Module-1A

ENVIRONMENT STUDIES
Environment refers to everything around us and is often known as the biosphere The
biosphere is considered as a thin shell of many hundred kilometers of radius that
covers the earth. All forms of life, both living and non-living organisms evolve and exist
within the biosphere, The natural resources such as air, water, food etc. are recycled
within the biosphere. Waste products are also recycled through it.
According to the definitional dictionary of geography, environment is the "sum
total of all the surrounding conditions that envelop an organism or community
or an object" The environment may be grouped into:
1. Abiotic (non-living) environment such as: (a) air, (b) water, (C) soil.
2. Biotic (living) environment such as: (a) mankind, (b) birds, (C) animals.
All these constituents of environment are referred to as the environmental factors or
ecological factors. An environmental factor is defined as "an ecological condition which
directly or indirectly affects the growth and development and life of an organism".
Environment is made up of three segments namely:
(1) Atmosphere, (2) Hydrosphere and (3) Lithosphere
1. Atmosphere
lt is a blanket of suspended liquids, solids and gases that envelop the earth. It extends
beyond the earth surface up to many hundred kilometers. The presence of life on earth
is attributed to atmosphere which is the prime source of the following matters.
Oxygen (O2) which is essential to animal life.
carbon dioxide (CO,) which is essential for plants for photosynthesis
iii. Functioning of wind, rain, snowfall etc.
iv. Formation of clouds, weather and climate.
Structure of atmosphere
1. Troposphere: Troposphere extends up to an average altitude of 11 kilometers from
the.earth surface. This is the densest area which contains about 75% of the total
atmospheric
mass. Formation of clouds, storms, etc. occur in this region. The base of this layer
is.warmer than its top because the air is heated by the surface of the earth.
2.Stratosphere: Stratosphere lies above the Troposphere and extends upto an average
altitude of 50 kilometers. The main activity in this zone is absorption of ultra violet
radiation by ozone.
3.Mesosphere: Mesosphere extends up to an average altitude of 87kilometers above
the stratosphere. The main activity in this region is burning of meteorites and their
disintegration.
4.Thermosphere: Thermosphere extends up to an average altitude of 500 kilometers
above the mesosphere. The main activity in this region is the high kinetic energy of gas
molecules. The thermosphere is very sensitive to solar activity and can heat up to
1500 C or higher
5. Exosphere: It is the upper most layer of atmosphere where atoms and molecules.
Escape into space.
2. Hydrosphere
This segment of our global environment consists of hydro i.e., water related regions
such as rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, seas, oceans, glaciers, polar ice etc.
About.97% of water is in ocean and seas, about 2% is locked in glaciers and polar ice
and the.rest 1% in lakes, streams, rivers etc. The sea/ocean water is salty and is not
useful for human consumption. Effectively only less than 1% water is available as
fresh water which is suitable for human consumption.
3. Lithosphere
It is the top crust of the earth. The ocean basin and continents lay on it. The crust
thickness varies widely, being thickest in continental regions (about 40 km) and
thinnest in the ocean basins (about 10 to 12 km). The upper most layer of soil on
earth crust is the most important region of lithosphere. It is because the major
biological activities occur in this region. It contains organic matter and is the source of
producing food for animal and human beings. Also the major biological activities and
decomposition of organic wastes is
carried out by a host of microorganisms in soil.
Environmental Studies
Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically
studies human interaction with the environment in the interests of solving complex
problems .It is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built
environment sets of relationships between them.
Definition
Environmental Study is defined as, the scientific study of the environmental
system and the status of its inherent or induced changes on organisms. It
includes not only the study of physical and biological characters of the
environment but also the social and Cultural factors and the impact of man on
the environment".
Objectives of Environmental Studies
a.Creating an awareness about environmental problems among people.
b.Imparting basic knowledge about the environment
c.Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.
d.Motivating public to participate in environment protection and environment
improvement,
e.Acquiring skills to help individuals to identify and solve environmental problems.
f. Striving to attain harmony with nature.
Scope of Environmental Studies
1. Environmental awareness: Environmental studies should be designed in such a way
that it creates and develops an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and
its related problems.
2.Environment protection: Environmental studies help to motivate people for active
participation in environmental protection and improvement programmes.
3.Solutions to environment problems: Environmental studies help to develop skills for
active identification and development of solutions to
environmental problems.
4. Conservation of resources: Conservation of natural resources is very important for
any country. Environmental studies imbibe and inculcate the habit of conservation of
natural resources.
5.Environment programmes: Environmental protection requires variety of programmes
to be specifically arranged for the purpose. Environmental studies help.to the
evaluation of environmental programmes in terms of social, economic, ecological and
aesthetic factors.

Importance / Need of Environmental Studies

The study of environment helps us in the following ways:
1. Development without destruction: There should be alround development in any
country. It often leads to destruction of environment. The study of environment helps
us to appreciate and adopt the idea of "development without destruction of the
environment'.
2. Knowledge about the environment: In order to protect environment, one should
have clear knowledge about it. Environmental studies help us to have knowledge
about 'various types of environments and different environmental hazards'.
3Enforcement of laws: I order to protect the environment, there should be very
strong legal regulations to be effectively implemented. For the purpose, timely
changes in the rules and regulations should be effected. Environmental studies play
an effective role in protecting the environment by 'demanding changes in laws and
enforcement systems'.
4. Improvement in quality of life: Availability of non-polluted air and water is the right
of every individual. Quality of life depends on the availability of such resources in
abundance. Hence study of environmental science gives a 'positive impact' on quality
of life'.
5. Concern for the environment: Protection of environment will be possible only if
one as a concern for environment in his every action. Before starting any major One
should think about the impact that it may create on environment. The environmental
studies help to create a 'concern and respect for the environment".
6. maintain ecological balance it providing a basic operating knowledge of
environment systems and processes.
Module-1B
Natural Resources
Natural resources are the components of environment which are inherently created by
environment for supporting life. These are raw materials and energy obtained from the
planet earth.
Features of Natural Resources
1. Natural resource is inherently created by environment and is a gift of nature.
2.These are essential for supporting life.
3Irrational use of natural resources leads to depletion in natural resources.
4.Conservation of natural resource is essential for generation to come.
5Over exploitation of natural resource is a threat to universe
6.Replacement of natural resource is difficult and in certain cases it is possible.
7.Over exploitation of any one natural resources leads to ecological imbalance.
Types of Natural Resources
The natural resources are divided into two categories depending upon their
availability.
i) Renewable Resources or Inexhaustible Resources,ii Non-Renewable Resources or
Exhaustible Resources.
i. Renewable Resources (Inexhaustible Resources)
Renewable resources are those resources that have the inherent ability to reappear
themselves by recycling, reproduction or replacement. These renewable resources
include Sunlight, plants, animals, soil, water and living organisms. Biological
organisms are self- renewing. The rate at which their renewal occurs varies.
i. Non-renewable Resources (Exhaustible Resources)
Non-renewable resources are resources of economic value that cannot be readily
replaced by natural means at a quick enough pace to keep up with consumption.
There are different
types of non-renewable resources. These include minerals, fossil fuels, oil, natural gas
and coal and nuclear energy. Non-renewable resources are finite in quantity and
quality.
On the basis of origin, non-renewable resources can be classified into two categories.
1. Biotic or Organic Resources: They are obtained from biosphere, for example, forest
and forest products, crops, birds, animal, fish and other marine forms, coal, minerals,
oils etc.
2. Abiotic or Inorganic Resources: Resources which are composed of
nonliving.inorganic matter are called abiotic resources. For example land, water etc.

FOREST RESOURCES
Forest resources mean various types of vegetation normally growing on forest
land,associated harvested products and the associated forest residue, including grass,
logs, sapling, seedlings, trees and slashing.
Forest form a major factor of environmental concern. In India, forest form 23% of total
land area. Forest is defined as biotic community comprising vegetation of trees, woods,
shrubs etc.

Uses of Forest
1. Direct uses
a.Fuel Wood: Wood is used as a source of energy for cooking purpose and for keeping
warm.
b.Timber: Wood is used for making furniture, buildings, tool-handles, railway sleepers,
matches, ploughs, bridges, boats etc.
c.Bamboos: These are used for matting, d.flooring, baskets, ropes, rafts, cots etc.
Food: Fruits, leaves, roots and tubers of plants and meat of forest animals form the
food of forest tribes.
e.Paper: Wood and Bamboo pulp are used for manufacturing paper (Newsprint,
stationery, packing paper, sanitary paper)
f. Rayon: Bamboo and wood are used in the manufacture of rayon (yarns, artificialsilk-
fibres)
g Forest Products: Tannins, gums, drugs, spices, insecticides, waxes, honey,
horns,musk, ivory, hides etc. are all provided by the flora and fauna of forests.
h.Aesthetic and other values: Forests have a great aesthetic value. There is hardly
any.part of the earth where people do not appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of
forest.
Additionally, forests provide areas for ecosystem research; provide opportunities for
recreation and spiritual renewal; and inspire literature, music, religion and art.
2. Indirect uses
a. Conservation of soil: Forests prevent soil erosion by binding tightly the soil with the
network of roots of different plants. They also act as windbreaks
b. Soil-improvement: The fertility of the soil increases due to the humus which is
formed by the decay of forest litter,
c.Reduction of atmospheric pollution: The trees produce oxygen by photosynthesis
which is vital for life on this earth. They are rightly called as earth's lungs.
d.Control of climate: Transpiration of plants increases the atmospheric humidity
which affects rainfall and cools the atmosphere,
e.control of water low: The forested watersheds act like a big sponge and soaks
rain.Water preventing run-off, thereby preventing flash-floods, It also prevents quíck
evaporation of water, thereby, ensuring a perennial supply of water to streams,
springs and wells.
f.reduce global warming: The main greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide is absorbed by the
forest as a rawmaterial for photosynthesis, Thus, forests help to reduce the problemof
global warming caused by greenhouse gas .
f..Wildlife habitat: Forest are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants.
Over Exploitatation. Over-exploitation of forests has led to the following problems:
i.Ecological imbalance: The ecosystem of forest is unbalanced resulting in disorder or
disturbance of biological diversity, wildlife habitat, less production of oxygen, less
absorption of carbon dioxide etc. Ecological imbalance also results in flooding,
deterioration of soil etc.
ii.Endangered tribal life: The life of the tribes living in forest is endangered due to its
overexploitation
iii.Bad effects on dwellers economy: The dwellers of the forest depend on the forests for
their livelihood and shelter. Its overexploitation has badly affected their life.
iv.Lack in aesthetic look: Due to overexploitation, there is a loss of beauty, spirituality,
medicinal worth, naturality etc.
v Loss of cultural values: Forest is a motivating factor for creation of art, music,
literature etc. Chance for these creative activities is washed away due to
theoverexploitation of forests

Deforestation
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forest or cutting the trees and plants
inorder to make the land available for other uses. The gains of deforestation are short
lived, but the damaging effects are long lasting.
Deforestation is defined as "the reckless felling of trees by human beings for their
ulterior ends.

Causes of Deforestation
Main causes of deforestation can be enumerated as follows:
1.Agricultural expansion: The conversion of forest into agricultural plantations is a
major cause of deforestation. The increase in global demand for agro-based products
is the driving force for clearing forests at an alarming rate.
2.Over population: Population is increasing at an alarming rate, forcing people to use
forests for shelter and their livelihood. Forest land is also used for resettlement of
landless farmers.
3.Lifestock ranching: Forest clearing for life stock ranching is continuing on large
scale. This leads to deforestation.
4. Logging: Logging is cutting of trees legally or illegally on commercial scale. This
leads to large scale deforestation.
5. Infrastructure expansion: Road construction can lead to deforestation by providing
entry to forest lands. This leads to logging, where opportunists cut trees without.
Permission from authorities.
6.Urban construction: Forests are cleared to accommodate expanding urban areas.
This results in loss of forest area and massive deforestation.
7.Grazing land: Forests are cut down inorder to create land for grazing cattle. Huge.
Herds of animals require food and forests are cleared out to make way for grazing
lands for these cattle’s.
8.Used as fuel: Trees are cut down to be used as firewoods or turned into charcoal,
which are used for cooking and heating purposes.
9.Industrial projects: Forest lands are used for new industrial projects, for
construction of dams, construction of irrigational canals, construction of power
projects, etc. Itleads to large scale deforestation.

Effects of Deforestation
i.Soil erosion: In the absence of forests/trees, especially on slopes, the soil gets
washed away with rain water.
ii.Expansions of deserts: Due to deforestation land mass gradually gets converted into
sand deserts. This effect is more pronounced in rain scared areas.
iii. Migration of people: Expansion of deserts leads to migration of local and
tribal.population from such lands to more fertile lands.
iv. Decrease in rainfall: Forests bring rains due to high rate of transpiration
and.precipitation. In the absence of forests, rainfall declines considerably.
v. Loss of fertile land: Less rainfall results into the loss of fertile land owing to less
natural vegetational growth.
vi. Reduction in Oxygen: Deforestation results in reduction in oxygen in the air
liberated by plants through photosynthesis.
vii. Rise in Carbon dioxide level: Rise in carbon dioxide level has resulted in increased
thermal level of earth which in turn results in melting of ice caps and glaciers
andconsequent flooding of coastal areas.
vii. Lowering of the water table: Lowering of the water table due to more run-off and
thereby increased use of the underground water increases the frequency of droughts.
ix. Effect on climate: The climate of a region is mainly controlled by the rainfall, snow
fall, etc. Deforestation causes decrease in rainfall, which in turn, increases the
climatic temperature.
x Economic losses: Deforestation will cause loss of industrial timber and non-timber
products and loss of long-term productivity of the land.
xi. Loss of flora and fauna: Certain species of flora and fauna are getting extinct from
the face of planet, mainly due to deforestation.
xi. Loss of medicinal plants: There are many species of plants which have medicinal
and other advantages, like Neem, which has been used in India for centuries as
insecticide, fungicide, in medicine and in bio-fertilizers. Deforestation may lead to the
extinction of these types of valuable plants.
xii. Environmental changes: The air we breathe is purified by forests. So, deforestation
will lead to increase in carbon dioxide and other air pollutants concentration. This will
lead to global warming, which is a serious effect as well as threat.
General Conservation Strategies of Forest Resources
1. to maintain order in forests and protected areas.
2. to increase income from authorised activities.
3. to prevent damage to forest resources from unwanted resource violations.
4.to meet sustainable yield targets.
5. to involve the public through information and education programmes to prevent
violations and damage to forests and protected areas.
6 to increase skill levels of forest technicians and forest managers in prevention,
detection and monitoring programmes.
WATER RESOURCES
Water is the most important resource for the life of all organisms. Water is essential
for agriculture, industry, drinking and many other purposes. Water of the atmosphere
reaches the earth's surface through precipitation and from the earth's surface it
reaches the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. This cycling of water
is maintained by nature. Water occurs in solid, liquid and gaseous forms. It is the
most abundant substanceon our environment. About three-fourth of the earth's
surface is occupied by Ocean. Of the rest, 2.5 percent is fresh water. Of this, only a
small portion of fresh water is available.for human use. The rest forms ground water,
water of lakes and rivers and a part of it is found in the frozen state.
Water Utilisation Pattern
The usable category of water may be grouped under three categories.
i.Consumptive nature: The consumptive nature of water is mainly for irrigatíon
purposes.
ii. Non consumptive nature: The Non-consumptive uses are in hydropower generation,
navigation and aquaculture etc.
ii. Partially consumptive nature: The partialy consumptive nature includes the
demands of public water supply, industrial and hermal power plants etc.
Water is used for various purposes. Main among them are: For domestic use such as
drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, cleaning etc. For industrial uses such as power
generation, cooling of machines etc. For other purposes such
as water supply to towns, irrigating the agricultural land, navigation, aqua culture etc.
Surface Water Resources
The surface water generally originated from the following sources:
1. Precipitation in the form of rainfall
2.Precipitation in the form of snow fall
Seepage of underground water from the springs onto the surface streams.
3.Other related details of different surface water resources are the following:
a. Ocean or Sea water resources: By definition, the ocean includes seas, bays,
gulfsand other ocean inlets attached to them. There are several oceans merged into
one another and are hard to be demarcated from each other. Following are the major
oceans having water resources.
) The Pacific Ocean
i) The Atlantic Ocean
i) The Indian Ocean
iv) The Aetic Ocean
v)The Antarctic Ocean
Amongst all known resources, ocean resource is the largest water resource. As it
contains high concentration of salt, it is not consumable
b.Rivers and Stream resources: The rain water that does not infiltrate through the
porous bed of land or does not evaporates, runs-off on the earth surface. The run-off
may be less or more. If the quantity of run-off is less, it is called stream, but if this
quantity is more, it is known as river. The run-off of streams and rivers are.always
towards sea. They are the important source of water supply for drinking.and other
purposes. The quality of water in rivers and streams may vary from pure
to dirty.
C.Natural lakes and ponds: Lakes are inland depressions that hold standing fresh
water throughout the year, eg, Lake Superior, the Caspian Sea, etc. Ponds are
generally small temporary or permanent shallow water bodies. As their water is.much
more accessible than ground water or glaciers, they are considered as an important
source of freshwater supply. Water from these sources is more uniform in quality than
water from flowing rivers and streams.
d.Artificial Reservoirs: These are formed by constructing hydraulic structures across
river valleys. The deeper and narrower the valley is, the easier it is to construct the
dam. The water quality is similar to that of natural lakes and ponds.
e.Melting of snow: In many parts of the world, stream flow mainly consists of water
released by melting of snow. In India, this is true for big rivers viz. Ganga,
Yamuna,Brahmputra and all rivers of Punjab. In many parts of the world, snow
acquires a great importance in occurrence of floods during spring time.

Ground Water Resources

Groundwater is the water below the ground surface and not exposed to the
atmosphere.like that in ponds or lakes. The ground water resource depends upon the
type of geographical
formation and rain fal. Inland river basins are rich in this water resource. The other
contributing sources are:
i.seepage from canal
ii. seepage from ground water systems
ii. seepage from drainage system
iv. recharge from rivers and stream
Over utilisation of surface and ground water
Nature has blessed earth generallously with gift of water. About 3/4 part of the earth
is covered with water. However drinking water is scantily available in view of large
quantity of water which is easily available being not fit for drinking. Hence proper use
of water is a must. It is only possible if its use never exceeds recharging capacity of
water. If this balance is disturbed and use of water exceeds its natural recharging
capacity it thenbecomes overexploitation.
Problems of excessive withdrawal and overuse of ground water
The overexploitation of groundwater results in:
i.Lowering of water table: Lowering the groundwater table causing wells to no longer
be able to reach groundwater.
ii. Depletion of water aquifers: When groundwater is over used, the lakes, streams and
rivers connected to the groundwater get dry.
iii. Deterioration of soil: The quality of the land and soil deteriotes when there is a loss
of support of water below the ground.
iv. Salinisation: Salinisation associated with the use of poor quality groundwater is
avery serious problem affecting agriculture.
v Porous formations: Excessive pumping of groundwater causes porous formations
to.collapse, resulting in subsidence or settling of the above-surface.
vi. Expensive: Excessive lowering of groundwater levels is making the pumping more
expensive and wells are going out of production.
Water Conservation
Water conservation is the careful use and protection of water resources and
involves.both the quantity and quality of water used. There are many strategies that
can be adopted to conserve the water. The main strategies are: (1) careful measures in
day to day life to
save water, (2) sustainable water utilization and (3) rainwater harvesting.
1. Careful measures to conserve water in day-to-day life
In day-to-day life, the need of water conservation exists in different areas of activities.
Main among these are the following:
a. Domestic Conservation: As much as half of the water used for domestic purposes
can be saved without great sacrifice or serious changes in the life-styles by
implementing measures like avoiding leakage, turning off water taps when not in
use, etc,
b. Agricultural conservation: Agriculture is the biggest water user and perhaps half of
all the agricultural water used is lost due to leaks in irrigation canals, application.to
areas where plants do not grow, runoff and evaporation. Water may be saved by
implementing measures such as lining the sides and bottom of the canals, adopting
better farming techniques, etc.
c.Industrial Conservation: Industries consume a lot of water. Water can be saved by
using dry cooling systems, reusing and recycling the cooling water.
2. Sustainable Water Utilization
iDomestic water consumption should be restricted to a minimum.
ii. The irrigational canals should be designed and constructed such that there is a
minimum seepage through their sides and bottom and also the evaporation is
minimum fromthe top.
iii. In industrial applications, the waste water should be recycled to use it again and
again.
iv. In production of vegetation, natural means of regeneration should be utilised
instead of supplementing it by artificial means. This will save unnecessary waste of
water.
v.The quality of water should be maintained within desirable limits by adopting
different methods of pollution checks.
3. Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self supply of water
for households, usually financed by the user. Rainwater harvesting essentially means
collecting rainwater on the roofs of buildings and storing it underground for later use.
Itis the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing
it to run off. This helps in arresting ground water depletion and raising declining water
table.
Watershed Management
Watershed management is the arrangement of collecting flood water in flood plains by
reserving some areas in the plains for storing the flood water. Later when the
flood.recedes, these areas may be used for agriculture, wildlife habitat, aquifer
recharging etc.
Types of Watershed
Watershed is classified into different types depending on the size, drainage, shape and
land use pattern.
1. Mille watershed-1 to 10 hectors
2. Mini watershed - 10 to 100 hectors
3. Micro watershed- 100 to 1000 hectors
4. Macro watershed-1000 to 10,000 htrs

Objectives of Watershed Management

1. Production of food, fodder and fuel.
2. Pollution control
3.Minimising over exploitation of resources.
4.Water storage, flood control, checking sedimentation .
5.Wildlife preservation
6.Erosion control and prevention of soil degradation and conservation of soil and
water.
7.Employment generation through industrial development, dairy, fishery products.
8.Recharging of ground water to provide regular water supply for consumption and
industry as well as irrigation.
9.Recreational facility.
Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self supply of water
for households, usually financed by the user. Rainwater harvesting essentially means
collecting rainwater on the roofs of buildings and storing it underground for later use.
It is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing
it to run
off. This helps in arresting ground water depletion and raising declining water table.
Need /Reasons for rainwater harvesting
i.Shortage of drinking water in urban and semi-urban areas.
ii.Lack in recharging of ground water during rainy days, because of blockage of
recharging area due to urbanization and large scale construction of building.
iii. Increased demand of water due to population growth
iv. Free of cost availability of rainwater.
v Lowering of the ground water table (level) that results in dry wells, inability of
handpumps to work, and deep drilling for tube-wells.
Methods of Rainwater harvesting
1. Roof top rain-water harvesting: In this method, the rainwater is collected from
roof tops, constructed courtyards and similar other locations from where the water
generally flows out to drain and goes waste. The water collection is done in huge
storage tanks constructed underground or at a suitable location of the house. The roof
top rainwater harvesting is also employed for 'ground water recharging'. In the above
cases the rainwater is directed to flow from roof top via roof gutters to storage
tank or under the ground
2. Micro-catchment water harvesting: This is a method of collecting surface runoff
from a small catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration
basin. The basin is planted with trees, bushes or with annual crops.
3. Macro-catchment water harvesting: This method is also called harvesting from
external catchments. Under this method runoff from hill slope catchments is conveyed
to the cropping area located at hill foot on flat terrain.
Amongst the above methods, the roof top rain-water harvesting is a more popular
system now-a-days.

Advantages of Rainwater harvesting

1. Supplement other sources: Rainwater harvesting can supplement other sources of
water supply such as ground water or municipal water connections.
2.High quality water: Water obtained from rainwater harvesting is pure without any
chemicals.
3.Low cost: The cost of collecting and storing rain water is not much costly. It makes
available pure and usable water at no cost or at very low cost.
4.Reduces flood: During heavy rains, large quantity of water flows to cause flood. By
collecting a good proportion of rain water through rainwater harvesting, floods can be
controlled to a great extent.
5.Prevents soil erosion: Due to water harvesting, soil erosion can be reduced to a great
extent, by checking, controlling and reducing flood flows during heavy rains.
6.Facilitates farming: The water collected through water harvesting can be used for
agricultural purposes during non-rainy seasons.
Dams
Dams are huge and giant structures, which are constructed across a river to obstruct
its natural flow, resulting in creation of an enormously large artificial lake to store
water. Dams built on rivers serve as artificial lake that impounds huge quantity of rain
water. Though dams have their own advantages, they often create certain serious
problems.
Benefits
1. It ensures water supply for different purposes throughout the year.
2. It makes hydroelectric power generation possible.
Documents Supporting the Appeal
The following documents must be attached while filing the first appeal:
i.Self-attested photocopy of RTI application.
ii. Self-attested copy of the PIO's response.
iii. Other documents justifying the grounds of appeal.

Application Fee and Format

The application fee and format differ from state to state. The applicant can find the
respective information in the official website of RTI.
Facts to be Included in the Appeal
The following facts must be mentioned while filing the application for first appeal:
i. Particulars of the RTI application filed to the PIO.
ii. The information requested in the application.
iii. The decision or ignorance of the PIO.
iv. Information provided by the PIO.
V. Information not provided by the PIO.
vi. Reasons for Grievance.
Prayers
i.An opportunity to be heard before a decision is made.
ii. Pardon the delay occurred during submission of application.
iii.Demand the PIO to provide information within ten days from the date of the
decision of the appeal.
iv. Demand the PIO to provide complete and accurate information.
V. Demand the PIO to provide certified copies of the information.
Exemption from disclosure of information (Sec. 8)
Disclosure of information means providing any information sought for by any person
or any entity that is permissible under Right to Information Act. Notwithstanding
anything contained in this Act, there shall be no obligation to give any citizen-
1. Those information, disclosure of which prejudicially affect-
a. sovereignty and integrity of India.
b. security, strategic, scientific or economic interests of the state relation with foreign
state.
d. which leads to incitement of an offence.
II. a. Information which has been expressly forbidden to be published by the any Court
of Law or Tribunal.
b. the disclosure of which may constitute contempt of court.
III. Information, the discloser of which cause a breach of privilege of parliament or the
state legislature.
IV. Information, the disclosure of which would harm the competitive position of third
party including-
a. Commercial confidence
b. Trade secrets
C. Intellectual Property Rights.
V. Information available to a person in his fiduciary relationship.
VI. Information received in confidence from foreign government.
VII. Information, disclosure of which would endanger life or physical safety of any
person or identity the source of information or assistance given in confidence for law of
enforcement or security purposes.
VIII. Information which would impede process of investigation, apprehension and
prosecution of offenders.
IX. Cabinet papers including records of deliberations of the Council of Ministers,
secretaries and other officers.
X. Information involving copy right infringement

Right to access information on specific issues

1. Banking and Insurance Transactions
As per provisions of The Right to Information Act, 2005, the citizens have the right to
get informations from the Public Authorities. Public Authorities include all Central,
State and local bodies constituted under Indian constitution or under Government
notifications. It covers all public sector undertaking, government companies and
private aided institutions including all Public Sector Banking Companies and Public
Sector Insurance Companies.
2. Government dealings and related services
The object of the Right to information Act is to ensure that all citizen of India are able
to seek information which is under the control of any Public Authority. At present, the
government administration functions under a halo of secrecy, lack of transparency
and unwilling to divulge information. Subject to the provisions of this Act, all citizens
shall have the right to information from the Central and State Governments. The right
to information means right to know about those information which is held by or under
the control of any Public Authority.
3. It assists in controlling the flood.
4 It guarantees irrigation during dry periods.
5.It protects the erosion of soil.
6.It can be used for inland water navigation.
7.The transfer of water can be accomplished from an area of excess water to other
8. It may be used to develop the fish resources.
9 The lake that forms behind the dam can be developed for water sports.
Problems
1. Construction of dam causes submergence of land on upstream side resulting in loss
of large area of fertile land and human settlements.
2.Increase in water-borne diseases, particularly 'malaria' as the reservoir
provides.favourable breeding-sites for mosquitoes.
3.The resettlement and rehabilitation of displaced population is costlier, time-taking
and troublesome activity.
4.In case of an earthquake jolt, the dam may crack, causing havoc due to unleashed
flood.
5.Enormous weight of stored water may trigger seismic activity.
6.Salinity of river water is increased due to increase in concentration of salt, after
evaporation. This makes the downstream water non-consumable.
7.Accumulated salty sediments behind the reservoir reacts with the dam, and lowers
its life.
8.Cost of constructing a dam is very high and there is chance for huge loss in
case of a crack or failure due to any reason.

MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are naturally occurring.elements or compounds that have been
formed.through slow inorganic processes. Modern civilisation is based on the use and
exploitation
of mineral resources. Minerals can be metallic and non-metallic. Extraction of
minerals.is carried out through mining. Minerals are extracted, processed and used
for different.purposes. Mineral resources, however, are exhaustible and finite, which
means excessive.use may affect their availability in future.
Uses of Mineral Resources
1. Used in construction of buildings, bridges and roads.
2 Development of industries and machinery.
3.Used for generation of energy mainly coal, petroleum and natural gas.
4.Used for development of defence equipments
5. Used in communication field, like telephone wires, cables, electronic devices, etc.
6. Formation of alloys for various purposes.
7. Used for making ornaments like jewellery of gold, diamond, silver, etc.
8.Used for synthesis of fertilizers, fungicides, etc.
Exploitation of mineral resources
Exploitation of mineral resources refers to the use of mineral resources for economic
growth. Reckless exploitation of mineral resources to meet the growing needs of
modern civilisation has resulted in many environmental problems.
Consequences of exploitation of mineral resources
1. Rapid depletion of highgrade minerals
2.Wastage of upper soil layer and vegetation
3 Forced migration
4. Deforestation and desertification
5. Extinction of species
6.Soil erosion and oil depletion
7.Ozone depletion
8.Greenhouse gas increase
9.Environmental pollution and.natural hazards
Environmental effects of extracting and using Mineral Resources
1. Effects on air: Emission of dust, suspended particles and gases, cause air pollution.
2. Effects on water: Surface water is polluted due to release of harmful trace elements.
Underground water is contaminated due to seepage and infiltration of leak drainage.
3. Effects on soil
i. quality of soil degrades and soil gets toxic.
ii. fertility of soil is lost.
Effects on vegetation and forest: Growth of vegetation is adversely restricted.
4.Deforestation causes loss of fauna and flora.
5.Effects on biological species: The species are killed due to the toxicity of water
and.soil induced by mine chemicals. Changes are noticed in species diversity,
nutrition cycle and biomass due to alterations in water quality.
6. Miscellaneous effects
Historical monuments and religious buildings loss their beauty and character.
i Local ecological system is damaged due to discharge of pollutants.
ii. Social impact of large-scale mining.
The effects of large-scale mining on society can be enumerated as follows:
a.Large influx of labourers, technicians and other workers from outside places makes
the region overcrowded.
b.Additional burden on social bodies for housing, schooling, hospitals, etc. to
accommodate the people mix.
c.Undue stress on local services such as water supply, sanitation, sewage disposal etc.
d.More agricultural land is occupied by the inhabitants. This means lesser farming at
the cost of urbanisation.
e.For construction of houses, the forest are demolished.
f.Peace and routine of people living in nearby localities may be disurbed.
g. The wildlife in surrounding areas may be endangered.
h.Increased urbanisation will result in enhanced pollution of water, soil etc.
i.Air pollution will also increase due to dust, dirt, etc. formed on account of
construction activities.

FOOD RESOURCES
The food resources refer to the composition of variety of goods made available for
consumption. These are the essential materials required by the body needs for its well-
being. These essential materials are called 'nutrients'. Good food is indispensable for
health at all stages of life and for satisfactory growth during infancy, childhood,
adolescence.and adulthood.
World Food Problems
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) estimated that in 2019 about 1
billion.from under developed and developing countries. About 20 crores of people in
India also people in the world remain underfed and munder-nourished. Out of this,
about 95 % come.face food problem.
There are two kinds of food problems in the world. They are
1. Under nourishment, and
2. Mal nourishment
Under nourishment
Under nourishment is the lack of sufficient calories in available food, so that, one has
little or no ability to move or work. A healthy human body requires an average
minimum diet of 2000 calory per day. People who receive less than 90% of their
minimum dietary.intake on a long term basis are considered undernourished. The
effect of mundernourishednfood on human beings are the following
1.Less energy in the body for doing any kind of work.
2. Body become susceptible to diseases due to lack of energy.
3.Body becomes weak and the human being may fall sick.
4.An adult may look like an old man.
Malnourishment
Malnourishment is the lack of health ingredients Such as proteins, vitamins or
essential.chemical elements in diet. It creeps in due to nutritional imbalance caused
by a lack of specific dietary components or inability to absorb or utilize essential
nutrition.Malnourishment may lead to the following problems:
1.Anaemia: It is caused due to lack of iron in diet or inability to absorb iron from the
food.
2.Goiter and Hypothyroidism: It is caused due to deficiency of iodine in the diet.
3, Vitamin deficiencies: Like night blindness, dry skin, kidney stone.and skin burning,
headache etc.
Over Nutrition
Over Nutrition is a state in which the dietary intake in calories is too much. This is
seen especially in richer countries. Over utrition contributes to over weight, high blood
pressure, heart attack etc.
Balanced diet
Inorder to obtain adequate amount of each of the different nutritions, the daily
diet.should include appropriate quantities of a variety of different foodstuffs. A diet in
which arious fooxdstuts are mixed in suitable proportions is called a balanced diet.
Effects of Modern Agriculture on Environment
a. Effects of Fertilizers on Environment
Fertilizers are materials that are added to the soil to restore and enhance the soil
fertility to improve the quality and quantity of plant growth. Fertilizers are of two types
natural fertilizers like vegetable made manure, cowdung, biowaste manual etc. and
chemical or synthetic fertilizers like urea, ammonia, ammonium sulphate etc. The
increasing use of chemical fertilizers become a source of pollution and creates several
other problems namely,
i.Increase in water-borne diseases due to contamination in surface water and
groundwater resources.
ii.Threat to the quality of drinking water due to disposal of fertilizers into landfill
sitesand lands.
iii. Reduction in the fertility of land.
iv.Loss of organic matter from the soil.
v.Seriously affected ecology of lakes/ponds, rivers and underground water due
to.accumulation of fertilizers in them and the soils.
b. Effects of Pesticides
Pesticides are compounds used to kill or disable pests. Agriculture suffers from
pests. Any organism that cause an economic loss or damage to the physical well-being
of human being is a pest and the chemical compounds that are used for the control of
pests are called pesticides.
Problems of pesticides
i.Causes illness and slow poisoning to human beings.
i. Ecology of food chain and food web are disturbed.
iii. Soil fertility reduced.
iv. Non targeted species are killed or injured.
v.Due to killing of beneficial pests, the newer problematic pests are evolved.
vi. Causes cancer, genetic defects and chronic diseases.
Water Logging
Water logging means accumulation of water. The water logging problem arises mainly
due to two factors.
1.Flooding of the surface water due to excessive rainfall or blocked water outlets.
2.High water table, i.e., raising of underground water level near to the ground surface.
The harmful effects of water logging to the environment
i.The quality of water logged soil deteriorates resulting in its poor productivity.
ii.Plants in such areas are deprived of adequate availability of oxygen for respiration.
iii. Equilibrium of soil gets disturbed due to rise in water table.
Salinity
Salinity refers to increased concentration of soluble salts in the soil. Different kinds.of
salt such as chlorides, carbonates etc. are found in water, soils, fertilizers etc. Some.of
them are soluble and other are insoluble. For equilibrium of the soil a certain
quantity.of salt is always required. When this quantity is more, it means the soil has
become saline.
Causes of Salinity
1.Poor drainage for outlet to runoff flood water
2.Improper layout for flow of irrigational waters.
3. Low rainfall and high temperature causing evaporation of water from the soil
surface,.and leaving behind the salt concentration.Theharmful effects of salinity are
the following.
1.The concentration of salts form a crust on soil surface, thereby affecting its fertility.
2.Water absorption by the soil is seriously affected,
3.Growth of plants is impaired, which ultimately affects their survival.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy resources are the opportunities that an area offers to generate electricity
based on its natural conditions and circumstances. Energy is a primary input for
almost all economic activities and is, therefore, vital for improvement in quality of life.
Its use in industries,commerce,transport,telecommunication, agriculture and
household services has compelled us to focus our attention to ensure its continuous
supply to meet our ever increasing demands. Presently, the needs of energy arise in a
very large number of applications. Main amongst them are listed below:
i.In power plants to run the turbine. The rotation of turbine is then used to rotate the
alternator to generate electricity.
ii.In transportation sector to propel automobiles, trains, ships, submarines,
helicopters, aircraft etc.
iii. In space technologies to propel rockets, space-crafts, satellites, etc.,
Iv. In military uses, to propel missiles, tanks, weapons etc,
v.In industrial sectors, for manufacturing steel, aluminium and other metals; in
producing cement, plastics, chemicals, fertilizers, etc.
vi. For domestic purposes in refrigerators, air-conditioners, fans, lighting, television,.
Music systems, washing machine etc.

Classification of Energy Resources

The energy resources can be grouped into two main categories.
i) Renewable and ii) Non-renewable sources.
Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable Energy Sources are those natural resources which are inexhaustible
and.can be used 1o produce energy again and again. These are available in unlimited
amount in nature and develop in a relatively short period of time. This includes solar,
wind, hydroenergy, etc.
1. Solar energy: Sun is a big source of energy. The energy obtained from sun is called
solar energy. All natural phenomenon like the flowing of wind, water cycle,.
Photosynthesis, etc. are possible only due to solar energy. Solar energy is also used.to
cook food, heat water, Light Street, pump water for irrigating fields, etc.
2. Wind energy: Winds are constantly being created in nature. The windmill is a
source. Of electrical energy. These windmills are generally established only at places
where. Most of the days in a year experience strong winds. The energy from this wind
is used for grinding grain, pumping water and to produce electricity. is an important
natural resource. All living organisms need
3.Hydro energy: Water water to live. Humans need water tor many purposes such as
drinking, cleaning. Ning etc. Water flowing in to the river or water stored in a dam are
sources of hydro energy.5.Biogas: Biogas is a type of fuel which is a mixture of gases
such as methane, carbon-dioxide, hydrogen, etc. It is obtained by decomposition of
animal and plant wastes in the presence of water. It is used as fuel in gas stove
especially in rural areas.
6. Wood: Wood is an ancient and traditional source of energy. It is mainly a mixture of
many carbohydrate compounds. Wood is used to cook food. Over use of wood leads to
deforestation and air pollution. It is harmful to human health and the environment.
7. Hydrogen: It is a good source of energy because it does not create pollution and
produce maximum energy on burning. Hydrogen has the potential to be the answer to
all our energy and fuel troubles.
8. Alcohol: Alcohol hamany commercial and medicinal purposes. It can be used
producing energy. It is obtained while making sugar from sugarcane. It is a very cheap
source of energy. A mixture of petrol and alcohol is being used as fuel in automobiles.
This mixture is called gasohol.
9. Air: All living things need air to breath. Therefore, air is an important natural
resource.
10. Soil: It is an important resource as this is the layer where plants grow. Most of the
food products are from crops grown in the soil.
Non Renewable Energy Sources
Non Renewable Energy sources are those natural resources which are exhaustible.
And cannot be replaced once they are used. These are available in limited amount
and.develop over a long period. These include fossil fuels and nuclear power.
1. Fossil fuel: Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are non-renewable resources. They
are found dèep inside the earth and are made by natural process over many centuries.
Their quantity is limited and they take thousands of years to get renewed. Examples of
fossils are:
i.Coal: Coal is also known as black diamond. It is used as a fuel, to generate
electricity and in factories and steam engines.
ii.Natural gas: Natural gas is used as a fuel called Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG). Natural gases are good alternatives to petrol and diesel. It burns easily and
produces a lot of heat.
iii. Petroleum: Petroleum is also known as mineral oil or crude oil. This liquid
mineral is refined to make fuels such as petrol, diesel, cooking gas and kerosene.
Plastic, cosmetics and lubricants are by-products of petroleum. It is found deep inside
the earth or under the sea flow.
2.Nuclear energy: The fuel used for nuclear energy is general uranium, which is in a
limited supply. Production of electricity from nuclear energy does not release
carbondioxide. Thus, the use of nuclear energy is safe for the environment.
Alternative sources of Energy
Scientists have identified following alternative sources of energy:
1.Nuclear fission: Atoms of certain radioactive minerals under high temperature and
pressure unlock tremendous amount of energy. Itis very difficult task involving huge
risks. However countries like USA, West European countries and USSR have
successfully tapped this source of energy for practical applications.
2.MHD (Magneto Hydro Dynamics) process: MHD process replaces hot ionised gases
for rotation in copper coils in electric generators. Thus fossil fuel can produce hot
gases for generator enhancing its capacity by 60%. Again USA, Russia and Western
European countries have been successful in their objectives in this field.
3.Geo-thermal power: Tremendous amount of heat energy is available deep inside the
earth. Countries like Italy, Iceland and New Zealand are tapping this alternative
source of energy with a great degree of success.
4.Tidal power: This is the energy generated from tidal waves. This alternative energy is
a potential source of energy in all coastal areas of the world. France, Canada and
USA are using this source of energy.
5. Wind Power: This is another alternative source of energy available in open coastal
areas waiting to be tapped.
6. Solar Energy: Sun is a big source of energy. The energy obtained from sun is called
solar energy. All natural phenomenon like the flowing of wind, water cycle,
photosynthesis, etc. are possible only due to solar energy. Solar energy is also used to
cook food, heat water, light street, pump water for irrigating fields, etc.
7.Gravitational Power: Gravitational energy is the potential energy a body with mass
has in relation to another massive object due to gravity. It is potential energy
associated with the gravitational field
8. Wave energy: Wave energy is another type of ocean based renewable energy source
that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity. Wave energy uses the vertical
movement of the surface water that produce tidal waves. This can be a good source of
mechanical energy.

LAND RESOURCES
Land resources mean the resources available from the land, which include
agricultural land which contain naturalfertilizer for the growth of the products sown,
the underground water, the various minerals and other materials.
Reasons/ Causes / Factors for degradation of land
1. Man induced Landslides
Landslide means slipping of a layer of land over the other. A landslide refers to the
sliding or dislodging of a large mass of rocks, materials, soils, etc. down the side of
a.mountain or clif. It is a form of 'mass wasting' which denotes any down-slope
movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity.
The landslides can be categorised under two heads. They are natural landslides
andman made landslides.
Man induced landslide is the landslide that happens due to breaking of a part of
itfrom.its main land due to human activities. It happens mainly on hills and in hilly
regions..Human made landslides are caused mainly due to the following causes:
1. Clearcutting for human settlement: One of the main causes for man made
landslides.is clearing of trees. Clearing destroys the existing mechanical root structure
in the.area.
2.Mining: Mining operations that use blasting technique often cause other areas
that.are at the risk of sliding, to slide due to vibration under the soil.
2. Soil Erosion
Soil erosion refers to loss or removal of the upper layer of the soil by the action
of.water, wind or by the activities of man. It is a natural process that removes soil from
the.land. The factors influencing soil erosion are, type of soil, intensity and amount of
rainfall,slope of the ground, vegetation cover, soil mismanagement, etc.
Causes / Factors influencing soil erosion
i.Type of soil: Small grained and open structure soil erodes more than the largergrain
and closed structure soil.
ii.Distribution, intensity and amount of rainfall: Unequal distribution of rainfall
results.in heavy rainfall in a certain period. The soil is unable to absorb this heavy
rainfall.and, therefore, there is plenty of run-off water resulting in soil erosion.
iii. Slope of the ground: If the ground has steep slopes, infiltration of rainwater
decreases.and the run off is much faster causing more soil erosio
iv. Vegetation cover: Rain falling on bare land causes soil erosion as top soil is
easily.carried away by the run off.
v.Soil mismanagement: Uncontrolled grazing of cattle, faulty methods of surfaces
drainage, wrong cultivation practices etc. are common practices that aggravate soil
erosion.

Effects of soil erosion

i.Loss of arable land: Lands used for crop production have been substantially
affected.by soil erosion. Soil erosion eats away the top soil which is the fertile layer of
the land.
ii. Water polution and clogging of waterways: Soil eroded from agricultural lands carry
pesticides, heavy metals, and fertilizers which are washed into streams and.major
water ways. This leads to water pollution and damage to marine and
freshwater.habitats. Accumulated sediments can also cause clogging of water ways
and raises iii. Sedimentation and threat to aquatic system: Apart from polluting the
water systems, high soil sedimentation can be dangerous to the survival of aquatic life
forms, Sediments may enter the frish gils, affecting their respiratory functions.
iv. Air pollution: Wind erosion picks up dust particles of the soil and throw them
into.the air causing air pollution. Some of the dust particles may contain harmful and
toxic particles that can pose a severe health hazard when.inhaled.
V.Destruction of infrastructure: Soil erosion can affect infrastructural projects.such as
dams, drainages, and embankments. The accumulation of soil sediments in
dams/drainages and along embankments can reduce their operational lifetime and
efficiency.
vi.Desertification: Soil erosion is a major driver of desertification. It gradually
transforms habitable lands into deserts.
Ways to prevent soil erosion
There are many ways to minimise soil erosion.
i.Vegetation: The simplest and the most natural way to prevent erosion is through
planting vegetation. Plants establish root system which stabilises soil and prevents
ii.soil erosion.
Geotextiles: These are fabrics used in connection with soil. Using geotextiles is an
effective method as it stabilises soil. When used withgrowing.vegetation, it is more
effective. There are three main types of geotextilse: woven, nonwoven and coir.
iii. Mulch or fertiliser or rocks: Mulch is a material such as decaying leaves, barks,
or compost spread around a plant to e nrich the soil. Applying a layer of mulch to
thesoil top allow the soil to slowly soak up water.
iv. Retaining wall: Retaining walls can be built around the area of erosion to prevent
water run off.
v.Improve drainage: All buildings should have pipes that can drain water effectively
out of the garden and into water collection system. Without adequate drainage, heavy
rain could wash away a whole layer of top soil.
the water level leading to flooding.
3. Desertification
Desertification is a slow process of land degradation that leads to desertformation. It
may result either due to a natural phenomenon linked to climatic change or due to
abusive
use of land. The main cause of desertification is not drought, but mismanagement of
land, including overgrazing and felling of trees for fuels.
For example, the Thar desert (India) was formed by the degradation of thousands of
hectares of productive land.

Reasons for Desertification

i.Mismanagement of land: Though land is abundantly available, it should be
properly.managed. Mismanagement of land, including overcultivation, over
irrigation,.overgrazing, felling of trees, etc. lead to desertification.
ii.Overgrazing: Grass is essential for anchoring the surface in dryland regions. When
this grass is exploited by livestock, the soil loses its support and blows away with the
wind. The continuous over-exploitation of the vegetative cover by grazing animals
has led to an increase in desertification.
iii.Clearing of land: Clearing of vast areas of land for agricultural, industrial and other
purposes lead to formation of large deserts.
iv.Climatic change: As a result of vegetation removal, the climate changes and it
affects the overall environment. Due to the absence of vegetation on the land, there
will be no moisture in the soil to evaporate and form clouds that cause rainfall. Less or
no rainfall acts to the drought conditions, and climate turns hotter and drier,
causing more and more desertification.
v. Over cultivation: Land should be used for only fair cultivation. Over cultivation
leads to loss of fertility and moisture content of the soil leading to formation of deserts.
vi.Outdated agricultural techniques: The farmers in underdeveloped regions use
incorrect and outdated irrigation techniques, like canal irrigation. This results in
salination of the soil, leading to desertification.
vi. Over population: Growing human population plays a major role in increasing
desertification. Increase in population leads to increased urbanisation. As large
population use up all the available resources, a need of expansion arises to meet the
growing needs of increased population.

Control of desertification
i.Desertification can be controlled by afforestation and planting of soil binding
grasses.that can check soil erosion, floods and water logging.
ii.Desertification can be controlled by crop rotation and mixed cropping which
improve.the fertility of the soil.
iii. Desertification can be checked by artificial bunds or covering the area with
proper.type of vegetation.
iv. Desertification can be checked by shifting of sand by mulching (use of artificial
protective covering).
V. Desertification can be controlled by checking salinity of the soil through improved
drainage.
Salination
Salination refers to increase in the concentration of soluble salts in the soil. Poor
drainage for irrigation and flood waters results in accumulation of dissolved salts on
the soil surface. In arid and semi-arid areas with poor drainage and high
temperatures, water
evaporates quickly leaving behind a white crust of salts on the soil surface. The high
concentration of salts in soil severely affects the water absorption process of the
plants,.resulting into poor productivity.
5. Water-logging
Water-logging means accumulation of water. It may be due to surface flooding or due
to high water table. Excessive use of canal irrigation may disturb the water balance
and create water-logging as a result of seepage or rise in the water table of the area.
The productivity of water-logged soil is severely affected due to lesser availability of
oxygen for the respiration of plants.
6. Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation, a very peculiar practice of agriculture is prevalent among
many.tribal communities inhabiting the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa,
Asia and Islands of Pacific ocean. Under this practice, one area is fully destroyed by
over exploitation and is then shifted to another area. This practice has led to complete
destruction of forests in many hilly areas of India, especially the North-East and
Orissa, and caused soil erosion.and other associated problems of land degradation.
7. Urbanisation
Human activities are responsible for the land-degradation of forests, croplands
and.grasslands. The productive areas are fast reducing because of urbanisation i.e.,
the.developmental activities such as human settlements and industries.
8. Soil pollution
Soil pollutants such as pesticides, chemicals, radioactive and industrial
wastes,.plastics, bottles and tin-cans, clothes, carcasses etc. have an adverse effect on
the physical,.chemical and biological properties of soil and hence reduce its
productivity.
MODULE-1 C
ECOSYSTEM
Ecology
Meaning and Definition
The term ecology refers to the study of living organisms and their interaction with
other organisms and their environment. As all organisms have their own
specitfic.Surroundings, the term ecology means the study of living systems in relation
to their environment.
According to Taylor, Ecology is "the science of relationship of all organisms to their
environments",
Ecosystem
Meaning and Definition
An ecosystem is a large community of living organisms consisting of plants,
animals.and microbes that work together to remain healthy with non-living
components of the environment such as soil, air and water.

Structure/ Components of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Ecosystem
The living organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms like bacteria,
fungi that are present in an ecosystem.form the biotic components. The biotic
components can be further classified, (a) producers, (b) consumers, and (c)
decomposers or reducers
on the basis of energy requirement source
a.Producers: Producers are the plants in the ecosystem, which can generate their
own energy requirement through photosynthesis, in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. All other living things depend on plants for their energy requirements of
food as well as oxygen.
b.Consumers: Consumers refer to those organisms which consume the food
produced.by the producers and gain the energy for their survival. Consumers include:
i.Herbivores: These are the living organisms that feed on plants.
ii. Carnivores: These are the living organisms that eat other living organisms.
iii. Omnivores: These are animals that eat both plants and animals.
c .Decomposers: Decomposers are fungi and bacteria which eat dead
organism.(animals, plants and other living beings), and, transform them back into
jnorganic.compounds (nitrogen and carbon dioxide). These inorganic compounds are
then used by the 'producers' to prepare food. In this way, there occurs a cyclic
exchange of substances between the living community and the environment.
2. Abiotic Ecosystem
Abiotic ecosystem is the physical or the chemical factors that act on the living
organismas at any part of their life. The physical constituents are soil, temperature,
light and water. Chemical constituents are inorganic and organic structure such as
phosphorous,
carbon,hydrogen,nitrogen,carbohydratesfats, protein etc. These are also called
eological factors. The abiotic factors vary from one ecosystem to another.
Functions of Ecosystem
1. Allows flow of biological energy: An ecosystem controls the rate of production and
respiration of the community.
2. Controls the rate of nutrient cycles: Ecosystem controls production and
consumption of minerals.
3. Regulates both ways: The ecosystem regulates the environment by organisms
and.the organisms by environment. For example, the nitrogen fixing by bacterias is
the process of 'environment regulation by organisms', and photoperiodism is the
process of 'organisms regulation by environment'.
4. Circulation of chemical elements: The ecosystem allows circulation of chemical
elements from environment to organisms and back to environment. In this way,
it.provides nutrients to the producers' which build-up organic matter.

Energy flow in the Ecosystem

1. If the quantity of solar energy (sunlight) is reduced, the quantity and quality of
forest.will degrade and the growth will be inadequate.
2. If the quality of solar energy is poor, i.e., its intensity is less than normal,
plantation.and vegetation will be scarce.

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession means ecological development. It refers to the process of
gradual change in conditions of environment, and the replacement of older species.
Over the time, it undergoes automatically. This is an ever-continuing phenomenon
that happens.by means of autogenic process. The occurrence of ecological succession
has the following
characteristics.
1. It is a systematic process that involves changes in species structure.
2.The changes are directional and take place as a function of time.
3.The succession occurs due to changes in physical environment and population of
the species.
4.The changes also occur due to population explosion of the species.
5.The changes are predictable. The process of succession is self-going, stable
and.biologically feasible.
Food Chain
The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten is known as food chain. The various steps in a food
chain are called trophic levels. Energy is transferred from one trophic level to another
trophic level
Ecological Pyramids
A pyramd-shaped diagram representlng quantitatl vely the number of organisms
energy relationships, and biomass of an ecosystem ls known as ecological pyramid.
Types, Features and Functions of Ecological Pyramids,
I. Pyramidof Numbers
It is the graphic representation of the
number of individuals of various trophic levels.per unit area at any, time, The base of
the.pyramid is constituted by the number of producers, while the apex is formed by
the.number of top carnivores. The intermediate consumers are placed in between the
two. In majority of.cases, the pyramid of numbers is upright, Pyramid of numbers in
an ecosystem.
Structure and Features.
1.Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals of different species
at each trophic level.
2.Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright,
and.may even be completely inverted.
3.It is very difficult to count all the organisms in a pyramid of numbers and so
the.pyramid of number does not completely define the trophic structure for an
ecosystem
i. Upright Pyramid (numbers)
1. This type of pyramid can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.
2. The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) because of their abundance
3. The next higher trophic level is primary consumer herbivores like a grasshopper
4. The individual number of grasshoppers is less than that of grass.
5. The next energy level is a primary carnivore like rats, frogs etc
6. The number of rats/frogs is less than grasshoppers, because, they feed on
grasshoppers
7. The next higher trophic level is secondary carnivore like snakes. They feed on
rats/.frogs.
8.The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore like Hawk.
ii. Inverted Pyramid (numbers)
In this pyramid, the number ot typeparasltes individuals is increased from lower level
to Parastes.higher troplhic level. An inverted pyramid of
numbers is found in an ecocystem, where the Herbvorean community contains a few
producers with a
very large biomass that supports a larger Producers.number of smaller consumers.
This type of.pyramid can be found in an ecosystem where
Inverted Pyramid of Number
the community contains parasites. E.g. Tree ecosystem.
II. Pyramid of Biomass
The pyramid of biomass is a pyramid which,.represents the biomass of organism
occupying each trophic level. The quantity / weight or amount of living materials
present.in an ecosystem is called biomass. It is measured both as fresh or dry weight.
Features
1.Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms
occupying.each trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight.
2.This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a
trophic level are weighed. Each trophic level has a certain mass of 3.living material at
a particular time called.the standing crop.
4 The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or
the.number in a unit area.
III. Pyramid of Energy
An energy pyramid is one which represents the.amount of energy at each trophic level
and loss of.energy at each transfer to another trophic level.Hence the pyramid is
always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.

MODULE 2A
BIODIVERSITY
Meaning and Definition
Biodiversiy or Biological diversity refers to the variety and variability among living
organisms and ecological complexes in which they occur. It is connected with the
study of
all forms of life. Life forms include:
a. Unicellular organism like fungi, bacteria and protozoa.
b. Multicellular organisms like fish, birds, mammals and plants.
Biodiversity is defined as, "that part of nature which includes, the differences in
genes among the individuals of a species; the variety and richness of all the plants and
animals in earth and the types of ecosystems within a defined area".
Types of biodiversity
The major types of biodiversity are grouped into the following:
1. Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity relates to variety of habitat, biotic communities and ecological
processes in the biosphere. There exists different varieties of ecosystems. For example,
a lake ecosystem is different from an ocean ecosystem. This diversity is assessed at
the continental or global level. Depending upon the availability of biotic resources, an
ecosystem develops its own community of living organisms.
2. Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to the number of different species found at a place or in a
ecosystem. It also refers to the studies to know as to how these kinds of species vary
from season to season at the same place or at different places. Species diversity is the
most common level of diversity.
3. Genetic Diversity
Gene' is the most basic structure of species. It influences the characteristics of all
species. Within any given species, there can be several 'varieties' and 'races' which
differ from one another in certain characteristics. The different characteristics of same
species are termed as genetic diversity'. Thus, a species, (say dog) may be smaller or
bigger in size, black or brown in colour, may be aggressive or calm in nature, etc.
Thus, there are multiple characteristics in each species. To name a few of these, the
characteristics are in
(a)size
(b) shape
(c)colour
(d) aggressiveness
(e)boldness
(f)resistance against diseases, hot and cold weather, etc.
(g)sustainability for survival against different environments, etc.

Importance of Biodiversity
1. Consumptive Value
The consumptive use value is the value derived when a product is consumed. When
timber is taken from forest for firewood or firewood is bought for consumption, it has
consumptive use value. Such a value is the direct value of the product.
2. Productive Value
Productive use value is the value derived when an article is converted into another
form to have a higher value. When timber taken from trees are converted into
furniture,.the furniture have their own value, which is referred to as productive use
value.
3. Social Value
Man is a social animal. He lives together in groups. A combination of such group
forms a society. For leading a happy life they carry on various activities which are
acceptable to societies. The activities may be agriculture, fishing,cattle breeding,
gardening etc. These activities have social values having varying importance. Having a
very good garden, or number of elephants or a very large sized agricultural field etc.
will definitely enhance the social value of its respective owners
4. Ethical Value
Though the present society is money oriented, some proportion of it honours moral
values. Moral justification for conservation of bio-diversity is based on the belief that
species have a moral right to exist, independent of our need for them. So, human
beings the most intelligent species on earth have a responsibility to allow those species
to survive or live undisturbed. Ethical values are deep rooted within human culture
and society.
5. Aesthetic Value
Nature has an aesthetic value that can be experienced by human beings when theyare
in natural surroundings. When human beings are growing up in degraded
environments, negative attitudes develop in them. According to a study of the impact
of environment on
human beings, it was found that working in the midst of nature relieve working
stresses.Some of the different species living on the earth are most beautiful and their
uniqueness imparts aesthetic values, Birds like peacocks, butterflies, land animals
like dears, stags, flowers like roses etc. give aesthetic values. Watching and playing
with them are good means of recreaíón and enjoyment.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity Hotspots are the areas on earth which are most threatened places from
the viewpoint of their preservation.
Biodiversity Hotspots extending into India
 biodiversity that extend into India.
1. Indo-Burma Hotspot
Indo-Burma hotspot covers a wide area of Asian continent which lies east to Indian
subcontinent. The main places encompassed in about 20 lakh sq.km area include the
following.
i.all areas of Laos, Vietnam and Combodia
ii. nearly all areas of Bhutan, Myanmar and Thailand
ii. part of southern China, far-east India and Nepal
iv. offishore islands such as Andaman and Nicobar islands in Indian Ocean and
Mainan islands in South China Sea.
2. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot
As the name implies itself, this hotspot is spread over Montane Forests in south-
western parts (i.e., western ghats) of India and in the adjoining regions of Sri Lanka
island. Of the two forest blocks, Western Ghat mountains run parallel to western coast
from Gujarat to southern-most India. It covers more than 85% area of the entire
hotspot.
The salient features of this hotspot are as follows:
1.Climatic variation: The Western Ghat mountains are sloppy on both eastern
andwestern sides. The rainfall on eastern side is much less, but it is much heavy on
western side.
2.Vegetation: The dominant vegetations found in the region of this hotspot are
ii. grassland
ii. montane forests
iii. deciduous forests
iv. Scrub forests in dry areas
v. tropical rain forests
3.Animals: The important animal species found in this hotspots are
I.tiger
ii. the endangered lion-tailed macaque
iii.elephants
Threats to Biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity refer to the threats to all living organisms due to uncontrolled
human activities that bring biodiversity in danger.
Causes of threats
i.Hunting of birds, animals and fishing.
i.Alarming rate of increase in population.
iii. Advancing civilization and development of human settlements.
iv. Increased agricultural activities and industrialization.
v.Exploration of newer areas to fulfil increased human needs.
vi. Deforestation, mining and other extraction works.
vii. Air, water and soil pollution.

Forms of threats
1. Habitat loss
Natural habitats are the physical, chemical and biological systems that support
livingthings. Habitat loss means the loss or extinction of species
Following are the main causes of habitat losses.
1.Expanding population: Increase in food production is a major agent for the
conversion of natural habitat into agricultural land.
2. Land conservation for development: The conversion of lands of wildlife habitat to
housing development, roads, office parks, malls, parking lots, etc. lead to loss of
habitat.
3.Water development: Dams and other water diversions siphon off and disconnect
waters leaving no water drops in the stream. During the dry season, the Colorado
River has little to no water in it by the time it reaches the Sea of Cortez.
4.Pollution: Freshwater wildlife are most impacted by pollution. Pollutants such as
untreated sewage, mining waste, acid rain, fertilizers and pesticides concentrate
in.rivers, lakes and wetlands and eventually end up in estuaries..
5.Climate change: The emerging driver of habitat loss is climate change. Wildlife that
need the cool temperatures of high elevations, such as the American pika, may soon
run out of habitat. Coastal wildlife may find their habitat underwater as sea levels
rise.
6.Agriculture: Much of the habitat loss was done long ago when new settlers converted
the forest to crop land.
2. Poaching of wild life
Poaching refers to illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associate with
land use rights. It is done mainly for subsistence purpose and also to supplement
insufficient food. Poaching affects the environment by depleting certain species of
animal
It causes animals that are endangered to become exint, thus creating a disruption in
the food chain.

Causes/Reasons for Poaching of Wildlife

The main causes of poaching are the following:
i.Consumption purpose: Certain species are poached for food. Cattles are sold an
hacked to death for consumption.
ii.Economic value: Certain wild animals are killed to obtain their teeth, skin, furs
horns, etc. to be sold for substantial amount of money.
iii. Medicinal purposes: Some animals are killed for medicinal purposes. Peacock.killed
for peacock oil, black monkey is killed for ayurvedic medicines, etc.
iv. Saving farmlands: Some animals are poached to stop them from encroaching an
destroying farmlands.
v. Entertainment and sport: Killing of animals is taken as an entertainment and sport
item by the rich of the society. They kill any animal for enjoyment and not for
monetary benefit.
vi. Satisfying superstition: Animals are killed and their parts are stored because
superstition that it has a magical effect.
Man-wildlijfe Conflicts
The struggle between man and wildlife has been an age old problem. Man-wildlife
corfict refers to the interaction between people and wild animals and resultant
negative
impact on people or their resources or wild animals or their habitat. Conflict between
people and animals is one of the main threats to the continued survival of many
species in
different parts of the world, and is also significant threat to local human populations,.
If
solutions to conflicts are not adequate, local support for conservation also declines.
The conflict leads to losing of crops, livestock, property and sometimes even
humanlife. The animals, many of which are already threatened or endangered, are
often
killed in retaliation or to 'prevent' future conflicts.
Causes of man-wildlife conflicts
i.Limited resources: The resources for animals and human are much limited. Man-
wildlife conflict is mainly due to limited resources like landspace, food and shelter.
Ii.Increase in population: Human population as well as the population of certain
species.of animals are steadily increasing. This results in loss of forest, decrease in
quality.of forest and development and construction activities in forests, which lead to
man- wildlife conflicts.
iii. Habitat fragmentation and shrinking of habitats: Natural locality of plants and
animals often become fragmented due to excessive human activities. This becomes a
threat to the safe living of animals which make them to cross the areas of human
habitats. This leads to man-wildlife conflicts.
iv. Excessive use of forest: Increased disturbance due to collection of fuel wood, fodder,
water, minerals, medicinal plants, etc. from the forests has increased the incidence of
man-wiidlife conflicts.
V.Decrease in prey base: The wild animals lose their preys in the forest land due to
deforestation or thinning of forest. This makes them to enter the habitats of human
beings, resulting in conflicts.
vi. Construction of infrastructure: Construction of highways/railways/dams etc
bypassing wildlife rich areas leads to man-wildlife conflict.
Steps to reduce man-wildlife conflict
1. Stronger forest guards: The number of forest guards should be increased and the
capacity should be improved by providing them with modern and scientific equipment
2.Protecting identified locations: Inorder to reduce man-wildlife conflict, increase
vigilance and protection of identified locations should be made using hi-tech
surveillang tools like sensors for knowing animal movements. Eg. Buxa forest.
3.Installing electric fencing: Inorder to protect the property of human beings, electric
fencing should be installed to keep wildlife out of human inhabited areas.
4 Creating alternative water points for wildlife: Alternative water points for wildlife are
to be created to steer the animals away from community water resources. This helps
to avoid man-wildlife conflicts to a certain extent.
5.Creation of safe animal zones: Re-location of animal habitats away from residential
and commercial centres helps to minimize man-wildlife conflict.
6.Expansion of protected reserves: Protected reserves are specific areas,
when animals are protected. This helps in securing survival of wild animals and
reduced conflict with man.
Concept of Threatened Fauna
a.Vulnerable species: A vulnerable species is one which has been categorised by.IUCN
as likely to become endangered unless the circumstances that are threatening its
survival and reproduction improve.
b. Endangered species: Endangered species is one which is categorised as very
likely.to become extinct.
C. Critically endangered species: A critically endangered species is one that has been
categorised as facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
Global Environmental Issues
The major global environmental issues are:
i.Concentration of carbon dioxide and other harmful gases, and presence of harmful
elements in atmosphere due to burning of fossil fuels.
ii. Reduced purification of atmosphere due to increased deforestation.
iii. Deteriorating quality of ingredients of environment due to industrialization,
urbanization and other technological developments.
iv. Fast depleting natural resources due to their consumption at a much faster
rate,.Overwhelming impact of these issues initiated many serious problems. Most
critical among them are:
1. Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone Layer Depletion is simply the wearing out of the amount of ozone in
thestratosphere. Ozone (O) is an allotropic form of oxygen (O,) gas. It exists in
the.stratosphere at varying heights of about 15 km to 40 km above the earth surface.
The air in these layers is thick and concentrated and quite rich in ozone. Its presence
is very essential for existence of life on earth. It absorbs the harmful Ultra Violet (UV)
radiations coming from the sun, thereby saving many organic materials which are
necessary for.life. The ozone is formed when the oxygen gas absorbs the UV light. If
ozone layer is depleted, the harmfül radiations will reach the earth and will damage
the animals, human beings, and all other living beings. A drop in concentration of
ozone.layer over Antarctica has created an 'ozone hole"'. It is caused due to man made
pollutants. Formation of ozone hole is of great concern.
Effects of ozone layer depletion
The detrimental effects of ozone layer depletion is to allow the UV radiation,
that.induces the following harmful effects.
a. damages the plants
b. premature ageing of the skin
d. causes skin cancer
C. creates burning sensation
e. causes destruction of life
f. non-formation of stratospheric wind
g.. Swelling of skins
h. sun burns
i. leukaemia
j. lung cancer
k. dizziness
1. visual impairment
m. DNA breakage
n. Climatic changes

Remedial measures to control the depletion of ozone layer.

2. Green House Effect
The green house effect and global warming is a very serious global problem that is
discussed and researched much in the modern world. The increasing concentrations
ofcarbon-dioxide and other traces of green house gases due to industrialisation,
urbanization and population explosion etc. enhances the green-house effect and cause
'global warming'.
The green house effect is caused by green house gases. A green house gas is a gas.that
absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infra red range. The most
important.green house gases in earth's atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide
and methane. If there is more green house gas in the air, the air holds more heat.
Hence, more greenhouse gases cause climate change. The green house effect is
natural.

Remedial measures global warming

1.Energy sources such as hydro, geothermal, wind, solar, tidal, biomass, nuclear etc
should be made more popular.
2 Technology should be developed to prevent release of greenhouse gases
intoatmosphere.
3.Aforestation and reforestation should be undertaken at large scale.
4. Refrigerators and air-conditioners should be used for limited durations.
4. Climate Change
Climate refers to the representative or characteristic atmospheric conditions at a.place
or places on Earth, whereas, weather refers to day-to-day state of the
atmosphere.Climate refers to long time periods, such as seasons, years or decades.
The earth system.is never free from change. Natural variability is an intrinsic part of
all environmental
systems. Presently, there is a growing concern that human activities may affect the
energy.exchange balance between the earth, the atmosphere and space. This results in
changes in
the global climate. The contention that man-made emissions of carbon dioxide,
methane,.chloro-fluoro-carbons, etc. will alter the Earth's climate have gained
widespread attention.in recent years. The effects of climate change on environment
can be explained through
the following heads:
1. Affects human health: The health of human beings will be seriously affected
by.extreme climates. A changing climate brings about changes in the intensity of these
extremes causing serious effect on human health.
2. Affects suitable living conditions: To a large extent, public health depends on
safe.drinking water, suficient food, secured shelter, and good social conditions. All
these.factors are affected by climatic changes.
3.Freshwater supplies may be seriously affected, reducing the availability
of clean water for drinking and washing during drought as well as floods. The risk
of.Spread of infectious diseases will tend to increase
4.Food production: Food production will be seriously reduced in vulnerable regions
directly and also indirectly through an increase in pests and plants or animal
diseases. The local reduction in food production would lead to starvation and
malnutrition with long-term health consequences, especially for children.
5. Leads to conflicts: Food and water shortages may lead to conflicts in affected
regions..Starvation may lead to looting, rioting, killings, etc.
5. Acid Rain
Acid rain is acidic rain with high levels of hydrogen ions, caused when gaseous
compounds of ammonium, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur are released in to the
atmosphere.
Acid rains can have harmful effect on plants, animals and humans.
Causes of acid rains
Main causes of acid rains are the sources that emit the acidic oxides. These are:
i.Pollutants emitted by automobiles, aircrafts, ships etc
ii.Pollutants emitted by thermal plants and other industries.
iii. Pollutants emitted by acid manufacturing and explosive industries.
Effects of acid rains
The harmful effects of acid-rains are the following.
1.Fresh water is spoiled and the fish population in ponds, lakes and river is reduced.
2.Tree leaves and plantations are damaged.
3.The rate of metabolism of organisms is altered.
4.Causes irritation to mucus membrane and eyes.
5. Causes damage to structures and buildings, marbles, etc.
6.The rate of corrosion of metals accelerates.
7.Acid rain dissolves salts and other chemical compounds in soil. This results in loss
of fertility of soil.
8.Due to acidity in lakes, ponds, rivers etc., the green algae and many forms of
bacteria are killed. Hence aquatic ecosystem is substantially affected.
9.Causes breathing problems, lung's asthma, bronchitis, poor visibility etc.
10. The acid rain causes leaching out of potassium (a plant nutrient) from the soil.
Thus.the fertility of soil is affected.
11. Due to acidity, the earthworms are killed. It causes loss of soil fertility.
Measures to control acid rains
Following measures are suggested to control the problem of acid rains.
1. The acid may be neutralized by using lime on land and in water-bodies.
2..The emission of gases from industries and power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.
3.Effective measures to control air pollution should be adopted.
4.A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water
pipes for drinking water.
6. Nuclear Accidents
A nuclear accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as, "an
event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the
facilities"
Causes of nuclear accident
1.Natural disasters: natural disasters like tsunami, earthquake, etc. cause nuclear
accidents.
2. Improper procedures: Following of improper procedures result in nuclear accidents.
3. Faulty infrastructure: Faulty infrastructure of reactor cause leakage of radioactive
material.
4.Malfunctioning of the system: Malfunctioning of the coolant system causes nuclear
accident.
Effects of nuclear accident
The biological effects of nuclear accidents are thyroid cancer, loss of white blood cells
and platelets, leukaemia, etc.
The non-biological effects are loss of infrastructure, explosions, evacuations, cost.of
cleanup, harm to ozone layer, etc.
prevention
1.Proper disposal of radioactive wastes
2.Providing awareness among the public
3.Leakage proof transportation
4.Making the violation of procedures a criminal offence
5.Ban on nuclear weapons
6.Strong infrastructure
Nuclear Holocaust
Holocaust refers to great destruction of life forms at the mass level causing destruction
of a human civilization. The possibility of complete life destruction on earth due to
nuclear weapon is known as nuclear holocaust.

DISASTER AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The term 'Disaster' is derived from the French word Desastre' meaning a bad or
an evil star. A disaster is that sudden calamity which brings misfortune and miseries
to humanity. Disasters have serious impact on human life, economy and environment.
A disaster may be defined as "an occurrence of immensely damaging nature that
causes ecological disruption, deterioration of health of a very large number of people,
and loss of human life in such a scale that warrants response from outside areas other
than the affected regions."
1.Disaster impact and response: The disaster impact and response aspect includes the
following operations:
i.Search and rescue
ii. First aid
iii. Triage and stabilisation of victim
iv. Hospital treatment
v.Identification of dead
vi. Relief phase
vii. Managing humanitarian supplies such as: water, food etc.
vii. Reconstruction and rehabilitation etc.
2. Disaster preparedness: The disaster preparedness is a programme of long-term
development activities whose goals are to strengthen the overall capacity and
capability.of a country to manage efficiently all types of emergencies. The objective of
disaster
preparedness is to ensure the following tasks.
i.To evaluate the risk of a particular region or the country as a whole to disaster.
ii. To organise communication, information and working systems.
iii. To ensure the availability of financial and other resources.
iv. To co-ordinate information with news media.
v.To organise disaster simulation exercises to test the response mechanisms.
3.Disaster Mitigation: Mitigation means lessening the negative impact of the natural
hazards. It is defined as sustained action taken to reduce long term vulnerability of
human life and property to natural hazards. These actions include:
i. Risk assessment and vulnerability analysis
ii. Promote appropriate land use planning
iii. Promote the knowledge of disaster-resistant design and construction
iv. Reduce the vulnerability of existing buildings through alterations and
v. Protection of vulnerable population.
Floods
Floods are the most common and widespread of all natural disasters. Though it is not
possible to control the flood disaster totally, by adopting structural and non-structural
measures, the flood damages can be minimised. Flood control refers to all methods
used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Some of the common
techniques used for flood control are installation of
sandbags, maintaining normal slopes with vegetation or application of soil cements on
steeper slopes and construction or expansion of drainage channels. Other methods
include
levees, dikes, dams, retention or detention basins.
Measures to be taken to control floods
1.Introduce better flood warning system: Advance warning and pre-planning can
significantly reduce the impact of flooding.
2.Construct building above flood levels: As far as possible, construction of all new
building should be done atleast some meters above the ground level, to prevent flood
damage
3. Modification of buildings: Existing buildings should be modified to make them
withstand floods.
4.Creation of wetlands: The creation of more wetlands acts as sponges to slow down
water from river overflows.
5. Restore rivers to their natural courses: Many river channels have been straightened
to improve navigability. This is a reason for flood. By introducing their bends, their
length increases and can delay the flood flow.
6.Improving water storage areas: Water storage areas in any form may be improved, so
that, more water can be stored in case of any flood.
7.Improved soil condition: Well drained soil can absorb huge quantity of rain water,
preventing from running into rivers.
8.More government spending: Government should spend more amount to put up more
flood barriers and improving flood defence mechanisms.
Earthquake
Earthquake refers to sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of
seismicwaves through earth's rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of
energy stored in earth's crust is suddenly released. It happen when masses of rock
straining against one another suddenly fracture and slip. The study of earthquake is
called seismology.
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by disturbances in the interior of the earth and other causes.
1.Tectonic movements: The disturbances inside the earth are called tectonic
movements. These forces bring about changes on the earth surface and physical
features like mountains
2.Volcanic eruptions: The volcanic eruptions are often very violent and cause
vibrations in the carth's crust. Sometimes the vent of a volcano is blocked temporarily
and
2.volcanic eruption takes place suddenly causing tremors in the earth crust.
3, Other reasons: The roofs of underground caves sometimes give way and release
great force to cause minor tremors in the earth crust. Nuclear explosions also release
massive energy to cause tremors in the carth crust.
Effects of Earthquakes
1. Loss of Property: Severe earthquakes reduce to rubble human structures ranging
from huts to palaces and single storey to multi storied buildings.
2.Loss of Life: Earthquake takes the lives of thousands of people. Many people have
been rendered homeless or suffered injuries in various ways.
3. Changes in the course of rivers: On account of the impact of earthquakes,
sometimes rivers change their courses. Consequently, when floods come, they play
havoc with people's lives.
4.Tsunamis: The earthquakes in the sea generate massive waves called Tsunami. It
sometimes rises to the height of 20-25 metres. It causes great damage to life and
property of people living in coastal areas as well as to tourists.
5.Mud fountains: On account of earthquakes of high intensity, warm water and mud
fountains also burst.
6.Cracks in earth crust: Earthquake cause cracks in earth's crust anywhere in fields,
roads, parks and even hills. They are thus rendered useless.
Cyclone
Cyclone is a violent wind that moves in a circle causing a storm. Cyclone refers to
any inner spinning storm that rotates around a low pressure centre.
Types of Cyclones
1.Tropical cyclone: Tropical cyclone are those cyclones that occurs over tropical ocean
regions.
2.Polar cyclone: Polar cyclones are cyclones that occur in polar regions like Greenland,
Siberia, and Antartica.
3. Meso cyclone: Meso cyclone is formed when part of a thunderstorm cloud starts to
spin, which may eventually lead to a tornado.

Management of Cyclones
i. Structural measures:
Structural measures include construction of cyclone shelters, construction of cyclone
resistant buildings, road links, bridges, canals, drains, saline embankments
communication and power transmission networks etc.
ii. Non-structural measures
Early warning dissemination systems, management of coastal zones, awarenes
generation and disaster riskmanagement and capacity building of all the stakeholders
involved.
b.These measures are being adopted and tackled on State to State basis under
Nation.Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) being implemented through World
Ban.Assistance.
Landslides
A landslide refers to the sliding or dislodging of a large mass of rocks, materials.soils,
etc. down the side of a mountain or cliff.
Causes of Landslides
A. Natural causes:
1.Earthquakes: When earthquakes occur on areas with steep slopes, the soil slips
causing landslides.
2. Heavy rainfall: When sloped areas become completely saturated by heavy
rainfall,landslides can occur.
3Climate: Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. When
sloped areas are completely saturated with ground there is absence of mechanical root
support, the soils start to run off.water, landslides can occur.
4. Volcanoes: Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a
wet.condition, the soil starts to move downhill leading to a landslide.
5.Forest fires: Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might
lead to landslides
6.Gravity: Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive
landslide.
B. Human causes:
1. Clearcutting for human settlement: One of the main causes for landslides is
clearing of trees. Clearing destroys the existing mechanical root structure in the area.
2. Mining: Mining operations that use blasting technique often cause other areas that
are at the risk of sliding, to slide due to vibration under the soil.
Effects of Landslides
1. Lead to economic decline: Landslides result in destruction of property. If the
landslide.is significant, it could drain the economy of the region or country.
2.Damage to infrastructure: The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a
landslide can cause serious damage to property and infrastructure
3.Loss of life: Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater
risk of death by landslides.
4.Affects beauty of landscapes: The landslides leaves behind rugged landscapes
that.may give only an ugly appearance.
5.Impacts river ecosystems: The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way
into rivers and block their natural flow. It also affects the lives of water animals.

MODULE-2B
POLLUTION
Meaning and Definition
Pollution refers to any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics on air, water and land that will harmfuly afect human life and the lives
of desirable species. Pollutants are materials or factors that cause adverse effect on
the natural quality of any component of the environment. They are the waste products
or by-products of the materials we make use of or throw away.
Pollution can be defined as "the introduction by humans, deliberately or
inadvertently,of substances or energy (heat, radiation, noise) into the environment
resulting in a deleterious
effect".
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is basically the presence of foreign substances in air in excessive
concentration which adversely affects the well being of the individual or causes
damages to property.
Air Pollution is defined as, "the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds in the at
generally resulting from the activity of man, in high concentration, which affect the
comfort health or welfare of persons".
The pollutants can be broadly divided into primary and secondary.
Primary pollutants are those pollutants emitted directly from identifiable sources,
There are five primary pollutants that together contribute to about 90% of the global
air pollution. These are carbon oxides (CO and CO,), nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides,
volatie organic compounds (hydrocarbons), and suspended particulate matter (SPM)
eminates from mining.
Secondary pollutants are those pollutants that are emitted when certain
chemical.reactions take place among the primary pollutants. Eg. sulphuric acid, nitric
acid, carbonic acid, etc.
Causes/ Sources of Air Pollution
The sources of air pollution are classified into two groups. They are
1. Natural sources: The pollution caused by nature are called natural sources. These
may be due to volcanoes which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or
by.forest fires caused by lightning, decay of organic matter and pollen grains floating
in air. Naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short
time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change.
2.Man made sources
i.Burning of fuels like wood, cow dung cakes, coal and kerosene in homes pollute the
air.
ii.Exhaust gases emitted by motor vehicles which pollute the air are the major source
of air pollution in big cities.
iii. Industries pollute air by releasing various types of pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide, oxides of carbon, nitrogen oxide, chlorine, asbestos dust and cementdust.
iv. Thermal power plants pollute air by emitting sulphur dioxide and fly-ash.
V. Nuclear power plants pollute air by releasing radioactive rays.
vi. Use of fertiliserS and pesticides in agriculture pollute the air.
vii. Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests increases the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and thereby pollutes it.
vii. Use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers
pollutes air by depleting the ozone layer
ix.Smoking pollutes air by emitting carbon monoxide and nicotine.
Causes/Sources of Air Pollution
1.Natural sources: The pollution caused by nature are called natural sources.
These.may be due to volcanoes which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or
by forest fires caused by lightning, decay of organic matter and pollen grains floating
in air. Naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short
time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change.
2.Man made sources: They are population explosion, deforestation, urbanisation
and.industrialisation, whose effects can be as follows:
i.Burning of fuels like wood, cow dung cakes, coal and kerosene in homes pollute the
air.
ii.Exhaust gases emitted by motor vehicles which pollute the air are the major source
of air pollution in big cities.
iii. Industries pollute air by releasing various types of pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide, oxides of carbon, nitrogen oxide, chlorine, asbestos dust and cement dust.
iv. Thermal power plants pollute air by emitting sulphur dioxide and fly-ash.
v. Nuclear power plants pollute air by releasing radioactive rays.
vi.Use of fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture pollute the air.
vii. Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests increases the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and thereby pollutes it.
viii. Use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers
pollutes air by depleting the ozone layer.
ix. Smoking pollutes air by emitting carbon monoxide and nicotine.
Effect of Air pollution on human health, Animals, plants and property The effects can
be detailed as follows:
1. Affects respiratory system: Air pollution affects respiratory system causing
breathing difficulties and diseases such as bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer,
tuberculosis and pneumonia.
2. Affects central nervous system: Air pollution affects the central nervous
system.causing carbon monoxide poisoning which causes suffocation and death to
human beings.
3. Depletion of ozone layer: Air pollution causes depletion of ozone layer due to which
ultraviolet radiations can reach the earth and cause skin cancer, damage to eyes and
immune system.
4.Causes acid rain: It causes acid rain which damages crop plants, trees, buildings,
monuments, statues and metal structures and also makes the soil acidic.

1.Mechanical Devices: It works on the basis of following:

i.Gravity: In this process, the particulates settle down by the action of gravitational
force and get removed.
ii.Sudden change in the direction of air flow: It brings about separation of particles
due to greater momentum.
2. Fabric Filters: The particulate matter is passed through a porous medium made of
woven or fīlled fabrics.
i.The particulate present in the polluted air are filtered and gets collected in the
fabric filters, while the gases are discharged.
ii. The process of controlling air pollution by using fabric filters is called bag filtration'.
3. Wet Scrubbers: They are used to trap SO3,NH3, and metal fumes by passing the
fumes through water.
4.Electrostatic Precipitators: When the polluted air containing particulate pollutants is
passed through an electrostatic precipitator, it induces electric charge on the particles
and then the aerosol particles get precipitated on the electrodes.
III. Other methods
1.Tall chimneys should be installed in factories.
2.Better designed equipments and smokeless fuels should be used in homes and
industries.
3.Renewable and non-polluting sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy,
should be used.
4 Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to emission control
standards.
5. More trees should be planted along roadsides and houses.
WATER POLLUTION
Meaning and Definition
Water pollution refers to a state of condition in which pure water loses its purity,
affecting its normal properties and functions. It occurs when harmful substances like
chemicals or micro-organisms contaminates a stream, river, oceans, aquifers and
ground water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to the environment.
Water pollution can be defined as, "the presence of some foreign substances or
impurities in water in such quantity so as to constitute a health hazard by lowering
the water quality and making it unfit for use".
Causes of Water Pollution
1. Sewage and waste water: Sewage, garbage and liquid waste of households,
agricultural lands and factories are discharged into lakes and rivers. These wastes
contain harmful chemicals and toxins which make the water poisonous for aquatic
animals and plants.
2. Dumping: Dumping of solid wastes and litters in water bodies causes huge
problems. Litters include glass, plastic, aluminium, etc. Different things take different
amount of time to degrade in water. They affect aquatic plants and animals.
3.Industrial waste: Industrial waste contains pollutants like asbestos, lead, mercury
band petrochemicals which are extremely harmful to both people and environment. til
Industrial waste is discharged into lakes and rivers, making the water contaminated.
4.Oil spilling: Sea water gets polluted due to oil spilled from ships and tankers while
as travelling. The spilled oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge
polluting port the water.
5.Acid rain: Acid rain is pollution of water caused by air pollution. When the acidic
particles caused by air pollution in the atmosphere mix with water vapour, it results in
acid rain.
6.Water-soluble inorganic chemicals: These are acids, salt and compounds of toxic
metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can make the water
unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields, and accelerate the
corrosion of equipment that is in contact with this water. Parizubni
7. Global warming: Due to global warming, there is an increase in water temperature.
This increase in temperature results in death of aquatic plants and animals. This also
results in bleaching of coral reefs in water.
8. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is an increased level of nutrients in water bodies.
This results in bloom of algae in water. It also depletes the oxygen in water, which
negatively affects fish and other aquatic animal population.
Effects of water pollution
1. Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many
disastrous effects on health. It causes typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and various other
diseases.
2.Destruction of Ecosystems: Ecosystems are extremely dynamic and respond to even
small changes in the environment. Water pollution can cause an entire ecosystem to
collapse, if left unchecked.
3.Eutrophication: Chemicals in a water body, encourage the growth of algae. These
algae form a layer on top of the pond or lake. Bacteria feed on this algae and this
decreases the amount of oxygen in the water body, severely affecting the aquatic life
there.
4. Effects the food chain: Disruption in food chains happens when toxins and
pollutants in the water are consumed by aquatic animals (fish, shellfish etc) which are
then consumed by humans.
Prevention/ Control measures
1.Treatment of sewage: Treating waste products before disposing of it in a waterbody
helps to reduce water pollution on a large scale. Agriculture or other industries.can
reuse this wastewater by reducing its toxic contents.
2. Use environmentally friendly products: Water polution can be reduced by using
soluble products that do not become pollutants. It reduces the amount of water
pollution caused by households.
3. Keep out oils, fat, or grease from the sink: Inorder to reduce water pollution,
avoid pouring cooking oil, fat or grease down the kitchen sink. It is better to collect
such materials in jars and discard them in solid waste.log 1ae
4.Abstain from flushing contaminated liquids, pills, drugs, or medications down
the drain: These substances contain scores of toxic materials that destroy the quality
of natural water systems.
5.Desist from using the toilet as a bin: Most people discard dust clothes, paper wastes,
synthetic materials, and wrappers in toilets. The destructive elements of these
materials may finally end up in the oceans, lakes or rivers. Desisting from this
habit.can considerably prevent water pollution.
6.Reduce the use of herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers: Excessive use ofherbicides,
pesticides, and fertilizers leads to water pollution as the chemicals contained in the
products often find way into the water systems through surface runoff or infiltration
into the soil. Minimizing their usage or using organic methods for pest, weed, and
disease control can appreciably reduce water pollution.
7.Avoid direct dumping into water systems: Rubbish or any other waste products
should not be dumped into lakes, rivers, streams or oceans.
8.Insist on using environmentally safe products: While purchasing household
products such as cleaning material, medical supplies, etc., always purchase products
that are less harmful to the environment.
9.Practice tree planting: Planting trees reduces the speed of surface water runoff and
as such, lessens erosion and prevents toxic substances and chemicals from.washing
into water systems.
10. Support green-oriented companies: These are the companies that take creative
initiatives to reduce water pollution.
11. Skip the use of plastics: Plastic leftovers frequently end up in the oceans, lakes,
streams and rivers, contaminating natural habitats and destroying aquatic life.
12. Practice organic farming: Organically grown crops reduce the quantity of
herbicides.and pesticides used in farming. It also promotes the use of organic fertilizer
which promotes natural growth and eliminates the use of toxic chemicals found in
synthetic fertilizers, which can penetrate into the ground and pollute water supplies.
13. Pollution control laws: Inorder to reduce water pollution, pollution control laws are
to be strictly enforced.
SOIL POLLUTION
Meaning and Definition
Soil pollution refers to the mixing of human made chemicals, directly or indirectly into
the natural soil, which causes land degradation and makes it unfit for cropping.
Soil pollution is defined as, "the presence of toxic chemicals in soil, in high enough
concentrations to pose a risk to human health and/or the ecosystem".
Causes of Soil Pollution.
A. Direct Causes
Direct causes include poor waste management, application of agro-chemicals,
faulty.sanitation practices, salination due to irrigation and floods, and soil erosion.
1. Poor waste management: Wastes are unwanted and useless substances resulting
from different human activities. The wastes can be solid wastes or liquid wastes.
(i) Solid waste: Unwanted or discarded solid substances are called solid wastes. It
includes sewage sludge, domestic and municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste
and agricultural solid waste.
(ii) Liquid waste: Liquid waste from point sources, such as domestic and industrial
waste waters, not only cause water pollution but soil pollution too.
2.Application of Agro-chemicals: A variety of agro-chemicals such as pesticides,
insecticides and fertilizers are utilized in modern day agricultural practices for more
and more yields. Pesticides are used to control pests whereas insecticides, weedicides
are used to control insect and unwanted plants. Fertilizers are used for increasing
agricultural production. These chemicals are not degraded quickly. Excessive use of
these agro-chemicals makes soil polluted. Their concentration affected life and health
of the man.
3. Faulty sanitation practices: Sanitation means the whole field of controlling the
environment with a view to prevent disease and promote health. Faulty methods of
sanitation causes soil or land pollution.
4.Salination due to Irrigation and flood: Irrigation water contains dissolved salts and
in dry climates much of the water in the saline solution evaporates leaving its salts,
such as sodium chloride in the topsoil. The accumulation of these salts is called
salinization, which can stunt plant growth, lower yields and eventually kill the
crop.and render the land useless for agriculture.
5.Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is the movement of surface topsoil from one place to
another. While erosion is a natural process often caused by wind and flowing water, it
is greatly accelerated by human activities such as farming, construction, overgrazing
by livestock, burning of grass cover and deforestation. The loss of the topsoil makes a
soil less fertile and reduces its water-holding capacity.
B. Indirect Causes
Indirect causes include acid rain and disposed radioactive substances.
1.Acid Rain: Acid rain is due to acid deposition in air either in dry forms or wet form.
Wet form of acid deposition in air consists of acidified rain, snow, fog and cloud
vapour. Soil pollution is caused when acid rain falls on the earth surface. Living
components of water and soil are damaged.
2.Radioactive substances: Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear
devices, nuclear dust and radioactive wastes penetrate the soil, creating soil pollution.

Effects of Soil Pollution

1. Inferior crop quality: Soil pollution can decrease the quality of crop. Regular use of
chemical fertilizers, inorganic fertilizers and pesticides decrease the fertility of the soil
at a rapid rate. This leads to decrease in soil quality and poor quality of crops.
2.Harmful effect on human health: Soil pollution is a threat to health of all living
species. Living, working or playing in the contaminated soil can lead to respiratory
diseases, skin diseases, and other diseases.
3.Water source contamination: The surface run-off after raining will carry the polluted
soil and enter into different water resources. It causes underground water
contamination, thereby causing water pollution. This water after contamination is not
fit for human as well as animal use due to the presence of toxic chemicals.
4.Negative impact on ecosystem and biodiversity: Soil pollution can cause an
imbalance of the ecosystem of the soil. The soil is an important habitat and is the
house of different types of microorganisms, animals, reptiles, mammals, birds, and
insects. Thus, soil pollution can negatively impact the lives of the living organisms and
can result in the gradual death of many organisms. It can cause health threats to
animals grazing in the contaminated soil or microorganisms residing in the soil
Control Measures
The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution.
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use: Applying bio-fertilizers and manures
can reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Biological methods of pest
control can also reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials: Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth
etc. can be reused at domestic levels rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste
pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials: Materials such as paper, some kinds of plastics
and glass can be recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps in the
conservation of natural resources. For example, recovery of one tonne of paper can
save 17 trees.
4.Reforestation: Waste lands, soil erosion and floods can be controlled by
reforestation. Huge forests become prey to man's greed. It takes years together to
reform a forest..Every individual on earth should decide to plant trees to save our
planet earth.
5.Solid Waste Treatment: Proper methods should be adopted for solid waste disposal.
Industrial wastes can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they are
less hazardous. Acidic and alkaline wastes should be first neutralized. If the
insoluble material is biodegradable, it should be allowed to degrade under controlled
conditions before being disposed. Burying the waste in locations situated away from
residential areas is the simplest and most widely used technique of solid waste
management.

NOISE POLLUTION
Meaning and Definition
Noise pollution refers to unwanted or excessive sound that can have harmful effect on
human health and environmental quality. It causes hypertension, high stress levels,
hearing
loss, sleep disturbances and other harmful effects.
Types of Noise Pollution
The noise pollution can be grouped under (i) Indoor noise pollution, and (ii) Outdoor
noise pollution.
i.Indoor noise pollution: Indoor noise pollution is caused by loudly played radios
or.music systems, other electronic gadgets, etc.
ii.Outdoor noise pollution: Noise emanating from factories, vehicles, plying of loud
speakers during various festivals, etc. contribute to outdoor noise pollution.
Causes/ Sources of Noise Pollution
1.Industrial noise: Machines in big industries produce a variety of sounds above the
normal accepted decibel that bumps into the ears and disturb the minds of the public.
2. Loudspeakers in events: Using of loudspeakers in high volume to play music in
events and celebrations cause disturbance and noise pollution.
3.Vehicular noise: The modern means of traffic such as buses, trucks, two wheelers,
cars, aircraft, etc. pollute the atmosphere through their unbearable sound.
4.Household activities: Application of household instruments like television,
grinder,mixer etc. cause unbearable noise to the ear, if not consciously used.
5.Human sources: Rapid industrialisation, urbanisation, use of modern means of
transport and increasing scale of human activities are some of the factors responsible
for noise pollution.
Effects of Noise Pollution
i.Auditory effects: Noise pollution may cause temporary or permanent hearing
impairment. The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is that, it ruptures the
ear drums.
iiCauses deadly illnesses: Noise pollution may cause deadly illnesses like cancer, lack
of memory, loss of concentration, interruption in speech, stress and depression. Rising
noise also gives rise to nervous breakdown, dizziness, hypertension, excessive
sweating etc.
iii. Accelerates the heart rate: Noise pollution accelerates the heart rate by
increasing.blood flow. The constant noise increases the amount of cholesterol in the
blood, which affects the functioning of heart. Exposure to the noise of above 180 DB
intensity may result in death.
iv. Dangerous to animal life: The effect of noise is dangerous for animal life. Due to
continuous noise, their habitat decreases, causing threat to the species to the level
extinction.
vii. Hindering growth of vegetation: Noise pollution has extremely harmful effects or
vegetation. Their growth is affected by high level of continuous noise.
viii. Speech interference: Communication with another person at a high background
very difficult. High background noise level affects the efficiency of noise level offices,
schools and other places, where, communication is of vital importance.
Control of Noise Pollution
1. Control at the source: The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control
the noise at the sources itself. It may be possible by lubricating the machineries
tightening the loose nuts, enforcing the law, etc.
2.In the path: If the noise is not controlled at its source, the next step is to try
to.prevent its transmission. The following are few instances in which the noise
pollution is controlled by modifying the path of transmission.
i.Covered machines: Keeping the noisy machine covered in an enclosure, sa
that, the sound does not reach the receiver.
ii. Construction of noise barriers: Construction of noise barriers on roadsides for the
benefit of the nearby residential communities.
iii. Sound-proofing: Efforts should be made to make the building sound-proof. It is
possible to a certain extent, by using heavy curtains on the windows, fixing sound
protecting tiles on the ceiling and walls, sealing all air leaks, etc.
3. Receiver: If it is not possible to bring down the noise levels to the desired leve
through source modifications or by preventing the transmission path, the only
alternative is to apply protective tools such as using earplugs or earmuffs in noisy
places.

THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution or heat pollution is the harmful release of heated liquids into a
body.of water or heat released into the air as a waste product of an industrial unit.
Causes / Sources of Thermal Pollution
1. Industrial effluents: Industries and power plants may use water to cool machineries
and then discharge the warmed water into streams.
2.Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants emit a large amount of unutilised heat
and traces of toxic radio nuclear into nearby water streams. Emission from nuclear
reactors and processing installations are also responsible for increasing the
temperature of water bodies.
3. Hydro electric power: Generation of hydro electric power also results in increasing
the temperature of water bodies.
4.Coal-fired power plants: Some thermal power plants use coal as fuel. Coal fired
power plants constitute the major source of thermal pollution.
5. Cutting of trees: Water temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing
shades are cut down.
6. Domestic sewage: Domestic sewage is often discharged into rivers, lakes, canal or
streams without waste treatment. The municipal water sewage normally has high
temperature than the receiving water leading to increase in temperature water bodies.
Effects of Thermal Pollution
1.Decreased dissolved oxygen: Warm water holds less oxygen than cool water. If the
oxygen level drops, animals that cannot move to another area may begin to die. The
decreased oxygen can cause a threat to aquatic plants and animals.
2.Migration: Fish and amphibians may move away from warm water to a more
location, disrupting the ecosystem for the animals that remain. Birds may also
be.forced to leave in search of areas with more food.
3.Increased toxins: Solvents, fuel oil and dissolved heavy metals end up in the lake or
dumping.river where cooling water gets dumped. More toxins are generated due to.of
waste water.
4.Loss of biodiversity: The sudden heating kills or drives organisms away.This is one.of
the many serious issues for threatened and endangered animal species.
5. Ecological impacts: The local aquatic ecosystem can be damaged by thermal
pollution.due to the dumping of warm water into a pond or river. The sudden loss of
life causes issues with the ecosystem.
6.Reproductive effects: Thermal pollution changes the biology of aquatic organisms..A
significant temperature increase in the water causes.reproductive problems like
defective eggs, birth defects, etc.
7.Increased metabolic rate: Warm water causes faster metabolism, which means
that animals need more food. The local ecosystem may not be able to support a
significant increase in food consumption.

Control Measures of Thermal Pollution

1.Cooling towers and artificial lakes: An economic solution to the problem of thermal
pollution is using cooling ponds to let the heated water lose its temperature in
the.cooling ponds. Once the temperature is in equilibrium with the surroundings, it
can
be released into water bodies.
2.Save electricity: Steam used to generate electricity in thermal plants causes thermal
pollution. Hence, by saving electricity, thermal pollution can be controlled.
3.Use of alternative cooling agents- other than water: Water should be replaced by
other cooling agents such as air to cool warm water coming from industries. Air-
cooled systems are the best alternative to water-based cooling systems.
4.Release of heated water in less vulnerable regions: Natural water bodies have
a.sensitive ecosystem. The vegetation of the particular water body would not survive a
sudden rise in temperature. Hence, steps should be taken to prevent the release of
heated water in less harmful regions.
5.Reuse of heated water: The heated water generated from industries can be reused.to
heat up homes or buildings. This process, in turn, would minimize the heat transfer to
natural water bodies and help in preventing thermal pollution.
6.Trees planting along the shorelines: The most economic way to control any form.of
pollution is afforestation. The trees would help control air pollution and result in a
better and more stable ecosystem. Tall trees provide shade to the water bodies.
7.Environmental awareness: In the present set of conditions, the issues of thermal
pollution are set to increase over a period. The only viable solution would be creating
environmental awareness and making people familiar with the ill-effects of thermal
pollution.
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Risk or danger to human health or the environment exposed by radiation emanating
from the atomic nuclei is called nuclear hazard. Radioactive (nuclear) pollution is
special form of physical pollution of air, water and soil. It is an actual or potential
release of
radioactive material at a commercial nuclear power plant. Radioactive pollution occurs
by use of x-rays in bones fractures, treatment of cancer with radiation, and diagnosing
diseases with the help of radioactive isotopes.
Causes / Sources of Nuclear Hazards
1. Natural sources of radioactivity:
i. Cosmic rays from outer space and
ii.Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth's crust.
2.Man-made sources: The man made sources of radioactivity are nuclear wastes
produced during:
i.mining and processing of radioactive ores,
ii. use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants,
iii.use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications, and
iv. use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons.
Effects of Nuclear Hazards
The effects may be:
a. Somatic damage: In somatic damage, individuals exposed to radiation are
immediately and directly affected. Examples are: cancer, shortening of life span, etc.
b.Genetic damage: In genetic damage, the life of future generation is affected.
Examples, genetic effects or mutations.
Control measures
The following measures can be taken to control radioactive pollution.
i. Preventive measures: Preventive measures should be taken for avoiding leakages
from nuclear reactors. Careless handling, transportation and use of radioactive fuels
should be avoided.
ii. Safety measures: All safety measures should be strictly enforced.
iii. Waste disposal: Disposal of radioactive waste material must be carefully, efficiently
and effectively done.
iv.Preventing occupational exposures: Appropriate steps should be taken against
occupational exposures of radioâctive equipments and materials.

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

1.Minimising wastage of resources: Individuals should minimise wastage of resources
such as electricity, water, etc.
2.Adopting mass transportation: Individuals should make use of mass transports like
buses and trains instead of travelling in individual personal vehicles.
3. Preferring recycled products: Products that are made of recycled material should be
given preferences by individuals.
4 Proper disposal of harmful products: Dispose potentially harmful products such
as.batteries, pesticide containers, etc. properly.
5.Planting trees: Individuals should plant trees wherever possible because they reduce
air pollution.
6.Optimum use of pesticides: Use pesticides only when it is absolutely necessary and
use them in small amounts.
7.Buying goods in refillable glass containers: Consumer goods are to be bought in
refillable glass containers, instead of cans or throwaway bottles.
8.Avoiding plastic carry bags: Individual .should avoid using plastic carry bags when
buying groceries or vegetables or any other items
SOLID AND ELECTRONIC WASTE DISPOSAL
Meaning and Definition
Solid waste management refers to the scientific techniques and methods applied to
manage solid wastes from its inception to its final disposal. It includes collection,
transportation, treatment and disposal of wastes, together with monitoring and
regulation of the waste management process.
Stages of Solid Waste Management
1. Collection: Collection refers to the gathering of solid wastes from places such as
residences, commercial, institutional and industrial establishments and other public
places.
2.Processing: Processing refers to the activity applied to solid waste to prepare it for
subsequent operation. Processing improves the efficiency of solid waste disposal.and
prepares solid waste for subsequent recycling and recovery of materials.
3.Disposal: Disposal refers to the placing of solid waste in its ultimate resting place.
4.Monitoring: All the processes, especially the disposal process should be properly
and timely monitored to see that the expected result is obtained.
Types or Solid Wastes
1. Urban waste
Urban wastes are those wastes which arise from household activities, restaurants.
public places, institutions, markets, street-sweepings etc. and include garbage,
rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, dead animals etc. The
management of urban waste is the responsibility of the concerned local self
governments.
2. Industrial Waste
Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any
material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of
factories, industries, mills and mining operations. Industrial waste has been generated
in significant quantities since the start of industrial revolution in the 19th century.
Examples of industrial wastes are, metals, ash, paint, sandpaper, radioactive waste,
chemical solvents, etc. Industrial waste can be classified on the basis of their
characteristics. They are: Waste in solid form, but some pollutants within are liquid or
fluid form. Example,
1.crockery industry.
2.Waste in dissolved and the pollutant is in liquid form. Example, dairy industry.
3.Waste containing a pollutant in the liquid form. Example, electroplating industry.
Sources of Solid Wastes
1.Rubbish: It includes combustible and non-combustible solid wastes, excluding food
wastes. Combustible rubbish includes paper, card-board, textiles, plastic, rubber,
wood, garden-trimmings etc. Non-combustible rubbish consists of glass, crockery, tin-
cans, aluminium cans, metals, construction wastes, etc.
2.Garbage: It includes organic waste like the animal, fruit or vegetable residual
resulting from the handling, preparation, cooking and eating of foods.
3.Municipal wastes: Municipal wastes are those wastes which arise from household
activities, restaurants, public places, institutions, markets, street-sweepings etc and
include garbage, rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, dead animals
etc.
4.Industrial wastes: Industrial wastes are those wastes which arise from industrial
activities, and typically include rubbish, ashes, construction and demolition wastes
special wastes and toxic wastes.
5.Hazardous wastes: A hazardous waste is any waste or combination of wastes that
poses a substantial danger, now or in future to human, plant or animal life and which
therefore, cannot be handled or disposed of without special precaution.
6.Biomedical waste: Biomedical wastes are generated from health care activities
such as diagnosis, treatment, prevention of diseases, and associated research at
hospitals, clinics, laboratories, research centres, veterinary institutions, blood banks,
nursing homes, etc.
Causes of Solid Wastes
i.Over-population: The ever increasing population is the main reason for increasing
solid waste pollution.
ii.Urbanisation: Solid waste pollution increases with the increase in urbanisation.
iii. Affluence: With increase in production or per capita consumption, there is a
tendency to declare items as obsolete resulting in their discard, which leads to solid
waste pollution.
iv. Technology: Rapidly growing technologies for most economic goods are leading to
returnable packing to non-returnable packing. For example, returnable glass bottles/
containers being replaced by non-returnable plastic containers.
Effects of Solid Wastes Pollution
i Contaminate of ground water: Industrial solid wastes are the sources of toxic metals
and hazardous wastes which may perculate to contaminate the ground water.
ii. Poisonous gases: The hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other
compostable waste. This makes segregation and disposal more difficult and risky.
Burning to these produce poisonous gases.
iii.Epidemics: Solid wastes causes spreading of epidemics like diarrhoea, amoebic
dysentery, etc. through food and water contamination through flies which breed on
the refuse dump and solid waste.
iv. Contamination to water supply: The crops and water supply may also get
contaminated and may result in large scale-epidemic of cholera, jaundice, gastro
intestinal diseases etc.
v.Breeding place of mosquitoes: Drain clogging due to uncollected wastes leads to
stagnant waters. This helps in mosquito breeding causing danger of malaria and
dengue.
Control Measures of Urban and Industrial wastes.
1. Source Reduction
Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be done by
using less material when making a product, reusing products on site, designing
products or packing to reduce their quantity. On an individual level, we can reduce
the use of
unnecessary items while shopping, avoid buying disposable items and also avoid
asking for plastic carry bags.
2. Recycling
Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some economic
value. Recycling diverts items, such as paper, glass, plastic and metals, from the
waste stream. These materials are sorted, collected and processed and then
manufactured, sola and bought as new products.
3. Disposal
i.Disposal of solid-wastes by land filing: In this method, solid-wastes are carried
and dumped into the lowlying areas. With the passage of time, the filled up solid
wastes will get stabilized by the decomposition of the organic matter and subsequent
conversion into stable compounds.
ii.Incineration: Incineration is the process of burning solid waste in a properly
designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating conditions. Incineration is
a chemical process in which the combustible portion of the waste is combined with
oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere.

MODULE - 2C
ENVIRONMENT LAWS IN INDIA
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was enacted in India, in response to the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972. The Act
empowers the Central government to prevent, control and abate environmental
pollution.For the effective implementation of the Act, the various provisions of this Act
have been amended from time to time.
Objectives of the Act
a.Protection and improvement of environment (Water, air, land)
b. Prevention of hazards to all living creatures (human, plant, animals) and property.
C.Maintenance of harmonious relationship between human beings and their
environment.
Definitions of important terms used in this Act
a Environment: Includes water, air and land and the inter relationship which exists
among them and propeřty.
b. Environmental pollutant: Includes any solid, liquid' or gaseous substances present
in such concentration as may be injurious to environment.
c.Environmental Pollution: It means the presence of any environmental pollutant in
the environment.
d.Hazardous Substance: It means any substance which is liable to cause harm to
human beings, other living creatures and property or environment by reasons of its
chemical or physio-chemical properties or handling.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
The law relating to air pollution is contained in the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1981. The objective of this Act is to prevent air pollution. With the
increasing industrialisation, the problem of Air Pollution has attracted the
attention of the government as well as the people in the country. The problem is more
acute in the heavily populated areas. The presence of various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission and from certain human activities in air, beyond certain
limits, has detrimental effects on living and non-living things.
Definitions of important terms
1.Air Pollutant [Sec. 2(a)]: It means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in
the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human
beings, other living creatures or plant or property or environment
2.Air pollution [Sec. 2(b)]: It means the presence in the atmosphere of any air
pollutant.
3. Chimney [Sec. 2(h)]: It includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or
through which any air pollution may be emitted.
4.Control equipment [Sec. 20]: It means any apparatus, device, equipment or system
to control the quality and manner of emission of any air pollutant. It also includes any
device used for securing the efficient operations of any industrial plant.
5.Emission [Sec. 26)]: It means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out
of.any chimney, duct or any other outlet.
6.Industrial plant [Sec. 2(k)]: It means any plant used for any industrial or trade
purposes and emitting any air pollutant into the atmosphere.
7. Occupier [Sec. 2(m)]: Occupier in relation to any factory or premises, means the
person who has control over the affairs of the factory or the premises. If the said
affairs are entrusted to a managing agent, such agent shall be deemed to be the
occupier of the factory or the premises.

measures to prevent and control Air Pollution

1.The State government may declare in the prescribed manner any area or areas
within the State as air pollution control area or areas for the purpose of this Act.
2.The State government may alter any air pollution control area whether by way of
extension or reduction, and declare a new air pollution control area by merging one or
more air pollution areas.
3. If the State government is of the opinion that the use of any fuel other than an
approved one, in any control area may cause or likely to cause pollution, it may
prohibit the use of such fuel in such area.
4 The state government may direct that no appliance other than the approved one
shall be used in the premises situated in air pollution control area with effect from the
specified date there in. Different dates may be specified for different appliances or for
different part of areas.
5.If the State government is of the opinion that the burning of any material in any
control area may cause or likely to cause air pollution, it may prohibit the burning of
the material in such area.
6.The State government may give necessary instructions to the authority for ensuring
standards of omissions from automobiles.
7. If the State government desires to vary some conditions of industrial plants on
account of technological improvement ör otherwise, it shall vary all or any such
conditions.
8.Any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf shall have a right to enter
any place and inspect the industrial plant record register etc.
9.The State Boardor any other officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power
to take samples of air or omission from any chimnèy or any other outlet are analyse
then in the prescribed manner.
The water Act 1974
Definitions of important terms
1. Occupier [Sec.2(d)]: Occupier in relation to any factory or premises means the
person who has control over the affairs of the factory or the premises. Where the said
affairs are entrusted to a managing agent, such agent shall be deemed to be the
occupier of the factory or the premises.
2. Water Pollution [Sec.2(e)]: Pollution means any of the following: (i) Contamination of
water or (i) Alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water.(i)
Discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid
substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to, create 2
nuisance, (iv) Render water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or to
domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life
and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms.
3. Sewage effluent [Sec.2(g)]: It means effluent from any sewage disposal works and
includes sullage from open drains.
4. Stream [Sec.20)]: It includes: ) river; (i) water course (whether flowing or for the
time being dry): (ii) inland water (whether natural or artificial); (iv) sub-terranean
water, (v) sea or tidal waters to each extent, or, as the case may be, to each point as
the State Government may specify.
5.Trade effluent [Sec.20k)]: It includes any liquid, gaseous or solid substance which is
discharged from any premises used for carrying on any trade or industry, other than
domestic sewage.
Agencies jor implementing prevention and control of water pollution
1. Central Pollution Control Board (Sec.(3) Constitution
Functions of the Central Board [Sec. 16
The main functions of the Central Board are -
i.to promote cleanliness of streams and wells.
ii.to advice the Central government on any matter concerning the prevention and
control of water pollution.
iii).to co-ordinate the activities of the State Board.
iv) to provide technical assistance and guidance to State boards to carryout
investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution.
v.to plan and organise the training of persons in programmes for the prevention and
control of water pollution.
vi) to collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water
pollution and the measures devised for its effective control to lay down or modify, in
consultation
with the State government concerned, the standards for a stream or well.
2. State Pollution Control Board Sec.4
Functions of State Board Sec. 16
a) To plan comprehensive programme for the prevention and the control of pollution
ofstreams and wells in the State.
b)to advise the State government on any matter concerning the prevention or control
to organise the training of persons, in collaboration with the Central Board, with view
to prevent water pollution.
c)to perform such other functions as may be prescribed from time to time,
Committees Sec.9
A board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or wholly of
other persons or partly of members and partly of other persons, for such purposes as
it may think fit. A board may associate with itself any person whose assistance or
advice it may desire to obtain in performing any of its function under this Act. Any
such person associate with the board have a right to take part in the discussion of the
board but shall not have a right to vote at a meeting of the board,
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 adopted by all the states except Jammu and
Kashmir state (which has its own Act), governs the wildlife conservation and protection
of endangered species both inside and outside forest areas in India. Under this Act,
trade in rare and endangered species has been banned. The Act was mainly to prohibit
hunting of about 50 species qf animals, 43 birds and many reptiles, insects, etc.
specified in the Schedule to the Act.
Objectives of the Act
a.To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems;
b.To preserve bio-diversity: and
C.To ensure protection and conservation of wildlife.

Important Terms used in the Act

a. Wildlife - according to the Act the term wildlife includes 'any animal, bees,
butterflies, crustacea, fish, moths and aquatic and land vegetation which forms part of
any habitat .
b.Habitat include "land, water or vegetation which is the natural home of any wild
animal.
c.Hunting- according to the act means,
(i) to capture, kill, poison, share and trap any wild animal or trying to do so.
ii) to injure, destroy or take away any part of the body of such animal and damaging or
disturbing the eggs or nests of wild birds and reptiles
.Functions of the Wildlife Advisory Board
a.The selection of areas to be declared as Sanctuaries (introduced in 1991), National
Parks, game reserves (omitted in 1991) and closed areas.
b.The formulation of the policy for protection and conservation of the wildlife and
specified plants.
c.The measures to be taken for harmonizing the protection and conservation of wildlife
with the needs of the tribals and other forest dwellers.
d.Any other matter or duty entrusted to it by the State Government
Declaration of Sanctuary and Restriction on Entry
a. a public servant on duty;
b.a person permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer;
c.a person passing through the sanctuary along a public highway;
d.a person who has any right over immovable property within the limits of the
sanctuary and
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 198
Although India had a Forest Act in 1927, forest related legislations after independence
came about as late as 1980 with the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, The Act was
enacted with a view to conserve forests and to check indiscriminate dereservation and
diversion of forest land to non-forest purposes. Under the Act, prior approval of
Central Government is required before any reserved forest is -declared as dereserved,
or forest land is diverted
to non-forest purposes.
Objectives of the Act
a.To protect and conserve of forests; and
b. To ensure judicious use of forest products.
Important terms used in the Act
a.Forest: According to this Act means 'a biotic community composed predominantly of
trees, shrubs and woody climbers'.
b. Forest-produce: According to the Act includes 'timber, wood, bark, charcoal, oil,
resin, natural varnish, lac, mahua seeds, etc., whether brought from or found
ina.forest or not'.
Powers of the State Government
a.Under Section 5, the Forest Officers, with previous sanction of the State
Government, may stop any public or private way or water-course in a reserved forest,
provided that an alternative way or water course already exists or has been provided
or constructed.
b.Under Section 29, the State Government by notification in the official gazette declare
that the provisions of this Act are applicable to such a forest or waste-land not
included in a Reserved Forest but which is the property of the State Government or to
the whole or part of forest produce. A forest or waste-land so notified shal be may
called as Protected Forest.
C. Under Section 3.2, the State Government is empowered to make rules for Protected
Forests to regulate:
i)the cutting, sawing, conversion and removal of trees and timber, and removal of
forest produce from such protected forests.
ii) the cuting of grass and posturing of catle in such forests.
iii) hunting, shooting, fishing, setting traps and poisoning water or snares in such
protected forests.
iv)granting of licenses to inhabitants living in the vicinity of protected forests to take
trees, timber and forest produce for their own use.
V.)granting of licenses to persons and the payment to be made for felling or removing
trees or timber and other forest produce for trade purposes.
vi) inspection of forest produce passing out from these protected forests.
vii) clearing and breaking-up of land for cultivation or other purposes in such
protected forests.
vii) protection from fire of timber Iying in these protected forests;
d. Under Section 30 of this Act, the State Government by notification in the official
gazette may:
i.declare any tree or trees as reserved in a protected forest.
ii.prohibit the quarrying of stone or the burning of lime or charcoal or collection
or removal of any forest produce in the protected forest.
Sustainable Development - Concept
Sustainable developments are those which fulfil the present needs of the mankind
without curtailing the needs offuture generations. This can be made possible by
maintaining.the ecological processes, preserving the biodiversity and controlled
consumption of natural
resources.
Objectives of sustainable development
i)Basic needs of life should be available to all human beings.
ii) Consumption of natural resources should be utility based.
iii) Economic growth should be made within the safeguarded limits, to safeguard
the.interests of future generations to come.
iv) Ecological processes should continue unabated.
v)The development and maintenance of environment should run simultaneously.
vi) Regional imbalance in conservation of nature should be minimised or removed.
MODULE-3
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT
Scope of Green Accounting
Changes in the environment have a negative bearing on not just the Environment by
on the economy as a whole. It is a well-known fact that changes in the economy have a
direct bearing on the changes in any business. It is also important to note that the
Gross domestic product of a country can be affected by the environmental and
climatic change Therefore, green accounting is the best tool for any businesses to
understand and manage the potential of economic goals and environmental goals. It
also increases the important information available for analyzing policy issues.
Enterprises designing their accounting system should consider environmental costs
also. It increases the scope of green accounting in the world wide in future.
Importance / Objectives of Green Accounting System
1. Identifies the negative impacts of economic growth: Green accounting recognises.the
cost of the use of natural rësources. It identifies the part of the gross domestic
products that reflect the costs necessary to compensate for thè negative impacts of
economic growth.
2. Provides a linkage: Green accounting establishes a linkage between physical
resource accounts and monetary environmental accounts.
3. Provide quantitative estimates: The main focus of green accounting is to place value
on environmental resources, that do not have a market price and incorporate these
resources into the national accounts and into economic growth measure.
4. Providing user information: Green accounting helps to submit various types of user
information on the financial position and performance of entities in the management
of resources at their disposal.
5. Acts as an information base on planning: Green accounting takes into consideration
environmental resources and changes in them. It integrates the result with the system
of national accounts, so as to provide a valuable information base for planning and
Formulating policy.
6. Accounts the contribution of natural resources: Environmental accounts provide
data which highlights both the contribution of natural resources to economic well-
being and the costs imposed by pollution or resource degradation.
Advantages/ Benefits of Green Accounting
The main advantages of Green Accounting are ,
1. Improving environmental performance: Green accounting helps in improving
environmental performance by controlling costs and promoting sustainability.
2. Investment in efficient technologies: Green accounting encourages the government
as well as the corporates to invest in cleaner and efficient technologies.
3. Developing 'greener' products: Green accounting helps in developing 'greener
processes and products that do not harm the environment.
4. Forming informed decisions: Green accounting helps to provide various types of
information relating to resources. This helps to take informed decisions related to
business activities.
5.Helps to evaluate choices: Green accounting enables government to evaluate choices
without a bias against future generations. It takes into consideration, the light choices
such as conserving precious ecosystems rather than surrendering them at throw away
prices.

Limitations of Green Accounting

1. Only in the stage of infancy: Green accounting is an evolving science and only
at infancy. The concept to become fully implemented, a lot of study is required.
2.No standard accounting method: Though, it is considered as a part of accounting in
some of the developed countries, no standard procedure has been developed for green
accounting.
3. No comparison is possible: Comparison between two firms or countries is not
possible if methods, practice and procedure of environmental accounting are different.
4.Difficulty in assigning values: Green accounting requires valuation of environmental
assets. But it is not possible to assign an agreed value to each and every component of
natural and human capital.
5.Difficulty in valuing resources consumed: For valuation of natural resources
consumed, like decrease in forest cover, carbon gases emitted in the air, etc., unbiased
and true data would be required. It is difficult to get relevant data on such resources.
6. High cost: The cost incurred towards the training of staff and employee in green
accounting is very high. It cannot be done by financial accountants. The cost for its
tools and applications initially is high and even the time taken to learn or train and
employee is long.
Green Banking
Meaning and Definition
Green banking refers to promoting environment friendly banking practices and
reducing carbon footprints from banking activities/by improving banking operations
as well as technology, and making the habits of the clients environment friendly. It is
like normal hanking along with the consideration for social as well as environmental
factors for protecting the environment.
Green banking may be defined as, "an umbrella term referring to practices and
guidelines that makes banks sustainable to financial, environmental and social
dimensions
Benefits / Advantages of Green Banking
1. Avoiding usage of paper: Green banking aims at efficient and effective use of
computers, printers and servers to optimise the use of energy and paper. Less energy
means less pollution and less paper means less cutting of trees.
2. Creating awareness to business people: Green banking slowly creates awareness to
business people about their environmental and social responsibility. It enables them
to do environmental friendly business practices.
3. Saving of time: People do not have to move from one bank to another bank or from
one branch to another branch to effect banking transactions. It helps to save the
precious time of customers. This is possible through online banking, core banking,
mobile banking, etc.
4. Saving of cost: Through green bank financing, customers can save money through
saving transportation costs, mailing cost, time consuming cost, etc. as transactions
take place through net banking.
5. Benefits to future generations: Green banks adopt and implement environmental
standards for lending. It means that banks give some incentives in the form of low
interest rates for lending to eco-friendly projects. This business practice would be
beneficial to generations to come.
6. Natural resource conservation: Green banking gives importance in conservative
of natural resources. It is through adopting liberal lending policy for capital
Operating loans to extracting industries which follow and maintain environmental
standards.
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to operate: Banking sites can be difficult to navigate at first. Getting
acquitted with the banking sites software may require some time to read the tutorials
in order to become comfortable.
2. Customer care: There is no personal contact with any of the staff.
3.Security concern: Even though online banking sites are heavily encrypted, with the
developing technology, it is hard to rule out the 'hackers' who may access the bank
account.
4.Technical breakdowns: As with all technologies, online banking websites sometimes
go down. If it happens, the customer may find it difficult to withdraw money.
Coverage of Green Banking
1. Online banking: Online banking, also known as internet banking, e-banking or
virtual banking, is an electronic payment system that enables customers of a bank or
other financial institutions to conduct a range of financial transactions through the
financial
institution's website. It reduces or eliminates carbon footprints from banking
activities.
2.Green mortgages: Green mortgage is a type of loan provided by banks at a lower.rate
of interest to its customers who purchase new energy efficient homes or energy
efficient appliances or green power. Green mortgage is also known as Energy Efficient
Mortgage (EEM). Banks can also choose to provide green mortgages by covering
the cost of switching a house from conventional to green power.
3.Remote Deposit Capture: Remote DepOsit Capture (RDC) is a system that allows a
customer to scan cheques remitted and transmit the cheques images to a bank for
deposit, usually via an encrypted internet connection. When the bank recervescheque
image from the customer, it posts the deposit to the customer's account makes the
funds available based upon the customer's particulars availability schedule.
4. Green car loans: 1t is a scheme of loan provided by banks at a lower rate of interest
to those customers who purchase higher fuel efficiency cars, or who convert their
vehicles to more fuel efficient ones.
5.Green credit cards; A green credit card allows cardholders to earn rewards or
points which can be redeemed for contributions to eco-friendly charitable
organisations. These cards offer an excellent incentive for consumers to use their
green card for their expensive purchases.
6.Mobile banking: Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial
institution that allows its customers to conduct financial transactions remotely using
a mobile device such as smart phones, or tablets.
Steps in Green Banking
1. Installation of Point of Sale Machine (POS): A point of sale machine is a machine
installed at the green channel counter on which the customer swipes his card. He is
then asked by the machine to select the type of transaction, viz. (0) Cash Deposit, (1)
Cash Withdrawal and (2) Funds Transfer. Thus the transaction is completed without
paper usage. In India, it is initially introduced by State Bank of India. It is a step
towards paperless 'Green Banking'. Installation of windmills: SBI became the first
bank in the country to venture into
2.generation of green power by installing windmills for captive use. As part of
its green banking initiative, it initially installed 10 windmills with an aggregate
capacity of 15 MW in the states of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
3.Hum aur Hariyali campaign: Under its campaign 'Hum aur Hariyali", Indusind
Bank Ltd inaugurated Mumbai's first solar-powered ATM to save 1980 Kwh of
energy annually. It is also supporting various environment friendly finance
programmes and projects.
4.Green communication: Green communication or paperless communication is a
system of communicating where the banks communicate through e-statements, e
greetings, etc. It is initially introduced by ICICI Bank. It is estimated that the initiative
has helped to save 30,000 trees from being felled in 2009-10, besides cutting down
spending on stationery by 7.36 crore.
5.Green e-vigilance: Punjab National Bank launched green e-vigilance for the bank
through paperless dealings in complaints and vigilance procedures. It is done through
e-network and it helps to cut down cost and time.
6.Recycling: The recycling initiative of Axis bank under the Green Banking banner has
helped he bank to productively use tonnes of dry wastes per annum for recycling. It
helped to reduce environment pollution.
Green Banking Initiatives in India
I. Green Banking Initiatives of Indian Public Sector Banks
1. The system of Green Channel Counter(GCC) was initiated by different banks
under.the leadership of State Bank of India,
2.The system of generating power by installing windmills at different parts of the
country was initiated under the leadership of SBI.
3.Public Sector Banks sarted encouraging shareholders to receive annual reports of
the bank in electronic form.
4.Public Sector Banks installed Solar Power System.
5.The Banks have undertaken tree plantation during monsoons.
6 Rainwater Harvesting Projects are also implemented in number of bank building.
7. The Banks are also involved in other initiatives such as construction of green
building. waste water treatment plants, programs to sensitize staff on energy saving
etc.
8.The Banks installed solar lamps in rural areas not having dependable electricity
supply.
9.The Banks give project loans at concessional rate of interest to encourage reducing
of green house gases by adopting efficient manufacturing practices.
10. The banks have initiated project to determine .carbon footprint levels to determine
banks resource consumption pattern and able to take cost effective steps.
11. Initiated Carbon Disclosure Projects and undertook various environmentally and
socially sustainable initiatives through the branches of banks spread across the
country
12. Banks undertook energy efficiency measures like up-gradation of AC, real time,
energy efficient IT equipment selection, energy efficient CFL and LED lighting and
solar powered UPS etc.
13. Banks ask borrowers to obtain NOC from pollution control board to sanction
loans.
14. The banks give preferential treatment for eco-friendly green projects such as Wind
Mills, Solar Power projects, etc.
15. To create awareness with respect to environmental issues, banks undertake
debates, essay competitions, painting competitions etc.
16. Banks promote Swatchh Bharat campaign.
17. Banks conduct energy audit of all offices as energy conservation initiative
II. New generation and Private Sector Banks
1.Instabanking Banks provide a variety of services under one umbrella and gives
customers to convenience banking anytime anywhere through Internet banking,
Mobile banking, Tab banking and Interactive Voice Response (IVR) banking. This
reduces the carbon footprint of the customers.
2.Electronic Branches- Banks have set up fully electronic branches where the
customers can conduct all their banking transactions.
3. E-Drive - Banks send billions of reports in electronic form by saving tonnes of paper
4.Vehicle Finance Banks encourage customers to use environment friendly vehicles by
offering 50 percent waiver on processing fee.
4.Home Finance- Banks have reduced the processing fee for purchasing homes in
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design' (LEED) certified buildings
6. World Environment Day -The Banks celebrate World Environment Day every
year.on Sth June and conduct week long awareness programme.
Suggestions
1.Set up separate green banking department in banks for effective implementation of
green initiative.
2.To give concessions for card based payments to online banking and mobile banking
users.
3.To conduct training programmes for customers in online banking and mobile
banking.
4.Create awareness among businessmen about environmental issues and encouraging
them to undertake eco-friendly practices.
5.Reduce cyber-crimes and ensure the customers regarding safe online banking and
card based transaction.
GREEN MARKETING
Meaning and Definition
Green marketing is the marketing of environment friendly products and services based
on environmental benefits. It is the marketing of products that are assumed to be
environmentally safer and preferable to others. It incorporates a broad range of
activities, including product modification, changes to the production process,
sustainable packaging as well as modified advertising. It is also called Environmental
Marketing or Eco-Marketing.
Need and Benefits / Importance/ Objectives of Green Marketing
1.Promotion of pure quality products: Green marketing aims at promotion or
production and consumption of pure quality products. It is a philosophy that
promotes production and sale of eco-friendly products with protection of ecological
balance.
2.Fair dealing with customers and society: Green marketing is a philosophy of fair and
Just dealings with customers and society. It aims at restricting duplication and
adulteration of products. Several national and international agencies are established
to monitor efforts and activities of business firms in relation to pollution control and
production of eco-friendly products.
3.Protection of ecological environment: Green marketing is concerned with protection
of ecological environment. It encourages production of pure products by pure
technology, conservation of energy, preservation of environment, minimum use of
natural resources and more use of natural foods instead of processed foods.
4. Avoiding waste: Green marketing is concerned with avoiding waste by putting
forward an eco friendly face to the public. It may be by creating biodegradable product
packaging, cutting down on water consumption, or reducing the amount of trash that
goes into andfills.
5. Re-inventing products: Re-inventing is modifying to suit the purpose better. In
green marketing products themselves are modified to lesson the impact on the
environment.
6.Making green while being green: Here the companies make more profit by making
their products more greener. Here, more greener products are sold to a particular
subset of the population who are willing to pay more to protect the environment.
Challenges of Green Marketing
1. Lack of awareness about green products: The most serious challenge
marketing is lack of awareness of the people about the advantages of green products.
Educated and urban consumers are generally aware of the benefits of green products.
But less iterate and rural consumers are to be educated and made aware of the
concept of green products.
2. Higher cost of green products: Green marketing requires production and marketing
of green products and services, green technology, green power, etc. for which a huge
amount of capital investment is required. This also requires massive Research and
Development programmes which lead to increase in costs to the products and
services.
3. Difficulty in convincing the customers: It is not easy to convince the customers
about the need for using green and eco friendly products. If the customers are
not.getting easily convinced, attempts should made to slowly convince them by
implementing Eco-labelling schemes. Sometimes, the customers may be unwilling to
pay premium price for the products.
4.Difficult to sustain: Green marketing requires a long term policy, It wilE
expensive in the short run, during which period the profit margin will be low. But it
can be made successful in the long run. Hence, the business has to plan for long
Learn rather than short term strategy for its success,
5.Non cooperation: To be successful, the firm has to get the cooperation of all
Stakeholders. The scheme should be supported by customers, the shareholders,
the.government, the employees and the community at large. They should be convinced
of the long term benefits of green marketing.
6. Avoiding Green Myopia: Green marketing must satisfy the objectives of
improved.environmental quality and customer satisfaction. Misjudging either of the
two or overemphasizing one at the expense of the other can be termed as green
marketing myopia. Hence both should move hand in hand,
7. Lack of trust: Lack of credibility or trust by consumers and end users is a challenge
faced by green marketing.
8.Lack for standardisation: Only some percentage of marketing messages are true
from the Green' company. Hence there is a problem of lack of
standardisation authenticate these claims.

Greenwashing
Greenwashing is concerned with misleading and misguiding it's customers.
Meaning and Definition
Greenwashing refers to a form of marketing that creates the impression that the
products, aims or policies ofa company are 'green' and environmentally sound than
they.realy are.
Greenwashing is defined as, "the act of misleading consumer regarding the
enviromental practices ofa compay or the environmental benefits ofaproduct or
service".
Consequences of Greenwashing
1. Loosing confidence of customers: Greenwashing is the deceptive practice of dressing
up harmful and toxic chemical products to create the impression of environmental
safety .
2.Loosing the market of even genuine products: If the consumers once realise that
they are cheated through greenwashed products, their interest in buying any other
products would be diminished, eventhough they are genuine. This may lead to
permanent reduction in demand for green products
3.Loosing reputation of products or firm: The company may be able to earn some
extra profit for a short period through greenwashing. But, when the customers
are.aware of the fact that they are cheated, they will avoid the products of the
company forever. This leads to loss of brand name and reputation of the company,
ultimately leading to business failure.
4.Encouraging consumer scepticism: Consumers who are constantly making an effort
to use green and natural products to reduce their impact on the environment may be
discouraged, if they are misled by the companies through greenwashing. If consumers
lose trust in a service or product, there develops a scepticism against the product or
service.
5.Diminishing consumer power: Consumers who actually care about environment
friendly products would be ready to pay premium amount for the products, If the
premium payment is made for greenwashed products, their purchasing power for
genuine products is diminished.
Ecotourism
Ecotourism is a modern concept in tourism. The word is derived from two words
ecosystem' and 'tourism'. Ecotourism is a part of environmental conservation, and
understanding the lifestyle, culture, needs and quality of life of the local people.
Meaning and Definition
Ecotourism refers to a sustainable form of tourism that allows the tourists to see the
most pristine form of 'mother nature', so that, local people are benefited without
damaging the environment.

Significance of Ecotourism
1. Preservation of nature: The underlying principle of ecotourism is to keep the nature
undisturbed and sustainatble while using it for promoting tourism activities. Wildlife
and natural habitat of animals and the entire biodiversity is left undisturbed.
2. Bringing local people into limelight: Usually ecotourism centres are developed in
underdeveloped and remote areas surrounding the interior parts. It helps to develop
such areas and to bring local tribal community into the limelight, to make the
meconomically benefitted.
3.Long term development: Ecotourism helps local area and that of the local self
government. The revenue earned rom sun increase reveae earnings of the
activities can be utilised for long term sustainable development of the ecotourts centre.
4.Helps in raising awareness: Ecotourism not only helps in conservation initiatives but
also helps in raising awareness about political and social issues of developing counis
5.Cultural improvement: Cultural exchange and cultural improvement form a
major.purpose of ecotourism. When the tourists move along with the locals, there
arisesa.mutual understanding between the parties involved. It helps them to leam
about one another and create a sense of unity and cultural sensitivity.
6.Reduces carbon foot print: Carbon foot print is the amount of carbon dioxide
released.into the atmosphere as a result of the activities of a particular individual,
event, organisation, product or community. But in ecotourism, though it is a revenue
earning activity, the effect of carbon foot print is at its minimum as trapsportation and
commuting is mainly by walk on foot, on trolleys, hybrid buses, etc
Environmental Audit
.
Meaning and Definition
Environmental audit refers to an assessment or verification of the extent to which an
organisation is observing practices which minimise harm to the environment. It is an
environmental management tool for measuring the effects of certain activities on the
environment against standards set. It serves as a tool, designed to provide information
on environmental performance to the right people at right time.
Environmental auditing is defined as, "an environmental management tool designed to
investigate, understand and identify the adverse effects of human activities on
environment and to verify the environmental compliances and implementation gaps,
along with related
corrective actions".

Types of Environmental Audit

1. Environmental compliance audit: A compliance audit is a comprehensive review of
an organisation's adherence to regulatory guidelines.
2. Environmental management audit: It is the audit done to verify whether an
organisation meets its stated objectives.
3.Functional environmental audit: Functional environmental audit is an activity audit
that investigate specific areas such as use of energy, water, etc.
Concept of Environmental Audit
(a) to all levels of management; and
(b) for a variety of purposes.
It covers a number of assessment activities, such as:
a.A technical review: It involves the systematic collection of information about the
existing and potential impact of the organisation's activities on the environment.
It.covers compliance with pollution control and waste management legislation.
b. A management review: It focuses on the management procedures and record
keeping. It also gathers information on compliance with legislation.
C. Due diligence review: It examines the likely cost of implementing pollution control
and site remediation actions and takes account of existing and future legislation.

Scope of Environmental Audit

1.The history of the organisation or activity, previous site, environmental practices,
monitoring records and known environmental issues.
2.The natural resources used as input, processing of materials and all finished
producs and wastes including hazardous and toxic waste.
3.The handling and storage of chemicals, hazardous and toxic materials and any tial
environmental hazards.
4 Environmental risk assessment.
5.Recycling programmes and product lifecycle consideration.
6.Effectiveness of pollution control equipments installed.
7.Waste management control system including transportation of waste materials.
Need / Importance of Environmental Audit
1.Safeguarding the environment: Environmental audit is essential to safeguard the
environment and natural resources used for projects.
2.Verifying compliance: Environmental audit is essential to verify compliance
with.domestic and international environment laws.
3. Addressing the problems: Environmental audit is essential for addressing
any.problem that may arise during the course of action.
4. Assessing training programs: Environmental audit enables to assess training
programmes and providing data in connection with skill development initiatives.
5. Providing credit to environmental performance: Environmental audit tempts
companies to comply with environmental regulations and build up reputation of
companies. It also facilitates giving due credit to those companies which adhere to
environmental requirements and regulations.
6. Identifying areas of cost savings: Environmental audit helps to identify possible cost
saving areas from energy conservation, waste reduction, reuse and recycling.
7.Comparing information: Environmental audit helps to facilitate exchange and
comparison of information between different plants or subsidiary companies of the
parent company.
8.Showcasing the commitment of the company: Through environmental audit the
company demonstrates its commitment to environmental protection to employees,
the public and the authorities
9.Identifying of environmental risk: Environmental auditing helps to identify the
environmental risks associated with the running of the organisation.
10. Avoiding legal action: By adhering to environment regulations and environmental
protection measures, legal action against an organisation can be avoided.

Carbon Credit and Carbon Exchanges

A carbon credit is a tradable permit or cetificate allowing the holder, such as a
company, to emit carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases. It is meant for reduction
of emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from industrial activities.
The credit limits the emission to a mass equal to one ton of carbon dioxide.

Types of Carbon Credits

1. Voluntary emissions reduction (VER): A carbon offset that is exchanged in the
over-the-counter or voluntary market for credits.
2.Certified emissions reduction (CER): Emission units (or Carbon credits) create
through a regulatory framework with the purpose of offsetting a project's emission.
The main difference between the two is that there is a third party certifying body that
regulates the CER as opposed to the VER.
Carbon Exchanges
Carbon is an element stored in fossil fuels such as coal and oil. When these fuels are
burned, carbon dioxide is released and acts as greenhouse gas. Carbon trade is an
exchange of credits between nations designed 1o reduce emissions of carbon dioxide.
MODULE-4
RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT, 2005
The Right To Information Act is an Act to provide for setting out the practical regime.
Of right to information for citizens to secure access to information coning under the
control of public authority, inorder to promote transparency and accountability in the
working of every public authority.
Basic Terms
Public Authority (Sec 206)
Public Authority means any authority or body or institution of self governme-
established or constituted-
a.by or under the constitution
b. by any other law made by parliament.
C.by any other law made by state legislature.
d.by notification issued or order made by appropriate government.
Public Authorities include
1.Public sector undertakings, government companies and private aided institutions
2The president of India, MPs, MLAs
3.All central and state government departments.
4Corporations, municipalities, 5.panchayats.
6.Judiciary
7.Shipyard
8.Co-operative institutions, welfare boards
9.Universities
10.Nationalised banks and nationalised insurance companies
Competent Authority (Sec. 2(e))
Competent Authority means:
a.The speaker in the case of House of the People or the Legislative Assembly of a State.
b.The Chief Justice of India in the case of Supreme Court.
c.Chief Justice of High Court in the case of a High Court.
d.President or Governor, as the case may be, in the case of oher authorities
established or constituted by or under the constitution.
e The Administrator appointed under Article 239 of the constitution.
Appropriate Government (Sec. 2(a)
Appropriate Government means in relation to public authority, which is established,
constituted, owned, controlled or substantially financed by funds provided directly or
indirectly
a. by the Central Government or the union territory administration
b.by the State Government
Third Party (Sec. 2(m))
Third party means a person other than the citizen making a request for information
and includes a public authority
Information (Sec. 2 (f)
Information means any material in any form, including records, documents, memos,
e-mails, opinions, advices, press releases, circulars, orders, log books, contracts,
reports, papers, samples, models, data material held in any electronic form and
information relating to any private body which can be accessed by a public authority
under any other law for the time being in force.
Record (Sec. 2(i)
Record' includes-
a.any document, manuscript and file
b. any microfilm, microfiche and facsimile copy of a document,
c.any reproduction of image or images embodied in such microfilm, and
d. any other material produced by a computer or any other device.
Right to Information (Sec. 20)
Right to Information' means the right to information accessible under this Act which is
held by or under the control of any Public Authority and includes the right to:
1. Inspection of work, document, records,
2. Taking notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records.
3 Taking certified samples of materials.
4 Obtaining information in the form of diskette, floppies, tapes, video cassettes, or in
any other electronic modes or through printouts where such information is stores in a
computer or in any other device.
Objectives of Right to Information Act
1. To set out a practical regime of Rights to Information of citizens of the state.
2.To secure access to information under the control of public authorities.
3.To promote transparency and accountability in the working of every public
authority.
4.To increase citizen's awareness and ability to exercise their other rights.of
5.To equip them to participate meaningfully in the development process.
Features of Right to Information Act
1.All citizens possess the right to information. Information can be obtained within 30
days from the date of request in a normal case.
2.If information is a matter of life or liberty of a person, it can be obtained within 48
hours from the time of request.
3. Every public authority is under obligation to provide information on written request
or request by electronic means. But certain information of national importance
such.as national security are prohibited from disclosure.
4. Appeal against the decision of the Central Information Commission can be made to
an officer who is senior in rank.
Procedure for Request of Information
1. A person, who desires to obtain any information under this Act, shall make a
request in writing or through electronic means in English or Hindi or in the official
language of the area in which the application is being made, accompanying such fee
as may be prescribed, to -
a the Central Public Information Officer or State Public Information Officer, as
the case may be, of the concerned public authority;
b.the Central Assistant Public Information Officer or State Assistant
Information Officer, as the case may be,
2.An applicant making request for information shall not be required to give any
reason.for requesting the information or any other personal details except those that
may be necessary for contacting him.
3.Where an application is made to a public authority requesting for an information, -
i.which is held by another public authority; or
ii.the subject matter of this is more closely connected with the functions of another
public authority,
Appeal
An appeal is an application to the higher authority for a decision to be revised or it is a
request made to a Court of Law to change a previous decision. The Right To
Information (RTI) Act was introduced in the year 2005 to provide citizens of India, with
the right to get acquainted with any information of significance that is held by the
Government or Government undertakings.
Addressing the Appeal
The first appeal must be made to the respective First Appellate Authority (FAA).
Details of the designated FAA could be found on the decision letter of the Public
Information Officer (PIO), official website of RTI or from the office of the PIO.
MODULE-5 A
HUMAN RIGHTS
Meaning and Definition
Black defines human rights as, "the freedom, immunities and benefits that, according
to modern values, all human beings should be able to claim as a matter of right in the
society in which they live".
Features/Characteristics
The following are the basic characteristigs of human rights:
1.Inherent: Human Rights are inherent because they are not granted by any person or
authority. Human rights do not have to be bought, earned or inherited.
2.Fundamental: Human Rights are fundamental rights because without them, the
lifeand dignity of man will be meaningless.
3. Inalienable: Human rights cannot be taken away by any one. People still have
human rights even when the laws of their countries do not recognize them, or when
they violate them. Human Rights are inalienable because:
a.they cannot be rightfully taken away from a free individual.
b. they cannot be given away or be forfeited.
4. Imprescriptible: Human Rights do not prescribe and cannot be lost even if man
fails to use or assert them, even by a long passage of time.
5.Indivisible: To live in dignity, all human beings are entitled to freedom, security and
decent standards of living. Human rights are indivisible and not capable of being
divided.
6.Universal: Human Rights are universal in application and they apply irrespective of
one's origin, status, or condition or place where one lives.
7. Interdependent: Human Rights are interdependent because the exercise of one may
not be possible without the realization of the other.
Different Generations of Human Rights
1. The First Generation of Human Rights - Civil-political Rights
The first generation of human rights, sometimes called as 'blue rights', deal essentially
with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political
in nature. First generation rights include, among other things,
(a) the right to life
(b) equality before the law
(d) the right to fair trial
(c) freedom of speech
(f) voting rights
(e) freedom of religion
The first generation of human rights is rather individualistic. Civil-political rights
are essentially meant for protecting the individuals from the state. There are two
subcategories of civil-political rights. They are:
i.Physical and civil security: For example, the rights to freedom from slavery or equal
treatment before the law.
ii.Individual liberties: For example, freedom of speech of thought, religion, assembly
and political participation.
2. Second Generation of Human Rights - Socio-economic Rights
a. Right to be employed in just and favourable conditions
b. Right to food, housing and healthcare
c. Right to social security
d. Right to unemployment benefits.
3. Third Generation of Human Rights - Collective-developmental Rights
The third and final generation of rights is collective-developmental right. Collective-
developmental rights are also known as aspirational or soft laws.
i. Self-determination: This is the right as to political status or development in areas of
culture and society.
ii.Special rights of ethnic and religious minorities: This could be the right to culture,
religion,communication,
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that.was
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December, 1948 at Paris
in.France. The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual's rights. The
Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of
Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a
sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
Contents of UDHR
The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles:
The preamble setsout the historical and social causes that led to the necessity of
drafting the Declaration.
Articles
Articles 1-2 established the basic concepts of dignity, liberty, equality, and
brotherhood.
Articles 3-5 established individual rights, such as the right to life and the prohibition
of slavery and torture.
Articles 6-11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies
cited for their defence when violated.
Articles 12-17 established the rights of the individuals towards the community
(including such things as freedom of movement).
Articles 18-21 sanctioned the so-called 'constitutional liberties', and with spiritual,
public, and political freedoms, such as freedom of thought, opinion, religion and
conscience, word, and peaceful association of the individual.
Articles 22-27 sanctioned an individual's economic, social and cultural rights,
including healthcare. Article 25 states: "Everyone has the right to a standard of living
adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food,
clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services".
Articles 28-30 established the general ways of using these rights and the areas in
which these rights of the individuals cannot be applied. International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is a United Nations treaty
based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created in 1966 and entered
into.force on 23 March, 1976. The Covenant contains two Optional Protocols. The first
optional protocol creates an individual complaints mechanism, whereby, individuals in
member States can submit complaints, known as communications, to be reviewed by
the Human Rights Committee. Its rulings under the first optional protocol have
created the most complex jurisprudence in the UN international human rights law
system. The second optional protocol abolishes the death penalty.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is a multilateral
treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 16th December, 1966,
which came into force from 3rd January, 1976. It commits the states parties to work
towards the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals.
Value Dimensions of Human Rights
Human Rights have broader dimensions and comprehensive reach. It gives a liberal
and comprehensive meaning to life and personal liberty of human beings. It covers
plethora of rights, such as, right to privacy, right to travel, right to livelihood.
1. Human rights are essential for the adequate development of the human personality.
2. These strengthen the development process and translate the sustainable
development into practice.
3.Human Rights avoid adverse physiological effects of techno-scientific growth and
environmental crisis.
4.A rational human being has the capacity to determine his needs and also the life
style.
5.Environmental rights ensure the people to live in a healthy environment free from
pollution.

MODULE-5B
HUMAN RIGHTS AND UNITED NATIONS

Human Rights Co-ordination within UN System

The United Nations Charter setsforth the inherent dignity' and the 'equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family.
UN Charter and Human Rights
The Charter of the United Nations (UN Charter) of 1945 is the foundational treaty
of.the United Nations. The UN Charter (Article 103) states that the obligations to the
United Nations stands much above all other treaty organisations. The Charter of the
UN was signed on 26th June, 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United
Nation
Conference on international organisations. It came into force 24th October, 1945.
The United Nations was established after Second World War in an attempt to maintain
international peace and security and to achieve cooperation among nations.
Objectives of UN Charter
1.Maintaining world wide peace and security.
2.Developing relations among nations, and
3. Fostering cooperation between nations inorder to solve economic, social, cultural or
humanitarian problems.
Contributions
1. To Maintain International Peace and Security: The United Nations came into
being in 1945, with the objective of maintaining of international peace and security.
This is done to prevent conflicts and maintain peace. The UN Security Council has the
primary responsibility for international peace and security. The General Assembly
and the Secretary-General play major, important, and complementary roles, along
with other UN offices and bodies.
2.To Protect Human Rights: The term 'human rights' was mentioned seven times in
the UN's founding Charter, making the promotion and protection of human rights a
key purpose and guiding principle of the Organization. In 1948, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights brought human rights into the realm of International
Law. Since then, the organization has diligently protected human rights through legal
instruments and on-the-ground activities.
3.To Deliver Humanitarian Aid: According to the UN Charter, the purpose of the
United Nations is to achieve international co-operation in solving international
problems of economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian nature. The first attempt in
this direction was by helping to rebuild the continent of Europe which was devastated
by the Second World War. Now, the organisation is coordinating humanitarian relief
operations in those areas affected by natural and man-made disasters.
4.To Promote Sustainable Development: One of the objective of UN is improving
people's well-being. In the changing scenario, development refers to
sustainable.development which promotes prosperity and economic opportunity for all.
UN helps
the ad components to promote sustainable development in all member states.
5. Uphold International Law: The development of international law and respect on it is
the key part of the work of the organisation. This work is carried out in many ways- by
courts, tribunals, multilateral treaties - and by the Security Council, which
can.approve peacekeeping missions, impose sanctions, or authorise the use of force
when there is a threat to international peace and security, if necessary. These powers
are given to it by the UN Charter, which is considered an international treaty. As such,
it is an instrument of international law, and UN Member States are bound by Un
chanter
Organs of United Nation
1. The UN General Assembly
The United Nations currently comprises of 193 member states, all of which belong to
the General Assembly. The General Assembly controls the UN's finances, makes non-
binding recommendations, and oversees and elects members of other UN.is the
General Assembly that ultimately votes to adopt human rights declarations and
conventions, which are also called treaties or covenants.
2. Security Council
The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the
maintenance of international peace and security. It has 15 Members (5 permanent and
10 non-permanent members). Each Member has one vote. Under the Charter, all
Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security Council
takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of
aggression.
3. Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for coordination, policy review,
policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues,
as well as implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It serves as the
central mechanism for activities of the UN systems.
4. Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter. It
provides.international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed under
the administration of seven Member States. It takes adequate steps for preparing
Territories with independent self-governments.
5. International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands). It is the only one of the six
principal organs of the United Nations not located in New York (United States of
America). The Court's role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal
disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.
6. Secretariat
The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and very large number of
international UN staff members, who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as
mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal organs. The
Secretary- General is chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed by the
General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year,
renewable term.
Role of UN Secretariat
The United Nations' Secretariat is one of the six major organs of the United Nations
organisation. It is the executive arm of the United Nations. The Secretariat has an
important
role in setting the agenda of the different decision making bodies of the UN and also
for the implementation of the decision of these bodies. The decision making bodies are,
the
General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and the Security Council. The
head of the secretariat is the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General
Assembly.
Functions of UN Secretariat
1.to prevent human rights violation
2.to secure respect for human rights
3.to promote international co-operation
4.to co-ordinate the human rights activities of the United Nations.

The Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is the organ of United Nations' which is
entrusted with the function of coordinating the work of different specialised agencies
of United Nations. It is also entrusted with the duty of receiving reports from different
agencies and issuing policy recommendations to the UN system and to Member States.
Functions of ECOSOC
Asper the UN Charter, ECOSOC is entrusted with the following roles:
1.Promoting higher standards of living.
2.Attempting to provide full employment
3.Striving for economic and social progress
4. Identifying solutions to international economic, social and health problems
5. Facilitating international cultural and educational cooperation
6. Encouraging universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
The Commission on Human Rights
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) was a functional
commission within the overall framework of the United Nations from 1946 onwards.
But it was replaced by the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) in 2006. It
is formed as a subsidiary body of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). It is
the principal mechanism and international forum concerned with the promotion and
protection of human rights.
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was the first body operated within
the framework of an international organisation that was devoted exclusively for
promoting universal respect for human rights throughout the world.
The Security Council and Human Rights
Human rights is the major projection in the Charter of the United Nations. Its
preamble says that the "Peoples of the United Nations" are determined to save
succeeding generations from the threat of war and reaffirm faith in fundamental
human rights. Promoting respect
for human rights is included among the purposes and principles of the organisation.
Article 55 is meant for "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights". For
decades, human rights were seen as being largely outside the scope of the Security
Council. But at present, UN Security Council is the UN's most powerful body, with
primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. The
United Nation's Security Council is one of the six principal organs of the United
Nations, charged with ensuring international peace and security.

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW)
The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) is an expert body established in 1982. It is composed of 23 experts on
women's.issues from around the world. A country becomes a State party by ratifying
or acceding to the Convention and thereby accepting a legal obligation to counteract
discrimination against women.
The role of Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women are:
I. Watching the progress made by women in those countries which are the States
parties to the 1979 convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women.
ii. Making recommendations on any issue affecting women to which it believes the
States parties should devote more attention.
iii. Eliminating discrimination to women in areas such as education, employment,
Marriage and family relations, healthcare, politics, finance and law.
iv. receiving national reports including statistical data on the incidence of violence
against women.
V.providing legal recourse against violation of women's human rights.
vi. collecting information on the provision of services to women victims, and legislative
and other measures taken to protect women against violence in their everyday lives,
such as harassment at the workplace, abuse in the family and sexual violence.
The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) is a United Nations
body of 18 experts that usually meets twice per year in Geneva to consider reports
submitted by UN member states on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
Members are elected for a term of four years by States parties.

MODULE- 5C
HUMAN RIGHTS NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
The Indian Constitution gives top priority to human rights. The Human Rights Law in
India can be categorized into three heads:
(i) Human Rights and the Indian Constitution.
(ii) Human Rights under the protection of Human Rights Act 1993.
(iii) Other Measures for the protection of the Human Rights.
Human Rights in Indian Constitution
The constitution of India is one of the most right-based constitutions in the world.
India is one of the few countries that protect Human Rights through its Constitution.
The Constitution was drafted around the same time when the Universal Declaration of
HumanRights by the United Nations came into force (1948). Indian constitution
provides the spirit of human rights in its preamble and the sections on Fundamental
Rights and Directive.Principle of State Policy.
The Constituent Assembly drafted the Indian Constitution and was adopted on
26th.November 1949 and came into force on 26th January 1950. It is an elaborate
document.comprising 395 Articles divided into 22 parts and 9 Schedules. No
Constitution of theWorld is so wide and comprehensive as Indian Constitution. It has
made elaborate provisions. Relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in
the chapters of Preamble,. Fundamental Rights, Directive Principle of State Policy and
Fundamental Duties. These provisions of the Constitution contain most of the
important aspects of Human Rights and.Fundamental Freedoms provided in the
Charter of the United Nations and Universal. Declaration of Human Rights 1948.
The fundamental rights recognised by the Indian constitution are:
1. Right to Equality
The right to equality includes equality before law, prohibition of discrimination on
grounds of religion, race, caste, gender or place of birth, and equality of opportunity.
2. Right to Freedom
Cultural and Educational Rights are given to the Citizens of India to conserve their
cultural practices and that they must have access to education. The right to freedom
includes freedom of speech, and expression, right to assembly, right to practice any
profession etc.
3. Right against Exploitation
The right against exploitation prohibits all forms of forced labour, child labour and
trafficking of human beings.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
The right to freedom of religion includes propagation of religion, freedom to manage
religious affairs, freedom from certain taxes and freedom from religious instructions in
certain educational institutes.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
Cultural and educational rights preserve the right of any citizens to conserve their
culture, language and right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions.
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies
The right to constitutional remedies is present for enforcement of Fundamental Rights.
The Constitutional Context of Human Rights
1. lack of civil liberty in India during the British Rule.
2. deplorable social conditions, particularly affecting untouchables and women.
3. Existence of different religion, linguistic and ethnic groups encouraged and
exploited by the Britishers and
4. exploitation of the tenants by the landlords.