Reflection Of Light by Plane Mirror

Let us do a quick activity before we move ahead with the lesson.

Close your eyes for 10 seconds and count to 10; now when you open
your eyes again, what do you observe? Do you observe all the things
around you? What are the phenomena that allow you to see things
around you? Does the phenomena Reflection of Light have anything
to do with this? Let us know more about it.

What is Reflection of Light?

When a ray of light falls on any object (polished, smooth, shiny

object), light from the object bounces back those rays of light to our
eyes and this phenomenon is known as “Reflection” or “Reflection of
Light”.

This phenomenon is what enables us to look at the world around us

and is based on the property that light travels in a straight line. For
example, twinkling of stars or light reflected by a mirror.
 ​ (Source: Wikipedia)

Laws of Reflection

In the diagram given above, the ray of light that approaches the mirror
is known as “Incident Ray”. The ray that leaves the mirror is known as
“Reflected Ray”.
At the point of incidence where the incident ray strikes the mirror, a
perpendicular line is drawn known as the “Normal”. This normal is
what divides the incident ray and the reflected ray equally and gives
us the “Angle of Incidence” (Qi) and “Angle of Reflection” (Qr).

Hence the above information gives us the “Laws of Reflection of

Light” which state that :

a. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

b. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray, all lie in the same
plane.

Learn more about ​Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors​.

Types of Reflection :

There are majorly two types of reflection :

a. Specular/ Regular reflection

b. Diffused/ Irregular reflection

a. Specular/Regular reflection :
Specular/Regular reflection is a mirror-like reflection of rays of light.
Here the rays of light which are reflected from a smooth and shiny
object such as a mirror, are reflected at a definitive angle and each
incident ray which is reflected along with the reflected ray has the
same angle to the normal as the incident ray. Thus, this type of
phenomena causes the formation of an image.

​(Source: Wikipedia)

Learn ​how is Image formed in Spherical Mirror here​.

b. Diffused/Irregular reflection:
Diffused/Irregular reflection is a non-mirror-like reflection of light. In
this type of reflection rays of light that hit an irregular object with a
rough surface, are reflected back in all directions. Here, the incident
ray which is reflected along with reflected ray doesn’t have the same
angle to the normal as the incident ray.

Thus, this type of reflection doesn’t form an image.

(Source: Wikipedia)

Image Formation by a Plane Mirror

Let us take a mirror MM’ as shown in the diagram given above. Let us
suppose an object AB of size ‘h’ on the left-hand side of the mirror at
a distance ‘u’.
An incident ray of light AP from point A of the object AB falls on the
mirror MM’ at point P. This incident ray AP is reflected back in the
same path PA. Another ray OC falls on the mirror MM’ at a point O
and is reflected along the path OC. Now, since reflected rays PA and
OC are diverging and therefore cannot meet each other in front of the
mirror, hence we extend these rays PA and OC behind the mirror by
dotted lines. On extending these rays behind the mirror, we see that
these rays meet at point A’ at a distance V’. Therefore A’ is the virtual
image of point A of the object AB.

Similarly, a virtual image of point B will be formed behind the mirror

as B’ from the incident rays BO and BE.

Now, to get a complete image of the object AB, we join the point A
and B to point A’ and B’ by a dotted line. In doing so, we find that the
image A’B’ being formed is virtual, erect and of same shape and size
as the object AB; thereby giving us the characteristics of images
formed by the plane mirror.

Learn more about ​the Laws of Reflection of Light in detail​.

Characteristics of Images formed by Plane Mirror

a. Images formed by a plane mirror are “Always Virtual”.

b. Images formed by a plane mirror are “Erect/Upright”.

c. Images formed by a plane mirror are of “same shape and size” as

that of an object.

Solved Example for You

Q. A ray of light strikes a reflective plane surface at an angle of 42​o

with the surface.

a. Find the angle of incidence.

b. Find the angle of reflection.

c. Find the angle made by the reflected ray and the surface.

d. Find the angle made by the incident and reflected rays.

Sol: We’ll use a diagram given below to answer the question:

a. Angle of Incidence (Q​i​)= 90​0​-42​0​= 48​0

b. Angle of Reflection (Q​r​)= (Q​i​)= 48​0

c. x = 90​0​-Q​r​ = 90​0​-48​0​ = 42​0

d. Q​i​ + Q​r​ = 48​0​ + 48​0​ = 96​0

Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors

“Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the fairest of them all?” We’ve all
heard this dialogue from the story of Snow white and the seven
dwarfs. But what kind of mirror was it? What were the properties that
enabled these spherical mirrors to be so special? Well, let us find
answers to it in this section.
There’re few basic and important terms one needs to know while
studying spherical mirrors inside the chapter “Reflection and
Refraction”:

a. Center of Curvature (c)

b. Radius of Curvature (r)

c. Pole (p)

d. Principal axis

e. Aperture

f. Principal Focus or Focal Length

g. Focus

a. Center of Curvature (c) :

 (Source: Wikipedia)

The Center of Curvature of a spherical mirror is the point in the centre

of the mirror which passes through the curve of the mirror and has the
same tangent and curvature at that point. It is denoted by the letter ‘c’.

b. Radius of Curvature (r):

It’s the linear distance between Pole and the Center of curvature.

c. Pole (p) :

It’s the midpoint of the spherical mirror.

d. Principal axis:
It’s an imaginary line passing through the optical centre and the centre
of curvature of any lens or a spherical mirror.

e. Aperture:

An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of

light actually happens. It also gives the size of the mirror.

f. Principal Focus :

Principal Focus can also be called as Focal Point. It’s on the​ axis​ of a mirror or lens wherein
rays of light parallel to the axis converge or appear to converge after reflection or refraction.
Principal Focus is also what determines the Focal Length of the mirror.

g. Focus:

It’s any given point, where light rays parallel to the principal axis, will
converge after getting reflected from the mirror.

What is an Image?

When an object is placed in front of a mirror, we see an image of the

object placed. This image appears to be behind the mirror, and is
called “Image”. The object is the source from which incident ray
occurs and the image that is formed is because of the reflected rays.
The image formed maybe “Real” or “Virtual”.
Wherein the “real” image is formed when the light rays from the
object actually intersect each other after reflection. Real images are
formed inverted and can be projected on to a screen. On the other
hand, a “virtual” image is formed when the light rays from the object
don’t actually intersect each other after reflection. Although they
“appear” to do so when they’re produced behind the mirror. Virtual
images are “always” erect and cannot be projected on a screen.

Concave and Convex Mirrors. ​(Source: Wikipedia)

See how Image is formed by Spherical Mirrors here

Types of Spherical Mirrors

Spherical mirrors are of two types:

a. Concave Mirror

b. Convex Mirror

Learn more about ​Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors in more

detail here​.

a. Concave Mirror

A concave mirror is curved inward. Since it’s curved inward, when

one looks at a concave mirror, it looks like the person is looking into a
cave.

(Source: National Geographic)

A concave mirror is also known as a “Converging Mirror” since in
these type of mirrors light rays converge at a point after they strike
and are reflected back from the reflecting surface of the concave
mirror. In the majority of the cases, a concave mirror produces real
and inverted images except when the object is placed very near to the
mirror i.e. pole (p) and the focus (f) where the image produced is
virtual and erect. Many examples of concave mirrors can be seen in
our daily life; few such examples are torch used to reflect light,
shaving mirrors, concave mirrors are also used in telescopes and more.
Can you find out more such examples?

Example of a Concave mirror (Source: Martinhurxford.com)

b. Convex Mirror
A concave mirror is curved outward. Since it’s curved outward, it looks like one is looking at the
bump of a car.

(Source: TradeIndia)

A convex mirror is also known as a “Diverging Mirror” since here

light rays diverge after it strikes the reflecting surface of the convex
mirror. Convex mirrors “always” form virtual, erect and diminished
regardless of the distance between the object and mirror. Few
examples of convex mirrors can also be seen in our daily life such as
the rearview mirror in a car, street light reflectors and more. Can you
find more such examples for convex mirrors too?
 Example of a Convex mirror (Source: Telegraph.co.uk)

Learn ​different Laws of Reflection here​.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Fill in the blanks:

An image formed by _________ mirror is always of the same size as

that of the object.

A. Concave
B. Convex
C. Plane
D. Small
Answer: Option C Plane

A plane mirror forms the same size images as that of the object
regardless of the position of the object.

Question: When the object is focused on the Concave mirror, where is

the Image formed at?

Learn ​Reflection of light by Spherical mirror​ to know the answer.

Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors

Have you ever gone camping in the night or have walked inside a
cave? Whenever its dark, you must have used a torch to show you the
right path. Why not a candle instead? Well, torches have special
spherical mirrors which make the light focused in the direction you
want to go. Let’s find out the mechanism involved in the image
formation by spherical mirrors…

Ray Diagrams

Ray diagrams are used to depict the image formation by tracing the
path of light rays i.e. incident rays and reflected rays. They are drawn
in order for anyone to view a point on the image of an object. These
ray diagrams depend on the position of the object.

General rules for image formation using ray diagrams:

● Any ray of light that passes through the mirror, is always
parallel to the principal axis.
● Any ray of light that passes through the mirror always passes
through the principal focus (f) of the mirror after reflection.
● A ray of light passing through the center of curvature of any
mirror is reflected back along the same path.
● Any incident ray which isn’t parallel to the principal axis is
also reflected diagonally and the incident ray and the reflected
ray always follow the laws of reflection i.e. the angles formed
by these rays are equal to each other.

Ray Diagrams for a Concave Mirror

For a concave mirror, there are six possible positions where the object
can be positioned and an image is formed:

a. Object is positioned at infinity

When the object is placed at infinity, rays PQ and RS parallel to the
axis are reflected from points Q and S respectively. Rays PQ and RS
intersect each other and get converged at the principal focus (f). And
since when the object is placed at infinity, the properties of the images
formed are highly diminished, point sized and real and inverted.

b. Object is positioned between infinity and center of curvature(c)

Here the object MN is placed between infinity and center of curvature
(c) of a concave mirror, then a ray MP parallel to the principal axis
and another ray MQ that pass through the center of curvature(c)
intersect each other at M’ after reflection between focus (f) and center
of curvature (c). Therefore the properties of the images formed here
are that the image formation is between principal focus (f) and center
of curvature (c), the image formed is diminished and real and inverted.

c. Object is positioned at Center of Curvature (c)

When the object MN is placed the at the center of curvature (c), then a
ray MP parallel to the principal axis and another ray MQ that passes
through the principal focus (f) after reflection, intersect each other at
point M’ right below where the object MN is positioned. Hence the
properties of the images formed in this case are that image is formed
at the center of curvature, the image is the same size as the object and
images are real and inverted.

d. Object is positioned between the center of curvature (c) and principal

focus (f)

Object MN is placed between the center of curvature (c) and principal

focus (f), then the ray MP parallel to the principal axis and another ray
MQ passing through principal focus (f) intersect each other beyond
the center of curvature (c) at point M’. Hence the properties of the
images formed here are that the image is formed beyond the center of
curvature (c), and the image is real and inverted.

e. Object is positioned at principal focus (f)

Object MN is positioned at the principal focus (f), then ray MP
parallel to the principal axis passes through principal focus (f) giving
the reflected ray PS. Second ray MQ that passes through the center of
curvature is reflected along the same path giving the reflected ray QR.
Here, since the rays, PS and QR become parallel to each other and
therefore the image formation is at infinity. Here the properties of the
images formed are highly enlarged images and real and inverted
images.

f. Object is positioned between principal focus (f) and pole (p)

Object MN is positioned between principal focus (f) and pole (p), then
the ray MP parallel to principal axis passes through principal focus (f)
giving the reflected ray PS and the second ray MQ that passes through
the center of curvature is reflected along the same path giving the
reflected ray QR.

Now, since the reflected rays PS and QR are diverging away hence
cannot intersect each other, hence reflected rays PS and QR are
extended behind the mirror by dotted lines. In doing so, rays PS and
QR appear to intersect each other at point M’ backwards. Therefore,
the properties of the images formed here are formed behind the mirror,
images are highly enlarged, images are virtual and erect.

Ray Diagrams for a Convex Mirror

In case, of a convex mirror, there are only two possible positions
where the object can be positioned and an image can be formed.

a. Object is positioned at Infinity

When the object is at infinity, the rays MN and PX that are parallel to
the principal axis (f) are divergent in the direction NZ and XY
respectively; after getting reflected from the convex mirror. The
diverged rays NZ and XY are extended behind the mirror, where they
intersect each other at the principal focus (f). Hence, in this case, the
properties of the images formed are formed at the principal focus (f)
behind the mirror and are highly diminished, the images are virtual
and erect.

b. Object is positioned between the pole (p) and the principal focus (f)
When the object MN is placed between pole (p) and infinity, a ray MC
that starts from point M of the object MN that’s running parallel to the
principal axis is reflected along CY. On extending behind the mirror,
CY appears to come from principal focus (f) and another ray MD from
point M of the object MN that goes towards the center of curvature is
reflected along DM. The two rays, CY and DM are diverging rays and
when extended behind the mirror, they appear to intersect each other
at point M’.

Therefore, the properties of the images formed here are formed behind
the mirror, between the pole and principal focus (f), the images are
diminished and are virtual and erect.

Solved Example for You

Q: The value of the focal length of the lens is equal to the value of the
image distance when the rays are:

a. Passing through the optic center

b. Parallel to the principal axis

c. Passing through the focus

d. In all the above cases

Sol: b. Parallel to the Principal axis

According to the rule of ray optics, all the rays parallel to the principal
axis must pass through the focus of the lens after getting refracted
from that lens as shown in the figure. Thus, in this case, the image
formation is at the focus of the lens and hence the value of image
distance is equal to the focal length of the lens.

Mirror Formula and Magnification

Let us do a quick activity. Stand in front of a mirror and mark your

position with a colored tape and label it as point A. Now, from point
A, walk a little away from the mirror and mark it again with a colored
tape and label it as point B. Can you calculate the distance from point
A to point B? Need help in solving this problem? This distance can
easily be calculated using the mirror formula. Let’s scroll ahead to
find more.

Sign Conventions

The sign convention for spherical mirrors follows a set of rules known
as the “New Cartesian Sign Convention”, as mentioned below:

a. The pole (p) of the mirror is taken as the origin.

b. The principal axis is taken as the x-axis of our coordinate system.

c. The object is always placed on the left side of the mirror which
implies that light falling from the object on the mirror is on the
left-hand side.

d. All the distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the
pole (p) of the mirror.

e. All the distances measured from the pole (p) on the right-hand side
of the mirror are taken as positive and those on the left-hand side of
the mirror are taken as negative.

f. Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis

are taken as positive.

g. All the distances below the principal axis are taken as negative.

Learn Reflection of Light by Plane Mirror here

Mirror Formula

Now, that all these conventions are clear; let us know move on the
mirror formula. Mirror Formula helps us to find:
a. Image distance which is represented as ‘v’.

b. Object distance which is represented as ‘u’.

c. Focal length which is represented as ‘f’.

And is written as :

This formula is valid for all kinds of spherical mirrors, for all positions
of the object. Although one needs to be careful about the values, one
puts for u,v and f with appropriate sign according to the sign
convention given above.

Learn about ​Terminology of Spherical Mirrors and its types here

Magnification

Physically, we all understand what is magnification. It can be defined

as the extent to which the image appears bigger or smaller in
comparison to the object size.

It is represented as the ratio of the height of the image to the ratio of

the height of the object. Magnification is denoted as the letter ‘m’.
Where,

Magnification (m) = h/h’

And h’ is the image height and h is the object height.

Magnification can also be related to the image distance and object

distance; therefore it can also be written as:

m = -v/u
 Where v is the image distance and u is the object distance.

Hence, the expression for magnification (m) becomes:

m = h’/h = -v/u

Learn more about ​Reflection of Light here

Solved Example for You

Q. What will be the distance of the object, when a concave mirror

produces an image of magnification m? The focal length of the mirror
is f.

a.

m(m+1)

b. (m-1)f

c.

f
m(m−1)

d. (m+1)f

Sol: (c.)

m(m−1)

Given, m = -v/u

=> v = -mu

By mirror formula,

1/f = 1/v + 1/u = 1/-(mu) + 1/u

=> 1/f = 1/u ( -1/m + 1 ) OR u=

m(m−1)

Refraction and Refractive Index

Have you ever observed that whenever you put a straw in your
cold-drink, it looks bent? Or while travelling on a road on a hot
summer day, distantly, water appears in the middle of the road out of
no-where! Do you know how this happens? Does the straw really bend
when immersed in water? Or is it just our eyes? Scroll ahead to know
more about refraction and refractive index.

Refraction

The change in direction or bending of a light wave passing from one

transparent medium to another; caused by the change in wave’s speed
is known as “Refraction”.

An example to understand this better is that of placing a straw/stick in

a glass of water wherein it to be bent when viewed from any other
angle than 90​0​ to the surface. This happens because of bending of light
rays as they move from air to glass. This bending of light depends on
the speed of light in air and glass and the speed is dependent on the
wavelength.

Refractive Index
The extent of bending of light rays entering from one medium to
another is known as “Refractive Index”. It is denoted by the letter ‘n’.
And can be represented as :

n = c/v

Where c = velocity/speed of light of a certain wavelength in the air

and v = velocity of light in any medium.

The refractive index depends on the following factors:

a. nature of the medium

b. physical conditions

c. the color of the wavelength of light

The nature of a medium is defined as:

a. A medium is said to be “optically rarer” medium if the light in it

travels faster.
b. A medium is said to be “optically denser” medium if the light in it
travels slower.

If the value of the refractive index is high then, the bending effect
light too will be higher. When passing from air into any medium. Any
medium with a greater value of the refractive index (n) is an optically
denser medium.

When we imagine a ray of light passing from air to any medium, say
water; we draw a perpendicular to its surface known as the ‘normal’.
Therefore when this ray of light passes from :

a. Optically denser medium to optically rarer medium it bends away

from the normal.

b. Optically rarer medium to optically denser medium it bends towards

the normal.
Source: Medium.com

Source: Medium.com
 When air is taken as a medium and the velocity of light is taken in it,
then the refractive index with respect to air is termed as “Absolute
refractive index”.

Refractive index can also be defined as the constant obtained from the
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction i.e.

n=

sini

sinr

This gives rise to the second law of refraction also known as the
“Snell’s Law”.

Snell’s Law
It gives the amount of bending of light rays. It determines the
relationship between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction
and relative indices of given pair of media. It is defined as the :

“Ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for the light of given color and for the given
pair of media”.

Source: Britannica.com

Laws of Refraction
The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal; denoted as ‘i’. The angle of refraction is the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal; denoted as ‘r’.

Laws of refraction state that:

i. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface of
any two given mediums; all lie in the same plane.

ii. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and sine of the angle
of refraction is constant.
 Solved Examples For You

Q1. For the same angle of incidence in the mediums A, X and Y, the
angles of refraction are 550, 350, 150 respectively. In which of the
medium will the velocity of light be minimum?

Sol: Snell’s law says that,

n=

sini

sinr

For the given angle of incidence (i), V will be minimum, when angle
of refraction <r is minimum

From the given data in medium Y, the velocity of light will be

minimum.
Q2. A glass’s refractive index is found to be 2.5. If the speed of light in the
vacuum is 3 X 10​8​m/s, find the velocity of light in the medium.

Sol: Refractive index, n = c / v

= Velocity of light of a certain wavelength in vacuum

/ Velocity of light in any medium

v=c/n

= 3 X 10​8​ / 2.5

= 1.2 X 10 m/s.

Spherical Lenses

Have you heard of Sherlock Holmes, the greatest detective in the

world? How did he become so good at his work? Look closely at the
image and you’d find the answer! That’s right! His “magnifying
glass” was his greatest tool. But what’s so special about it? It’s
because of the kind of spherical lenses used in it. Let us find out more
about spherical lenses ahead.

Source: Moziru.com

Spherical Lenses

A lens is a part of a transparent thick glass which is bounded by two

spherical surfaces. It is an optical device through which the rays of
light converge or diverge before transmitting. Thus spherical lenses
are of two major kinds called “Convex or Convergent” lenses and
“Concave or Divergent” lenses. The point from which these rays
converge or appear to diverge is called the “Focus” or “Focal point”
and is denoted by the letter ‘f’.
Types of Lenses

As discussed already spherical lenses are of two kinds :

a. Convex or Convergent Lenses

b. Concave or Divergent Lenses

a. Convex or Convergent Lenses

A convex lens is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges. A

convex lens is also known as a “biconvex lens” because of two
spherical surfaces bulging outwards.
Source: Amazon.in

Source: Wikipedia
Convex lenses include lenses that are plano-convex (i.e. these lenses
are flat on one side and bulged outward on the other), and convex
meniscus (i.e. these lenses are curved inward on one side and on the
outer side it’s curved more strongly).

b. Concave or Divergent Lenses

A concave lens is thicker at the edges and thinner in the middle. A

concave lens is also known as a “biconcave lens” because of two
spherical surfaces bulging inwards.

Source: Indiamart.com
 Source: Wikipedia

Concave lenses include lenses like plano-concave (i.e. these lenses are
flat on one side and curved inward on the other), and concave
meniscus (i.e. these lenses are curved inward on one side and on the
outer side it’s curved less strongly).

Sign Conventions for Spherical Lenses

a. All of the distances that are to be measured are measured from

optical center of the lens.

b. Distances that are in the direction of the incident rays are taken to
be positive and those in opposite direction are taken to be negative.
c. Above the principal axis, measurement of height is taken as positive
and below the principal axis measurement of height is taken as
negative.

d. A convex lens has a positive focal length and a concave lens has a
negative focal length.

e. Object distance is positive, real image distance is positive and

virtual image distance is negative.

f. Magnification (m) = h​1​/h​2, ​wherein for a virtual image it’s positive

and negative for a real image. Also, h​1​ ( height of the object) is
positive and h​2​ ( height of the image which varies depending on the
type of the image ); i.e. h​2​ for a real image is negative and h​2​ for a
virtual image is positive.

Ray Diagrams for Spherical Lenses

While drawing ray diagrams for spherical lenses, one needs to know
the basic and important set of rules of refraction that state that:
Any incident ray parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens shall
refract through the lens and travel on the opposite side of the lens
through the focal point.

Any incident ray which travels through the focal point of the lens will
refract through the lens and then travel parallelly to the principal axis.

Any incident ray in effect shall continue to travel in the same direction
that it had when it entered the lens when it passes through the center
of the lens.

Ray Diagrams for a Convex Lens

For a convex lens, there are six possible positions where the object can
be positioned and an image is formed:

a. The object is positioned at infinity

When the object is placed at infinity, light rays MX and NY which run
parallel to the principal axis are refracted at point X and Y
respectively and at the principal focus, they intersect each other.
Hence, here the image of M’N’ is formed at the focus, the image is
highly diminished ( i.e.point-sized ), real and inverted.

b. The object is positioned beyond 2F

An object MN is placed beyond the centre of curvature (2F) then a

light ray MX running parallel to the principal axis, passes through the
focus (F) after refraction in along the direction XF. Another ray MO
passes through the optical center (O) and without any deviation goes
straight. At point M’, between the focus (F) and 2F of the lens on the
other side, the two refracted rays of light intersect each other.
Therefore, the image M’N’ that is formed is diminished, real and
inverted is formed.

c. The object is positioned at 2F

Object MN is placed at 2F of a convex lens and the ray of light MY
parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus (F) in the
direction YF after refraction. Another ray MO which passes through
the optical center O travels straight without any deviation. At 2F, on
the other side of the lens, the two refracted rays of light intersect each
other at point M’. Hence, the image M’N’ formed is at 2F, the image
is of the same size as the object, and is real and inverted.

d. The object is positioned between the focus and the center of

curvature

Object MN is positioned between the focus (F) and the center of

curvature (2F) of a convex lens. Then the light ray MX running
parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through focus (F)
in the direction XF. Another ray MO passing through the optical
center (O) travels straight without any deviation. Beyond the center of
curvature (2F) on the other side of the lens, the two refracted rays
intersect each other at point M’. Therefore, the image M’N’ formed is
larger than the object and is real and inverted.

e. The object is positioned at focus F

An object MN is placed at the principal focus (F), then a ray of light

MY running parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus(F)
on the other side of the lens after refraction, in the direction YQ.
Another ray MO travels straight without any deviation in the direction
OP while passing through the optical center(O). The refracted rays:
YQ and OP are parallel to each other, and hence cannot intersect each
other, as shown in the diagram given above, therefore the image
formed will be at infinity. So, the image M’N’ which that will be
formed will be highly enlarged, real and inverted.

f. The object is positioned between the focus (F ) and the optical center
(O)

Object MN is positioned between the principal focus (F) and the

optical center (O), a ray of light MX parallel to the principal axis after
refraction passes through the focus (F) on the other side of the lens in
the direction XD. Another ray MO travels straight without any
deviation in the direction OE while passing through the optical center
(O). The two refracted light rays XD and OE diverge away from one
another, and hence cannot intersect each other; due to this, a real
image cannot be formed. The refracted rays XD and OE are, therefore,
extended backwards by dotted lines. In doing so, they appear to
intersect at point M’. So, the image M’N’ formed here is a virtual,
erect and highly enlarged that is formed on the same side of the
convex lens behind the object.

Ray Diagrams formed by Concave Lens

For a concave lens, there are two possible positions where the object
can be positioned and an image is formed:

a. The object is positioned at infinity

When an object is placed at infinity, the rays PM and QN parallel to

the principal axis are refracted at points M and N respectively and
diverge in the directions MR and NS respectively. The diverged rays
MR and NS after being extended backwards by dotted lines appear to
intersect each other at the principal focus(F) of the lens. Hence, when
the object is placed at infinity in case of concave lens the image
formed is at the principal focus (F), the image is highly diminished
(point-sized), virtual and erect.

b. The object is positioned between infinity and the optical center (O)

Object MN is positioned between infinity and the optical center (O) of

the lens, a ray MD parallel to the principal axis after refraction gets
diverged in the direction DP and appears to come from the principal
focus (F) in the direction DF. Another ray MO travels straight without
any deviation through the optical center (O) of the lens in the direction
OQ. Both the refracted rays DP and OQ are diverging in nature and
hence they appear to intersect each other at point M’ on the same side
of the lens on extending backwards as shown in the diagram given
above. Therefore, the image M’N’ formed is virtual, diminished and
erect image and is formed between the optical centre (O) and the focus
on the same side of the lens.

Terms Related to Spherical Lenses

a. Optical Centre

The centre point of a lens which lies on its principal axis is known as
its optical center. The optical centre is denoted by letter O.

b. Principal Axis

The principal axis of a lens is defined as a straight line passing

through the optical center and the centre of curvature.

c. Principal Focus

The principal focus of a lens is a point on its principal axis wherein

the rays of light parallel to it and after passing through it converge (for
a convex lens) or appear to diverge (for a concave lens). The principal
focus of a lens is denoted by the letter F.

d. Focal Length
The distance between the optical center and the principal focus of a
spherical lens is termed as the “Focal Length”. The focal length of a
spherical lens is denoted by the letter f.

Focal length of a spherical lens can also be defined as half of the

radius of curvature.

2f = R or f = R/2

This is also the reason that the center of curvature is usually denoted
as 2F for a spherical lens instead of C.

e. Radius of curvature

“Radius of curvature” of a spherical lens is defined as the distance

between its optical center and the center of curvature. The radius of
curvature is denoted is by the letter R.

f. Centre of curvature

The centre of curvature of the lens is defined as the center of sphere of

a part of which a spherical lens is formed.

Lens Formula and Magnification

Lens formula is an expression which gives the relationship between the image
distance (​v​), object distance (​u​) and the focal length (​f​) of a lens.

1
v
–
1
u
=
1
f

Note:

a. One should be really careful regarding sign convention while using

lens formula.

b. Focal length for a convex lens is taken as positive and for a concave
lens it’s taken as negative.

Magnification formula remains the same for spherical lenses as well

i.e.

Magnification (m) = h1/h2 = v/u

Where h1 is the height of the object taken to be positive

h2 is the height of the image taken to be negative

v is the image distance

u is the object distance

Power

Power of a spherical lens can be defined as it’s ability to converge or

diverge a ray of light. It’s expressed in terms of its Power(P). The SI
unit of power of lens is Dioptre. It is represented by the letter “D”.

P=1/f

Therefore, power can also be defined as the reciprocal of focal length

of a lens.

Solved Example for You

Q. A needle of length 5 cm, placed 45 cm from a spherical lens form

an image on a screen placed 90 cm on the other side of the lens. The
type of lens and its focal length are :
a. Convex, 30 cm

b. Concave, 30 cm

c. Convex, 60 cm

d. Concave, 60 cm

Sol:

1/v – 1/4 = 1/f

1/90 – 1/-45 = 1/f

Therefore, f = 30cm (+ve). Since f is positive, is a convex lens.