TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration ………………………………………………...………………………………….i

Certificate …………………………………………………………………………..…ii

Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………….............……iii

Abstract ……………………………………………………………...………………………iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 3

2.1 Current State of Internal Combustion Engines ................................................... 3

2.2 High Compression Ratios and Lean Mixtures .................................................... 4

2.3 Turbocharging and Downsizing .......................................................................... 6

2.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)....................................................................... 8

2.5 Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) .......................................................................... 9

2.6 Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) ........................................ 11

2.7 Lean-Burn SI Engines ....................................................................................... 13

2.8 Emission Control ............................................................................................... 14

2.9 Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines ........................................... 17

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................... 23

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................... 25

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 29

CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES ..................................................................................... 30

v
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engines (ICEs) have been fundamental to the development of
modern transportation and industrial processes. Since their inception in the late 19th
century, ICEs have powered vehicles, machinery, and generators, significantly
contributing to economic growth and societal advancement. However, as the global
population continues to rise and urbanization accelerates, the environmental impact of
these engines has become increasingly concerning.

ICEs primarily operate on fossil fuels, which are not only finite resources but also major
contributors to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), transportation accounts for approximately 24% of
global CO2 emissions, with a significant portion attributed to road vehicles powered by
ICEs. The combustion process in these engines produces harmful pollutants, including
nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and unburned hydrocarbons, which
pose serious health risks and contribute to climate change.

In response to these challenges, researchers and engineers are focusing on improving

the efficiency of ICEs while simultaneously reducing their environmental footprint.
Enhancing thermal efficiency—the ratio of useful work output to energy input—can
lead to decreased fuel consumption and lower emissions. Various strategies have
emerged in recent years, including advanced combustion techniques, innovative engine
designs, and the adoption of alternative fuels.

This report aims to explore the current state of research on improving the efficiency and
reducing the environmental impact of internal combustion engines. It will examine
recent advancements in engine technology, emissions reduction strategies, and
alternative fuels that hold promise for a more sustainable future. By synthesizing
existing studies and highlighting key innovations, this report seeks to provide a
comprehensive overview of how ICEs can evolve in response to pressing
environmental concerns while meeting the energy demands of society.

1
2
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Current State of Internal Combustion Engines

Overview of ICE technology and applications

Internal combustion engines (ICEs) have been the backbone of global transportation
for over a century, powering cars, trucks, trains, ships, and aircraft. They convert
chemical energy stored in fuels into mechanical energy through controlled
combustion, providing the power and versatility required for a wide range of
applications.
The two main types of ICEs are:

• Spark Ignition (SI) Engines: Commonly used in gasoline-powered

vehicles, these engines rely on an electric spark to ignite the air-fuel mixture.
• Compression Ignition (CI) Engines (Diesel Engines): Found in heavy-
duty vehicles and industrial applications, these engines rely on the high
pressure and temperature of compressed air to ignite the fuel.

While ICEs dominate the transport sector, they are also used in stationary
applications such as generators and industrial machinery. Their widespread
adoption is largely due to their high power-to-weight ratio, reliability, and the
established infrastructure for liquid fuels.

Efficiency in IC Engines

The thermal efficiency of ICEs remains a key performance metric, influenced by

factors such as combustion chamber design, compression ratio, fuel properties, and
operational conditions.

• Modern Advances: Current spark ignition engines achieve efficiencies

between 20–25%, while compression ignition engines reach up to 40–45%
under optimal conditions. Hybridisation and turbocharging have further
improved efficiency in recent years.

3
 • Challenges: Despite advancements, significant energy losses occur due to
heat transfer, exhaust gases, and incomplete combustion. Additionally, part-
load inefficiencies in conventional engines remain a limitation.

Innovations like gasoline direct injection (GDI), homogeneous charge compression

ignition (HCCI), and variable valve timing are improving efficiency, yet there is
considerable room for optimization.

Environmental challenges associated with ICEs

While ICEs have revolutionized transportation, their environmental impact is a

significant concern:

• Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions: ICEs contribute approximately 14%

of global GHG emissions, with CO2 being the primary output.
• Pollutants: Combustion generates NOx, unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs),
and particulate matter (PM), which negatively affect air quality and public
health.
• Dependence on Fossil Fuels: The reliance on petroleum-based fuels
exacerbates resource depletion and geopolitical tensions.

2.2 High Compression Ratios and Lean Mixtures

High Compression Ratios

Compression ratio refers to the volume ratio of the combustion chamber at the
bottom of the piston’s stroke compared to the top of the stroke. Higher compression
ratios compress the air-fuel mixture more intensely before ignition, leading to:
• Increased Thermal Efficiency: Compressing the mixture increases the
temperature and pressure of the gases, extracting more energy from the fuel
during combustion. This results in better fuel economy and performance.
• Improved Power Output: Engines with higher compression ratios can
generate more power for the same amount of fuel compared to lower-
compression engines.

4
Challenges:
• Higher compression ratios raise the risk of engine knock, where uncontrolled
combustion occurs due to elevated temperatures and pressures.
• Elevated temperatures also promote the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), a
significant pollutant.

Lean Mixtures

A lean mixture has an air-to-fuel ratio higher than the stoichiometric ratio required
for complete combustion. Increasing the air content relative to fuel has several
benefits:

• Improved Fuel Economy: Less fuel is required to burn a given quantity of air,
reducing overall fuel consumption.

• Lower Combustion Temperatures: Excess air absorbs heat, reducing energy

lost as heat and minimizing engine cooling requirements.

• Reduced CO2 Emissions: Efficient use of fuel translates to lower carbon

dioxide emissions per unit of energy produced.

Challenges:

• Excessively lean mixtures can lead to incomplete combustion, increasing the

emission of unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO).

• Lower combustion temperatures can reduce power output and worsen engine
performance under certain operating conditions.

When combined with high compression ratios, lean mixtures can significantly
enhance engine performance by improving fuel economy and reducing carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions. The reason for this improvement is that lean mixtures
result in lower combustion temperatures, as excess air absorbs some of the heat
generated during combustion, thus reducing the amount of energy wasted as heat.
The combination of a higher compression ratio and a leaner air-fuel mixture allows
the engine to achieve a more complete and efficient combustion process.

5
2.3 Turbocharging and Downsizing
Turbocharging and downsizing are transformative technologies in modern internal
combustion engine (ICE) design. Together, they play a crucial role in enhancing
fuel efficiency, boosting performance, and reducing emissions, making them
indispensable for meeting increasingly stringent fuel economy and environmental
standards.

Turbocharging

Turbocharging involves using a turbine-driven forced induction system to increase

the intake of air into the combustion chamber. It harnesses exhaust gases to drive a
turbine, which powers a compressor that forces more air into the engine. This
process enables more oxygen to enter the combustion chamber, allowing the engine
to burn more fuel and produce greater power without increasing engine size.

Key Benefits of Turbocharging:

1. Improved Power Density:

o Turbocharging allows a smaller engine to generate power comparable to

that of a larger, naturally aspirated engine.

o It enhances engine performance, particularly at high loads, without

increasing engine weight.

2. Enhanced Efficiency:

o By increasing air intake and optimizing combustion, turbocharging

improves thermal efficiency.

o It reduces specific fuel consumption, especially during heavy-load

operations.

3. Utilization of Exhaust Energy:

o Turbochargers recycle exhaust energy that would otherwise be wasted,

improving overall engine efficiency.

6
Challenges:

• Turbocharging increases the mechanical stress and heat in the engine,

necessitating robust cooling and lubrication systems.

• Turbo lag, the delay in power delivery as the turbocharger spools up, can impact
immediate throttle response.

Downsizing

Downsizing involves using smaller displacement engines that, when paired with
turbocharging, achieve power outputs equivalent to or exceeding larger engines.
This practice allows manufacturers to meet performance demands while enhancing
fuel economy and reducing emissions.

Key Benefits of Downsizing:

1. Weight Reduction:

o Smaller engines weigh less, contributing to overall vehicle weight

reduction, which improves fuel efficiency and handling.

2. Lower Fuel Consumption:

o Smaller engines consume less fuel during steady-state operations like

cruising, significantly reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.

3. Compact Design:

o Downsized engines free up space under the hood, allowing for more
flexible vehicle designs and integration of other components.

Challenges:

• Downsized engines rely heavily on turbochargers for peak power, which can
result in higher stress and wear during prolonged high-load conditions.

• Advanced engineering is required to ensure reliability and durability under such

demanding conditions.

7
 Synergy Between Turbocharging and Downsizing

Turbocharging and downsizing are complementary strategies. By combining the

increased air intake and power of turbocharging with the compact efficiency of
downsized engines, these technologies deliver high performance and fuel economy.

Applications in Driving Conditions:

• Everyday Driving: During low-load operations, such as city driving or

highway cruising, the smaller engine operates efficiently without the need for
additional turbocharger support.

• High-Load Conditions: During acceleration or heavy loads, the turbocharger

provides a temporary boost, ensuring adequate power and maintaining
performance expectations.

Environmental and Performance Benefits

1. Reduced Carbon Footprint: Downsized, turbocharged engines emit less CO2

and consume less fuel than larger, naturally aspirated counterparts.

2. Fuel Efficiency Standards Compliance: These technologies enable

manufacturers to meet strict regulatory requirements while maintaining vehicle
performance.

3. Improved Driver Experience: Turbocharged downsized engines deliver power

on demand while offering smooth and efficient operation in everyday
conditions.

2.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is a key emissions control and efficiency-
enhancing technology used in internal combustion engines (ICEs). By recirculating
a portion of the exhaust gases back into the intake air, EGR reduces nitrogen oxides
(NOx) emissions, improves fuel efficiency, and helps ICEs meet stringent
environmental standards.

How EGR Works

8
 EGR redirects a portion of the exhaust gases from the engine’s exhaust manifold
into the intake manifold, mixing them with fresh air and fuel. This process:

• Lowers Oxygen Content: Reduces the oxygen available in the combustion

chamber, slowing down the combustion process.

• Reduces Combustion Temperatures: The reintroduced exhaust gases

absorb heat during combustion, lowering peak temperatures, which are
responsible for NOx formation.

Benefits of EGR

1. Reduction of NOx Emissions:

o NOx pollutants form at high combustion temperatures. By lowering

these temperatures, EGR effectively reduces NOx production,
helping engines comply with emissions standards.

2. Improved Fuel Efficiency:

o EGR minimizes throttling losses, especially during part-load

operations, such as gentle acceleration or city driving. By
maintaining intake air pressure, EGR reduces the need for the
throttle valve to restrict airflow, improving overall engine efficiency

2.5 Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) is a state-of-the-art fuel delivery technology widely
adopted in modern gasoline engines. Unlike traditional port fuel injection (PFI)
systems, where fuel is injected into the intake manifold, GDI systems inject fuel
directly into the combustion chamber at high pressure. This precise fuel delivery
system offers several advantages, including improved engine performance, greater
fuel efficiency, and reduced emissions.

How GDI Works

In GDI systems, fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber through high-
pressure injectors. This allows for:

9
• Improved Atomization: Fuel is broken into fine droplets, ensuring better
mixing with air.
• Cooling Effect: The fuel absorbs heat as it enters the combustion chamber,
lowering its temperature and enabling higher compression ratios without
knocking.

Advantages of GDI
1. Enhanced Performance:
o Higher Compression Ratios: GDI systems reduce the risk of knocking
by cooling the air-fuel mixture. This allows engines to operate with
higher compression ratios, improving thermal efficiency and power
output.
o More Complete Combustion: Better atomization and mixing result in
more efficient combustion, leading to higher power generation.
2. Improved Part-Load Efficiency:
o GDI engines excel under part-load conditions, such as cruising or light
acceleration, where they use stratified combustion.
▪ Stratified Combustion: Creates a richer air-fuel mixture near
the spark plug and a leaner mixture toward the edges of the
combustion chamber, enabling precise combustion control with
minimal fuel consumption.
o This process enhances fuel efficiency and reduces certain emissions,
such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), during part-load operation.
3. Fuel Economy and Emissions Control:
o GDI systems enable better fuel economy by optimizing the combustion
process.
o Reduced CO2 emissions result from more efficient fuel use and cleaner
combustion at high compression ratios.

10
2.6 Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) is an advanced combustion

technology that combines the efficiency and low emissions characteristics of both
spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. In an HCCI engine, the
air-fuel mixture is premixed and auto-ignited solely through compression,
eliminating the need for a spark plug or fuel injection timing for ignition. This
results in a combustion process that is highly efficient and environmentally friendly.

How HCCI Works

• The air-fuel mixture is evenly distributed (homogeneous) throughout the

combustion chamber before compression.
• As the piston compresses the mixture, the temperature and pressure rise until
the fuel auto-ignites, initiating combustion.
• Unlike SI engines, which rely on a spark plug for ignition, and CI engines,
which use fuel injection for ignition, HCCI achieves ignition uniformly
across the combustion chamber.

Advantages of HCCI

1. High Efficiency:
o HCCI operates at high compression ratios, similar to CI engines,
leading to greater thermal efficiency.
o Combustion occurs more gradually and at lower peak temperatures
compared to SI engines, reducing energy losses as heat.
o This results in a more complete combustion process, maximizing
energy extraction from the fuel and improving fuel economy.
2. Low NOx Emissions:
o The relatively low combustion temperatures in HCCI significantly
reduce NOx formation, a pollutant commonly associated with high-
temperature combustion in SI and CI engines.
o This makes HCCI particularly well-suited for meeting stringent
emissions regulations.

11
 3. Reduced Particulate Emissions:
o The homogeneous nature of the air-fuel mixture minimizes the
formation of particulate matter, offering cleaner combustion
compared to traditional CI engines.

Challenges of HCCI

Despite its potential, HCCI faces several technical challenges that hinder its
widespread adoption:

1. Combustion Timing Control:

o Unlike SI and CI engines, HCCI lacks direct control over ignition
timing, as it relies solely on auto-ignition.
o The timing of combustion is sensitive to engine speed, load, and
operating conditions, requiring precise management to prevent:
▪ Knocking: Early ignition due to high temperatures and
pressures.
▪ Incomplete Combustion: Delayed ignition leading to
reduced efficiency and higher emissions.
2. Knocking and Stability Issues:
o Knocking is particularly challenging in HCCI engines, as auto-
ignition can occur unpredictably across the combustion chamber.
o Maintaining stable combustion under varying operating conditions,
such as during rapid acceleration or deceleration, is difficult.
3. Limited Operating Range:
o HCCI struggles to maintain efficient and stable combustion at
extreme low-load or high-load conditions.
o Transitioning seamlessly between HCCI and conventional
combustion modes (e.g., SI or CI) is often necessary but adds
complexity.
4. Advanced Control Systems Required:
o HCCI engines demand sophisticated control systems to regulate:
▪ Air-fuel ratio.

12
 ▪ Intake air temperature and pressure.
▪ Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates.
o These systems increase the complexity and cost of engine design and
operation.

2.7 Lean-Burn SI Engines

Lean-burn Spark Ignition (SI) engines are designed to operate with air-fuel mixtures
that are leaner than the stoichiometric ratio (14.7:1 for gasoline). This means that
the combustion process involves more air relative to the amount of fuel, allowing
for more efficient fuel utilization. By improving thermal efficiency and reducing
fuel consumption, lean-burn SI engines offer significant potential for enhancing
fuel economy, particularly in light-load operating conditions.

Advantages of Lean-Burn SI Engines

1. Improved Fuel Economy:

o Lean mixtures extract more energy from each unit of fuel, lowering
overall fuel consumption.
o This makes lean-burn engines highly efficient under light-load
conditions, such as city driving or highway cruising.
o Their efficiency makes them particularly suitable for small urban
vehicles or hybrid powertrains prioritizing fuel economy.
2. Higher Thermal Efficiency:
o The slower and cooler combustion of lean mixtures minimizes heat
loss, increasing the amount of energy converted into useful work.
3. Reduced CO2 Emissions:
o By burning less fuel for the same power output, lean-burn engines
significantly lower carbon dioxide emissions.

13
 Challenges of Lean-Burn Operation

1. Increased NOx Emissions:

o Combustion in lean-burn engines occurs at higher temperatures due
to the excess air, which promotes the formation of nitrogen oxides
(NOx), a harmful pollutant.
o Advanced after-treatment systems, such as:
▪ Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR): Converts NOx into
nitrogen and water using a reductant like urea.
▪ Lean-NOx Traps (LNT): Absorb and neutralize NOx
during lean operation.
o These systems are effective but add complexity and cost, limiting
adoption in lower-cost vehicles.
2. Particulate Emissions:
o Lean-burn engines may produce higher particulate matter (PM)
emissions compared to conventional stoichiometric engines,
complicating regulatory compliance.
o Managing PM emissions requires additional after-treatment
measures, such as particulate filters, further increasing system
complexity.
3. Combustion Stability:
o Lean mixtures are prone to incomplete combustion and misfires,
especially at extremely high air-fuel ratios.
o These issues can reduce engine performance and increase unburned
hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions.

2.8 Emission Control

Emission control techniques are vital for reducing the environmental impact of
internal combustion engines (ICEs). Vehicle exhaust emissions can be broadly

14
categorized into gaseous local pollutants (such as CO, NOx, and unburned
hydrocarbons) and non-gaseous local pollutants (predominantly particulate
matter). The methods used to control these emissions differ between gasoline and
diesel engines due to their distinct combustion processes.

Gasoline Emissions Control

1 Local Pollutants (Gaseous)

• Three-Way Catalyst (TWC):

o TWCs are the primary technology for controlling gaseous emissions
like CO, NOx, and unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs) in gasoline
engines.
o They operate effectively under stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (AFR)
conditions, ensuring minimal oxygen in the exhaust for optimal
pollutant conversion.
o Cold-Start Challenge:
▪ Most gaseous emissions occur within the first 10 seconds of
engine operation before the TWC reaches its operating
temperature.
▪ Modern TWCs are designed with storage capability for NOx
and CO, enabling pollutant capture during cold-start and
conversion once the catalyst heats up.

2 Local Pollutants (Non-Gaseous)

• Particulate Matter (PM):

o PM emissions in gasoline engines are primarily due to
inhomogeneous fuel-air mixtures during combustion.
o PM consists of:
▪ Solid particles: Mainly carbon with adsorbed hydrocarbons.
▪ Liquid particles: Typically unburned hydrocarbons,
transitioning between liquid and gaseous phases.

15
 o Control Techniques:
▪ Gasoline Particulate Filter (GPF): Highly effective at
reducing PM emissions with filtration efficiencies between
60-99%, depending on design and particle size.
▪ Engine Improvements: Increased injection pressures and
better injector designs have significantly reduced PM
emissions over the past decade.

Diesel Emissions Control

1 Local Pollutants (Gaseous)

Diesel engines produce higher levels of NOx and UHC emissions due to their lean
combustion and heterogeneous flame characteristics.

• Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC):

o Effectively removes UHC and CO but does not address NOx due to
the lean exhaust environment.
• NOx Control:
o Engine-Based Techniques:
▪ Combustion optimization and exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) reduce NOx at the source.
o After-Treatment Systems:
▪ Lean NOx Trap (LNT): Stores NOx at low exhaust
temperatures and converts it during regeneration cycles.
▪ Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR):
▪ Reduces NOx using an aqueous urea solution (DEF)
injected upstream of the catalyst.
▪ SCR System Components:
▪ Ammonia Slip Catalyst (ASC): Captures
excess ammonia from the SCR process.
▪ SCR-on-Filter (SCRf): Combines SCR and
DPF functionality for greater efficiency.

16
 2 Local Pollutants (Non-Gaseous)

• Particulate Matter (PM):

o Diesel engines inherently produce more PM than gasoline engines
due to localized rich combustion zones.
o Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF):
▪ Captures over 99% of PM emissions.
▪ Regeneration: Requires periodic high-temperature cycles to
burn off accumulated soot, which increases CO2 emissions.

2.9 Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines

The pursuit of alternative fuels for internal combustion engines (ICEs) addresses the
dual challenge of improving engine efficiency and reducing environmental impact.
These fuels, derived from renewable sources or waste materials, are characterized by
lower lifecycle emissions, reduced dependency on fossil fuels, and potential to comply
with stringent emission regulations. The primary alternative fuels discussed include
Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), biodiesel, biogas, compressed natural gas (CNG),
hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol. Each fuel offers distinct properties, operational
considerations, and emission outcomes.

2.9.1 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO)

HVO, also known as hydrogenated or hydrotreated vegetable oil, is produced through

the catalytic hydrogenation of vegetable oils or animal fats. This process removes
oxygen and other impurities, resulting in a paraffinic fuel with properties similar to
conventional diesel.

• Properties:
HVO has a high cetane number (>70), which enhances combustion efficiency
and reduces ignition delay. It contains almost no sulfur, oxygen, or aromatics,
making it a cleaner-burning fuel. Despite its lower density compared to diesel,
HVO has a slightly higher lower heating value, which contributes to improved
fuel efficiency.

17
 • Performance:
Tests indicate that engines running on HVO exhibit comparable torque and
power output to those using conventional diesel. The fuel’s higher cetane
number supports more complete combustion, reducing unburned hydrocarbons
and particulate matter. However, its lower volumetric heating value necessitates
a slightly higher fuel flow to maintain equivalent performance levels.
• Emissions:
Life-cycle CO2 emissions can be reduced by 50–90% with HVO, depending on
the feedstock used. Tailpipe emissions, however, remain similar to diesel for
CO2 but show significant reductions in particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen
oxides (NO2), due to HVO's lack of aromatics and higher cetane number.
• Applications:
HVO can be used in existing diesel engines without modifications. It is
particularly favored in marine and automotive sectors, where its clean
combustion and compatibility are key advantages. However, its large-scale
adoption is hindered by feedstock availability and production limitations.

2.9.2 Biodiesel

Biodiesel, primarily consisting of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), is synthesized

through the transesterification of vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases.

• Properties:
Biodiesel’s properties align closely with conventional diesel, including
comparable cetane numbers and energy content. However, it contains oxygen,
which enhances combustion but may increase NOx emissions.
• Performance:
Engine studies using biodiesel blends (e.g., B20) show power outputs and fuel
consumption rates similar to diesel. The oxygen content in biodiesel aids
combustion but may slightly increase brake-specific fuel consumption due to its
lower energy density.
• Emissions:
Biodiesel reduces lifecycle CO2 emissions by up to 74% and achieves

18
 significant reductions in tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrocarbons (HC). However, higher NOx emissions are observed due to
elevated combustion temperatures.
• Applications:
Biodiesel blends up to 20% (B20) are widely compatible with modern diesel
engines. However, higher concentrations may cause material degradation in
engine seals and components, limiting their use in marine and automotive
sectors.

2.9.3 Biogas

Biogas is a renewable, methane-rich gas produced through the anaerobic digestion of

organic waste.

• Properties:
Biogas consists of approximately 97% methane after purification, with the
remainder being CO2 and trace gases. Its high methane content results in a high
calorific value, although it requires pressurization for storage and use in ICEs.
• Performance:
Biogas engines demonstrate comparable power outputs to those using natural
gas, with slight variations depending on methane purity. However, due to its
gaseous nature, biogas combustion requires spark-ignition engines or
modifications for dual-fuel compression-ignition systems.
• Emissions:
Biogas is considered carbon-neutral over its lifecycle, as the CO2 emitted during
combustion is offset by CO2 absorbed during feedstock growth. Tailpipe CO2
emissions are marginally lower than those of diesel, while NOx and PM
emissions are significantly reduced.
• Applications:
Biogas is suited for stationary power generation and spark-ignition engines in
transportation. Its integration in marine CI engines requires complex
modifications, such as dual-fuel systems and specialized storage tanks.

19
2.9.4 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

CNG is a fossil-derived alternative fuel created by compressing natural gas to

approximately 200–250 bar.

• Properties:
CNG primarily comprises methane (92%) and minor amounts of other
hydrocarbons. It has a high octane number and low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio,
which results in lower CO2 emissions per unit of energy compared to gasoline
or diesel.
• Performance:
CNG-powered engines typically produce lower brake thermal efficiency and
power output than those fueled by gasoline or diesel, owing to its lower energy
density. However, its economic advantages and reduced emissions make it a
popular alternative fuel.
• Emissions:
CNG reduces CO2 emissions by 5–10% compared to gasoline. It offers
substantial reductions in NOx and PM emissions, making it an environmentally
favorable option.
• Applications:
CNG is widely used in public transportation and light vehicles equipped with
spark-ignition engines. Adapting CI engines for CNG requires dual-fuel
technology or significant design changes.

2.9.5 Hydrogen

Hydrogen is increasingly regarded as a future-proof fuel due to its potential for zero-
carbon combustion.

• Properties:
Hydrogen is a lightweight, high-energy-density gas. It combusts without
producing CO2, emitting only water vapor when pure hydrogen is used.

20
 • Performance:
Hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2ICEs) offer similar performance to
natural gas engines. However, their development is in the experimental stages,
with ongoing efforts to improve efficiency and reduce NOx emissions.
• Emissions:
Hydrogen combustion emits negligible pollutants under controlled conditions.
NOx emissions, if present, can be mitigated with advanced after-treatment
systems.
• Applications:
H2ICEs are suited for heavy-duty and marine applications, where hydrogen's
high energy density offsets storage challenges. However, cost-intensive
production and storage technologies remain key barriers.

2.9.6 Ammonia

Ammonia, a carbon-free synthetic fuel, offers promising prospects for decarbonization

in ICEs.

• Properties:
Ammonia has a lower energy density and is toxic, requiring careful handling
and specialized storage solutions.
• Performance:
Ammonia combustion in ICEs yields lower efficiency and power output
compared to diesel, necessitating larger fuel tanks and advanced engine designs.
• Emissions:
Ammonia combustion produces no CO2 but poses challenges with nitrogen
oxide (N2O) emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.
• Applications:
Ammonia is most viable in large-scale marine applications, where its
volumetric inefficiency is offset by its zero-carbon potential.

21
2.9.7 Methanol

Methanol, a clean-burning liquid fuel, is produced from natural gas, coal, or biomass.

• Properties:
Methanol's low boiling point and high miscibility make it a versatile fuel.
Renewable methanol, derived from biomass, offers a carbon-neutral lifecycle.
• Performance:
Methanol engines require approximately double the fuel volume of diesel for
equivalent energy output. However, they provide substantial reductions in
harmful emissions.
• Emissions:
Methanol reduces CO2 emissions by 7% and significantly lowers SOx and NOx
emissions. When derived from renewable sources, it offers near-zero lifecycle
emissions.
• Applications:
Methanol is used in marine and industrial sectors, particularly in applications
prioritizing emissions over energy density.

Alternative fuels offer diverse solutions for enhancing the efficiency and environmental
performance of ICEs. While no single fuel is universally superior, advancements in
engine technology, fuel production, and regulatory frameworks will determine their
adoption. These fuels represent a crucial step toward achieving sustainability in internal
combustion engine applications.

22
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

The methodology for this report was structured around a detailed literature review of
existing research and technologies that improve the efficiency and environmental
impact of internal combustion engines (ICEs). The research approach, selection criteria
for sources, and data collection methods are outlined below.

3.1 Research Approach for Literature Review

The research approach for the literature review focused on analysing academic sources
to gather comprehensive insights into the techniques and technologies that improve
efficiency and reduce emissions in IC engines. The primary focus was on advanced
combustion technologies and emission control techniques. Key topics also included
fuel injection systems, after-treatment technologies (e.g., SCR, DPF), and alternative
fuels.

3.2 Criteria for Selecting Sources

The selection of sources for the literature review was guided by the following criteria
to ensure the quality and reliability of the information:

1. Peer-Reviewed Articles:

Priority was given to peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers, as

they provide reliable, scientifically validated information. These sources offer
in-depth theoretical frameworks, experimental results, and technological
innovations.

2. Books and Technical Manuals:

Books that provide a comprehensive overview of internal combustion engine

theory and applications were included, particularly those that cover

23
 foundational knowledge of thermodynamics, heat transfer, combustion, and
emission control technologies.

3.3 Data Synthesis and Analysis

Once the data was collected, it was organized into key themes based on the technologies
and techniques under review. Each technology was evaluated for its contribution to
improving engine performance and reducing emissions, followed by a discussion of its
challenges and limitations.

24
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The improvement of internal combustion engine (ICE) efficiency and the reduction of
its environmental impact are two primary goals in modern automotive engineering. As
the global automotive industry faces increasing pressure from stringent environmental
regulations and rising fuel costs, addressing these goals has become crucial. In this
discussion, we evaluate the current advancements in IC engine technologies, the
challenges encountered in improving both efficiency and emissions control, and the
potential for future developments.

4.1 Achievements in Efficiency Improvements

Combustion Techniques

Technologies such as Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), Lean-Burn

Combustion, and Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) have demonstrated significant
potential in improving fuel efficiency. For instance, HCCI engines achieve high thermal
efficiency by utilizing compression ignition and reducing energy losses due to heat,
while GDI systems offer better fuel atomization, allowing for more controlled
combustion and higher compression ratios without knocking. These advancements
allow for more efficient fuel utilization, contributing to better fuel economy, especially
under part-load conditions.

However, these improvements are not without challenges. HCCI, for example, faces
difficulties in controlling combustion timing and preventing knocking, making it
difficult to implement across a wide range of operating conditions. Similarly, while
lean-burn engines provide better fuel economy, their higher combustion temperatures
lead to increased NOx emissions, which require advanced after-treatment systems for
compliance.

Turbocharging and Downsizing

Turbocharging and downsizing are complementary strategies that enable smaller

engines to generate power comparable to larger engines without sacrificing

25
performance. By boosting intake air pressure using exhaust gases, turbochargers allow
for smaller, more fuel-efficient engines while still maintaining the power required for
acceleration. Downsizing, combined with turbocharging, not only reduces engine
weight but also improves fuel economy, particularly during steady-state driving.
Nonetheless, challenges such as turbo lag and increased heat and stress on engine
components necessitate robust cooling and lubrication systems to ensure reliability and
longevity.

4.2 Emission Control Advances

Gaseous Emissions Control

The Three-Way Catalyst (TWC) remains a cornerstone technology for controlling

gaseous emissions in gasoline engines. TWCs convert NOx, CO, and unburned
hydrocarbons (UHCs) into non-toxic compounds. However, TWCs are most effective
when operating under stoichiometric conditions and face challenges during cold-starts.
As a result, modern catalysts are designed with significant storage capabilities for NOx
and CO, enabling them to capture pollutants during cold-start and convert them once
they reach their optimal operating temperature. Despite these advancements, the
reliance on near-stoichiometric AFR for TWC efficiency limits their use in lean-burn
and high-efficiency engine designs.

For diesel engines, more complex systems such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
and Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) have been developed to reduce NOx and particulate
emissions. SCR systems, which use a urea-based solution to reduce NOx, are highly
effective but require additional components such as DEF tanks and precise injection
control. DPFs have proven highly effective at capturing particulate matter, but the
regeneration process can increase fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.

Particulate Emissions and Control

Both gasoline and diesel engines produce particulate matter (PM), with diesel engines
typically generating higher levels due to the nature of their combustion process. The
development of Gasoline Particulate Filters (GPF) and the widespread use of DPFs

26
have significantly reduced PM emissions in both engine types. However, further
research is required to address issues like particulate formation under specific operating
conditions and to improve the efficiency of filtration systems. In the case of diesel
engines, the high energy consumption required for DPF regeneration is a concern, as it
leads to increased fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.

4.3 Role of Alternative Fuels in Efficiency and Emission Control

Alternative Fuels Overview

Alternative fuels have emerged as a pivotal component in addressing the dual challenge
of improving ICE efficiency and reducing environmental impact. These fuels, including
Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), biodiesel, biogas, compressed natural gas (CNG),
hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol, offer varied properties and performance benefits.
They provide a sustainable pathway to reduce fossil fuel dependency, lower greenhouse
gas emissions, and comply with tightening emission regulations.

Impact on Efficiency

Fuels such as HVO and biodiesel exhibit higher cetane numbers than conventional
diesel, enabling more efficient combustion with reduced ignition delay. HVO, in
particular, supports cleaner and more complete combustion, leading to lower unburned
hydrocarbon emissions and improved thermal efficiency. Similarly, CNG, with its high
octane number, allows for higher compression ratios in spark-ignition engines,
enhancing fuel economy. Biogas and methanol offer additional efficiency benefits due
to their renewable origins and cleaner combustion characteristics.

Emission Reductions

Alternative fuels significantly impact emission profiles:

• CO2 Emissions: Fuels like HVO, biodiesel, and biogas demonstrate lifecycle
CO2 reductions of up to 90%, as their production and use cycle offsets carbon

27
 emissions. However, tailpipe CO2 emissions remain dependent on the fuel's
carbon content and combustion efficiency.
• Particulate Matter and NOx: CNG and hydrogen offer notable reductions in
particulate matter and NOx emissions due to their cleaner combustion properties
and absence of aromatic hydrocarbons. Hydrogen combustion produces only
water vapor, while ammonia and methanol also emit significantly lower NOx
and PM under optimized conditions.

Challenges in Adoption

Despite their potential, alternative fuels face hurdles such as limited availability,
infrastructure challenges, and higher production costs. For instance, hydrogen and
ammonia require specialized storage and handling systems, while biodiesel may affect
engine durability at high blend levels due to material compatibility issues. Additionally,
fuels like methanol and biogas require adaptations to ICE designs to maximize their
benefits without compromising performance.

The combined use of advanced IC engine technologies and alternative fuels presents a
promising pathway toward sustainable mobility. Innovations in combustion,
turbocharging, and emission control have improved efficiency and reduced
environmental impact. However, integrating alternative fuels into existing ICE
frameworks is vital for meeting long-term sustainability goals. These fuels not only
provide immediate reductions in greenhouse gas emissions but also serve as a bridge
toward future zero-emission propulsion technologies. Their successful implementation
will depend on overcoming technical, economic, and regulatory barriers through
continued research and development.

28
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

The drive to improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of internal
combustion engines is a multifaceted challenge that requires ongoing innovation across
various domains. While significant progress has been made in enhancing combustion
efficiency, reducing emissions, and integrating hybrid and electric technologies,
challenges such as emissions control, particulate matter, and system complexity remain.
Future developments in alternative fuels, advanced engine technologies, and integrated
emission control systems will continue to play a crucial role in the evolution of IC
engines, contributing to cleaner, more efficient transportation solutions.

The next phase of the project will focus on selecting a specific technique that either
enhances the efficiency or reduces emissions in internal combustion engines. The goal
will be to conduct detailed experimental investigations to evaluate the effectiveness of
this technique under various operating conditions. These experiments will involve
assessing the performance of the chosen technology in real-world applications, with a
particular emphasis on its impact on fuel efficiency, emissions reduction, and overall
engine performance.

29
 CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES

1. Dingare, S. V., & et al. (n.d.). IC Engines. Nirali Prakashan Publications.

2. Ganesan. (2017). Internal Combustion Engines. McGraw-Hill Education.
3. Leach, F., Kalghatgi, G., Stone, R., & Miles, P. (2020). The scope for improving
the efficiency and environmental impact of internal combustion engines.
Transportation Engineering, 1, 100005.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.treng.2020.100005
4. Enkvist, J. (2024). Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines –
Theoretical Foundations and Calculative Insights (Bachelor’s thesis). Degree
Programme in Mechanical- and Production Engineering, Vaasa.
5. Alagumalai, A. (2014). Internal combustion engines: Progress and prospects.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 38, 561–571.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.06.014
6. International Journal of Engine Research Editorial Board. (2020). IJER editorial:
The future of the internal combustion engine. International Journal of Engine
Research, 21(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468087419877990

30