Unit IV: Slavery and Position of Women

Women during Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC):

During Harrappa, men and women were getting equal amount of respect and social position in
society. During IVC period, women were considered the plethora of goddesses, which is
considered to be a huge respectable position. One of the most fascinatimng figures from IVC is
the sculpture titled ‘Mother Goddess’, depicted a plant growing out of her womb. Such
evidences show the worship of the mother goddess. Hence, the veneration for the mother is
evident during that period.

Women During Rig Vedic Period:

During the Rig Vedic period, it is believed that the position of wife was honored and women’s
position was acknowledged, especially in the performance of religious ceremonies. During the
Vedic period, women were respected and given a high status in society. They even attended the
assemblies and participated in debates. They were permitted to participate in the religious rites.
Education of young girls was considered as an important qualification for marriage. There are
references in Vedic literature that in the Kshatriya society, brides had exclusive right of selecting
their own consorts, which was known as ‘Swayamvara’. In Rig Vedic society, dowry system was
unknown. However, the concept of marriage as a Daan or gift was prevalent. Monogamy was the
general practice though Bigamy was also in practice, but it was limited to the aristocratic classes.
The wife was respected in her new house. The wife participated in the sacrificial offerings of her
husband. However, being a patriarchal system, the women were expected to bear sons since the
son performed the last rites and continued the lineage. Remarriage of widows was permitted
under certain conditions. Female morality maintained a high standard although the same degree
of fidelity was not expected from the husband. In this age there was no practice of divorce. The
Rig Veda states that the widow had the right to marry again with her husband’s brother. Rig
Veda recognised the right of inheritance of unmarried daughters on the property of her father but
married daughters were exempted.

Monogamy was the general rule, but among the princes, polygamy was also practiced. However,
polyandry was absolutely unknown. The marriage was a sacred bond which could not be broken
by any human action. However, widows were allowed to re-marry particularly when they were
without a child. The marriage of girls was not considered to be essential and there are reference
to girls remaining unmarried till late age and living with fathers and brothers. The wife was the
partner of the husband at the time of religious ceremonies and no ceremonies was considered to
be effective without her participation. Child marriage was unknown. The choice of father
counted in selection of the bridegroom but the girl was also given a measure of independence in
that matter. (Mahajan, 2013, p. 120). The father had complete control over his children. He was
the head of the family and so long as he lived, he was the owner of his property. Right of
adoption was recognized. If the father had no son, the property could be inherited by a son of the
daughter and not by the daughter herself. (Mahajan, 2013, p. 120).

Women in Later Vedic Period:

According to the Satapatha Brahmana, Marriages among relations of third and and fourth Varna
were prohibited. While the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas could marry women from the Vaishyas
and the Shudras, the Vaishyas and the Shudras could not marry Brahmana and Kshatriya girls.
Marriages were also allowed between the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas. (Mahajan, 2013, p. 139)

Gradually, religious ceremonies were increasingly conducted by the priests resulting in

weakening of the women’s eminent position in the household. Later, in the Age of the
Upanishads, the ‘anuloma’ system of marriage, i.e., between the male of a higher caste and
female of a lower caste prevailed during this period.

As in all patriarchal societies during that age, the birth of a daughter was unwelcome. The son
lived with his parents, earned money for the family, protected the family from enemies, and
perpetuated the name of the family. The Ramayana along with the Mahabharata and the Puranas
constitute the epic literature in India. The position of women gradually deteriorated not only in
the society but also in the family. The discontinuance of Upanayana, the neglect of education,
and lowering of the marriage age had a negative consequence upon the position and status of
woman.

Age of Sutra and Epics

In the Age of Sutras and Epics, the ‘Grihya-sutras’ give detailed rules regarding the proper
seasons for marriage and qualifications of bride and bridegroom. The bride was supposed to be at
a mature age, over 15 or 16. The elaborate rites indicate that marriage was a holy bond and not a
contract. The women held an honoured position in the household. She was allowed to sing,
dance, and enjoy life. Sati was not generally prevalent. Widow Remarriage was allowed under
certain circumstances.

On the whole, the Dharma-sutras take a more lenient attitude than the Smritis of a later age. The
‘Apastamba’ imposes several penalties on a husband who unjustly forsakes his wife. On the
other hand, a wife who forsakes her husband has to only perform penance. In case a grown up
girl was not married at a proper time by her father, she could choose her husband after three
years of waiting. The most pleasing feature of this period is the presence of women teachers,
many of whom possessed high spiritual knowledge.
Women in 6th-4th BCE

V. D. Mahajan mentioned that, “it appears that women did not occupy the same position as they
did in the vedic period. It is well known that Buddha refused to admit women into Sangha. Even
when he was later on prevailed upon to admit them into Sangha, he laid down certain rules which
denied equality to Buddhist nuns with Buddhist monks. A nun even of 100 years had first to
greet a monk. She was to rise up before him, salute him with folded hands and make obeisance
even if he had ordained only then.” (Mahajan, 2013, p. 238).

“The Greek sources tells us that at Taxila, there was a market where girls were sold. The parents
who could not marry their daughters brought them to the market to auction them. The greek texts
also refer to another custom. That was self-immolation of women on the funeral pyre of their
husbands. (Mahajan, 2013, p. 238).

Marriage was a religious sacrament. A woman was considered unfit for independence at any
time as she required protection throughout her life. In the Age 600 BC to 320 AD, marriage
between the same caste was preferred although inter caste marriages were prevalent. Of the eight
forms of marriage prescribed by the Dharma-sutras, the Arsha form of marriage was most
popular.

Women: Gupta Period

The laws about women under Guptas, clearly shows that their status in the society has
considerably been raised. That may be due to the liberalising influence of Buddhism which tried
to remove, as far as possible, the invidious distinction between the status of a man and that of a
woman. For the first time in the history of Hindu law, the right of woman to inherit was fully
recognized in the Yajnavalkya Smriti. The same the case in the respect of Niyoga, that is to say,
the prerogative of a widow to get a son by her deceased husband’s brother. The author of
Manusmriti has referred to Niyoga but only with a view to condemn it ultimately. Yajnavalkya
seems to have recognised the necessity of the changed social conditions in the Gupta period and
formulated his laws accordingly. Though he does not actually recommend Niyoga, he does not
atleast condemn it. A similar attitude was taken towards the widow re-marriage. In the family of
the Gupta Emperors themselves, Chandragupta II married Dhruvadevi, the widow of his elder
brother Ram Gupta. Yajnavalkya also suggests that after puberty, a girl may select her own
husband. The plays of Kalidasa tells us that post-puberty marriages were not uncommon in the
days of the Guptas. (Mahajan, 2013, p. 553)

In the age of the Guptas, the custom of Sati seems to have been almost unknown among common
people. However, one begins to come across instances of it particularly among the aristocratic
circles. It is recorded in a stone-pillar inscription at Eran dated 510 A.D. that a chieftain by name
Goparaja had gone to that place in the company of Bhanugupta and fought a battle. He was killed
in the battle and his wife who had accompanied him, burnt herself on his funeral pyre. In the
contemporary literature, we come across some stray references to the practice of Sati. In the
Kumarsambhava, Rati desires to burn herself after her husband Madana. In the
Mrichchakatika, Dhuta, the wife of Charudatta, prepares to enter fire in the brief that her
husband is already executed. However, the stray references do not show that Sati was the normal
practice in those days. Bana did not approve of Sati. (Mahajan, 2013, p. 553)

Some information regarding the position of women is available from the sculptures and painting
of that period. The Ajanta paintings shows women moving without veils and mixing freely with
men in public life. There are instances in the history of the Guptas of ladies of royal families
taking upon themselves the responsibility of running the administration. During the minority of
her son Pravarasena-II, Prabhavati Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta-II, carried on the
administration of the Vakataka Kingdom. Her regency constitutes a significant period in the
history of Vakatas.