5.

Stratification and Mobility

Social stratification is a process through which groups are ranked as higher or lower to one
another in terms of their relative position on the scales of prestige, wealth and power.

Stratification is also viewed as a social process having four sub processes-

1. Differentiation-Differences exist socially as well as naturally in society.
2. Evaluation- Differences when evaluated in terms of prestige, desirability etc leads to
feeling of superiority, inferiority, etc.
3. Ranking- Ranking is applied to people which are evaluated in terms of desirability and
undesirability.
4. Rewarding - After this, society develops a system of rewards and punishment in the form
of differential opportunities to those belonging to different strata

Bottomore - 4 forms of social stratification - slavery, estates, caste and class

5 A. Concepts - equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation

A (1) Equality

Equality refers to a condition in which members of a group or society have equal access to, wealth,
prestige, or power. It is belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way
they were born, where they come from

Peter Saunders distinguishes between three types of equality:

1. Formal equality - refers to the equal status in terms of their rights and entitlements. Its clearest
expression is in the form of legal equality and political equality .This has taken a popular shape
through the ideals of "equality, liberty and fraternity" of the French Revolution.

2. Equality of opportunity - : it believes in meritocracy where position in society is filled on the

basis of universal criteria of achievement and not on the basis of age, sex, wealth, caste, religion.

3. Equality of outcome - refers to an equal distribution of rewards. For ex Social programmes of

positive discrimination to secure equality of results.

Economic dimension - Marx views difference in the relationship with the factors of production as
the source of social inequality. Communal ownership of the means of production would lead to
communism and hence social equality.

Dahrendorf, Raymond Aron, Lipset feel that through the extension of welfare services to all
strata of society and redistribution of wealth through progressive taxation, the state has been able
to lessen economic disparity.

Political dimension- Political thinkers like Pareto, Mosca and Michels assigned primacy to
power as the real source of inequality in society. According to them elite groups exercise power as
they occupy the top positions within the institutions of a given society.
Social equality refers to the fair and equitable treatment of all individuals in society, regardless of
social categories like race, gender, age, and religion but .Feminist theorists like Simone de
Beauvoir, bell hooks, and Judith Butler emphasise that patriarchal structures and gender
norms perpetuate disparities between men and women.

Symbolic Interactionism sees Inequality perpetuated through everyday interactions and social
norms.example frequently use homophobic slurs or jokes, marginalising LGBTQ+ students.

Critical Race Theory by W.E.B. Du Bois, Focuses on the centrality of race and racism in
understanding social inequality

Intersectionality Thinkers Kimberlé Crenshaw, Analyses how various forms of inequality

intersect and compound each other that individuals experience multiple, overlapping forms of
discrimination and disadvantage.

Men have long dreamed of an egalitarian society, Karl Marx too in his theory of social change had
predicted the arrival of communist society, without classes, without contradictions. However, in
reality, an egalitarian society remains a dream.

“Unstratified society with real equality of its members is a myth that has never been realised in the
history of mankind.” – P.A. Sorokin

A(2) Inequality

When differences among people are socially evaluated in terms of superiority or inferiority leading
to unequal distribution of rewards it results in social inequality.

Though equality has been cherished since times immemorial, inequality has always been a fact of
social life. Reflecting this, JJ Rousseau said, "Men are born free and equal but are in chains
everywhere".

Classical philosophers: endorsed natural inequalitites.

● Plato: said that humans are born with distinctive qualities and should be assigned
entitlements and responsibilities accordingly. And distinguish between man of gold, silver
and iron
● Aristotle: considered that the male is by nature superior and the female inferior, the male
ruler and the female subject.
● Rousseau identified two kinds of inequality first, natural or physical inequality,difference of
age, health, and second, moral or political inequality, referring to differences in privileges

Patterns of unequal access to social resources are also commonly called social inequalities. These
social resources can be divided into four forms of capital according to Pierre Bourdieu-
1. Economic capital in the form of material assets and income.
2. Cultural capital such as educational qualifications and status.
3. Social capital in the form of networks of contacts and social associations.
4. Symbolic capital like social status and good reputation.
Andre Beteille talks of distributive dimension of inequality and and finds two systems of
stratification:
1. Harmonic system of stratification is the one in which the norms and values of society
legitimise social inequality. Ex-Caste system
2. Disharmonic system of stratification is the one in which norms and values of society
prescribe equality but in reality, there is inequality. Ex-adv indust society

Marxists attribute inequalities in societies to the unequal access to the forces of production.
According to them, opportunities and resources are monopolised by a few at the expense of the
others, which lead to inequalities in societies.Marx Also sees inequality as a source of social
conflict and social change

Louis Dumont state that inequality in India is a way of life, which was hereditary and perpetuated
by the occupational division of labour

Functionalists like Parsons believed that inequality is a functional necessity for society. He argued
that different roles in society require different levels of skill and responsibility, and thus, unequal
rewards are justified.

Inequalities exist at micro level as well as at macro level. Globally, nations are also divided as first
world countries and third world countries. Dependency theory expresses these inequalities from a
Marxist perspective.

Weber's idea of inequality in society revolves around the concept of social stratification, which is
influenced by three main dimensions: class, status, and party he argues these dimensions
interact to create complex hierarchies, shaping individuals' opportunities and social structures
within society.

Wilkinson and Pickett argue that inequality in society is not only harmful for the individual, but is
also dysfunctional for the society as a whole. For example unequal societies have higher levels of
mistrust and as a result, cooperation and harmony in the society takes a hit.

According to Goran Therborn, Social consequence of inequalities is a violation of human dignity

and denial of the possibility for everybody's human capabilities to develop.

A(3). Hierarchy

Hierarchy is one special form of social inequality, which implies a ranking of individuals or groups
according to some criterion of evaluation .

Hierarchy in society is closely associated with the process of stratification. inequalities lead to
stratification and When inequalities are arranged in an order, hierarchy is formed.

Hierarchies can be present in many forms like caste hierarchy, class hierarchy, gender hierarchy
and political hierarchy. More extensive the hierarchy, higher is the differentiation in the society
Gerhard Lenski talk about two system of hierarchy -
1. Status crystallisation- an individual or a group is high or low on all the three dimensions
of social rewards (traditional caste system)-strict hierarchy and stability.
2. Status inconsistency- an individual or a group is high on one dimension, but low on
another (caste system in modern India) dispersed hierarchy and can create conflicts

DIVINE ORIGIN - Hierarchy IS SOMETIME denotes a social arrangement that attains a divine
legitimation.AND IS usually an ascription based,closed system, marked by social and
cultural reproduction.

CH Cooley states that the Värna system of the early Vedic period appears to be an open system
stratification.BUT 'Divine Origin theory made it a closed system, resulting in social hierarchy.
Similarly, the estate system of mediaeval Europe, was divinely ordained and hence hierarchic

Weber does not subscribe to the divine origin belief, and states that there are three axes of
stratification in any society: power, prestige and wealth. However, when the other two axes are
dependent and derived from the third axis, the society will effectively contain a single axis of
stratification. This will result in a rigid and hierarchical system.

According to Louis Dumont, hierarchy is a feature of social system where normative principles
determine the utilitarian and instrumental principles in the affairs of the society.

Dipankar Gupta elaborates that capitalist or open market systems are prone to become
hierarchical. If health and education are left in the hands of market forces, people in the lower
classes will have limited access to avail the best of these services.

According to the functionalists, hierarchy is also a symbol of rising specialisation and division of
labour in the society and is necessary for the working of the Social System.

Hierarchy also results in unequal opportunities and unequal rewards.Marxists perceive hierarchy
as a design of the dominant classes leading to conflict.

Symbolic interactionist highlight that Hierarchies shape individual identities and social roles,
creating self-fulfilling prophecies that reinforce existing structures.

Bourdieu mentions Those in dominant positions have greater access to valuable resources,
which they use to maintain their status and control. This perpetuates inequality by limiting the
ability of marginalised groups to acquire the necessary capital to challenge the status quo.
Example: Elite educational institutions often serve as gatekeepers to high-status positions,

Hierarchy and social mobility

● Economic Conditions: Individuals from lower class hierarchy may face challenges such
as lack of financial resources or opportunities that limit their ability to move up the social
ladder.
● Educational Opportunities: quality education is a key determinant of social mobility.
Disparities in educational resources can perpetuate inequalities, affecting upward mobility.
● Cultural and Social Capital: Beyond economic and educational factors, cultural and social
capital—such as norms, values, and social skills—can impact mobility. Individuals from
 backgrounds with greater cultural and social capital may navigate social hierarchies more
effectively.
● Meritocracy vs. Structural Barriers: While meritocracy suggests that individuals can
advance based on their talents and efforts, structural barriers within hierarchies (e.g.,
discrimination, institutional biases) can hinder mobility despite individual capabilities.
● Merton writes that presence of subcultures limits the possibility of effective communication
while also increasing chances of deviance

A(4) Exclusion

Ruth Levitas exclusion is a complex and multidimensional process which involves the denial of
resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to participate in the normal relationships
and activities,

It can be in economic, social, cultural or political arenas and affects both the quality of life of
individuals and the equity and cohesion society as a whole.Identifies 3 discourses of exclusion:
1. Moral Underclass Discourse: seen as deviant, immoral, impulsive,unhealthy and criminal.
2. Social Integrationist Discourse: exclusion from the paid labour market.
3. Redistributionist Discourse: consequence of poverty and structural inequality.

The socially excluded might include the unemployed, who lack a role in the formal economic
system; those who do not register to vote, who lack a role in the political system; and elderly
individuals living alone, who lack a role in the social system.

Sometimes it can also be an individual exclusion.This can be due to the presence of socially
undesirable traits in a particular individual. for example: HIV patients, leprosy patients,

It can also be at international level as seen from the UN security council as social closure.
Or voluntary closure such as in North korea.

1. Technological Exclusion- Manuel Castells gave the concept of the "network society,"
where He highlights how the digital divide can lead to the marginalisation of those without
access to technology.
2. Environmental Exclusion-Ulrich Beck examines how environmental risks are unevenly
distributed, often affecting marginalised communities the most. This leads to exclusion from
safe living conditions and limited access to clean and safe natural environment
3. Identity-Based Exclusion- Judith Butler argues that individuals who do not conform to
existing gender norms often face discrimination and marginalisation.
4. Educational Exclusion- Bourdieu explains how Educational exclusion occurs when
individuals are denied the cultural capital necessary for success in society.
5. Psychological Exclusion -Erving Goffman through "spoiled identity" examines how
individuals who are stigmatised experience psychological exclusion.

1. Weber saw it as a way of social closure, where one group attempts to secure for itself a
privileged position, by excluding some other group from the same.
2. Marx saw alienation as a process of exclusion at four levels - peers, product, process and
self.
 3. Merton speaks of self-exclusion to become one part of one’s reference group.
4. Ghurye speaks of self exclusion by sadhus, elites also practise self-exclusion.
5. Homelessness is one of the worst forms of social exclusions, according to Anthony
Giddens as it automatically excludes an individual from various other social services.

Social exclusion leads to other abnormal behaviours also. Elliott Currie,found that it leads to
delinquent behavior including deviance, retreatism, rebellion and even crime.

Mary Daly states that exclusion is a wider concept than poverty as it talks about not only resource
availability but also participation in various social processes.

It is characterised by six key attributes - multidimensionality, dynamism, relativity, ruptured social

relations, communal resource constraints and limitations on agency.

Walker and walker -Poverty is unidimensional, static and focused on physical needs and
distributional issues, exclusion focuses on both relative material needs and societal participation,

POVERTY leading to EXCLUSION

1. Economic- Pierre Bourdieu it limits individuals’ access to economic capital and social
capital , excluding them from economic activities and opportunities for upward mobility.
2. Social sphere - erving goffman The stigma associated with poverty leads to social
exclusion as the poor are labelled and marginalised,
3. Political sphere - resource mobilisation theory explains that Poverty restricts individuals'
ability to mobilise resources necessary for political participation and activism
4. Culture sphere - : Intersectionality -poverty, combined with other forms of discrimination
leads to exclusion from cultural practices for groups like women and minorities.
5. Education - Poor individuals are often labelled as less capable or less motivated, which
affects their educational opportunities and outcome howard becker

Exclusion – poverty

1. Pierre bourdieu- Exclusion from networks and connections (social capital) can hinder
access to job opportunities,and information, leading to economic disadvantage and poverty.
2. Political exclusion prevents marginalised groups from influencing policy decisions that
affect their economic well-being ,leading to sustained poverty.
3. Social exclusion and relative deprivation can limit access to social services,creating
barriers to economic advancement and perpetuating poverty.- peter townsend

A(5) Poverty

Poverty is a relative condition of absence of some desirable component in society. Mostly the term
is viewed in an economic sense, as a condition of lacking vital resources.

Peter Townsend mentions three conceptions of poverty:

1. Poverty as a subsistence issue - inability to obtain the minimum necessities for
maintenance of merely physical efficiencies
 2. Poverty as an issue of basic needs - e individual lacks the necessary physical goods like
clothing, shelter and access to services like education, sanitation and healthcare.
3. Relative deprivation - refers to lack of resources or social conditions when compared with
that of other members in the society.

John Sinclair and Sir Frederick Eden observe that poverty is a social problem.

From a conflict perspective, it is a failure of society to allocate resources and provide

opportunities fairly. According to them, why poverty? As a question is the same as why wealth?
They mention that the poor serve as a reserve army of labour, helping capitalists to keep wages
low.

Marx spoke of pauperization of the proletariat due to increasing mismatch between the exchange
value of labour and use value of labour

functional perspective endorses such inequalities as social necessity.Herbert Gans,, argues that
poverty persists because it is rewarding for a majority of sections who want various kinds of
services.

Weber - a person's class position is dependent upon his market situation and the ability of
individuals to influence the labour market but low paid have few skills or qualifications and this
hampers their ability to command higher wages, and keeps them poor.

In modern societies, poverty is generally relative, of which Merton talks about in his reference
point theory

Poverty also has cultural and gender dimensions. According to Ruth Lister-women are being over
represented among the poor and she calls it the feminization of poverty. Apart from this women
suffer from some sort of hidden poverty as well. ie.. resources of family are not equitably shared

The term Culture of Poverty was popularised, by Oscar Lewis.According to it, poverty is not a
result of individual shortcomings, but an outcome of a larger social atmosphere in which children
are socialised as they acquire a poverty perpetuating value system.

Sociologists assert that in India, poverty also has an ethnic and religious dimension. It is strongly
linked with caste, tribe, religious communities and cultural factors.

Dependency theorists like AG Frank argue that poverty in the East is a result of prosperity in the
West

Despite various theoretical perspectives and the solutions offered, poverty, as a social problem,
still persists. The welfare state has failed in its promise of redistribution of wealth. Wealth is
reshuffled simply within classes rather than among them.
A(6) Deprivation

Deprivation is broadly defined as inequality of access to social goods. It includes poverty and wider
forms of disadvantage.

It refers to a condition in which people lack what they need - economic and emotional support
generally accepted as basic essentials of human experience. The satisfactory fulfilment of these
needs is believed to contribute to more complete development of an individual's potential.

According to Pierre Bourdieu, it lacks adequate social, cultural, symbolic and economic capital.
Thus, deprivation is a broader phenomenon than poverty. When compared to exclusion, while
deprivation is ‘of’ resources, exclusion is ‘from’ social participation.

Deprivation is of two types:

1. Absolute deprivation - lack of life necessities and basic material needs for survival.
2. Relative deprivation - - It denotes lack of resources or social conditions as compared to the
reference group - Merton

One may face deprivation despite relatively good economic conditions. People in war torn areas,
like West Asia and some African countries, suffer from multiple deprivations in form of non-access
to health, education, sanitation, housing etc due to absence of a peaceful political atmosphere.

In other cases, cultural norms can lead to deprivations. For example – in Islamic countries women
are not allowed to take education and other social activities.

Some traditional societies like India also had rigid social stratification like caste which also led to
multiple deprivations for those in lower strata. Similarly, racism and ethnocentric practices also
deprive one section of the population from amenities of life as it is still a case in South Africa.
Thus, deprivation can also be due to structural factors

The concept of relative deprivation is used in the study of social movements and revolutions,
where it is argued that relative, and not absolute deprivation is more likely to lead to the pressure
for social change.
5 B. Theories of social stratification - Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory,
Weberian theory

1.Structural functionalist theory

Functionalist theories assume that society has certain basic needs or functional prerequisites that
must be met if it is to survive and are concerned with the role of social stratification in integration
and continuance of society

Talcott Parsons:
Parsons believes that order, stability and cooperation in society are based on its value consensus
and stratification systems are derived from such common values. Where individuals are evaluated
and placed in some form of rank order and those who perform successfully on these values will be
ranked highly and rewarded. He concludes that Stratification is inevitable and is just and proper
because it is an expression of the shared values.

Because different societies have different value systems, the ways of attaining high position will
vary from society to society. Example: bravery and generosity are valued among the Sioux Indians
in North America, while modern USA values individual achievement and efficiency.

The specialized division of labour in the complex industrial societies necessitates cooperation,
interdependence and reciprocity between social groups. And since any large-scale task requires
both organization and execution.

Some members will specialize in organization and planning, while others will follow their directives.
Parsons argues that this inevitably leads to stratification in terms of power and prestige.

Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore: - article ‘ some principles of social stratification’

They argue that all social systems share certain functional prerequisites which must be met if the
system is to survive and operate efficiently. One such prerequisite is effective role allocation and
performance.

This is fulfilled by stratification by matching the most able people with the functionally most
important positions. It does this by attaching high rewards to those positions. The desire for such
rewards motivates people to compete for them, and in theory the most talented will win through.

Such positions usually require long periods of training that involve certain sacrifices, such as loss
of income. The promise of high rewards is necessary to encourage people to undergo this training
and to generate the required motivation for a diligent and conscientious role performance.

The functional importance of any position can be measured in two ways:

1. The degree to which a position is functionally unique.
2. the degree to which other positions are dependent on it.
Thus, stratification is a social necessity to place and motivate individuals, and contribute to
maintenance and well-being of the social system.

Melvin M. Tumin: - a critique of Davis and Moore

1. there is no objective way of measuring the functional importance of positions.
2. Differences in pay and prestige between occupational groups may be due to differences in
their power rather than their functional importance
3. rejects the view that the training be regarded as a sacrifice. He pointed to the rewards of
being a student - leisure, freedom and the opportunity for self-development.
4. Social stratification does not serve the function of motivating but rather it acts as a barrier
to the motivation and recruitment of talent
5. ISocial divisions - differential rewards can create hostility,suspicion and mistrust among
various segments of society hence social stratification is divisive not an integrating force.

Criticisms of structural functionalist

1. Ralf Dahrendorf observes that stratification originates from the ‘closely related trinity of
norms, sanction and power’.
2. the rigidity of the caste system cannot be explained through functional theories
3. ‘Elite recruitment’ theory proves that elites gobble up all the rewards
4. Alvin Gouldner, criticises them for providing a justification for social inequalities.
5. According to Jonathan Turner, structure functionalist theories suffer from illegitimate
teleology .

Marxist Theory:

1. It regards stratification as divisive rather than an integrative structure. Class forms the
basis of the stratification system in any society. It is a social group whose members share
the same relationship to the means of production. In all stratified societies, there are two
major social groups: a ruling class and a subject class .
2. Primitive communism is the first epoch and the only example of a classless society, while
the other epochs all saw two major classes:
a. ancient society - master and slave
b. feudal society - lord and serf
c. capitalist society - capitalist and wage labourer
3. Surplus wealth and private property form the basis of class societies.while the classes are
mutually dependent, it is not a relationship of equal reciprocity. Instead, it is a relationship
of exploiter and exploited. The ruling class gains at the expense of the subject class and
there is therefore a conflict of interest between them.
4. Class struggle is the driving force of social change. The proletariat would overthrow the
bourgeoisie and seize the means of production, the source of power.
5. It will occur when the false consciousness is replaced by a full awareness of the true nature
of exploitation and contradictions.
6. the gap between the proletariat and bourgeoisie will widen and hasten the downfall of the
capitalist economy. This will be caused by obliteration of the differences in labour , the
pauperization of the proletariat and sinking of the petty bourgeoisie into the proletariat.
Ralf Dahrendorf sees the 20th century as a decomposition of both - capital (example: multiple
shareholders) and labour (example: even managers do not own capital, but neither are they
working-class as they hold substantial authority). He also sees increasing social mobility and a
widening middle class.
Weberian theory
Weber developed a trinitarian model of stratification and gave a multidimensional approach that
reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige and power. He believed that SS results from struggle
for scarce resources - not just economic, but also prestige and political power.

He sees class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in a market economy, and by
virtue of the fact ,receive similar economic awards. He views the class groupings as follows:
1. The propertied upper class
2. The property less white-collar workers
3. The petty bourgeoisie
4. The manual working class

Factors other than ownership are also significant . The market value of the skills of the
property-less group varies, and the resulting differences in economic return are sufficient to
produce different social classes.

He saw no evidence to support the idea of polarization. He argues that the petty bourgeoisie,
instead of sinking into the manual working class, will enter the white-collar working class.

While Marx saw conflict between classes, Weber saw cooperation, conflict and competition
between different classes in different contexts. Weber denied the possibility of a class revolt due to
the presence of status groups cutting through classes and formation of status groups within a class

He saw no reason why those sharing a similar class situation should necessarily develop a
common identity and take collective action. He suggests that individual manual workers may
grumble or sabotage industrial machinery instead of overthrowing capitalism.

He also sees groups form because their members share a similar status situation. Status refers to
unequal distribution of ‘social honour'. Unlike classes, members of a status group are aware of
their common status situation and social closure is practised to exclude others. However, class
and status situations may not always be closely linked. Example: nouveaux rich, homosexuals

He mentions Status group as the apex group in hierarchy and that in pre-modern societies, Status
groups were present. In modern society, ranks are present - which are determined by occupation
and performance. Weber distinguished that Class determines Life Chances and Status
determines Life Style

While classes exist in the economic order and status groups in the social order, parties can be
found in the political order. To Weber, parties are alway structures struggling for domination. The
people who constitute a party are those who have a goal towards which they strive collectively and
in a planned manner.Parties may pursue interests that are determined through class situation or
through status situation. Whatever they represent, parties are oriented to the attainment of power.
He identifies two types of parties-parties of patronage and parties of principle.
Both theorists acknowledge the importance of class in social stratification. While they
conceptualise class differently, they agree that one's economic position significantly influences life
chances and social status

5 C. Dimensions - Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity and

race

Class

Marx defines class as a social group sharing the same relationship with the means of production.
He sees class as a phenomenon created as a result of expansion of production forces beyond
sustenance level.

He believes that when true class consciousness develops, a class struggle will take place, and
ultimately lead to a classless state of communism.

Weber sees class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in a market economy, and
by virtue of the fact receive similar economic awards The class groupings according to him are as-
1. The propertied upper class
2. The property less white-collar workers
3. The petty bourgeoisie
4. The manual working
Weber also views status and party position as being significant factors in determining class
situations.

Ralf Dahrendorf argues that classes are becoming more heterogeneous with time due to
specialized division of labour, and the working class will be further bifurcated into skilled,
semi-skilled and unskilled.

Anthony Giddens suggests that there are three classes - upper class which holds the means of
production, middle class which holds the technical skills and lower class which holds the manual
labour. WL Warner uses a reputational approach to view classes.

Pierre Bourdieu suggests horizontality in stratification in the form of different capitals in the
society. Industrial capitalists hold economic capital, knowledge capitalists hold cultural capital and
power capitalists hold symbolic capital.
NMC
1. Occupation and Education- Richard Florida defines them as "creative class,as they are
highly educated, holding advanced degrees, and are distinguished by its reliance on
intellectual and creative skills rather than traditional manual labor
2. 2. Cultural Consumption and Lifestyles- Pierre Bourdieu They are often engaged in the
consumption of cultural goods, such as art, music, literature, and gourmet food, as a way to
signal their cultural capital

3. Economic Behavior and Consumerism- Jean Baudrillard characterised by its consumption of

branded and luxury goods, not only for utility but also as symbols of status and identity.

4. Political Attitudes and Social Values- Milovan Djilas This group often supports policies related
to social justice, environmentalism, and inclusivity. They are typically more liberal, favouring
globalisation, multiculturalism, and digitalization.

5. Globalisation and the New Middle Class- William Domhoff emergence of a global new middle
class, participation in global consumer markets and often works in multinational corporations,
values English language proficiency, and adopts Western lifestyles and consumption patterns.

6. Digital Economy and Technological Adoption -Manuel Castells new middle class is heavily
involved in the digital economy. This group is characterised by high levels of technological literacy,
frequent use of digital devices, and participation in the digital marketplace.

Status groups
Weber defined a status group as made up of individuals who are awarded a similar amount of
social honour and therefore share the same status situation.

Unlike classes, members of status groups are aware of their common status situation. They share
a similar lifestyle, identify with and feel they belong to their status group, and involve Social
closure which excludes some people from membership of a status group.

It is one of the most ancient systems of stratification where ranking is done on the relative position
in terms of respect. In traditional societies it was ascriptive, while in modern societies, it is more
achievement oriented.

Hindu caste system was stated as an example of status groups by Weber. Here status was
ascriptive while lifestyle, honour and prestige were sharply differentiated and marriage endogamy,
commensality and occupational division of labour acted as social closures.

Pakulski and Waters in ‘Death of class’ argue that the status dimension is becoming more
important in postindustrial societies. Rising consumerism has promoted status and eclipsed class.

WL Warner emphasises social status instead of economic class as a form of stratification. He

considers education, occupation and income as the determinants of status
Pierre Bourdieu in his An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology 1992, also proposed that Individual
identities are now more shaped by lifestyle choices rather than by more traditional indicators like
occupation.

Gerhard Lenski two types of status stratification

1. Status crystallisation: indiv/grp is high/low in all dimensions of social rewards.
2. Status inconsistency: high in 1 dimension but low in other -> relative deprivation

In many societies, class and status groups are related to each other, however it is not a norm. For
example: Firefighters have a high status in American society in spite of the presence of higher
paying professions. On the other hand, nouveaux rich are sometimes excluded from the status
groups of the elite. Homosexuals form a status group, cutting across class divisions.

Pierre Bourdieu gave the concept of "cultural capital," which refers to non-economic resources
like education, tastes, and mannerisms that can enhance one's social status.

He argued that it can be converted into economic capital by enabling individuals to access better
job opportunities, build valuable networks and thus status and class are interconnected.

Dumont acknowledged that economic factors and class relations intersect with caste, as caste
often determines access to economic resources, occupations, and social mobility.

Gender

Gender is a social concept, while sex is a biological one. According to naila kabeer biology is
gendered as well as sexed. As male and female are translated as men and women on mutually
exclusive traits of masculinity and femininity

Stratification based on gender is one of the most fundamental forms of stratification,This has been
termed natural by functionalist sociologists like Murdock and Parsons. Biological theories of
sexual division of labour also support this form of stratification.

Ann Oakley. rejected the biological basis offered by Tiger and Fox. According to her sex is natural
but gender is a cultural construct and it assigns different social roles for both genders. Differential
rewards are attached to these roles which create gender inequalities and gender stratification.

Shulamith Firestone traces origins of gender stratification in biological differences. She believes
that women are disadvantaged by their biology due to which their dependence on men increased,
She says that the sexual class system was the first form of stratification.

Michelle Rosaldo argued that the division of work between the public and private world is the
reason for gender stratification. In Mbuti Pygmies of Africa, she demonstrated that where men and
women share domestic responsibilities, the societies are relatively egalitarian.

Coontz and Henderson - with surplus production and appearance of ‘kin corporate property’.
Gender stratification arose. Patrilocal and polygamous societies grew, and matrilocal ones
declined.
Fredrick Engels states that in primitive communism, women had a higher position than men but
as private property emerged, the control of men increased, putting gender equality on the
backburner.

Symbolic interactionist like Goffmanargues gender identity and roles are not inherent but are
learned and reinforced through social interactions.it arises from the meanings and expectations
assigned to different genders in everyday life.

Blood and Hamblin, argue that gender stratification is not significantly altered by more
participation of women in economic roles. They take decision making power inside the family as
the main criterion of empowerment.

According to them, despite women taking more participation in employment, important family
decisions are still made by men. Mother-housewife role still remains a primary one. As long as
patriarchy remains, gender inequality will remain.

Sylvia Walby in identifies six patriarchal structures which help men to maintain dominance over
women:
● Paid work - male dominated unions ensure that women interests are kept at bay.
● Relations within household - household work is unpaid and unvalued.
● Culture - key sign of femininity is seen to be sexual attractiveness of a woman.
● Sexuality - sexually active women are labelled negatively.
● Violence - final form of manifestation of dominance of men on women.
● State - policies, though have undergone changes, are still lacking in many aspects to
ensure gender equality.

Women are attached to a two-fold stratification, be, in relation to men and in relation to other
women. And it operates at two levels which are within the family and outside the family. The
unequal access to resources, opportunities and rewards and the rights between men and women
are reinforced through patriarchy and its institutions, gendered division of labour and social
institutions like marriage, dowry, property, inheritance and subordination

Arlie Hoschlid emphasised how traditional gender roles impact women's work-life balance and
career advancement.

Gender stratification with the advent of industrialization. Karuna Ahmad finds 4 trends of it as
1. Pink collarization - clustering of women in a few occupations.
2. Clustering either in low status occupation or in the lower rungs of the prestigious profession.
3. Glass ceiling - women receive lower salaries and advancement opportunities than men.
4. High proportion of highly educated and professionally trained unemployed women.

Margaret Benston - capitalism benefits from women as they are a reserve army which helps keep
wages down plus are easily employed in the category of secondary breadwinners.

Angela Davis explores how race, class, and gender intersect to shape the experiences of
women, particularly Black women.Floya Anthias believe that patriarchy, capitalism and racism
are all part of one system, which advantages some groups and disadvantages others.
Parsons believes that with the arrival of modernity, hierarchy of genders has been converted into a
competitive gender relationship. Hence, gender does not determine ranking in stratification
systems.

Race

Race is a vast collectivity of people more or less bound together by shared history, ancestors, and
physical features.

Joseph Arthur De Gobineau gave the first major racial classification in terms of Genetic
differences as Caucasian,Negroid and Mongolian.

Steve Jones states that genetic diversity has little to do with race and the overall genetic
differences between races is no greater

Richardson and Lambert view race as a social construction with no biological basis. It has more
to do with what people make of physical differences and the everyday or commonsense notions
which influence them.

Park and Burgess call race a product of history and culture. As with colonialism the ideology of
racial stratification gained strength, with Europeans placing themselves at the top of the scheme.

Oliver C. Cox sees . It is a product of the capitalist system with slavery, colonialism and racism as
its tools.

Race as a system of stratification is loaded with prejudice and discrimination based on social
perceptions of observable biological differences. It often takes the form of social actions, practices
in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other,
based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.

Symbolic interactionism mentions how Racial stereotypes and stigmatisation are created and
reinforced through social interactions, impacting how individuals from different racial groups are
perceived and treated.

VANDENBERGHE Theory of Race Relationship:

1. Paternalistic Race Relationship: In traditional society, race gave rise to hierarchical
systems through paternal relation between races, establishing a harmonious system
through 'Consensus Model'.
2. Competitive Race Relationship: In modern society, race is giving rise to competitive
inequality based on 'Disjunctive Model' establishing a stratified system

There can be two kinds of racism in systems of social stratification - overt and covert.
● Overt racism usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social.
Ralph Ellison talks about the atrocities blacks face on account of their colour in
economic,political and social settings
● Covert racism is socially hidden and often feeds into stratification systems as an
intervening variable affecting income, educational opportunities and housing. Ex robert
 putnam study provides insights into how racial stratification affects educational
opportunities and outcomes.

Du Bois gave the concept of the “colour line” to describe the racial divide.He argued that this line
represents a fundamental division in the social and economic structure of society, influencing
various aspects of life including politics, economics, and social interactions.

W.E.B. Du Bois double consciousness - internal conflict experienced by African Americans

who must navigate their identity between their own self-perception and the way they are perceived
by a racially prejudiced society.

Derrick Bell,examines how it is not merely about individual prejudice but about systemic and
structural inequalities. It also highlights how race intersects with other identities like gender and
class.

Studies point to how race is a factor that hinders social mobility,Gunnar Myrdal observes that
though coloured Americans also follow institutionally prescribed means to pursue culturally
prescribed goals, they are still subjected to inequalities.

Parsons sees America as a land of meritocracy and states that coloured people are held back not
due to discrimination, but due to lack of educational opportunities. Once these opportunities
become available, race will cease to be a factor and only merit will determine the success.

Symbolic theories emphasise on Promoting intercultural dialogue and anti-racism education

helps reshape perceptions and reduce stereotypes while conflict theorists focus on Addressing
economic and social inequalities by redistributing resources.
Ethnicity

An ethnic group is a socially-defined category of people based on common ancestral, social,

cultural, or national experience. It is usually defined in terms of their cultural characteristics rather
than their biological differences.

Thomas H. Eriksen sees ethnicity as groups whose members consider themselves distinctive,
Symbolic interactionist see Ethnic identities as socially constructed through everyday
interactions, rituals, and symbols. They highlight that ethnic identities are fluid and influenced by
historical and social contexts.

Fredrick Barth sees It as usually used for invoking the political milieu. He considers it as a more
elastic concept as compared to race ,as by way of language shift, acculturation, adoption, it is
possible for some individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group and enter another.

Paul Brass discusses three ways of defining ethnic groups:

● in terms of objective attributes - presence of some distinguishing factors Example:
language, territory, religion, dress, etc.
● by reference to subjective feelings - existence of an ethnic self-consciousness .
● in relation to behavior - specific ways in which ethnic groups do or do not behave
Steve Fenton differentiate between -Hot ethnicity' involves appeals to 'blood and passion' and
may be mobilised in support of nationalist movements. 'Cold ethnicity involves 'calculation and
instrumentality' and is contingent upon deriving benefits from group membership

Ethnic stratification depends upon the processes under which a society has undergone.
1. assimilation- new immigrant groups adopt the culture of the existing dominant group
2. melting pot, different ethnic groups merge together.ex USA where many ethnic identities
have merged to a great extent
3. Example of pluralism would be a society like India.
4. Antagonistic co-existence where there is existence of sharp ethnic lines. Sri Lanka is
such an example where ethnic Tamils and Singhalese exist in the form of distinct strata.

Paul Hirst advocates that ethnicity is used by capitalists to keep the working class divided, so as
to prevent any revolution from happening.

Gellner and Wallerstein -merit-based nature of modern society will dissipate any divisions on the
basis of ethnicity and abilities will spell out class positions. GELLNER- Ethnic identity becomes a
private affair in modern society. Class, mobility and opportunity are more imp in modern society.

But Habermas and Borris and Richmond argue that ethnicity becomes more prominent in
modern times to preserve itself from drastic changes and is present in covert forms

Glazer- not only does ethnicity not cease to exist in a modern society, but is actually 'revived' and
which could be attributed to the very conditions of modernization. Clifford Geertz- ethnicity will
continue to exist, not because of its functions but because of emotions.

Karl Deutsch, ethnicity has been instrumental for balkanization and the rise of so many nations in
Europe, post WW2. India is also not untouched with in terms of ethnic conflicts, demands for
separate Indian states were made on ethno-linguistic basis.

Nuer and Dinka tribes in South Sudan were engaged in an ethno- religious conflict. Crimea was
annexed by Russia from Ukraine on an ethno-national basis. The holocaust was a form of
ethno-religious war.

Symbolic interactionism examines how ethnic identities and stereotypes are socially
constructed and maintained. Islamophobia and the stigmatisation of Muslim communities often
arise from negative stereotypes and media representations that portray Muslims as extremists or
threats.

Conflict theory argues that ethnic differences can be used to justify and maintain power
imbalances and social hierarchies. Dominant ethnic groups often exploit and oppress minority
groups to maintain their privileged status.

India: Sachhar report (muslims), Xaxa report (tribals) and Mandal report (OBCs) all indicate
inequality based on ethnicity. Even in so-called egalitarian societies like America, a clear division
among different ethnicities can be observed.

Intersectionality
Race often refers to physical characteristics while ethnicity encompasses cultural elements
However, many ethnic groups are also defined by racial characteristics, and vice versa. For
instance, the concept of "Black" can refer to both racial and ethnic identities,

Kimberlé Crenshaw, examines how various forms of identity, including race and ethnicity,
intersect and create complex experiences of oppression or privilege. It challenges the simplistic
separation of race and ethnicity and recognizes the multifaceted nature of identity.
Example: Black Latinos who navigate both racial and ethnic dimensions

Cultural Hybridization and fusion leads to the blending of ethnic and racial identities. This often
results in new cultural practices and identities that do not fit neatly into traditional racial or ethnic
categories. For ex The term "African American" reflects both racial and ethnic dimensions.Jewish
identity illustrates the blur between ethnicity and religion

5 D. Social mobility - open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and
causes of mobility

According to Wallace and Wallace, social mobility is the movement of a person or persons from
one social position to another. It normally entails changes in life chances and lifestyles.

Functionalists like Parsons believed that mobility is a result of process of differentiation in society
and role filling by those who suit them most. Davis and Moore in ‘Some Principles of
Stratification, 1945’ theorized that it is the reward system of the society that facilitates individual
mobility in society.

Marx, on the other hand, believed that high rates of social mobility, embourgeoisement, will
weaken class solidarity. He foresees downward mobility in capitalism when Petite Bourgeoisie will
sink down into the proletariat class. Those like Frank Parkin and Dahrendorf believe that social
mobility also acts as a safety value in society as build-up frustrations are vented through the route
of social mobility.

Ken Robert, has highlighted two important reasons for studying social mobility in modern
societies-
1. Mobility is an indicator of a meritocratic society and the degree to which a society lives up
to the ideals of fairness.
2. Mobility is also an indicator of the stability of class architecture in a society.

Open and closed systems

In a closed system, individuals are assigned their place in the social structure on the basis of
ascriptive criteria like age, birth, sex. It emphasises hierarchy which justifies the inequality in the
distribution of wealth, status and power and discourages any attempt to change it. It is marked by
rigid boundaries which are unassailable and ideological notions of equality of opportunity are
irrelevant in this society
Indian caste system is the most appropriate example for a closed system. As individuals born and
die in the same social position.Instances of mobility are low.Weber talks of social closure in a
closed system. For example: caste endogamy in Hindus.

Karl Marx’s mention In a closed system, the ruling class uses its economic and political power
to maintain its dominance and restrict the upward mobility of the lower classes.Marx analyzed
the estate system and argued that the rigid divisions in feudal society were maintained through
control of land by the nobility.

Andre Beteille in his – ‘Caste, Class and Power, has shown how mobility in a closed and
stratified caste system is difficult. M N Srinivas in his study of Coorgs showed that in such a
system alternate methods like Sanskritization are evolved to move socially up, but this affects only
cultural aspects and not structural aspects.

Marx's theory suggests that mobility can occur through class struggle and revolutionary change ex
French Revolution show how class struggle can disrupt closed systems and create opportunities
for mobility.

M. N. Srinivas’ concept sanskritization describes how lower castes adopt the practices of higher
castes to improve their status.

Bourdieu’s In closed systems, strong social connections can provide access to exclusive job
opportunities or social privileges.

In an open system, the norms prescribe and encourage mobility. There are independent principles
of ranking like status, class and power. Individuals are assigned to different positions in the social
structure on the basis of their merit or achievement.

The system is characterised by occupational diversity, flexible hierarchy, and rapidity of change.
The hold of ascription-based groups like caste, kinship or family is insignificant.

Weber’s theory of social stratification emphasises the importance of an individual’s economic,

social, and political resources in determining their social position,people can accumulate these
resources and use them to climb the social ladder, regardless of their initial status.

Bourdieu argued that in open systems, cultural and social capital significantly influence
mobility.Individuals can achieve upward mobility through education and skills, but their
background and social networks can still impact their ability to succeed.

Sorokin was of the opinion that there is no society which is closed (Caste System in India) and no
society which is completely open (Class System).

David Glass Social Mobility in Britain, 1954, he found out that mobility was low as there was
rampant elite self-recruitment

Duncan and Blau in their The American Occupational Structure, also concluded that long range
mobility is rare.
Goldthrope concluded that mobility largely happens in the immediate ranks in the hierarchy and
absolute mobility is extremely low.

Sources and causes of social mobility

Sorokin defines social mobility as 'transition of an individual, from one social position to another.
According to him- There are certain primary factors that affect mobility in all societies, and
secondary factors that are specific to particular societies at particular times
In general, factors affecting mobility can be both personal and structural, some of which are -

1. Industrialisation and urbanisation- Lipset upheld that industrialisation led to high mobility
rates in England and it is true for the rest of the world as well.

2. Education- education has helped in bringing social mobility in India , empirical studies by S.C
dubey in gorakhpur revealed that most of doctors,engineers,teachers have come from rural areas
and their forefathers were mainly peasants,Thus it's brings inter-generational mobility

3. Social Capital and Social Status- Bottomore Social networks and connections can provide
access to resources, job opportunities, and information that facilitate social mobility.

4. Social movements - help in collective mobility. Dalit movements in India and Black Rights
Movement in the USA are such examples.

5. Law and constitution -R.H. Turner defines sponsored social mobility as the one which a person
acquires due to some policy decision. For example: policy of reservation

6. Subjective factors- Ulrich Beck individuals who are better equipped to manage or mitigate risks
may have greater opportunities for social mobility

Impacts of social mobility

Impact of mobility: Sorokin was the first to systematically study the impact of social mobility ->
social consequences (society level) and social-psychological consequences (individual level)
Impact on the societal level:
1. structure: Weber, Giddens, Parkin -> expansion of middle class. Barnard - >
embourgeoisement, so pyramid shape stratification to diamond shape.
2. class solidarity: Giddens and Marx feel mobility will decrease class solidarity. Giddens: if
the rate of social mobility is low, class solidarity and cohesion will be high.
3. social order: Durkheim -High mobility adds to social cohesion. America did not witness
class wars as the social structure was open. Europe had a rigid social structure and the
class inequality was far more pronounced.
4. According to Parsons, social mobility is vital for ensuring that the most capable
individuals occupy roles which contribute to the efficient functioning of society leading to
greater productivity and societal stability.
5. Merton’s lack of social mobility can lead to strain and anomie when individuals
experience tension between societal goals and their means to achieve them.