Chapter 1

Operating System Definition Operating System Examples

It is an intermediate between computer hardware and the user.

interface

Goals of an Operating System:

1. Optimum and efficient use
2. Convenience and user-friendliness
3. Hide the complexity

Interface of Operating Systems

⚫The way the user is interacting or using the OS is called the interface.
⚫OS have two types of interfaces:
1. Character User Interface (CUI).
2. Graphical User Interface (GUI).

1- Character User Interface (CUI) 2- Graphical User Interface (GUI)

⚫ Commands must be typed to give instructions to the ⚫ It is made up of mainly of five primary components:
computer hardware.
windows, icons, menu bars, pointing devices, and graphics.
⚫ The user needs to remember the commands for the
⚫ When a GUI is present, the user is interacting with one of
proper use of computer system.
these components at all times.
⚫ Example: Disk Operating System (DOS)
⚫ Examples: Windows, MAC
4 Computer System Components?

What Operating Systems Do?

Depends on the point of view (User OR System)

A- User View of OS Computer-System Architecture

1- Ease of use
Don’t care about resource utilization

2- Efficient Resource Utilization

Shared computers such as mainframe or Home PCs
minicomputers must keep all users
happy

B- System View of OS
Computer-System Architecture Symmetric Vs Asymmetric Multiprocessing
 1- Single Processor Systems
• There is one main CPU capable of executing a general purpose instruction
set ,including instructions from user processes.
4- Multiprogramming (Batch system)
• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through • Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
mainframes). • Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
• Most systems have special-purpose processors as well. execute
• Such as: Disk-controller microprocessor and Keyboard microprocessor • A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
• One job selected and run via job scheduling
• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
2- Multiprocessor Systems
(parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems) 5- Timesharing (multitasking)
Advantages include: • logical extension where CPU switches jobs so users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale • Response time should be < 1 second
3. Increased reliability ( graceful degradation or fault tolerance) • Each user has at least one program executing in the memory 🢡 process

Two types: • If several jobs ready to run at the same time 🢡 CPU scheduling

1- Asymmetric Multiprocessing (Shared memory system) • If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
each processor is assigned a specific task. • Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
2- Symmetric Multiprocessing (Master processors)
6- Distributed / Network systems
each processor performs all tasks
• Network is a communications path, TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) most common
3- Clustered Systems • Local Area Network (LAN)
• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together • Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN) • Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Provides a high-availability service that survives failures • Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC) • Network OS provides features between systems across a network
• Applications must be written to use parallelization
• Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations 7- Special Purpose/ Real-time systems
Two types:
• Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers,
1- Asymmetric clustering: one machine in hot-standby mode these devices are found everywhere,
2- Symmetric clustering: multiple nodes running applications, • Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
monitoring each other • Processing must be done within constraint
• Correct operation only if constraints met
Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is 5 Activities
an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task (CPU, memory, I/O,
files) & Initialization data)
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources

 Single-threaded process has one program counter(PC)specifying

location of next instruction to execute (Process executes instructions
sequentially, one at a time, until completion)
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread

Memory Management 3 Activities

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory

 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.

 Memory management determines what is in memory and when

 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

Storage Management
4 Activities
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit- file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine
who can access what
OS Key Functions / Services

Operating-System Structure

Virtual Machines
• It takes the layered approach to its logical conclusion. It treats hardware and
the operating system kernel as though they were all hardware.
• It provides an interface identical to the underlying bare
hardware.
• The operating system host creates the illusion that a
process has its own processor and (virtual memory).
• Each guest is provided with a (virtual) copy of underlying computer.
Chapter 2: Process Management

Process Concepts Process Control Block (PCB)

• In the past, computers could only run one program at a time. • A data structure stores the information about a process.
• Today, they can handle multiple programs at once. • Each process is represented in OS by PCB
• This required better organization and separation of programs, • PCB is also known as a Task Control Block.
leading to the concept of a "process,“. • OS keeps all process information from its creation until its
• Process = a program actively running / in execution. termination in PCB.
• When a process finishes, its process control block is released from
the main memory.

Process State
• As a process executes, it changes state
• Process Transition: When a process goes
Various contents of PCB
from one state to another state.

Remember
New = created.
1.New State: When a process is created. Ready = waiting for CPU
2.Ready State: When process are waiting for CPU
3.Running State: When a process is being executed. Running = executed.
4.Wait State: When a process is waiting for some resource. Wait waiting for resource.
5.Terminate State: When a process finishes its execution. Terminate = finishes
Threads

• A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization

Multithreading Models
• Relationship between user threads and Kernel threads is supported by:
• It contains:
1- a thread ID, 1- Many-to-One Model

2- a program counter Maps many user-level threads to one kernel thread.

3- a register set, 2- One-to-One Model
Maps each user thread to a kernel thread. Provides concurrency?
4- a stack allowing another thread to run when a thread makes a blocking
• It shares with other threads belonging to the same process its code system call
section, data section, and other operating-system resources, such 3- Many-to-Many Model
as open files and signals Multiplexes many user-level threads to a smaller / equal
number of kernel threads.

Benefits of Multithreaded Programming Interprocess Communication (IPC)

• Processes executing in OS may be either:
1- Independent Process: A process that does not share data with any
other process.
2- A Cooperating Processes: processes that share data with other
processes.
Inter-Process Communication (IPC): A technique, that allows
Cooperating Processes to exchange data and information

2 Fundamental models of IPC

1- Shared memory: requires that two
Types of Multithreading Models (2) or more processes agree to remove this
1- User Level restriction.
Supported above the kernel / Managed without kernel support 2- Message passing: provides a
mechanism to allow processes to
2- Kernel Threads
communicate and synchronize their
Supported & Managed by Operating System actions without sharing the same address
space.
Cooperating processes & IPC

4 reasons for allowing process cooperation 2 Fundamental models of IPC

1- Information sharing
1- Shared memory
2- Computation speedup Exchange information by reading
3- Modularity and writing data in the shared
4- Convenience areas.

2- Message passing
Mechanism allow processes to
communicate and synchronize
without sharing the same
address space.

Examples of IPC

1- Pipes: pipes are a one-way communication channel for IPC

2- FIFO: A FIFO (First In First Out) is a one-way flow of data. FIFO is a
named pipe
3- Shared Memory: Shared Memory is an efficeint means of passing
data between programs
4- Message Queue: IPC message queues are transient memory areas,
typically provided by the underlying operating system, used for
communication between clients and servers
5- Semaphores: IPC technique is commonly use for two purposes: to
share a common memory space and to share access to files.