Digital Circuit

- A digital circuit is a type of electronic circuit that processes information in discrete

(binary) form, typically as 0s and 1s.
- These circuits form the backbone of modern electronics, including computers,
smartphones, and digital communication systems.
Binary Code
- A binary unit is also known as a “bit.”
- It is the smallest unit of digital information that a computer can understand.
- It is stored in a series of zeros and ones.
- A computer thinks by relying on zeros and ones for all information
Why Binary Code
- Computers can compute the meaning of binary strings very quickly and translate them
into numbers or letters. Text, images, sound, and video are converted into binary before
being processed by the computer
1 is on; 0 is off
Bit - smallest unit of information that a computer can understand
Byte - string of 8 bits. A byte is also known as a unit of memory size.
Numbers in Binary Code

How to Read Binary

From Decimal Number to Binary

Ascii Code
- For information to be transferred into or out of a computer, numbers, letters, and several
other symbols must be translated into binary code. The system used is the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange, or ASCII (pronounced “ask-key”). The ASCII
code is an alphanumeric code; it has binary values for each letter, number and symbols.
The ASCII code has been used to standardize codes for numbers, letters, and symbols
in equipment such as printers, keyboards, and computer displays.
ASCII Table

-
Boolean Logic
- The brain of any computer is the CPU (central processing unit)
- The CPU fetches instructions from main memory and executes them
- The ALU (artihmetic logic unit) is the component within the CPU where logical decisions
are made. This decision making process is called Boolean Logic
Logic Gates
- Boolean logic is represented using logic gate symbols
- Logic gates use boolean logic to take one or more binary inputs and produce a single
binary output.
1. Inverter
- simplest of all logic gates. It has only one input and one output, where the output is the
opposite of the input.

2. OR Gate
- has two or more inputs but only one output. Only one needs to be true for a true output

3. AND Gate
- has two or more inputs but only one output. Both inputs must be true for a true output

4. NOR Gate
- has two or more inputs But only one output. Both input can be true for a true output,
where output is opposite for the both input.

-
 5. NAND Gate
- One of the inputs must be false

6. XOR Gate
- Only one input can be true for a true output

7. XNOR Gate
- Only similar input can be true for a true output

-
Logic Gates
- crucial in digital systems and programming, acting as the basic elements that enable
computers and other devices to process and compute data.
- They perform binary operations and control data flow, vital for creating circuits and the
CPU's operation
Integrated Circuits
- popularly called chips, are inevitable in any electronic board.
- The integrated circuit functions as an amplifier, oscillator, counter, voltage regulator,
timer, and memory and replaces discrete component-based circuits.
- It implements a basic logical operation that is performed on one or more digital input
signals. to produce a digital output signal
Transistors
 - One of the most common uses for transistors in an electronic circuit is as simple
switches.
- In short, a transistor conducts current across the collector emitter path only when a
voltage is applied to the base.
- When no base voltage is present, the switch is off.
- When base voltage is present, the switch is on.
- A transistor allows you to use a small current to control a much larger one
Diode
- A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for current.
- It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing
in the opposite direction.
- Whenever a specified voltage is exceeded, the diode resistance gets increased, making
the diode reverse biased and it acts as an open switch
Diode Switching Time
- While changing the bias conditions, the diode undergoes a transient response. The
response of a system to any sudden change from an equilibrium position is called as
transient response.
- The time taken before the diode recovers its steady state is called as Recovery Time.
- The time interval taken by the diode to switch from reverse biased state to forward
biased state is called as Forward Recovery Time.
- The time interval taken by the diode to switch from forward biased state to reverse
biased state is called as Reverse Recovery Time

Electric Circuit Timers

Components of Electronic Circuit Timers
1. Switch
- Can come in many forms such as pushbutton, rocker, momentary, and others.
- Their basic function is to interrupt electric current by turning a circuit on or off
2. Resistor
- are used to resist the flow of current or to control the voltage in a circuit.
- The amount of resistance that a resistor offers is measured in Ohms.
- Most resistors have colored stripes on the outside and this code will tell you it’s value of
resistance.
3. Potentiometer
- A variable resistor is also known as a potentiometer.
- These components can be found in devices such as a light dimmer or volume control for
a radio.
- When you turn the shaft of a potentiometer, the resistance changes in the circuit.
- Measures electrical potential
4. Light Dependent Resistor
- A light-dependent resistor is also a variable resistor but is controlled by the light versus
turning a knob.
- The resistance in the circuit changes with the intensity of the light.
 - These are often found in exterior lights that automatically turn on at dusk and off at
dawn.
5. Capacitor
- store electricity and then discharges it back into the circuit when there is a drop in
voltage.
- A capacitor is like a rechargeable battery and can be charged and then discharged
6. Diode
- allows electricity to flow in one direction and blocks it from flowing the opposite way.
- The diode’s primary role is to route electricity from taking an unwanted path within the
circuit..0
7. Light Emitting Diode
- e is like a standard diode in the fact that electrical current only flows in one direction.
- The main difference is an LED will emit light when electricity flows through it.
- Inside an LED there is an anode and cathode.
- Current always flows from the anode (+) to the cathode (-) and never in the opposite
direction.
- The longer leg of the LED is the positive (anode) side.
8. Transistor
- are tiny switches that turn a current on or off when triggered by an electric signal.
- In addition to being a switch, it can also be used to amplify electronic signals.
9. Relay
- is an electrically operated switch that opens or closes when power is applied.
- Inside a relay is an electromagnet which controls a mechanical switch
10. Integrated Circuit
- is a circuit that’s been reduced in size to fit inside a tiny chip.
- This circuit contains electronic components like resistors and capacitors but on a much
smaller scale.
- Integrated circuits come in different variations such as 555 timers, voltage regulators,
microcontrollers, and many more
Time Delay
- Electronic circuits or systems suffer from some form of “time-delay” between its input
and output terminals when either a signal or voltage, continuous, (DC) or alternating (
AC ), is applied to it.
- This delay is generally known as the circuit's time delay or Time Constant which
represents the time response of the circuit when an input step voltage or signal is
applied.
- The resultant time constant of any electronic circuit or system will mainly depend upon
the reactive components either capacitive or inductive connected to it.
- Time constant has units of, Tau – τ.
- The electrical charge stored on the plates of the capacitor is given as: Q = CV.
- This charging (storage) and discharging (release) of a capacitors energy is never instant
but takes a certain amount of time to occur with the time taken for the capacitor to
charge or discharge to within a certain percentage of its maximum supply value being
known as its Time Constant ( τ ).
 - This transient response time T, is measured in terms of τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is
the value of the resistor in ohms, and C is the value of the capacitor in Farads.
- This then forms the basis of an RC charging circuit were 5T can also be thought of as “5
x RC”.
Operation of an RC Time Constant Circuit
1. In Charging: When a capacitor charges through a resistor, the time it takes to charge to
a certain voltage determines the timing delay.
2. In Discharging: When the capacitor discharges, the time it takes to drop to a lower
voltage also controls the delay
Types of Electronic Circuit Timers
1. Monostable Timer (One-Shot Timer)
- Produces a single output pulse of a specified duration when triggered. After the pulse, it
returns to its original state until retriggered.
- How It Works: When triggered, the capacitor in the circuit starts charging. The output
stays high for a set duration determined by the RC time constant, then returns to low
when the capacitor discharges.
- Common Uses: Alarms, pulse width modulation, debouncing switches, and triggering
events after a delay
2. Astable Timer (Oscillator)
- Continuously switches between two states (on and off) producing a square wave or
oscilating output.
- How It Works: The circuit doesn’t have a stable state, as the capacitor repeatedly
charges and discharges, causing the output to alternate between high and low.
- Common Uses: Blinking LEDs, signal generators, pulse generation, clock signals for
digital circuits, and tone generators
3. Bistable Timer (Flip-Flop)
- Has two stable states and remains in one state until triggered to switch to the other. No
automatic reset occurs, unlike the monostable timer.
- How It Works: The timer stays in one state (either high or low) until an external input
changes it. It maintains its state indefinitely until another trigger flips it.
- Common Uses: Memory storage elements, toggle switches, and relay control
4. On-Delay Timer
- Delays the activation of an output after an input signal is received. The output remains
off for a specified time and then turns on.
- How It Works: When the input signal is applied, the timer starts counting. After the delay
period (determined by the RC circuit or a digital counter), the output is turned on.
- Common Uses: Motor start delays, heating systems, conveyor belt timing, and industrial
machinery control
5. Off Delay Timer
- Delays turning off an output after the input signal is removed. The output remains active
for a set period after the input turns off.
- How It Works: When the input is removed, the timer continues running, keeping the
output on for a predetermined time before switching off.
 - Common Uses: Fans that continue running after equipment shutdown, delayed lighting
systems, or controled power off systems
Applications
1. Lighting Control
- Used to automaticaly turn lights on or off after a set time. This includes security lights,
delayed lighting after someone leaves a room, or time-controled street lights
2. Industrial Automation
- Timers control sequences in automated manufacturing processes, such as conveyor
belts or robotic arms, to ensure precise timing of operations like welding, stamping, or
material handling
3. Home Appliances
- Many appliances, such as ovens, microwaves, washing machines, and dryers, use
timers to control operating durations and ensure efficient use of energy
4. Heating and Cooling Systems
- Timers manage the operation of HVAC systems, ensuring that heating or cooling is
delivered for a preset duration, optimizing energy consumption
5. Flashing Lights and Alarms
- Astable timers generate flashing signals for indicator lights, alarms, or attention-grabbing
displays in cars, emergency systems, or electronics
6. Motor Control
- Delayed timers are often used to control motors, ensuring they start after a delay or run
for a specific amount of time
Advantages
- Precised, affordable, reliable, flexible