3W

FIGURE 16.

i. Checks—Any division may be checked by multiplying the divisor

by the quotient and adding the remainder. The result is always the
dividend.
12
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 7

(1) Example: Check the answer to example lg (2)'.

Solution: .6248X10.637=6.6459976.
6.6459976+remainder=6. 6459976
+2524
6.6462500 Check
j. Units.—As in multiplication, any two different quantities may.
be divided, even though the units are not the same. The quotient is
expressed in a unit which is itself the quotient of the units of the
dividend and the divisor.
(1) Example: Divide 175 miles by 10 hours.
„ , . 175 miles , _ „ miles ,
. Solution: j^-^^17.5^- ^ ^ Answer.
(In units of this sort it is customary to write the denominator in the
singular, and use the stroke (/) to separate the numerator from the
denominator: 17.5 miles/hour, or 17.5 mi./hr. Since "miles/hour"
is read as "miles per hour," this phrase is usually abbreviated as
"mph".)
(2) Example: Divide 500 pounds by 50 square inches.
500 pounds
Solution: = 10 pounds/square inch=10 lb./sq. in.
50 square inch Answer.
("10 pounds per square inch")
k. Exercises.—Perform the indicated divisions, and express the
quotient as a mixed number.
(1) 894/16
(2) 755/24
31 11
Solution: 24/755 31 Answer.
24
72
35
24
11
(3) 1,025/314
,69
(4) 215/72 Answer.
*72
(5) 4,723/353
10099
(6) 6,754,000/] 1,411 591 11411 Answer.
(7) 9,001/30
(8) 11,415/45 Answer.
(9) 673/37
(10) 1,371/38 36 Answer.
38
13
 TM 1-900
7-8
ARMY AIR FORCES

I. Exercises—In the following exercises, express the quotient as a

decimal. Do not obtain more figures after the decimal point than the
number of figures after the decimal point in either the dividend or
divisor.
(1) 73.01/3.4
(2) .345/.36
.958
Solution: 36/34.500
32 4
2 10
1 80
300
288
Since there are only 2 figures after the decimal point in .36, the quo-
tient is "rounded-off" to .96. Answer.
If the figure to be thrown away is greater than or equal to 5, increase
the figure on the left by one. If the figure is less than 5, do not change
theprecedmgfigure. Thus: .95S=.95; 1.057=1.06: 1.053=1 05 etc
(3) 13.37/.834 ' '
(4) 14.705/8.64 L70 ^^
(5) (157 miles)/(17.3 hours)
(6) l,942.4/.0035 554971.4 Answer.
(7) 9.63/145.4
(8) (198 miles)/(59 minutes) 3+miles/min. Answer
(9) (5,280 feet)/(60 seconds)
(10) 19.437/38.6 .5 Answer_
8. Conversion of decimal fractions to common fractions.—
a. A number which consists of a decimal point followed by a sequence
of figures is called a decimal fraction. Thus .33, .9899, .00467, and
.00335 are all decimal fractions. Since 33 divided by 100 is 33 'then

to express any decimal fraction in fractional form, (1) write the number
without the decimal point and (2) divide it by 1 followed by as many
zeros as there are figures after the decimal point in the given number
(1) Example: Express .023678 in fractional form.
Solution:

.023678 == ■ 23678 „
v um
—v ' /,ooo,ooo
6 FIGURES ——__^T~^ '
^6 ZEROS
FIGURE 17.

14
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 8

(2> Example: Express 4.0785 in fractional form.

Solution: First express .0785 as a fraction.
785 .
.0785=
10,000
Then 4.0785=4+ip5b=4Ip55 Answer.
b. As already mentioned in paragraph 7e, a fraction such as 54/16

or ^| is really just an indicated division. Very frequently in calcula-

tions it is much easier to carry a fraction along as a fraction than it
is to "divide it out." Later on, this problem will be considered in
detail. At present, however, there is one very important rule of
operation on fractions which should be mastered.
(1) This rule is that both the dividend (numerator) and divisor
(denominator) of any fraction may be divided or multiplied by any
number (except zero), without changing the value of the fraction.
For example, if the numerator (54) and the denominator (16) of the
fraction ^ are both divided by 2, then according to this rule T^==-ö-.
16 ID 8
c. A fraction is said to be in its lowest terms or simplest form if
there is no number which will divide both the numerator and de-
nominator evenly. The operation of finding the simplest form of a
fraction is called reduction to lowest terms or simplification.
coo
(1) Example: Simplify -^-.
Solution: Divide numerator and denominator by 4:
632^158
32 8 '
This can be simplified still more by dividing by 2:
158=1? Answer.
8 4
d. Exercises.—In the following exercises express the given decimal
fractions in fractional form and then simplify. When possible, express
the simplified fraction as a mixed number.
(1) 1.875 = ?
(2) .9375=? jg Answer.
(3) 2.109375 = ?
(4) .125 = ? c Answer.
O

(5) .890625 = ?
(6) 3.828125 = ? 3^ Answer.
15
 TM 1-900
8 ARMY'AIR FORCES

(7) .625=?
(8)4.375=? 4% Answer.
(9) 1.6875=?
(10) 2.3125 = ? 2%i Answer,
e. Percent—Percent means per hundred. Thus, for example, 6
percent interest means that the interest is 6 dollars per 100 dollars or
for each 100 dollars. In many applications it is often necessary' to
express a percentage as a decimal and conversely.
(1) To change from percent to a decimal, divide the number of
percent by 100, which is equivalent to moving the decimal point two
places to the left, and omit "percent."
(a) Example: Change 42 percent to a decimal.
Solution: 42 percent=42/100=.42 Answer.
(b) Example: Change .9 percent to a decimal.
Solution: .9 percent=.9/100=.009 Answer.
(2) To change from a decimal to a percent, multiply the decimal
fraction by 100, which is equivalent to moving the decimal point two
places to the right, and add "percent" (or "%").
(a) Example: Express .45 as a percent.
Solution: .45 X 100=45 percent Answer.
(b) Example: Express 6.47 as a percent.
Solution: 6.47 X 100=647 percent Answer.
(3) To find a certain percent of a given number, express the percent
in decimal form and then multiply.
(a) Example: What is 6.2 percent of 115?
Solution: 6.2 percent=.062.
6.2 percent of 115 = .062 X 115 = 7.130 Answer.
(b) Example: 69 percent of the airplanes out of a squadron of 13
airplanes are available for combat. What number of airplanes of the
squadron are available for combat?
Solution: 69 percent= .69
.69 X 13 airplanes=9 airplanes Answer-.
(4) It is common to specify changes in troop strength, population,
enlistments, and even changes in the physical dimensions of pistons,
for example, in terms of percent. The following examples illustrate
the methods of solving this kind of problem.
(a) Example: If the population of the United States was 120,000,-
000 in 1930 and increased 7 percent during that year, what was it
in 1931?
Solution: 7 percent = .07
.07 X 120,000,000 = 8,400,000.
Therefore the population in 1931 was 120,000,000 + 8,400,000=128-
40
°.'°00 Answer.
16
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 8

(b) Example: At a certain altitude and temperature, the true air

speed is 14 percent greater than the calibrated airspeed. If the
calibrated air speed is 172 mph, what is the true air speed?
1st solution: 14 percent=.14
.14 X 172 mph=24 mph
Therefore 172 mph+24 mph =196 mph Answer.
2d solution 114 percent= 1.14
1.14 X 172 mph= 196 mph Answer.
(c) Example: At a certain altitude and temperature, the true air
speed is 14 percent greater than the calibrated air speed. If the true
air speed is 210 mph, what is the calibrated air speed?
Solution: Caution must be used in this type of problem. Per-
cent increases as usually understood mean so many percent of the
smaller number. Consequently, since 14 percent=. 14,
calibrated air speed+(.14)X(calibrated air speed)=210 mph
Therefore (1.14) (calibrated air speed)=210 mph
or calibrated air speed=(210 mph)/l.14
= 184 mph Answer.
This kind of problem can be checked very easily. 14 percent of
calibrated air speed=.14X184=26 mph, so that 14 percent of
calibrated air speed + calibrated air speed=26 mph+184 mph=210
mph. Check.
/. Exercises.
(1) 23 percent of a class of 1,900 cadets attend two-engine training
schools. Find the number of cadets 'in this class who attended these
schools.
(2) 36 percent of a class of 1,800 cadets take their advanced training
in Alabama. How many cadets does this represent? 648 Answer.
(3) A lieutenant calls a detail of 24 men. This represents 6 percent
of the men in his squadron. How many men are there in the squadron?
(4) At 1,000 rpm a propeller uses 80 percent of the horsepower
developed. If the engine develops 1,500 horsepower at 1,000 rpm,
how many horsepower are used by the propeller? 1,200 hp Answer.
(5) The top speed of an aircraft at 8,000 ft. is 314 mph. At 12,000
ft. the top speed has increased 8 percent. What is the top speed of the
aircraft at 12,000 ft.? .
(6) For a certain air density, the true altitude is 16 percent greater
than the calibrated altitude. If the true altitude is 17,400 ft., find the
calibrated altitude. 15,000 ft. Answer.
(7) At 15,000 ft. altitude and at —10° C, the calibrated air speed
is 240 mph. The true air speed is 15 percent more than the calibrated
air speed. Find the true air speed.

453568°—42- 17
 TM 1-900
8-9
ARMY AIR FORCES

(8) A sample of nickel steel contained 25.61 percent of nickel and

0.17 percent of carbon. How much nickel and how much carbon would
be found in a ton of this nickel steel?
512.2 lb. nickel
3.4.1b, carbon Answer.
(9) A machine shop employing 225 men is forced to employ 36
percent more men. What is the increase in the number of employees?
(10) The indicated horsepower of an engine is 1,500. The actual
effective horsepower is 16 percent less than the indicated horsepower.
Find the actual effective horsepower.
„ 1)260 hp Answer.
9. Conversion of common fractions to decimal fractions.—
a. To convert any fraction to a decimal- form, simply add a decimal
pomt on the right of the numerator and perform the indicated division
as in paragraph 7g.
(1) Example: Express - as a decimal fraction.

Solution: 8/j^- Therefore §=.625 Answer.

(2) Example: Express j- as a decimal.

Solution: 4/I|^|00_. Therefore ^=4.75 Answer.

b To express any fraction as a percent, first change the fraction to
a decimal fraction as in the preceding paragraph, then change the
decimal fraction to a percent as in paragraph 8.
(1) Example: Express j~ as a percent.

Solution: l2j7f^ ' ' Therefore ^=.583333.

(The series of dots indicates that the decimal fraction may be con-
tinued indefinitely by adding 3's.)
Therefore ^=.583333. '.. = 58.3 percent ' Answer.
c. Percent problems.—The following examples illustrate the converse
problems to those given in paragraph 8.
(1) Example: If 18 airplanes out of a squadron of 27 airplanes are
available for combat, what percent of the squadron aircraft are avail-
able for combat? What percent are not available for combat?
Solution: - = .6666... =67 percent available for combat Answer.
100—67 percent=33 percent not available for combat
9
°r 27=-333, • • =33 percent Answer.
18
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 9-10

(2) Example: At a pressure altitude of 20,000 ft. with the air

temperature at 10° below zero, the calibrated air speed is 200 knots,
and the true air speed is 282 knots. What is the percent increase in the
air speeds? Compare the true air speed with the calibrated air speed.
Solution: 282 knots—200 knots=82 knots.
82 knots/200 knots=.41=41 percent increase
Answer.
282 knots/200 knots= 1.41 = 141 percent. Therefore the true
air speed is 141 percent of the calibrated air speed. Answer,
d. Exercises.
(1) The top speed of an aircraft at 8,000 ft. is 304 mph. At 12,000
ft. the top speed is 352 mph. What is the percent of increase in speed?
(2) The indicated horsepower of an engine is 1,500, while the actual
effective horsepower is 1,275. What percent of the indicated horse-
power is the actual horsepower? 85 percent Answer.
Express each of the following as a decimal fraction:
7
(3) 8
5_ .4166. Answer.
(4) 12
j^
(5) ^16
3^ .09375 Answer.
(6) 32
Express each of the following as a percent.

(8) | 37.5 percent Answer.

(9) |

(10) f6 43.75 percent Answer.

10. Addition and subtraction of fractions.—a. When several

fractions are to be added which all have the same denominator, the
addition is performed by simply adding the numerators.
5,8,3,10
(1) Example:
7 + 7 + 7i~ 7 "
5,8,3 10 5 + 8 + 3 + 10_26 Answer.
Solution: + +
7 7 7"

19
TM 1-900
10
ARMT AIR FORCES

b. When one fraction is to be subtracted from another, and both

have the same denominator, the subtraction is performed by simply
subtracting the numerators.

(1) Example: r-— ^-r=?

o 7 t-
Solution: 9 6 9—6 3
n-n=_=^_ ^^

c. When fractions to be added or subtracted do not all have the

same denominator, the fractions must first be reduced to the same
common denominator. What the common denominator is does not
matter very much. The reduction to the common denominator is
performed by applying the rule given in paragraph 86.

(1) Example: ^+^+|=? ' ■

Solution: By inspection it is found that all the fractions can be
reduced to a denominator =110. The first is multiplied by 10 (both
numerator and denominator), the second by 11, and the third by 22.
9
Then X^-gO. 7 Xll_. 77 . 4X22 88
1
■ 11X10 110' 10Xll~TiÖ' and 6X22=TlÖ
therefore ^+^+|=^+lI+-^=90+77+88_255 .
11^10T6 110^110^110 110 "HO
255
b t _255/5=51
110 110/5 22 . , Answer.
(2) The easiest way to find a common denominator is to multiply
all the different denominators together. This will frequently give a
common denominator which is larger than necessary, but if the answer
is then reduced to lowest terms this method will always work.
(3) Example: ^|-||=?
Solution: 25X33=825 - . . ■
Then 19_^=627_400_627=400_227
25 33 825 825 ~825 ~8l25 Answer,
d. Exercises:

K
' 8 4 8 Answer.
W
16 2 ■
U) 2,3 ,5 ,7 ,11 ,13 ,1
"4~r6~r8"1-12~*~12 8 Answer.
20
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 10-11

(5) 9±+8§+7 = ?
15
Hint: Add g and g first.
7
(6) f+9l+11^=? 28
M Answer.

(7) 14§+30^+4=?
(8) A dealer had 16 gallons of oil to sell. He sold 1£ gallons to
one customer, 2-f gallons to another, 7\ gallons to another, and the
remainder to a fourth customer. How much did he sell to the fourth
customer?
4| gallons Answer.
(9) A man can do a piece of work in 13| days. A boy can do the
same piece of work in 19£ days. How much longer does it take the
boy to do the work?
(10) The distance from outside to outside between two holes in a
steel plate is 6f inches. If one hole is 1| inches in diameter and the
other is 2-fa inches in diameter, find the length of metal between the
holes.
m inches Answer.
11. Multiplication of fractions.—a. Two or more fractions
are multiplied by multiplying the numerators together, and multiplying
the denominators together. The product is then a fraction whose
numerator is the product of the several numerators, and whose
denominator is the product of the denominators.
8 17
(1) Example: Multiply g by J5"
Solution:

gy/7 _ 8X/7 _ 136 _ / / /7

UnA
f A/5 - ?x/s ~/35 -f/JJ
FlQUKE 18.

b. To multiply mixed numbers first change the mixed numbers to

fractions, and then multiply as in the preceding paragraph.
2 2
(1) Example: Multiply 15g by 19g-
CY 7 *■ 2 47 , 192 ==_97_
Solution: 1t
15ö=-ö- and
in
5 5'

21
 TM 1-900
11-12
ARMY AIR FORCES

c. Exercises.
(1) |X5=?

(2) yXg = ? i Answer.

(3) 12xf=?
(4) 63X2|=?
7
Solution: 63X2§ =63xf =~xf = 140 ' Answer.
(5) 12|xiö|=?
(6) A tank holds 300 gallons of gas. If a pipe empties \ of the
gas in an hour, how many gallons will be left in the tank at the end
of two hours? .

Solution: ^X 300=75 gal./hr. In two hours, pipe will empty

150 gallons. Therefore 300-150 gaUons will be left. 150 gallons.
Answer.
(7) A tank is £ full of gas. If \ of this is drawn off, what part of
the whole tank is drawn off? What part remains in the tank?
(8) The circumference of a circle is about 3| times the diameter.
Find the circumference of a circle if the diameter is 14 feet- if 28 feet-
if A foot. 44 ft., 88 ft., \ ft. Answers.
(9) If a motor makes 2100 rpm, how many revolutions does it
make in \ hour? In 3-^f days?
(10) An alloy, used for bearings in machinery, is f-f copper,
•zVtin, and fo zinc. How many pounds of each in 346 pounds of the alloy?
286.34 lb. copper, 47.72 lb. tin, 11.93 lb. zinc Answers.
12. Division of fractions.—a. To divide one fraction by another
first invert the divisor and then multiply as in paragraph 11.
(1) Example: Divide | by —■
Solution:

? • n - f A/5 - 73j - ifjs ^

FIGURE 19.

22
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 12-13

b. To divide mixed numbers, first change to a fractional form, then

divide as in the preceding paragraph.
2 3
(1) Example: Divide 7^ by 8^-

Sektion: 7§+8f=f+%=f X^=^ Answer.

c. Exercises.
(1) |-M0=?

(2) |-s-§= ? 4 ^«swer

(3) 27§-H9 = ?
(4) If TV inch on a map represents 49 miles, how many miles are
represented by 3 inches on the map?
-
Solution: -r—r—
m
=3X-r=30.
l
TU -
Therefore 3 inches represents a distance 30 times as great as 49 miles=
-30X49 = 1,470 miles Answer.
(5) In the blueprint .of a house | inch in the print represents 1
foot in the actual house. Find the dimensions of the rooms that
measure as follows: 2\ by 2\ inches, 4| by 4| inches, 5| by 6 inches,
3^ by 4ft inches, respectively, on the blueprint.
(6) Two places A and B are 24 miles apart on a river that flows 3
miles an hour. A man can row 5 miles an hour in still water. He
goes from A to B and back. Find the time for the journey.
Hint: Man's speed down river is 8 mph. 15 hr. Answer.
(7) A car is going 1.125 miles per hour. How long will it take this
car to go 468f miles?
(8) A layer of No. 8 wire, which is 0.162 inch in diameter, is wound
on a pipe 24| inches long. How many turns of wire are wound on the
pipe? 150.46 turns Answer.
(9) A mechanic can assemble Ü of a motor in one day. How
many motors can he assemble in 3f days?
(10) If a pilot flies 347 miles in 3 hours, 15 minutes, how far will
he travel at the same rate in 7 hours, 45 minutes?
827.46 mi. Answer.
13. Ratio and proportion.—a. Consider two bombs, one weighing
300 lb. and the other 100 lb. The first is 3 times as heavy as the
second, or the second is \ as heavy as the first. This may be
23
 TM 1-900
13 ARMY AIR FORCES

expressed as "the ratio of the weight of the second bomb to the weight
of the first bomb is I". In other words, a ratio is the quotient of two
like quantities. In this example,
.. 100 lb. 1
ratl0=
3ÖÖTE:=3
b. The statement that two ratios are equal is called a proportion.
Thus, for example, if the explosive in the first bomb is 270 lb., and
the explosive in the second bomb is 90 lb., then the ratios of the ex-
plosives are also ^, and
100 lb. _ 90 1b.
300 lb. 270 lb.
is called a proportion
c. The utility of a proportion comes from the fact that if only one
of the numbers is not known it can easily be found. Suppose that
two bombs are given, one weighing 450 lb., and the other weighing
150 lb., and that the length of the first bomb is 36 in. The length of
bomb #2 is not known, but if the length of any bomb is "proportional"
to its weight, then
weight of bomb #1 _ length of bomb #1
weight of bomb #2 length of bomb #2
is the proportion expressing this fact. Now some of these quantities
are known:
450 1b._ 36 in.
150 lb. length of bomb #2
Therefore, if the proportion is true, then the length of bomb #2 must
be 12 in.
d. In mathematics, not only are symbols such as +, —, = , and so
on, used to simplify writing, but it is also convenient to introduce
other symbols whenever they will shorten the work. Thus, to con-
tinue the preceding example, one might let
wx=weight of bomb #1
w2=weight of bomb #2
Li=length of bomb #1
Li—length of bomb #2
Then the proportion can be written even more simply as
v>i Li , _
—=y and i2=12 m.
(#2 J-12
This practice of letting letters represent quantities is characteristic of
all mathematics.

24
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 13

e. There is a general rule on proportions which can be stated very

briefly in terms of symbols. Let a, b, c, and d be any quantities what-
ever. Then if there is a proportion between these quantities such that
a_c_
b~d'
then also ad=bc.
That is to say, if the terms in a proportion be "cross-multiplied,"
then the products are equal:

CR055-MULTIPLV
6xc « oxd
FIGURE 20.

(1) Example: Let a=15 in., 6=60 in., c=30 yards, and d=120
yards. Check the "cross-multiplication" rule for these quantities.
15 in. 30 yd. ,,
Solution: Since 6lHn-=l2cfyd.' thm
(15 in.) (120 yd.) should equal (30 yd.) (60 in.).
(15 in.) (120 yd.) = l,800 in.-yd. = (30 yd.) (60 in.) . Check,
j. A proportion need not be limited to the equality of only two
ratios. Very often there will be three or more ratios that will be
equal. For example, in the following triangles,

it is clear that
x = y
4 in. 5 in.
To find the quantity x, use only the first two ratios, and cross-multi-
ply: lX:*:=a;=(4)(4 in.) = 16 in. To find y, use only the first and
third ratios, and cross-multiply again:
2/=(4)(5in.)=20in.

25
 TM 1-900
13 ARMY AIR FORCES

g. Exercises.—-It is customary to let x represent the unknown

quantity. In the following exercises find the values of x which will
make the proportions true.
v(1); -=-
1 3

(2)f= 3 xin.
Solution: Cross-multiplying, 6x=15 in. If 6 x's are 15 inches,
then obviously, one x must be one sixth as much or 2.5 inches. In
all of these problems, if the-factor multiplying x is not 1, divide by
the factor on both sides of the equality sign. Thus
6a; 15 in.
6 6 is the same as 6z=15 in., but 6x/6=x.
Therefore z=(15 in.)/6=2.5 in Answer.

1% Answer.

(5)
(5j -^-1
.75~z

(6) -ö«-«
W .«=10 Answer.
(.5) x
(7) *=«
y b
(8) What is the value of A in the following proportions:
17=14
45 A
3 = 10 A=7.5 Answer.
A 25
3
_£_6
4 A
5
(9) Two pulleys are connected by a belt. The smaller one runs
at a speed of 750 rpm and the larger at 200 rpm. What is the ratio
of their speeds?
(10) An airplane travels 400 miles in 2 hours. Set up a proportion
and determine how far the airplane will travel in 14 hours.
2,800 mi. Answer.
26
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 13-14

(11) If a gear having 32 teeth makes 80 rpm, what will be the

number of revolutions per minute of a smaller gear, which has 16
teeth?
(12) If a boat drifts down stream 40 miles in 12 hr., how far will
it drift in 15 hr.? 50 mi. Answer.
(13) On June 12, 1939, a pilot flew a glider plane across Lake
Michigan a total distance of 92 miles in 52 min. He cut loose from
the tow plane at 13,000 ft. and descended only 5,000 ft. in crossing.
At the same rate of descent, how much farther could he have glided?
How many more minutes would he have been in the air?
(14) A roadbed rises 3£ ft. in a horizontal distance of 300 ft.
How many feet will the roadbed rise in 720 ft.? 8 ft. Answer.
(15) If 16 gal. of gas will drive a car 288 miles, at the same rate of
using gas, how many gallons will it take to drive the same car from
Chicago to Memphis, a distance of 564 miles?
14. Positive and negative numbers.—There are many quantities
which by their contrary or opposite nature are best described as
negative quantities in contrast to positive quantities. For example,
temperatures above 0° Fahrenheit are considered as positive, whereas
those below 0° are considered as negative. As a consequence it
becomes necessary to consider negative and positive numbers and
how to operate on them.

ioo"c

POSITIVE
READINGS

O'C

NEGATIVE
READINGS

FIGURE
I
22.

27
 TM 1-900
14-15 ARMY AIR FORCES

a. A negative number is indicated by prefixing a minus sign (—)

in front of the number. Thus, -5, -7.04, -90.003 are all negative
numbers.
b. A positive number is indicated by prefixing it with a plus sign
(+), if necessary. When there is no possible ambiguity the plus sign
is usually omitted. Thus +5, 7.04, +63.0, 98.4 are all positive
numbers.
e. It is convenient to imagine the numbers as representing distances
along a straight line as follows:
POSITIVE
i I i I 41 +2 +3 +4 +S
' i i i i

NEGATIVE
FlGUKE 23.

Negative distances are measured to the left, and positive distances are
measured-to the right.
d. The signs + and — now have additional meanings. They not
only indicate addition and subtraction, but positive and negative
numbers as well. To distinguish the sign of operation from the sign
of quality (positive or negative), the quality sign is enclosed in
parentheses: 25 + (+5), 25 - (+5), 25 + (-5), or 25 - (-5).
For the sake of brevity, the first and second are generally written
simply as 25 + 5, and 25 — 5.
15. Addition of positive and negative numbers.—To add
two numbers which have the same signs, add the numbers and prefix
the common (or same) sign. If the numbers to be added have unlike
signs, find the difference and use the sign of the larger number
(1) Example. (+6) + (-3) = ?
Solution: Since the signs are different, subtract the numbers
to obtain a remainder of 3. Since the sign of the larger number is
positive, the sign of the remainder is also positive: 6+(—3)=3
.,,.,, Answer.
(2) Example: (—3) +(+2) = ?
Solution: Referring to the diagram in paragraph 14c, begin
at -3 and count 2 units in a positive direction. The result is 1 space
to the left of zero. Therefore (—3) + (+2) = —1.
This problem may also be done by using the rule stated in the pre-
ceding paragraph. Since the signs are unlike, subtract 2 from 3 and
prefix the remainder by a minus sign since the larger number is nega-
te (-3) + (+2)= -1 Answer.

28
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOE PILOT TRAINEES 16-17

16. Subtraction of positive and negative numbers.—a. To

subtract two numbers (positive or negative), change the sign of the
number being subtracted and add the numbers as in addition (par. 15).
(1) Example. (-3)-(-.4) = ?.
Solution. Changing the sign of the number being subtracted,
the problem then becomes—
(—3) + (+4) = + l Answer.
Eeferring to the diagram in paragraph 14c, this problem may also be
done as follows: Begin at —4 and count in the opposite direction
until —3 is reached. This requires 1 unit in the positive direction.
Hence, (—3) — (—4) = + l or in other words +1 must be added to
—4 to give —3.
b. Exercises.
(1) (-6) + (+6) = ?
{2) (+2)+ (+12) = + 14 Answer.
(3) (-62) +(-18) = ?
(4) (+17)-(+15) = +2 Answer.
(5) (+32)-(-64) = ?
(6) (—18) —(—64) = +46 Answer.
(7) (-l7)-(-15) = ?
(8) (-17.3)+ (35.4) = + 18.1 Answer.
(9) (-17.36)-(35.4) = ?
(10) (—201.03) — (—10.4) = —190.63 Answer.
(11) -18+.4=?
(12) 20—17.4+9=+ 11.6 Answer.
(13) -37.3 + 19.4+17.8=?
(14) (—175.03) + 19= —156.03 Answer.
17. Multiplication and division of positive and negative
numbers.—a. If the two numbers to be multiplied have the same
signs, then the product is positive. If the two numbers to be multi-
plied have opposite signs, then the product is negative.
(1) Example: Multiply (+3.04) by (17.8).
Solution: Since the signs are the same, the product is
+ 54.112 Answer.
(2) Example: (+.00395) X (-345.9) = ?
Solution: Since the signs are unlike, the product is nega-
tive, or —1.366305 Answer.
b. Exercises.—Find the product in each of the following exercises.
(1) (-1.6) (.9)
• (2) (—14.4) (—12) 172.8 Answer.
(3) (12.5) (1.25)
(4) (-9) (-8) (-6) -432 Answer.

29
 TM 1-900
17-18
ARMY AIR FORCES

(5) (-.17) (6) (-5)

(6) (2) (3.14) (9) 56.52 Answer_
(7) (-.4) (-.4) (-.4)
(8) (-K) (Ko) (%) -}( Answer,
(9) («JQ (1.4) (1.4)
(10) (-1X) (Xo) (-&) K 4n«i*r.
c. In division the quotient is positive if the divisor and dividend
have the same sign; if the divisor and dividend have opposite signs,
the quotient is negative.
(1) Example: Divide (—15.625) by (12.5)
Solution: Since the dividend and the divisor have opposite
signs, the quotient is negative.
-15.625 1 „.
J2T5 ~~ — Answer.
d. Exercises.—Find the quotient in each of the following exercises
(1) (-14.4)^(0.9)
(2) (-4.32)-K-4.8) 0.9 ■ Answer.
(3) (39,483.)-K-12.3)
(4) -(l,440.)-*-(0.32) 4500. Answer.
(5) (1.679)-s-(23.)
(6) (-23.04)^(4.8) -4.8 Answer.
1728 .
(7) -144
390
(X) -59 ' ' *•
^ °) —28.1 —13.9 Answer.
-72.9
(9) -0.81

na\ °-6118
( ^ "87X 0-007 Answer.
, 18. Miscellaneous exercises.—The following exercises are based
on the topics in section II:
(1) If 1 cu. ft. of water weighs 62.5 lb., what is the weight of 4.18
cu. ft. of water?
(2) How many cu. ft. are there in 180 lb. of water?
(See ex- 1) 2.88 cu. ft. Answer.
(3) Change the following common fractions to decimal fractions:
3. 7_. 51. 17
8' 16' 75' 32'
(4) Change the following decimal fractions to mixed numbers:
1.25; 3.875; 14.375. 1^; 3^; 14§ Answer.

30
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 18

(5) Bolts | in. in diameter and 6 in. long weigh 117 lb. per hundred
bolts. What is the weight of 1,200 bolts?
(6) A certain bomber can carry, a bomb load of 4,500 lbs. How
many 250 lb. bombs can be carried?
18 Answer.
or
(7) Which is larger jK 28?

(8) Divide ß| by 2§. '

2-= Answer.
(9) At an altitude of 5,000 ft. and at 10° C, the calibrated air
speed is 190 mph. The true air speed is 206 mph. What is the per-
cent of increase in the two readings?
(10) At an altitude of 11,000 ft. and at 20° C, the calibrated air
speed is 210 mph. The true air speed is 242 mph. What is the
percent of increase in the two readings? 15.2 percent Answer.
(11) The top air speed of an aircraft at 10,000 ft. is 325 mph.
At 15,000 ft. it is 335 mph. What is the percent of increase in the
air speed?
(12) 469 cadets are sent to primary schools in Georgia. This
group represents 14 percent of the class. Find the number of cadets
in the class. 3,350 cadets Answer.
(13) 28 cadets out of a squadron of 196 are on guard duty. What
percent of the squadron is on guard duty?
(14) On a certain flight a bomber used 40.5 gal. of gasoline per
hour. The time of the flight was 3 hr. 48 min. Find the amount of
gasoline used. 153.9 gal. Answer.
(15) An aircraft flies a distance of 160 nautical miles. Find the
distance in statute miles.
(16) The temperature reading on a Centigrade thermometer was
3° C. The reading increased 2° the first hour and decreased 7° the
second hour. What was the final temperature reading?
,—2° C. Answer.
(17) On a certain day, 10 temperature readings were taken on a
Centigrade thermometer. They were 6°, —3°, —7°, —15°, -4°,
0°, 2°, 3°, 5°, 3°. Find the average temperature reading. Hint:
Find the sum and divide by the number of readings.
(18) Find the product in each of the following:
(—6).(—li).(lj) 12 Answer.
(-2)2.(8J).(-f) -25 Answer.

31
 TM 1-900
18 ARMY AIR FORCES

(19) The following numbers represent the diameters of the bores on

different guns: 37 mm, 3 in., 1 in., 155 mm, 6 in., 75 mm. Arrange
them according to size beginning with the largest one.
(20) Express a speed of 118 kilometers per hour in terms of miles
perhour. 73fmph Answer.
(21) Calculate the number of square centimeters in one square
foot.
(22) A photographic film is designed for a picture 6 by 9 centi-
meters; express this in inches to the nearest quarter inch.
2| by 3§ in. Answer.
(23) 570 cadets are sent to primary schools in Florida. This group
represents 30 percent of the class. Find the number of cadets in
the class.
(24) 24 cadets out of a squadron of 180 passed the high altitude
test. What percent of the squadron passed the test?
13.3 percent Answer.
(2.5) At a certain airdrome there are 88 aircraft, consisting of
bombers and interceptor aircraft. The ratio of bombers to inter-
ceptors is 3 to 8. Find the number of each kind of aircraft.
(26) What is the diameter in inches of the bore of a 75-mm gun?
(This means the bore is 75 mm in diameter.) 2.95 in. Answer.
(27) The following numbers represent the ranges of different air-
craft: 250 nautical miles; 262 statute miles; 480 kilometers; 298
statute miles; 275 nautical miles. Arrange these distances in order
of magnitude starting with the largest one.
(28) A detail of 33 cadets represents 15 percent of the squadron.
How many cadets are there in the squadron? 220 Answer.
(29) Find the difference in temperature readings of +47° C and
-5° C.
(30) On a certain day the lowest temperature reading was —14° F.
and the highest temperature reading was +19° F. Find the increase
in readings. 33° Answer.
(31) Find the values of the following:
(-3)3
(-2)2(-l)3
3(-2)3(-l)2
2(i)2(4)3

(32) A panel is made up of 5 plies which are \ in., f in., £ in., \ in.,
and fs in. thick, respectively. How thick is the panel?
1-fo in. Answer.

32
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 18-20

(33) Divide 1.5625 by 0.125.

(34) Multiply (2|) (-ft)'(2*)(i *)-. 14 Answer.
(35) Find the sum of 1 H"2§—!+■&.
(36) How many strips each -fa in. thick are in a laminated piece
1| in. thick? 20 Answer.,
(37) In a squadron of 200 cadets there are 14 cadets sick. What
percent of the squadron is sick?
(38) The chord of an airplane wing is 72 in. If the center of pres-
sure is at a point 28 percent of the distance along the chord from the
leading edge, how many inches is it from the leading edge?
20.16 in. Answer.
(39) The ^ ratio for an airfoil section is jf. Find the ^ratiowhen
£„=0.0018 and 25,.=0.00008."
(40) Find the ratio of the areas of two circles having radii of 3 in.
and 4 in. (The areas are to each other as the squares of their radii.)
•j^ Answer.

SECTION III
EQUATIONS AND FOKMULAS
Paragraph
Purpose and scope 19
Equation . -__ 20
Axioms used in solving equations 21
Miscellaneous exercises .. .._ 22
19. Purpose and scope.—The equation is the foundation of
mathematics. In the solution of many problems, the first thing that
is done is to write the given facts in the form of an equation. For-
mulas play an important part in all engineering and technical work.
Laws and principles are written as formulas. In the handling of
formulas the equation must be understood, for as soon as substitu-
tions are made in a formula it becomes an equation. The following
paragraphs contain exercises in setting up simple equations and
handling formulas.
20. Equation.—An equation is a statement of equality between
two equal numbers or symbols for numbers. For example, 17.5 + .2=
17.7 means that the sum of 17.5 and .2 is 17.7, and a=5& means that
the number a is equal to five times the value of 6. An equation of
condition is an equation which is true only for dertain values of a
letter in it. For example, Zx—5=25 is true only if z=10.
Exercises.—Write each of the following statements as an equa-
tion. In each case, state the meanings of your symbols or letters.
453568°—42- 33
TM 1-900
20-21 ARMY AIR FORCES

(1) The sum of five times a and two times b equals ten.
(2) Six times d diminished by nine equals fifteen.
6d—9=15 Answer.
(3) The width of building is eight feet less than the length.
(4) The length of a rectangle exceeds the width by six feet.
W=L-6 or W+6=L (TF=width; Z=length) Answer.
(5) Three times a certain number exceeds the same number by
twelve.
(6) A pilot flies an airplane a distance of 210 miles in 1 hour
12 minutes. Express average ground speed in miles per hour.

#£=-7-; GS= ^ , ; GS=175 miles per hour

(GS=growa.d speed; d=distance; tf=time) Answer.

(7) A pilot flies an airplane a distance of 350 miles in 1 hour 10
minutes. Express his average ground speed in miles per hour.
(8) The distance traveled equals the product of the average speed
and the time. d=vt Answer.
(9) The area of a rectangle equals the product of the length and
the width.
(10) The product of the pressure exerted on a gas and the volume
of the gas is a constant.
PV=K Answer.
(P=pressure
V— volume
K= constant.)
21. Axioms used in solving equations.—The solution of
equations depends on the following axiom, which includes four funda-
mental axioms (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) in
one statement:
a. Axiom: If equal numbers are added to, subtracted from, multiplied
by, or divided into equal numbers, the results are equal.
(1) Example: If Ax—5=2z+7, what is x?
Solution: Subtracting 2x from each side of the equation, we
have 2x—5=7 (subtraction axiom)
Adding 5 to each side of the equation, we obtain
2x=12 (addition axiom)
Therefore x=6 (division axiom) Answer.

34
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 21

6. The above equation may be solved by using so-called transposi-

tion, which is really just another name given to the addition and sub-
traction axioms. Any term may be transposed from one side of an
equation to the other side, provided its sign is changed.
(1) Example: If 5x—3=2a;+6, what is xl
Solution: 5x—2x=6+3 (transposing 2x and 3)
or 3z=9
so that x=Z Answer.
c. These axioms will be used mainly to solve formulas for certain
letters. * •
(1) Example: The lift of an airplane wing is given by the formula:
L=LCAV2
where Z=lift in pounds
ic=lift coefficient
.4=wing area in square feet
V= velocity in miles per hour
Solve this formula for A in terms of L, Le, and V.
Solution: Using the division axiom and dividing each side of
the equation by LCV2,
A=j V2 Answer.

(2) Example: Given C=<r (F-32) where C=degrees Centigrade and

F=degrees Fahrenheit. Solve for F.
Solution: 9C=5(F-32) (multiplication axiom)
or 9C=5F-160
and 9C+160=5F (addition axiom)
so that 5F=9C+160
and F=-r-C-f-32 (division axiom) Answer.
5
d. In the solution of word problems be sure that you write down the
exact meaning of all the symbols that are used, as well as the units
(feet, miles per hour, etc.).
(1) Example: A pursuit plane flies 90 mph faster than a bomber in
still air. The bomber travels 42 miles while the pursuit plane travels
56 miles. Find the average speed of each aircraft.
Solution: Let r=average speed of the bomber in miles per
hour; and r+90 = average speed of the pursuit airplane in miles per
hour. The two airplanes fly for the same period of time, hence
distance pursuit airplane traveled _ distance bomber traveled
speed of pursuit airplane speed of bomber
85
TM 1-900
21 ABMY AIR FORCES

Substituting:
56 42
r+90 r
or
56r=42r+3,780
transposing, 56r--42r=3,780
hence 14r=3,780
and ,r=270 mph (speed of bomber).
consequently r+90=360 mpb (speed of pursuit airplane)
Answer.
e. Exercises.
(1) The horsepower required for flying an airplane is found by the
formula:

HP=^-> where HP=horsepower required

D=total drag of the airplane in pounds
V= velocity in miles per hour
and 375 is a constant
Find the horsepower required if 25=250 lb. and F=285 mph.
(2) The general gas law is—
PV P.F, .
—rp =~fr~ where P =mitial pressure
V = initial volume
T= initial absolute temperature (273°+°C.)
Pi=new pressure
Fj=new volume
and y!=new absolute temperature
Solve the above equation for V,.

Solution: ~jr— lp

Multiply each side of the equation by TT-c,

or P1V1T=PVT1
Divide each side of the equation by PXT:

y-PVTi
P T Answer.
(3) In exercise (2) if P=15 lb./sq. in.,' 7=7° C, P1=20 lb./sq. in.,
V,=450 cu. in., and Tt=27° C, find the value of V.

36
 • - . TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 21

(4) The formula C=%(F—32) is used in the conversion of temper-

ature readings from the Fahrenheit scale to the Cenitgrade scale.
If the temperature reading is 86° on the Fahrenheit scale, what would
the temperature reading be on the Centigrade scale?
Solution: (7=|(^-32)
C=|(86-32)
<?=M54)
0=30° Answer.
(5) (a) Using the formula in exercise (4) find the Fahrenheit read-
ing when the Centigrade reading is 20°.
(b) When will the Fahrenheit and Centigrade readings be equal?
(Negative values may be used.)
(6) The formula for determining the best propeller diameter for
maximum efficiency is—
V
D=* Oo where D=propeller diameter in feet

V= velocity of airplane in ft./sec.

n=revolution/sec
and 1.03 is a constant
Determine the propeller diameter when T=210 mph and n—SO
revolutions/sec.
Solution: 210 mph^52^^10) ft./sec.=308 ft./sec.
„. 308 ft./sec. . „ , ■
D=
lM(30 revolutions/sec.)^9"97 ft" Answer
'
(7) Using the formula in exercise (6), determine the propeller
diameter when T=150 mph and n=2Q revolutions/second.
(8) The horsepower necessary to drive an airplane is proportional
to the cube of the velocity. If 120 hp is required to fly a plane at 130
mph, how many horsepowers would be required to fry it at 150 mph?
Solution: HP1 Vt3
HPt~VS
120_(130)3
HP, (150)3
(130)3..Z7P2=120(150)3
„p _120(150)3
7^2_ (130)3
HP2= 184.3 hp Answer.
(9) Referring to the information in exercise (8), how many times
would the horsepower have to be increased to double the velocity?

37
TM 1-900
21-22 ' ARMY AIR FORCES

(10) An airplane flying 160 mph covers a certain distance in

2 hr. 30 min. How long would it take it to cover the same distance
when flying 200 mph?
2 hours ' Answer.
22. Miscellaneous exercises.— The following exercises are based
on the material contained in section III:
(1) An airplane flying 120 mph covers a certain distance in 3 hr.
15 min. At what rate would it have to fly to cover the same distance
in 2 hr. 30 min.?
(2) Find the value of Vt in
Vi=V0(l+Kt) when F„=200, K=-.06, and t=15.
20 Answer.
(3) Aircraft A flies west at 150 mph (ground speed); aircraft B
takes off from the same point one hour later and flies west at 190 mph
(ground speed). How long does B fly before he overtakes A?
(4) An aircraft interception listening post 50 miles away from an
airdrome reports an enemy bomber 'directly over the post. • The
bomber is flying toward the airdrome at an estimated ground speed of
200 mph and at an altitude of 100 feet. If it takes an interceptor 3
minutes to take off and if he can fly at 300 mph ground speed, when and
where will he intercept the enemy plane? (Assume the reported
course and ground speeds remain constant.)
7.8'minutes after receiving report Answer.
24 miles from the airdrome Answer.
(5) An aircraft flies 1 hr. 30 min. at a certain average ground speed,
and 2 hr. at 150 mph. The entire distance traveled was 630 miles.
Find the average ground speed for the first part of the flight.
(6) A soldier walked 15 miles and then returned immediately in a
"jeep" which averaged 45 mph. The entire trip required 4 hr. 5 min.
Find the soldier's average rate of walking.
4 mph Answer.
(7) A quantity of air is enclosed in a vessel having a volume of
100 cubic centimeters. The pressure of the gas is 75 centimeters of
mercury and its temperature is 27° C. Find the pressure exerted by
the gas if its temperature is lowered to 0°C, and the volume'is reduced
to 30 cubic centimeters.
Hint: Let F=100 cc, 1^=30 cc, T=300° (absolute), 771=273°
(absolute), P=75 cm of mercury. Use the General Gas Law Formula:
PV_P1V1

Jf8) Two platoons of soldiers start on a hike walking at the rate

of 4 mph. Two and one-half hours later a messenger is sent on a

38
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES ' 22

bicycle traveling at the rate of 9 mph to call the platoons back. How
soon will the messenger overtake the group?
2 hours. Answer.
(9) Members of the Baseball Boosters Association paid $0.30 for
admission to a baseball game and nonmembers paid $0.50. Paid
admissions numbered 278 and total receipts were $97.80. How many
nonmembers attended the baseball game?
(10) Eight cadets agree to buy a tent. Two of them find that they
are unable to pay, so each one of the others has to pay $4.00 more
than he had expected to pay. What is the cost of the tent?
$96.00 Answer.
(11) In curvilinear motion the centrifugal force in pounds is—
■ C——'■—»where ,
gr
W=\he weight of the airplane in pounds
gr=the acceleration of gravity (ft./sec./sec.)
V== the velocity of the airplane in ft./sec.
r=radius of curvature of the flight path in feet
Solve the above equation for r.
(12) In exercise (11) find the radius of curvature in feet if W=2,000
lb., 0=32 ft./sec./sec, F=150 mph, and C=6,000 lb.
504 ft. Answer.
(13) An aircraft has a ground speed of 190 mph. What is its
ground speed in knots? (1 knot=1.15 mph.)
(14) Rate of climb of an airplane in ft./min. is given by the formula
n_33000 (hp)
U
~ W
where (hp)=the excess horsepower available.
W=ihe weight of the aircraft in pounds,
and 33,000 is a constant. Find the rate of climb in ft./min. if
(hp)=894 horsepower, and W= 18,000 pounds.
1,639 ft./min. Answer.
(15) In exercise (14) find the rate of climb in ft./min. if (hp)=360
horsepower and W= 6,000 pounds.
(16) The fuel consumption of a certain type of airplane engine is
given by the formula
C=0.742(hp)<
where C=the number of pounds of fuel consumed in t hours, and
(hp) =horsepower. How many pounds of fuel will be used if an
aircraft having two 750-horsepower engines makes a flight of 3 hours?
3,339 lb. Answer.

39
TM 1-900
22-24 ARMY AIR FORCES

(17) Using the formula in exercise (16) how many gallons of fuel
will be used by an aircraft having a 1,600-horsepower engine in a
flight of 1 hr. 15 min.? (The weight of the fuel is 6 lb./gal.)
(18) The formula for computing the radius of action when return-
ing to the same base is
ttl
^ GSi + GSi
where R/A—r&dius of action in miles
(?Äi=ground speed out in mph
ö/S,2=ground speed back in mph
T=fuel hours minus 25 percent reserve.
Find the radius of action of an aircraft when GvSi = 140 mph, GB^lOO
mph and T=3 hr.
175 miles Answer.
(19) An aircraft flies 330 miles in 2 hr. 12 min., using [61 gallons
of fuel. What was its average speed in mph, and what was its fuel
consumption in gallons/hour? miles/gallon?
(20) Using the formula given in example 21c (1), find the lift when
ic=0.0048, F=180 mph, and A=200 sq. ft.
31,104 lb. Answer.

SECTION IV
SCALES
Paragraph
Scope 23
Models : 24
Maps .. 1__ 25
Miscellaneous exercises .. 26

23. Scope.—The word scale is used in this section as in "scale

model," the "scale of a map," the "scale of a drawing," and so on.
The practical use of scales in connection with maps, drawings, and
silhouettes is illustrated by examples and exercises.
24. Models.—a. A true scale model of an airplane, for example,
is a model which has been constructed such that the ratio of the length
of any part of the model to the actual length of the same part of the
airplane is the same for all parts. Thus, if the wingspan on the model
is 5 inches, and the wingspan of the actual airplane is 55 feet, then 1
inch anywhere on the model represents 11 feet or 132 inches. Then^
this is the scale of the model: 1 to 132, or y^-x"

40
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 24-25

6. Example: The U. S. Government is encouraging youngsters to

build scale models of various aircraft. The scale to be used is the
same for all aircraft: 1 to 72. The wingspan of the German Heinkel
bomber (He-lllK Mklll) is 76 feet. What will be the wingspan of
the model?
Solution: 76 feet=76X 12 inches
wingspan (model) _ 1 .
76X12 in. ~72
76X12 76 2 .
Therefore, wingspan of model=—=^— =-^-= 12^ inches Answer.
c. Exercises.—The following models are all constructed to the scale
of 1 to 72.
(1) The model wingspan of a B-18 is 15 inches. What is the actual
wingspan?
(2) The over-all length of a Messerschmitt (Me-110) is 36 feet.
How long will the model be?
6 in. Answer.
(3) The over-all length of a model of a B-23 is 8% inches. What
is the over-all length of the B-23 airplane?
25. Maps.—a. A map is a scale diagram to show the disposition of
geographic features on the earth such as cities, roads, rivers, and so
on. On most maps, the scale used is conveniently stated by a diagram
as in figure 24.

10 O 10
MILES
FIGURE 24.

It may also be expressed as a ratio: 1 to 500,000, for example.

b. Of primary interest to the pilot are aeronautical charts, or maps.
The sectional charts of the United States are made at a scale of 1 to
500,000. The regional charts of the United States are made with a
scale of 1 to 1,000,000.
(1) Example: What distance (miles) does 1 inch represent on a
sectional chart?
Solution: Since the scale is 1 to 500,000, then 1 inch represents
500,000 inches on the earth. 1 mile=5280 feet=5280X12 inches.
Therefore
500,000 ■!„„•!
500,000 in.== oonyio" miles=7.9 miles.
1 inch represents 7.9 miles Answer.

41
TM 1-900
26 ARMY AIR FORCES

26. Miscellaneous exercises.

(1) 1 inch on a regional chart=how many miles?
(2) The aeronautical planning chart of the United States (3060a)
is drawn at a scale of 1 to 5,000,000. On this chart, a distance of
2% inches is the same as how many miles? 181.1 mi. Answer.

_Stf//woter /

"N / Mechonks-m
j villa i

^^Scheneciady ^/^"^ y\
. TßOY *-"^

*\AIBAMY [

,1"
1

Roveno ■«(

$ Chatham

1 Athens J )
^ Jak W«/s<wi B P/iitmont

"A, /-^fCAT^KILL
FlGUKE 25.
q to

(3) By direct measurement determine the scale for the map in figure
25. From Catskill to Albany is 30 miles.
(4) How far is Sehenectady from Albany? See figure 25, and use
the scale determined in exercise (3). 16 mi. Answer.
42
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 26

(5) By direct measurement, determine the scale used for the map
in figure 26. See exercise (3).
"(6) Is Chatham located properly in figure 26? Why? Its location
is correct in figure 25. No Answer.

■
Beurilnghon

Adams

FIGURE 26.

(7) The model of the German bomber Heinkel (He-177) has a

wingspan of 17% inches. What must be its actual wingspan?
(8) The airplane models mentioned in paragraph 246 will be used
for training gunners in range determination. How far from the model
43
TM 1-900
26-28 ARMY AIR FORCES

should a gunner be so that it will appear to him as though the actual

airplane were 600 yards away?
Solution: His distance from the model should be in the same
ratio to 600 yards as the model scale, or as 1 is to 72:
distance 1 ,. 600 yd. Dl .
600 d =72, or distance=—^—=8g yd.=25 feet Answer.

(9) A top view silhouette of a B-23 is to be drawn as large as possible

in a space 2 feet wide. The wingspan of a B-23 is 91 feet. Which
of the following scales do you recommend: 1 to 60, 1 to 100, 1 to 20,
or 1 to 50?
(10) Using the information in exercise (3), are the scales shown in
figures 25 and 26 correct?

SECTION V
GRAPHS
Paragraph
Purpose and use . 27
Beading graphs 28-
Construction of graphs from data 29

27. Purpose and use.—Graphs are pictorial representations

showing the relationships between two (or more) quantities. They
have a wide use in practically every field of endeavor. In aero-
nautics they are used for showing experimental or test data, to show
the calibration of instruments, and for saving time and work in making
computations. Graphs are also found in many publications such as
technical manuals, scientific journals, and text books. It is important
that the pilot trainees know how to read graphs.
28. Beading graphs.—To illustrate the procedure, suppose it is
desired to know the calibrated air speed corresponding to an indicated
air speed of 150 mph on the meter whose calibration curve is shown in
figure 27. From "150" on the horizontal axis, move up until the
curve is intersected. Then move horizontally to the left. On the
vertical axis read "158." This is the corresponding calibrated air
speed in miles per hour. All graphs are read by following this general
procedure, although occasionally some graphs may be complicated
by several curves and multiple scales.
a. Air speed meter calibration graph.—This graph (fig. 27) is based
upon an air speed meter calibration of an airplane.

44
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 28

3 2»
a.
£
S Zoo
lb
a
<o
oc
5 ISo
a

§ too

s
SO 100 150 200 2S0
INDICATED AIR SPEED (mph)
FIGURE 27.—An air speed meter calibration curve.

(1) If the indicated air speed is 110 mph, find the calibrated air
speed.
(2) If the indicated air speed is 165 mph, find the calibrated air
speed. 173 mph Answer.
(3) If the calibrated air speed is 198 mph, find the indicated air
speed.
b. Pressure-temperature graph.—This graph (fig. 28) shows the
relationship between the pressure and the temperature of a gas at
constant volume.
(1) At a temperature of 0° C, the pressure is
(2) If the temperature increases, the pressure .

PRESSURE
(lb./5q.in.)
3o
•
20

■ySl*

0 '
•100* o" too" ZOO* 300*
TEMPERATURE (°C)
FIGURE 28.—Pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume.

45
TM 1-900
28 ARMT AIR FORCES

(3) If the pressure is decreased, the temperature of the gas

(4) At a temperature of 100° C, the pressure is '__.

(5) If the pressure is 30 Ib./sq. in., the temperature is
• e. 24-hour system.—The 24-hour system for stating time eliminates
the use of the abbreviations a. m. and p. m. The values for a. m.
time are unchanged except that four figures are always used. For
example, 9:15 a. m. becomes 091,5 hour; 4:45 a. m. becomes 0445 hour
and 11:48 a. m. becomes 1148 hour. The values for p. m. time are
increased by 1200, hence 1:30 p. m. becomes 1330 hour and 5:55 p. m.
becomes 1755 hour. The use of this system decreases the chances for
making errors and for this reason it has been adopted for use in the
U. S. Army Air Forces.
2200 q:

iScoi
MNi MARI MAY1 JUL1 SEP 1 NOVI JAN 1
DAY
FIQUBE 29.—Sunset graph.

d. Sunset graphs.—These graphs enable the pilot to determine the

time of sunset for any position on the earth. The 24-hour system of
keeping time is used in sunset graphs.
(1) Instructions for use.—(a) Enter the top or bottom scale with
proper date.
46
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 28

(b) Move vertically down or up to the curve for observer's latitude

(observer's position).
(c) Move horizontally to the right or left and read local civil time
of sunset on vertical scales at the side.
(2) Find the sunset time for Nov. 1 at latitude 30° N.
(Follow instructions for use.)
1727 hour Answer.
(3) Find the sunset time for May 15 at latitude 50° N.
(4) Find ihe sunset time for May 20 at latitude 30° N.
1852 hour Answer.
(5) Find the sunset time for June 10 at latitude 10° N.
(6) Find the sunset time for Feb. 10 at latitude 40° N.
1736 hour Answer.
(7) Find the sunset time for Oct. 20 at latitude 30° N.
e. Fuel consumption graph.—This graph (fig. 30) shows the relation-
ship between the air speed and the fuel consumption.
60

FUEL CONSUMPTION
SO

2
Ho
O
P
Q. 30
s
Z 20
8
3
u. '•
o
0 HO BO 120 160 ZOO
Alß SPEED (mph)
FIGURE 30.—Typical fuel consumption curve.

(1) At an air speed of 180 mph, the fuel consumption is _. gal./hr.

(2) At an air speed of 168 mph, the fuel consumption is . . gal./hr.
(3) If the fuel consumption is 53 gal./hr., the air speed is. __ mph.
(4) If the fuel consumption is 39 gal./hr., the air speed is . __ mph.
47
TM 1-900
29 ARMY AIR FORCES

29. Construction of graphs from data.—a. Neatness is im-

portant in the construction of graphs. The work should be careful-
ly planned first. The choice of a suitable scale should be made by
observing the range of the data. The axes should be labeled accord-
ing to what they represent and the graph should have a title.
(1) Example: Plotagraph of the following temperature data:
Temperature Temperature
Time (degrees F.) Time (degrees P.)
0100 60 1300 72
0200 60 1400 73
0300 59 1500 73
0400 58 1600 74
0500 57 1700 73
0600 57 1800 71
0700 60 1900 70
0800 63 2000 68
0900 65 2100 67
1000 68 2200 65
1100 70 2300 62
1200 71 2400 61

(a) Hint: Choose a convenient scale so that all the data can be
represented on the graph without crowding. The horizontal axis is
usually used as the time axis. To locate the points for the graph,
follow the vertical line indicating 0100 hour to its intersection with the
horizontal line indicating a temperature of 60° and place a point
there. Repeat this procedure for each hour and its corresponding
temperature. After all the points are located, draw straight lines
connecting them, or if possible a smooth curve through the points.
(6) A solution is given in figure 31-. ■

o/oo oSao /ooo /Soo 2ooo gfoo

Time, in hours
FlGUBE 31.

48
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 29

b. Exercises.—(1) The height H, in yards, of a light above sea level

and the distance D, in miles, at which it can be seen from the sur-
face of the sea are given in the table. Plot the graph.

D 0 3 6 12 18 24 36 45
H 0 2 8 32 72 128 288 450

The height a light must be above sea level to be seen 30 miles out is
yards.
(2) Plot calibrated air speed in knots against indicated air speed in
mph.
Calibrated air speed (knots) • 101 110 119 128 137 146

Indicated air speed (mph) 110 120 130 140 150 " 160

If the indicated air speed is 145 mph, the calibrated air speed in knots
is If the calibrated air speed in knots is 130, the indicated
air speed in mph is
(3) The length of a pendulum and the time it requires to make a
complete vibration are given in the following table. Represent this
data graphically.
Length in
centimeters 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Time in seconds 1.42 1.55 1.68 1.80 1.90 2.01 2.11

(a) The time of one vibration of a pendulum 65 cm long is

sec.
(b) The length of a pendulum which makes a complete vibration
once in 1.5 seconds is cm.
(4) Plot true air speed in mph against calibrated air speed in mph.
True air speed in mph 110 125 141 151 164
Calibrated air speed in mph 100 114 128 137 149
(a) If the true air speed is 130 mph, then the calibrated air speed
is __. mph.
(b) If the true air speed is 160 mph, then the calibrated air speed
is .. mph.
(c) If the calibrated air speed is 110 mph, then the true air speed
is __' mph, knots.

453568°—42-
TM 1-900
29-31 ARMY AIR FORCES

(5) Plot centigrade temperatures against Fahrenheit temperatures.

A table showing the relationship between Fahrenheit and Centigrade
temperature readings is given.

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit 32 68 104 140 176 212

Temperature in degrees centigrade 0 20 40 60 80 100

(a) A temperature of 96° F. = ° C.

(6) A temperature of 15° C. = ° F.
SECTION VI

ANGULAE MEASUREMENT
Paragraph
Purpose 30
Angle and units of angular measurement 31
Course, heading, drift 32
Exercises 33

30. Purpose.—The purpose of this section is to familiarize the

pilot trainee with angular measurements and how they are used in
determining directions in the United States Army Forces.
31. Angle and units of angular measurement.—a. Consider
a circle. The circumference, or any part of that circumference which
is called an arc, is divided into units called degrees. There are 360
degrees in a complete circumference (or one revolution). For more
accurate measurements a degree is divided into 60 equal parts called,
minutes and a minute is divided into 60 equal parts called seconds.
The following table shows the symbols used for these units of angular
measurement.
(1) Table of angular measurement.
360° (degrees)=1 circumference
l°=ö™part of a circumference
60' (minutes) = 1°
60" (seconds) = 1'
Only the degree will be used in this manual.
b. An angle is the figure formed by drawing two straight lines.out-
ward from a common point. The common point is called the vertex
of the angle and the straight lines are called the sides of the angle.
In figure 32, O is the vertex and NO and PO are the sides of the angle
NOP. Another definition of an angle is the amount of rotation or
turning necessary to rotate NO to the new position PO. The air

50
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 31

navigation system of measuring and naming directions consists of

designating directions by measuring them in degrees clockwise from
the north through 360°.

FIGURE 32.

c. The instrument for measuring angles is the protractor. To

measure an angle with a protractor, place the protractor on the angle
to be measured (see fig. 33) so that either half of the side AB will fall
upon one side of the angle and the point O on the vertex. The reading
on the scale where the other side of the angle crosses it is the measure
of the angle in degrees.

PROTRACTOR

51
TM 1-900
31 AKMY AIR FORCES

d. Exercise.—Measure each of the angles in figures 34, 35, 36,

and 37.

FIGURE 34. FIGUBE 35.

FIGUBE ! FIGURE 37.

e. To lay off an angle with a protractor.—Draw one side of the angle

and locate the vertex. Place side AB of the protractor on the side
drawn and point 0 on the vertex. Locate the reading of the value of the
angle required on the scale of the protractor and connect this with the
vertex. Measure the angle by starting at the north line.
(1) Example. Lay off an angle of 115°.
Solution: First draw the north line, then follow the instructions
ine (see fig. 38).
52
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 31-32

—NORTH LIME

FIGURE 38.

(2) Exercise.—Use a protractor and lay off angles of 30°, 135°,

180°, 240°, 315°.
32. Course, heading, drift.—a. True course (G)—Direction over
the surface of the earth expressed as an angle with respect to true north
in which an aircraft intends to fly. It is the direction as laid out on a
map or chart.
b. True heading (H)—-Angular direction of the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft with respect to true north.
c. Drift (D)—Angle between the true heading and the true course.
It is right drift if the true course is greater than the true heading.
If the true course is less than the true heading, it is left drift.

"HEADING

COURSE

RIGHT LEFT
DRIFT OBIFT
FIGURE 39a. FIGURE 396.

53
TM 1-900
32-33 ARMY AIR FORCES

d. Wind direction.—Wind is designated by the direction from which

it blows (see fig. 40).

mm31*
DIRECTION
\
FIGURE 40.

e. In determining true heading when true course is given, subtract

right drift from true course. Add left drift to true course to obtain
true heading.
33. Exercises.—a. Determine the direction (north, south, east,
west, etc.) in each of the following cases.
(1) True course 180°
(2) True course 270° True course west Answer.
(3) True course 225°
(4) Wind from 315° Wind from northwest Answer.
(5) Wind from 135°
(6) Wind from 0° Wind from north Answer.
(7) True heading 45°
(8) True heading 90° True heading east Answer.
b. Determine the true heading in each of the following cases:
(1) True course=90°
Right drift=6°
Solution:

COURSE = HEADING+ MGUT DRIFT

90° ~ HEADING + 6°
HEADING* 8#° Otto.
FIGURE 41.

(2) True course= 135°

Left drift=9° True heading= 144° Answer.
54
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 33-35

(3) True course=270°

Leftdrift=ll°
(4) True course=315°
Eight drift= 10° True heading=305° Answer.
(5) True course=0°
Leftdrift=15°

SECTION VII
VECTORS
Paragraph
Purpose 34
Vector 1- 35
Triangle of velocity .- _- : 36
Miscellaneous exercises 37

34. Purpose.—The purpose of this section is to give the pilot

trainee an idea of what a vector is and of how vectors will be used in
triangle of velocity problems.
35. Vector.—a. A velocity is a rate of change of position in a
given direction. A velocity is made up of both speed and direction.
The statement that an aircraft has a velocity of 250 mph is incomplete
without an indication of the direction of flight.
b. A vector is a straight line with an arrow showing direction.
Since a velocity implies a speed (air speed, ground speed or speed of
wind) in one direction, it may be represented graphically by a straight
line whose length is drawn to some scale, for example, 1 inch=20
mph, and whose direction is measured in degrees clockwise from north.
Thus the graphical representation of a velocity is a vector.
c. Vector addition.—The addition of two or more vectors yields a
vector which is equivalent to the other vectors. This equivalent
vector is called the resultant. To find the sum of two or more vectors,
say a, b, and c, a polygon is constructed as follows:
(1) Each vector is placed so that .its initial point is in contact with
the end point (arrow) of its predecessor. The vectors may be added
in any order.
(2) The resultant is the vector joining the first initial point to the
last end point.

RESULTANT
FIGURE 42.

55
TM 1-900
36 ARMY AIR FORCES

36. Triangle of velocity.—a. An aircraft in flight follows a

direction relative to the ground which in general is not the same as the
direction in which the aircraft is headed. The actual path of an air-
craft in flight over the earth's surface is known as its track. If there
is no wind then the aircraft flies in the direction in which it is headed
and its track is in the same direction. Due to the general prevalence
of the wind, an aircraft is rarely headed in the direction of its track.
b. In effect an aircraft is subject to two velocities:
(1) Wind velocity, and
(2) Its velocity through the air mass surrounding it. This
second velocity is determined by two factors: the true air speed, and
the direction in which the aircraft is headed. The resultant of these
two velocity vectors is a vector in the direction of the track (course)
whose length is the ground speed.

WIND
VECTOR

A*
TRIANGLE of VELOCITV
FlGUKE 43.

c. Example: Given: Wind 30 mph from 200°

Air speed 150 mph
Heading 90°
Required: Ground speed and course.
Solution:
(1) Draw the north line.
(2) Draw the air speed vector at an angle of 90° from north, making
it 5 in. long (1 in. = 30 mph; hence 5 in. = 150 mph).
(3) Draw the wind vector away from 200°, making it 1 in. long (1
in.=30 mph). The wind vector is drawn from the end point of the
air speed vector. (Air speed vector+wind vector=ground speed
vector.)
(4) The angle between the ground speed vector and the north line
determines the course. The length of the ground speed vector accord-
ing to the scale used determines the ground speed.

56
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES 36

FlGUBE 44.

(5) Remark.—The drift angle is the angle between the air speed
vector and the ground speed vector. Since this is a case of left drift,
the drift angle of 10° is subtracted from the heading 90° to obtain the
course 80°.
d. Exercises.
(1) Given: Wind 30 mph from 315°
Air speed 210 mph .
Heading 160°
Required: Ground speed and course.
(2) Given: Wind 30 mph from 180°
Air speed 150 mph
Heading 90°
,. Required: Ground speed and course.
Ground speed=153 mph
Course=79°. Answer.
(3) Given: Wind 40 knots from 210°
Air speed 160 knots
Heading 270°
Required: Ground speed and course.
(4) Given: Wind 40 mph from 90°
Air speed 180 mph
Heading 215°
Required: Ground speed and course.
Ground speed=206 mph
Course=224° Answer.
(5) Given: Wind 45 knots from 300°
Air speed 180 knots
Heading 45°
Required: Ground speed and course.

57
TM 1-900
36 ARMY AIR FORCES

e. Example: Given: Wind 35 mph from 225°

Air speed 175 mph
Course 300°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
Solution:
(1) Draw the north line.
(2) Draw the wind vector away from 225°, making it 1 in. long
(1 in.=35 mph).
(3) Draw the track making the course 300°.
(4) Place one end of the ruler on the end point of the wind vector
and notice where a vector 5 in. long will touch the track (1 in. = 35
mph; hence 5 in.=175 mph).
(5) Draw the air speed vector as determined in (4).
(6) The length of the track vector according to the scale used
determines the ground speed.
(7) The angle between the air speed vector and the north line
measured clockwise from north determines the heading.

Qowi-tn
FIGURE 45.

(8) Remark.—The drift angle is the angle between the air speed
vector and the ground speed vector. Since this is a case of right drift,
the drift angle of 11° is subtracted from the course 300° to obtain the
heading 289°.
/. Exercises.
(1) Given: Wind 50 mph from 300°
Air speed 225 mph
Course 270°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
(2) Given: Wind 25 knots from 150°
Air speed 150 knots
Course 345°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
Ground speed=174 knots
Heading=348° Answer.
58
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOB PILOT TRAINEES 36-37

(3) Given: Wind 35 mph from 0° .

Air speed 210 mph
Course 120°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
(4) Given: Wind 55 mph from 120°
Air speed 220 mph
• Course 60°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
Ground speed=187 mph
Heading=73° Answer.
(5) Given: Wind 10 knots from 135°
Air speed 165 knots
Course 315°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
37. Miscellaneous exercises.—The following exercises are to be
solved by graphical methods and include both types of triangle of
velocity problems discussed in paragraph 36.
(1) Given: Wind 25 mph from 240°
Air speed 175 mph
Heading 120°
Required: Ground speed and course.
(2) Given: Wind 15 knots from 135°
Air speed 195 knots
Course 135°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
Ground speed=180 knots
Heading=135° Answer.
(3) Given: Wind 35 mph from 30°
Air speed 245 mph
Course 180°
Required: Ground speed and heading.
(4) Given: Wind 30 mph from 270°
Air speed 242 mph
Heading 324°
Required: Ground speed and course.
Ground speed=223 mph
Course=330° Answer.
(5) Given: Wind 40 mph from 60°
Air speed 230 mph
Course 0° .
Required: Ground speed and heading.

59
TM 1-900
ARMY AIR FORCES

APPENDIX

MISCELLANEOUS UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

1. Formulas.
d2
a. Area of circle, diameter —d, is -r-
b. Area of rectangle, width=w and length =£, is wl.
c. Area of triangle, base=6 and altitude =h, is bh/2.
d. Volume of sphere, radius =r, is -^irr 3.
e. Volume of prism, area of base=A, height=A, is Ah.
2. Conversion factors.
66 nautical miles =76 statute miles=122 kilometers (approx-
imate)
1 centimeter (cm) =0.393700 inches (in.)
1 foot (ft.) =12 inches (in.)
=30.4801 centimeters (cm)
1 inch (in.) =2.54001 centimeters (cm)
1 kilometer (km) =1,000 meters (m)
=0.62137 statute mile (mi., stat.)
=0.53959 nautical mile (naut.)
=3280.83 feet (ft.)
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm) . .
= 1,000 millimeters (mm)
=3.28083 feet (ft.)
=39.3700 inches (in.)
1 minimeter (mm) =0.039370 inches (in.)
1 nautical mile =6,080.20 feet (ft.)
(naut.)
= 1.151553 statute miles (mi., stat.)
= 1.853249 kilometers (km)
1 statute mile =5,280 feet (ft.)
= 1.60935 kilometers (km)
= .868393 nautical miles
1 U. S. gallon (gal.)=231 cubic inches (cu. in.)
= .13368 cubic feet (cu. ft.)
= .83310 British gallons
1 cubic foot (cu. ft.)=1,728 cubic inches (cu. in.)
=7.4805 U. S. gallons (gal.)
60
 TM 1-900
MATHEMATICS FOR PILOT TRAINEES

1 kilometer per =0.62137 statute miles per hour

hour (km/hr)
=0.53959 knots
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour
= 1.853249 km/hr
= 1.151553 mph or mi/hr
1 statute mile per = 1.4666 feet per second
hour (mph or
mi/hr)
= 1.60935 km/hr
=0.868393 knots
3. Temperature scales.
Freezing: 0° C. =32° F.=273° K. (Absolute)
Boiling: 100° C. =212° F.=373° K. (Absolute)
Oc 9
(F°-32).
9C°
F°=^y +32.
K°=C°+273.
4. Time equivalents.
GMT

New York (EWT)y

Chicago (CWT)
Next day
Denver (MWT) \-l800
San Francisco (PWT)
1500 0000]
MIDDAY

Densities.
Gasoline (aviation) weighs 45 lb./cu. ft. or 6 lb./gal.
Oil (aviation) weighs 56 lb./cu. ft. or 7.5 lb./gal.
Water weighs 62.4 lb./cu. ft. or 8.34 lb./gal.
Air (dry) weighs .0765 lb./cu. ft. at 15° C. (59° F.) and stand-
ard atmospheric pressure.

61
TM 1-900

INDEX
Paragraph Page
Addition : 4a 2
Exercises - 4d 3
Of fractions „ 10a 19
Of positive and negative numbers 15 28
Air navigation system of measuring directions 316 50
Exercises 33a, 33* 54
Air speed meter calibration graph 28a 44
Air speed vector 36c(2), 36e(5) 56,58
Angle 316 50
Construction of . 31e 52
Angular measurement 31 50
Exercises 31d 52
Table of 31a(l) 50
Calibrated air speed. 29a(2), 29a(4) 49
Centigrade scale 21c, 21e(4), 29a(5) {37%
Centrifugal force . 22(11) 38
Common denominator 10c 20
Course 36c(4) 56
Decimal fractions . 8a 14
Decimal point 4a, 66, 7/ 2, 6, 11
Dividend. 7a, 7/ 9, 11
Divisor 7a 9
Division 7a 9
Exercises '. 17d 30
Long division 7c 9
Of fractions 12a 22
Of positive and negative numbers 17c 30
Short division 76 9
Drift angle, . 36c(5), 36e(8) 57,58
Drift , : 32c 53
Equations 20 33
Axioms used in solving 21 34
Formation of , 20 33
Factors 6a 5
Rounding off : 6d 7
Fahrenheit scale 21c, 21e(4), 29a(5) L7Sh
Fractions: '
Addition of :. 10a 19
Conversion of J 8a, 9a 14, 18
Division of 12a 22
fl5, 17,
Exercises 8d, 8/, 9d, 10d, lie, 12c {19, 20,
L 22, 23
Multiplication of , 11a 21
Reduction to lowest terms , 8c 15
Subtraction of . ____■ 106 20

62
 TM 1-900
INDEX

Paragraph Page
Fuel consumption , 22(16) 39
Graph of ; -.I 28e 47

General gas law . - .... 21e(2) 36

Graphs 27 44
Construction of 29 48
Reading of_- 28 44
Ground speed vector . 36c(4), 36e(6) 56, 58

Horsepower _,. 21e(l), 21e(8) 36,37

Indicated air speed 296(2) 49

Lift . ' .- 21e(l) 35

Maps 25o 41
Materials needed 2 2
Miscellaneous exercises—
On equations 22 38
On fundamental operations 18 30
On scales.... 26 42
On vectors 37a 59
Mixed numbers , 7h 12
Models 24 40
Multiplication.i 6a 5
Exercises &g, &h, 17b 8,29
Of fractions 11a 21
Of positive and negative numbers 17a 29

Percent ,..■._....■.. 8e 16
Positive and negative numbers : 14 27
Addition of-, 15a 28
Division of . - 17c 30
Exercises 166, 176, 17d 29, 30
Multiplication of 17a 29
Subtraction of - 16a 29
Pressure-temperature graph 286 45
Proportion 136 24
Exercises 13<7 26
Protractor, use of 31c 51

Quotient : 7a 9

Radius of action _. 22(18) 40

Rate of climb .' - 22(14) 39
Ratio ._ 13a 23
Regional charts 256 41
Resultant . 366(2) 56

Scales 23 40
Miscellaneous exercises 26 42

63
TM 1-900
INDEX

Paragraph
Sectional Charts 25b 41
Subtraction -------__-..______._!__! 5a 4
Exercises ; ge g
Of fractions 106 20
Of positive and negative numbers ; 16a 29
Sunset graphs i __. 28d 46
Symbols . _ 4Ci 6e, 7e, 13d, 14d J3, 7, 11
{ 24, 28
Temperature conversion formula - 21c, 21e(4) 35 37
Transposition 216 35
Triangle of velocity 36a 56
Exercises 1.:........:_;.:... 36d, 36/ 57,58
Miscellaneous exercises 37 59
True air speed 296(4) 49
True course 32a 53
True heading 326 53

24-hour system 28c 46

Units . 46> 6ej 7j 3) 7> 13

Vectors . . 35o 55
Addition of . . 35c. 55

Wind direction 32d 54

Wind vector 1 36c(3), 36e(2) 56,58

[A. G. 062.11 (3-23-42).]

BY OBDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR:

G. C. MARSHALL,
Ohwf of Staff.
OFFICIAL:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General,
The Adjutant General.

DISTRIBUTION:
R and H1 (6);. 4 (5); IBn 1 and 4 (10).
(For explanation of symbols see FM 21-6.)

64
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1942