Keynote Address: Is there a distinctive Māori psychology?

Keynote Address: Is there a distinctive Māori psychology?

Mason Durie

School of Māori Studies: Massey University

Psychology is largely about behaviour, this paper analyses the encounters

patterns of thinking and emotional commonly witnessed on a marae in modern
expression. While it has many more times and makes the assumption that those
dimensions, and is informed by several encounters point toward Māori world views
disciplines, the essential aim is to as well as providing a basis for
understand the human condition as it relates understanding distinctive ways of knowing
to the manifestations of interaction, and behaving (Durie, 2001).
individuation, growth, and development. The fact that most Māori are not
Since the modern study of psychology regularly involved in marae activities may
owes much to investigations by scientific reduce the extent to which observations can
researchers in western countries, many of be generalised and applied to all Māori. At
the findings about behaviour, cognition and the same time, it is also likely that within
affect are particularly germane to western wider whānau networks other members of
cultures. However, they cannot necessarily the family may be more regularly involved,
be applied to all cultures. Assumptions so that the cultural ethos found on the
about universality have long since given marae is not entirely removed from the
way to recognition of the impacts of conscious and unconscious minds of most
ethnicity on patterns of behaviour, and there Māori. In any event, the main concern has
is an increasing realisation that the ways in been to identify the psychological
which people think and feel are often a underpinnings of a range of encounters, as a
reflection of the culture within which they way of constructing a Māori psychological
have been raised. framework.
In contemporary times, most Māori are
subject to the prevailing New Zealand Marae Encounters
culture but also have links to Māori culture Marae encounters can be
and its unique characteristics. Even if there conceptualised from several perspectives,
has been a degree of deculturation, it is including functional, structural, and
likely that wider family and whānau symbolic viewpoints. However, in this
contacts will have led to some exposure to paper, encounters are described as domains,
that cultural distinctiveness. Because of broad conceptual zones within which
that exposure, the question needs to be distinctive psychological and behavioural
asked whether Māori people have ways of activities occur (Durie, 1999).
thinking, feeling and behaving that derive
from customary Māori worldviews. Polynesian Society
Moreover, if that is the case, how do those Table 1 summarises a set of nine
patterns differ from other worldviews? encounters and associated domains. While
In an attempt to answer those questions similar activities may be found in other
a first step reported in this paper has been to settings, significance and understanding
identify the psychological attributes that takes on a new form when considered
might be associated with Māori world within the marae context.
views. Others addressed the same question
by focusing on religious, philosophical, and Te Marae Ātea: The Domain of Space
metaphysical attitudes in order to highlight Essentially a marae is structured
characteristics of Māori thinking and around an open space. At one end can be
understanding. However, rather than found the host group, at the other, the
conducting an analysis of concepts such as visitors. The physical space is necessary in
mana, ihi, wehi and their associated values, order to explore relationships and establish

The Proceedings of the National Māori Graduates of Psychology Symposium 2002. 19

boundaries, usually through the process of they are inclined to use time to convey
whaikorero. According to the convention essential messages and they place
adopted at a particular marae, a series of considerable importance on speaking until
speakers will use the space to variously they are satisfied that the right messages
challenge, inquire, connect, and inform. If have been conveyed. While some might
all goes well and there is mutual acceptance argue that there is a tendency to disregard
of the terms laid down on the marae, the time, the more obvious point is that time
space will be narrowed so that both parties has been allowed to complete the necessary
can assume close physical proximity. In protocols to the necessary standard. Time
effect the space has been necessary to is ordered according to the sequence of
establish relationships, the terms of coming events (Metge, 1976) and nga manu kōrero
together, and both the differences and set the pace.
similarities between the players. Sometimes the term ‘Māori time’ is
used disparagingly, to refer to people who
Table1. are late. In that interpretation ‘being on
Marae Encounters. time’ is seen as more important that
Elements of Marae Domains attending to first things first. In fact,
Encounters ‘Māori time’ is more about prioritising time
Te marae ātea The domain of space than being late.
Nga manu kōrero The domain of time
Koha The domain of the Koha: The Domain of the Circle
circle Although the marae is more often
Tangata whenua Domains of mind and rectangular than circular, the activities and
earth
symbolism reflects a circular patter of
Tapu, noa The domain of safety
Whaikōrero Metaphorical domains
exchanges. A good example can be found
Mana, manākitanga The domains of with the system of koha. While the practice
authority and of leaving a gift (in modern times usually
generosity money) on the marae tends to be associated
Tauparapara, karakia The domain of with helping to cover expenses, it is more
interconnectedness about relationships than costs incurred.
Tūhonohono The domain of There are two aspects to the koha practice.
synchronicity The first is the desire of a visiting group to
Source: Durie (1999) present a gift that will encourage the
development of a relationship with the
In modern times there is usually a hosts. The second aspect is the acceptance
convivial relationship between the parties of the gift and by implication the
even before the domain of space is establishment of a relationship. Were the
approached, but the rituals that occur gift not accepted, or if it were returned, it
nonetheless offer the opportunity to would be a clear sign that a relationship
reiterate the distinctions and, if appropriate, was not envisaged or desired. The notion
to highlight the commonalities. The of a circle is embodied in the koha and it
important point is that the use of space is a would be consistent with the symbolism for
necessary accompaniment of encounters, the koha – or its equivalence – to be
providing not only physical territory but returned when the two parties met again. In
also the psychological space necessary to short, the nature of a gift, in Māori eyes, is
rehearse identity and to confirm the less about the generosity of the donor than
relationship between self and others. the obligations placed on the receiver
(Durie, 1986).
Nga Manu Kōrero: The Domain of Time Apart from the koha practice, other
On a marae, the measurement of time marae encounters also reflect the circle as a
depends less on being punctual and more on way of interacting. The order of speakers
allocating time for necessary activities. for example often proceeds in a circular
Speakers on a marae (nga manu kōrero) fashion, encompassing the whole marae and
epitomise the distinction. Regardless of within the whare-nui itself there is often a
any prearranged timeframe or schedule, circuitous route taken by speakers,

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 Keynote Address: Is there a distinctive Māori psychology?

especially when fare-welling a deceased spiritual component to tapu the more

person. practical implications should not be
Reciprocity is an integral part of Māori overlooked. Te Rangi Hiroa drew a
custom and philosophy and continues to connection between the use of tapu and the
guide thinking and interaction in prevention of accidents or calamities,
contemporary times (Metge, 1976). A implying that a dangerous activity or
circular pattern is evident and the goal is to location would be declared tapu in order to
create wider ripples so that inclusiveness prevent misfortune (Hiroa, 1954).
can be at least considered. Marae visitors who are aware of the
significance of tapu usually demonstrate a
Tangata Whenua: The Domains of Mind cautious attitude and are at pains to avoid
and Earth any action or comment that could be
Critical to marae encounters is the misconstrued as an intended slight on their
notion of tangata whenua. Literally, people hosts. Built into their world views is the
(of the) land, the term recognises a group notion that risks are high until otherwise
who have peculiar rights and obligations on proven. Efforts to move too closely or to
a particular marae. Sometimes tangata be overly friendly before the process of
whenua is used as if it were synonymous mutual evaluation has concluded are not
with Māori people, but more accurately it encouraged. Indeed much of the marae
refers to a group of Māori within a protocol is aimed at determining whether
particular locality or region who by reason there is risk and how it might best be
of a continued presence over time, have handled.
acquired special status. While political and
territorial rights form part of that status, of Whaikōrero: Metaphorical Domains
greater significance is the bond they have Central to a marae encounter is the
with their land and the wider natural rehearsal of whaikōrero by chosen orators.
environment. Speakers act on behalf of either hosts or
The bond between people and earth visitors and have the unenviable task of
features strongly in marae encounters and ensuring that the group they represent is not
forms an important part of identity for disadvantaged nor cast in a distasteful
individuals and groups. In this regard, a manner. As often as not, the more practised
personal psychology is closely attuned to orators deliver their addresses with a
the land and the wider physical masterly mix of directness and metaphor
environment and at a collective level a tribe (Mahuta, 1974). Metaphor allows
is often referred to by a geographic feature comparisons to be made, a wider context to
within its terrain. Where there is be established and allusions to be suggested
landlessness, there may well be avoiding a micro-focus and positioning the
consequences that go beyond economic subject within a broader perspective.
considerations to include psychological and In addition, it is now usual for
emotional impacts. whaikōrero to be followed by waiata, a
song or chant that adds meaning to the
Tapu, Noa: The Domains of Safety address and further identifies the speaker or
Although the custom of tapu and noa is the speaker’s group (Salmond, 1976). Like
no longer widely applied, it remains a aspects of whaikōrero, the waiata is rich in
powerful force in marae encounters. metaphor and contains numerous references
Essentially, any person, object, or event that to historical, geographic, or literary
might possibly impose a risk, is regarded as associations. While at first glance there
tapu until it is clear that the risk ceases to may be little direct link to the matter under
operate. Once any possibility of risk has discussion, the metaphorical dimension
been eliminated the situation becomes noa, shifts the focus onto another plane. In so
safe. Largely as a result of missionary doing there is an accompanying
interpretations, tapu has been equated with psychological shift so that meaning is
sacredness and its usefulness as a code for transformed beyond the purely functional to
conduct has tended to be replaced by a fear acquire a broader philosophical
of divine retribution. While there is a connotation.

The Proceedings of the National Māori Graduates of Psychology Symposium 2002. 21

Mana, Manakitanga: The Domains of everyday mental preoccupations to a higher
Authority and Generosity state of awareness, thereby promoting
A prevailing ethos on a marae is improved understanding based on higher
concerned with expressions of generosity. levels of contextualization.
It is evident in the way guests are treated, By connecting planes of thinking and
the comments made to visitors, the symbolism there is a psychological energy
provision of delicacies, and, for overnight flow away from the centre, outwards to
guests, the standard of accommodation. broader conceptual domains, a centrifugal
Generally there is a collective approach to force away from micro dimensions (an
bounty so that a united front is necessary to individual, a single issue) to macro levels
meet the obligations towards guests. (groups, broad encounters, spiritual
Although the comfort of guests is a high influences).
priority, it is not the only consideration.
The standing of the marae, its mana, is also Tūhonohono: The Domain of Synchronicity
reflected in the way in which generosity has Tūhonohono is an active process that
been delivered (Waitangi Tribunal, 1987). pervades many aspects of marae
Generosity is not unbounded, nor does it encounters: essentially, it is a search for
come at the expense of maintaining commonalities (rather than differences), so
authority. In fact, initiatives for generosity that associations can be identified, and the
provide opportunities to demonstrate relationship between events explained. In
authority and control. If well managed, this process, much depends on
what transpires is a reciprocal relationship simultaneous occurrence. Two events that
whereby mana is enhanced, not by a show share the same moment in time assume a
of power, but by the more subtle display of significant relationship, regardless of any
concern and kindness. The art of marae notion of cause and effect. Synchronicity
negotiation is bound to a goal of underpins the relationship and the two
enhancement of the other. The balance lies events take on a special meaning when they
between enjoying the benefits that can are linked together by time.
accrue from generosity without diminishing This implied causal relationship
local advantage. between incidents which seem poles apart,
Essentially the domains of authority is a characteristic of marae experience.
and generosity are about the employment of Carl Jung used the term synchronicity to
authority in order to demonstrate describe the significance given to the
benevolence. Mana-akitanga is the process simultaneous occurrence of events not
whereby mana (power, authority) is obviously related in a cause and effect
translated into actions of generosity. manner. He believed that patterns of
meaning were connected to time and that
Tauparapara and Karakia: The Domain of events which occurred at similar times were
Interconnectedness therefore related (Stevens, 1991). While
The use of metaphorical language has synchronicity can easily be dismissed as
already been noted as a feature of marae coincidence, the actual experience of
encounters. Two particular modes of synchronicity defies coincidence. It creates
expression incorporate metaphor but also a vivid and lasting impression which often
shift attention into spiritual planes. The tests the bounds of scientific rationality and
tauparapara, an incantation to preface an challenges measurement in scientific terms.
address, links the event under discussion Māori belief in interconnectedness and the
with a wider realm, often of an esoteric acceptance of time as a function of
nature. Similarly, the karakia, whether a experience, readily leads to valuing the
Christian prayer or a customary entreaty, relationships between phenomena as much
lifts the attention of listeners from mundane as the phenomena themselves.
and terrestrial levels into higher spiritual
planes. In the process, people are
connected with the heavens, the winds, the
stars, those long since departed, deities, and
the forces of nature. The effect is to elevate

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 Keynote Address: Is there a distinctive Māori psychology?

A Māori Psychology long memories. Psychological energy

Psychological and Behavioural Attributes moves outwards, it is centrifugal rather than
Table 2 contains a number of centripetal.
psychological attributes that can be seen to Identity is a fifth theme. Māori
emerge from the nine domains that are identity, at least within a marae setting, is
obvious during marae encounters. linked not only to ancestral descent but also
to the land, and to wider environments well
Domains of Experience and Psychological beyond human influence. Individuation is
Attributes not the sole task for establishing a secure
Among the attributes are five recurring identity; identity is also a function of
themes. First, understanding comes from conscious and unconscious connections
appreciating the relationship between the with the environment, with the group, and
individual, the group, and the wider with those departed.
environment. The direction of Māori
thought and feeling attempts to find Implications
meaning in the vastness of space and higher The intention in this paper has been to
order relationships. raise the question about a distinctive Māori
Second, although integration and psychology. In so far as marae encounters
association across wide ranging spheres is provide a glimpse into Māori ways of
important, boundaries also play a large part thinking, feeling and behaving, the
in psychological organisation. There are presumptive conclusion is that there is a
clear distinctions for example between distinctive Māori psychology. While more
between tapu and noa, tangata whenua and work needs to be done to delineate the
manuhiri, right and left, first and last, clean parameters and define the psychological
and unclean, food and water. Personal characteristics, there is nonetheless merit in
boundaries are also observed so that despite considering the practical applications to
physical closeness (as during the hongi), learning environments, clinical situations,
individual uniqueness is endorsed. psychometric measurement, and theoretical
Third, marae encounters reflect an paradigms.
underlying orderliness. Order is apparent The process of learning is not context
not only in physical arrangements but also neutral. An open plan classroom for
in the sequence of proceedings, the example tends to minimise the significance
progression of thoughts, and the way in of boundaries, orderliness, and the cautious
which time is allocated. Often orderliness use of space. To that extent, Māori learners
is equated with rigidity and a lack of may well find some disjunction at the
innovative thinking. Although that can be interface between physical environment and
the case, it is also clear from marae educational processes. In secondary and
observation that it need not be. Patterns of tertiary settings disjunctions might occur in
thinking and behaviour provide a matrix the way knowledge is generally imparted; a
within which there is room for elaboration focus downwards and inwards (centripetal)
and creativity; and at the same time rather than outwards. It may also account
orderliness reduces opportunity for for some of the reasons why Māori are less
misinterpretation (Mahuta, 1974). inclined to pursue subjects where
A fourth theme concerns patterns of understanding is based on an analysis of
thought. Māori generally shun directness, smaller and smaller parts without a parallel
preferring a type of communication that opportunity for creating wider domains to
alludes but does not necessarily focus on a contextualise the detail.
detailed point. This seemingly peripheral In clinical arenas, patterns of thought
approach can be confounding and is and behaviour are particularly germane to
sometimes described as puzzling, especially assessment (of mental state) and
if the central point cannot be deciphered. psychological therapies. Metaphorical
However, the clues to meaning are found thinking may well be confused with
less in an examination of component parts tangential thinking or loosening of
(of speech, behaviour) and more in association, while a cautious attitude, as
imagery, higher order comparisons, and exhibited in the domain of safety, may be

The Proceedings of the National Māori Graduates of Psychology Symposium 2002. 23

interpreted as a lack of co-operation, measure, has some promise; it is based on a
suspiciousness, and even frank paranoia. Māori concept of health and employs a
Further, an emphasis on individual identity triangulation method that engages client
can underscore the importance of the group (consumer), clinician, and a whānau
to psychological development and member (Kingi, 2002).
coherence. Equally unhelpful, the Finally, many of the theoretical
assumption that any type of behaviour or paradigms that underpin the study of
pattern of thinking that cannot be readily psychology pay marginal attention to
understood is simply ‘cultural’ can lead to culture as a determinant of psychology.
missed clinical clues and inadequate While there are some aspects of human
assessments. Clinicians must be able to experience that are universal, patterns of
distinguish between ‘abnormal’ and thinking, feeling and behaving are by no
‘normal’ using benchmarks that may be means divorced from specific cultural
quite different for different cultures. influence. A challenge for Māori
In this respect psychometric tools psychologists is to re-examine
should also be culture-relevant. While psychological theory from a Māori
there has been some attention to translating perspective. In attempting to identify the
standard psychometric instruments into psychological distinctiveness underlying a
various languages, there has been less work Māori perspective, this paper has
on devising instruments that can capture introduced marae encounters as a rich
Māori psychological attributes, and at the source of information within which
same time identify areas of abnormality. distinctive psychological characteristics can
He Hua Oranga, a mental health outcome be identified.

Table 2.
Psychological Attributes That Can be Seen to Emerge From the Nine Domains Obvious During Marae
Encounters.
Domains Psychological Attributes
The domain of space orderliness, formalisation of movements and
relationships, regulated behaviour, personal boundaries
The domain of time prioritisation, commitment to the moment, task
completion
The domain of the circle reciprocity, mutuality, restitution
Domains of mind and earth territoriality, guardianship, role assignment, land and
identity
The domain of safety caution, behavioural constraints, boundaries
Metaphorical domains allusive thinking, indirectness, metaphors
The domains of authority and generosity responsibility and shared benefits, mutual enhancement
The domain of interconnectedness meaning derived from similarities, relationships beyond
temporal experience
The domain of synchronicity meaning linked to time; significance not measured by
causality alone

Source: Durie (2001).

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 Keynote Address: Is there a distinctive Māori psychology?

References

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The Proceedings of the National Māori Graduates of Psychology Symposium 2002. 25