Practical Manual

for
Horticulture

By-
Agnivesh Yadav
 CONTENT
Sr. no. Title of the Exercise Page no.

1. To study the tools used in the pollination of different vegetable crops.

2. To study about the floral biology of the tomato.

3. To study about the floral biology of the brinjal.

4. To study about the floral biology of the okra.

5. To study about the floral biology of the carrot.

To study about the floral biology and pollination mechanism of the
6.
radish.
7. To study about the floral biology of the onion.

8. To study about the floral biology of the pea.

9. To study about the floral morphology of cucurbits.

10. To study about self & cross pollination in vegetables.

11. To study about the nursery management in vegetable crops.

12. To study about the types of mulching.

13. To study about the selecting the mulches and techniques of mulches.

14. To study about the types of greenhouse on shape based.

To study about the types of greenhouses based on utility and
15.
construction.
16. To study about the types of greenhouses based covering material.

To study about the shade net along with its planning and
17.
considerations.

18. To study about the vertical farming system.

To study about the crops suitable for vertical farming along with
19.
merits and demerits.
 Practical Exercise-1
❖ Objective-

To study the tools used in the pollination of different vegetable crops.

❖ Material required-

Pencil, Forceps, scissors, butter paper bags, tags and alcohol

❖ Uses of the different tools

1. Scissors

In vegetable breeding, scissors are essential. They delicately remove male and female floral
parts to control cross-pollination. This precision is essential for passing on traits. Selective
pruning, light exposure optimization, and desirable traits are also possible using
scissors. Regular breeding plot maintenance requires scissors. This includes removing
damaged or unwanted plants, preserving population health, and optimizing trait expression.

By cutting undesirable flowers, scissors help isolate features and ensure genetic integrity in
breeding operations. They are useful for collecting plant samples for genetic and biochemical
studies.

Hybrid seed production requires scissors to emasculate or bag blossoms to avoid fertilization.
This ensures that only selected pollen reaches female reproductive organs. Vegetable breeding
requires precision and control, thus scissors are essential.

2. Pointed long needle

A long, pointed needle is needed to precisely open small flower buds during artificial
pollination. This needle provides precise manipulation without damaging the buds' delicate
structures.

First, carefully select flower buds that areclose to blooming and receptive to
pollination. Carefully put a long, fine-tipped needle into the base of the closed flower bud,
taking care not to damage any critical reproductive organs. Open the bud slowly to reveal the
stigma and anthers. Once the bud is open, transfer of pollen from the male flower to the female
flower's stigma is done. After pollination, protect the flower from wind and rain to ensure
fertilization and healthy fruit or seeds.

3. Brush

Using a hairbrush in hand pollination is crucial for controlled breeding in plants. It allows
breeders to transfer pollen efficiently from the male to the emasculated female flowers,
ensuring desired genetic traits are passed on. This precise method increases the chances of
successful pollination and produces offspring with desired characteristics, aiding in crop
improvement and hybridization efforts.

4. Forceps

Precise forceps with elongated tips are crucial for controlled pollination. With precision, they
carefully remove anthers during emasculation and transfer pollen from male to emasculated
female flowers to guarantee accurate breeding. To achieve optimal results and reduce mistakes,
it's important to treat forceps delicately, sterilize them before every use, employ accurate
methods, and operate in appropriate surroundings.
5. Magnifying lens
Using a magnifying lens is essential for controlled pollination procedures. It is useful for
delicately removing small flower buds. Moreover, it is essential for studying the stigma of
emasculated flowers to verify the lack of anthers or pollen grains. Thorough examination
guarantees the precision of the pollination process and enhances the effectiveness of controlled
breeding endeavors.

6. Spirit bottle

Having a bottle of alcohol on hand is essential for controlled pollination tasks. Ensuring the
cleanliness of hands and sterilizing essential tools like scissors, needles, forceps, and brushes
are crucial tasks during the crossing work. This thorough sterilization procedure reduces the
chances of contamination, protecting the reliability of breeding experiments and guaranteeing
precise outcomes.

7. Bags

Bags play a crucial role in controlled pollination procedures, used to protect flowers or
inflorescences before and after pollination. With a wide range of types and sizes available, they
are suitable for different crops and flower sizes. Choices consist of brown paper bags, muslin
cloth bags, parchment paper bags, and additional options. Every variety provides distinct
advantages designed for particular pollination needs, guaranteeing ideal circumstances for
successful breeding trials.
8. Labels-

Labels are made of paper or aluminum, are essential tools in controlled pollination
experiments. They function as crucial indicators, enabling researchers to document important
data about the involved plants or flowers. It is crucial that this information be transcribed
manually using a non-reproducible pencil, guaranteeing durability and legibility during the
entire experiment. The careful and thorough approach ensures precise gathering and
examination of data, which enhances the effectiveness of breeding efforts.

9. U- Clips or Pins/ Wired Ring

U-shaped pins are frequently employed to fasten paper bags around flowers or inflorescences,
especially when there is a need to shield them from unwanted pollination, adverse weather
conditions or pests. U-pins are commonly crafted from metal wire that has been twisted into a
U-shape, whereas wire rings can be either circular or semicircular in form. Both fulfill the
function of securing the paper bag in position without causing harm to the fragile flowers.

10. Field Notebook

The field notebook is used to record essential observations related to the breeding process. This
encompasses specific information such as the number of pollinations, dates of self-pollination
or removal of male organs, the timing of flowering and ripening, the number of seeds generated
in fertilized flowers, and traits of chosen plants in subsequent generations.
 EXERCISE-1

Objective- Enlist the tools that are required/ essential for vegetable breeding along with
precautions.
Material Used-
Sr. no. Equipment/Tool Uses/Importance

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
Precautions-
 Practical Exercise-2
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology of the tomato

Botanical Name: Solanum lycopersicum L.

Family: Solanaceae
Chromosome no- 24
Flowers are produced in three different ways: individually, in a simple cluster, and in branching
clusters. A 'truss' refers to each individual flower cluster. A truss contains a total of five to
twelve flowers. Each individual flower is attached to a short pedicel that is narrowed at the
middle, indicating the location of the abscission layer. The calyx or sepals are green, often
consisting of six alternating structures that are pendent, perfect, and hypogynous. They exhibit
a high level of persistence. The corolla or petals exhibit rotation and possess a small tube with
six lobes, displaying a yellow or pale-yellow hue. The stamens consist of six units, each
including two elongated compartments. The base is connected to the corolla tube, and the
filaments are joined together at the top, making a bright yellow cone. The flower has six fused
carpels and the ovary at the base usually has six compartments, each containing a central fleshy
placenta. The style initially exhibits brevity and subsequently extends in length. The petioles,
peduncles, stem, and flower buds are completely covered in trichomes.

The flower at the base of the truss is the most mature and will bloom first. Flowering occurs
from 6 to 11 am. Either on the same day or the following day, anthers split open lengthwise to
release pollen. This pollen can easily be deposited on the stigma found in most varieties within
the anther cone. Naturally, this flower's structure promotes self-pollination. Therefore, in
controlled environments, gently shaking the truss is done artificially to enhance fruit set.
Around 210C is the ideal temperature for pollination.
 EXERCISE-2

Objective- Write about the floral biology of the tomato and draw a detailed diagram of
floral parts.
Floral biology of tomato-
Floral diagram of tomato-
 Practical Exercise-3
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology of the brinjal

Botanical Name: Solanum melongena L.

Family: Solanaceae
Chromosome no- 24

Eggplant, cultivated as an annual crop, typically grows to heights ranging from 1 to 2

meters. Its flowers are large, violet-colored, and either solitary or in clusters of two or more.
Each individual flower is perfect, complete, actinomorphic, and hermaphrodite. The corolla
of the flower is predominantly purple, although white corollas are occasionally observed.
Calyx is five lobed, gamosepalous, and persistent with or without spines depending on the
cultivar types, forming a cup-like structure at the base. Dark yellow anthers emerge from
the base of the petals and are longer than the filaments, with five stamens which are free
and inserted at the throat of the corolla. Anthers are cone-shaped, free, and with apical
dehiscence. The ovary is positioned superiorly, hypogynous, bicarpellary, sycarpous, and
with basal placentation.
 Long styled Medium styled Short styled Pseudo-Short styled

(Krishnamurthi and Subramaniam, 1954)

The length of the style varies among individual flowers, influencing the likelihood of fruit
development, with four types of flowers reported depending on the length of styles: (i) long
styled with big ovary, (ii) medium styled with medium-sized ovary, (iii) pseudoshort styled
with a rudimentary ovary, and (iv) true short styled with a very rudimentary ovary. This
variability in style length is known as heterostyly, where the stigma may align with the tip
of the anthers, be positioned just below them, or slightly protrude, making it visible
externally.
 EXERCISE-3

Objective- Write the details about heterostyly and draw a detailed diagram of heterostyly.
Floral details of heterostyly-
Diagram of heterostyly-
 Practical Exercise-4
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology of the okra

Botanical Name: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench

Family: Malvaceae
Chromosome no- 24
The flowers of okra, ranging from 4 to 8 cm in diameter, boast five petals in shades varying
from white to yellow, often exhibiting a reddish or purplish mark at the base of each petal.
Remarkably, these flowers fade away within a single day. Their structure embodies both
hermaphroditism and self-compatibility. Typically, the flower bud emerges at the junction of
each leaf, appearing after the growth of 6th to 8th leaf, contingent on the specific variety.
Initially, the stem's apex carries around 3 to 4 nascent flowers, yet as the plant enters a phase
of abundant flowering, this number can escalate to as many as 10 buds on a single apex. With
the elongation of the stem, the lowermost buds blossom into flowers.
Although there might be intervals of 2, 3, or more days between the development of each
flower, only one flower ever emerges on a stem. From initiation to full bloom, a flower bud
matures over a span of approximately 22 to 26 days. Encircling the style is a staminal column,
which can bear an excess of 100 anthers. Pollination occurs as the pollen grains make contact
with the stigmas, facilitated either by the elongation of the staminal column or through insect
activity. Consequently, okra flowers possess self-fertilizing capabilities. Notably, the pollen
grains are sizable, featuring numerous pores, each potentially serving as a conduit for pollen
tube growth, thus enabling the development of multiple tubes from a single grain.

Genetic factors and environmental variables, such as temperature and humidity, both affect the
size, colour, and lifetime of okra flowers. Studies on different okra cultivars indicate that the
emergence of flower buds usually occurs approximately three to four weeks after the first
planting, and the first bloom normally opens around six weeks thereafter. After the onset of
flowering, it typically persists for a duration of approximately one to two months. Flowering
typically takes place in the morning, with pollen being released from the anthers before the
flowers fully open, which may result in self-pollination. The peak of pollen productivity occurs
at flower opening, whereas stored pollen becomes nonviable within 24 hours under specified
temperature and humidity conditions. The stigmas are most responsive during the day of
blossoming, with some receptivity being found on the day preceding and after. Okra flowers
exhibit diurnal blooming, opening in the morning, undergoing pollination, and thereafter
closing. They then undergo rapid deterioration, withering by the next morning. Okra plants
possess hermaphroditic blooms, which means they have both male and female reproductive
organs. This allows them to undergo self-pollination, however they can also attract bees and
undergo some level of cross-pollination. Okra exhibits a strong self-pollination mechanism, as
evidenced by the lack of negative effects caused by inbreeding.
 EXERCISE-4

Objective- Write the details about the floral biology of okra and draw a detailed diagram.
Floral biology of okra-
Diagram of okra flower-
 Practical Exercise-5
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology of carrot

Botanical Name: Dacus carota

Family: Apiaceae
Chromosome no- 18
The carrot's inflorescence is a complex umbel. At maturity, a primary umbel can possess more
than 1000 blooms, while secondary, tertiary, and quaternary umbels have a smaller number of
flowers. The process of floral development follows a centripetal pattern, meaning that the
flowers that open up first are located on the outer borders of the outer umbellets. A carrot is a
protandrous plant. Once the filament is straightened, the pollen is released and the stamens
promptly drop. Subsequently, the petals expand completely and the style lengthens. The style
is comprised of two distinct components.

The petals of petaloid plants are long-lasting, unlike the petals of brown-anther, male sterile
plants. Flowers exhibit epigyny. The flower consists of five tiny sepals, five petals, five
stamens, and two carpels. Emasculation is a demanding and time-consuming task. Once the
first bud in an umbel begins to bloom, the entire umbel of the female parent is enclosed in a
bag made of muslin or fabric. The flowers are removed on a daily basis until they have reached
their maximum level of blooming. The anthers are extracted from the outer flowers in the outer
whorl of umbellets at an early stage of their opening, until a satisfactory number of flowers
have been emasculated. The unopened central florets in the emasculated umbellets and any
umbellets that flower late are eliminated. Therefore, only the castrated flowers remain on the
female inflorescence within the bag. To assure pollination, a pollen-bearing umbel from a
previously protected male plant is put into the bag of the female parent, along with several
house-flies. Each morning, for several consecutive days, the male umbel is delicately rubbed
against the emasculated umbel to facilitate artificial cross-pollination. Occasionally, a few
blossoming umbels from each parent are placed together in a fabric cage together with a
number of house-flies. Seeds from each parent are planted in rows that are next to each other.
Identification of the hybrids and parents may not always be possible, but if feasible, it is
important to do appropriate roguing to eliminate the self-pollinated plants.
 EXERCISE-5

Objective- Write the details about the floral biology of carrot and draw detail diagram of
flower.
Floral details of carrot-
Diagram of carrot flower-
 Practical Exercise-6
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology with pollination mechanism of radish.

Botanical Name: Raphanus sativus

Family: Cruciferae
Chromosome no- 18
The edible component of radishes originates from the primary root and hypocotyl, and the
inflorescence is a typical terminal receme of cruciferae. Here is some information about the
biology of flowers. The blooms are typically white in colour, and they are rather little. Four of
the sepals are upright, while four of the petals are clawed. As a result of the sporophytic
system's self-incompatibility, radishes are capable of being cross-pollinated. It has a significant
impact on the development of depression in self-awareness. It has a strong attraction to insects.
Honey bees and flower flies that are found in the wild are the primary pollinators of this plant.
Receptivity to stigma is maintained for up to four days after anthesis has occurred.

Bud-pollination is a method that can be utilised to achieve selfing. Two days before the flower
buds are to open, they are pollinated by their own pollen. This is accomplished by applying
fresh pollen from flowers that have been bagged from the same plant in separate occasions.
While bud-pollination is taking place, emasculation is not required. A muslin cloth bag should
be placed over the particular branch that contains the buds after they have been pollinated in
order to prevent the buds from being exposed to pollen from other sources. In the process of
crossing, the same method is utilised as in the process of bud-pollination; however, in the
crossing process, the buds of the female parent are emasculated one day before they open, and
they are pollinated by pollen that is collected from the flowers of the male parent, which were
also bagged before opening. The fake pollination is performed by hand by shaking the pollen
over the stigma directly from the buds of the male parent that have just been opened but have
been bagged in the course of the process.
 EXERCISE-6

Objective- Write the details about the floral biology of radish and draw detailed diagram of
flower.
Floral details of radish-
Diagram of radish flower-
 Practical Exercise-7
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology of onion.

Botanical Name: Allium cepa

Family: Alliaceae
Chromosome no- 16
The floral structure of onion, referred to as an umbel, consists of several tiny inflorescences
known as cymes. The cymes consist of 5 to 10 distinct blooms and open in a precise order,
leading to a prolonged flowering period of two weeks or longer. Inside every intricate blossom,
a complex ensemble of reproductive structures emerges. There are six stamens, which are the
male reproductive components, positioned next to three carpels that are elaborately linked
together to form a single pistil. Surrounding these essential organs are six perianth segments,
delicately protecting the floral arrangement. Exploring farther into the centre of the flower
unveils the pistil's inner chamber, which contains three compartments called locules. Each
locule nurtures a pair of ovules, which have the potential to develop into seeds for future
generations. A delicate and captivating aura enhances the arrangement of flowers - nectarines,
hidden glands that release sugary nectar, enticing insects to participate in the age-old process
of cross-pollination.
The flowers' narrative unfolds with exactitude, guided by the tempo of protandry. Anthers,
which are the sacs that contain pollen, release their yellowish payload over a period of 3-4 days
before the pistil reaches its maximum height. Anthesis, the occurrence of blossoming, marks
the beginning of the day, revealing its magnificence during the early hours of the morning.
Throughout the day, the anthers gently burst open, releasing their valuable pollen between 7:00
AM and 5:00 PM. The next day, there is a peak in release from 9:30 AM to 5:00 PM. During
this period of intense activity, pollen reaches its highest level of fertility, maximising the
likelihood of successful pollination. While pollen falls from the anthers, the stigma, which is
the receptive tip of the pistil, patiently waits for the moment when it becomes ready.
Approximately three to four days after the initial release of pollen, the stigma becomes active
and ready for fertilisation, showcasing the plant's careful coordination of its protandrous
reproductive process. Protandry is the dominant factor in this complex process of life, creating
a favourable atmosphere for the exchange of pollen between different plants. This ensures the
continuation of the eternal cycle of floral attractiveness and genetic variation.
 EXERCISE-7

Objective- Write the details about the floral biology of onion and draw a detailed diagram
of flower.
Floral details of onion-
Diagram of onion flower-
 Practical Exercise-8
❖ Objective-

To study about the floral biology of Pea.

Botanical Name: Pisum sativum

Family: Leguminosae
Chromosome no- 14
The pea plant, a frequently cultivated winter annual herb for its seeds, demonstrates a fragile
growth pattern, depending on tendrils for climbing assistance. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
colonise the plant's roots, resulting in the development of separate nodules. The leaves of this
plant are pinnately complex and have modified terminal leaflets that function as tendrils.
Additionally, the base of the leaf is inflated and creates a structure called a pulvinus, which is
accompanied by leaf-like stipules.
Regarding floral biology, the plant's blooms are positioned on the side and can either be solitary
or organised in racemes. They possess the following characteristics: they are complete,
irregular, zygomorphic, bisexual, and slightly perigynous. The calyx is composed of five sepals
that are fused together, while the papilionaceous corolla is made up of five separate petals. The
largest petal, referred to as the standard or vexillum, is situated on the outermost part, with two
lateral petals on either side called wings or alae. The two innermost petals, known as keel or
carina, combine to create a structure shaped like a boat. Aestivation exhibits a vexillary
arrangement. The androecium is composed of ten stamens, with nine filaments fused together
in a bundle and one stamen remaining separate, diadelphous. The gynoecium is composed of a
single carpel, which has a one-chambered ovary with ovules organised in two rows. The
placentation is located at the edge, and the elongated ovary at the top produces a legume fruit
that splits open along both sutures. Seeds do not have endosperm and they undergo hypogeal
germination. The plant depicts the sporophyte generation, whereas the gametophytes,
represented by the pollen tube and embryo sac, are greatly diminished and dependent on the
sporophyte.
 EXERCISE-8

Objective- Write the details about the floral biology of pea and draw a detailed diagram of
flower.
Floral details of pea-
Diagram of pea flower-
 Practical Exercise-9
❖ Objective-

To study about the flower morphology of cucurbits.

Family- Cucurbitaceae

Flower morphology of cucurbits-

Cucurbit plants usually have five yellow petals, although there are few exceptions. For
example, the bottle gourd has white flowers, and pumpkins can have a variety of colours
ranging from creamy white to dark orange, depending on the specific species or cultivars. The
process of flowering in cucurbits usually begins with the emergence of staminate flowers,
which are then followed by the advent of pistillate or hermaphrodite blooms, depending on the
specific species or cultivars.
Flowering in cucurbit species/cultivars is subject to variation in the time of beginning
and cessation, as well as the duration between staminate and pistillate or hermaphrodite
blooms. These variations are driven by environmental conditions. In monoecious cucumber
plants, staminate flowers typically occur in the first three to six leaf axils, while pistillate
flowers emerge a few days later in the following leaf axils. Staminate flowers are consistently
generated on a daily or alternate-day basis, typically in groups, whereas pistillate blooms
appear individually and less frequently.
The proportion of male to female flowers can vary from 4:1 to 20:1 or higher, and is
affected by factors such as plant strength, environmental circumstances, and the presence of
already-formed fruits. After the fruit has formed and the number of female or bisexual flowers
decreases, the creation of male flowers may continue for several days or weeks. Cucurbits can
be differentiated between fruit-producing flowers and staminate flowers by the existence of a
substantial ovary at the base of the flower, which transforms into a fruit after pollination.
Usually, blooms that produce fruit have a stigma that is split into two to three halves above a
short and wide style. Conversely, staminate flowers have three to five stamens containing big
and adhesive pollen grains, which makes wind pollination ineffective.
The majority of cucurbit flower stigmas are able to receive pollen during the period of
flowering, with the highest level of receptivity happening shortly after the flower has opened.
The peak pollen viability occurs just after the flower opens, although in select species such as
the calabash gourd, the blooms open in the evening and remain viable until the next afternoon.
Stigma receptivity and pollen viability can be affected by environmental factors such as
elevated temperatures and aridity throughout the flowering process. Cucurbit blossoms
generally have a short lifespan of one day, although the exact date of when they open might
differ across different species and cultivated varieties. Flower opening and closing are also
influenced by temperature, sunshine, and humidity. Once flowers are closed, they do not open
again. Female flowers that are not properly pollinated, along with all male flowers, usually
wither and fall off within a few days of opening.
 EXERCISE-9

Objective- Write the details about the floral morphology of cucurbits.

Floral morphology of cucurbits-
 Practical Exercise-10
❖ Objective-

To study about self & cross pollination in vegetables.

Introduction
The processes of selfing and crossing are essential to crop improvement. Depending on the
floral structure and usual mode of pollination, several techniques are used to guarantee either
self-pollination or cross-pollination of certain plants. In most cases, cross-pollination is more
difficult in species that self-pollinate mainly because of how difficult it is to stop self-
pollination in closed flowers. It is essential to safeguard the blooms during the selfing of cross-
pollinated species by bagging them or using other similar techniques to stop spontaneous cross-
pollination. The method a breeder uses to guarantee self- or cross-pollination of particular
plants depends on the species being studied because pollination is determined by the floral
structure. Consequently, it is important for breeders to become knowledgeable about the crop's
flowering patterns.

Self Pollination

For example, hand pollination and hand emasculation are traditional methods used with
tomatoes. Breeders often choose types preserved through selfing as parents, selecting two
parents with favourable combining skills. There are situations where being pure takes years of
selfing. These hybrids are assessed at one or more sites after a wide range of parent plants are
crossed in different configurations. Sometimes a particular combining ability is examined to
find possible hybrids. The superiority of hybrids is usually evaluated on the basis of each
vehicle's particular performance. The most common methods used to create hybrid seeds are
manual emasculation and hand pollination.

Cross Pollination
In a 12:1 ratio, parents of the pollen and seed are grown in wholesome environments. Twelve
to fifteen hours prior to anthesis, the seed parent is emasculated using forceps, a needle, or a
fingernail. Pollination happens the next morning after emasculation, which often happens in
the afternoon. Usually, one uses fresh pollen that has been extracted from anthers with an
electric vibrator, forceps, or needle. In standard storage settings, pollen can be kept for up to
23 days. After pollination, the ovary starts to swell within 4-5 days, and 2-3 sepals of the
fertilised flowers are removed for simple identification. Fruit set from hybridization usually
reaches over 90%.

Strategies for Emasculation-

Hand Emasculation: For species with large flowers, this technique includes removing anthers
with forceps prior to anther dehiscence, usually on the day before dehiscence, between 4 and 6
PM. To avoid confusion, it is best to remove any close young blooms. Using forceps, the chosen
flower's corolla is opened, and the anthers are carefully extracted. There are occasions when
the epipetalous stamens and complete corolla are eliminated. Chilli, tomato, and brinjal are a
few examples.
Suction Method: This method, which works best for species with small flowers, entails
emasculation as soon as the bloom opens in the morning. The anthers from the blooms are
removed using a thin glass or rubber tube that is connected to a suction hose. Suction control
must be used carefully to prevent gynecium damage. Up to 10% of self-pollination may still
happen despite best efforts. Water washing the stigma can assist lessen self-pollination, but
total eradication is difficult.
Hot Water Treatment: This technique takes use of the pollen grains' temperature sensitivity.
Crops have different requirements for temperature and time, which are specific to their species.
For example, sorghum needs to be treated for 10 minutes at 42–48°C, while rice needs to be
treated for 10 minutes at 40–44°C. The inflorescence is treated by submerging it entirely in hot
water prior to the dehiscence of the anther and the opening of the flower.
Cold Treatment: This method, which is comparable to hot water treatment, destroys pollen
grains only, causing no harm to the gynecium.
Genetic Emasculation: The requirement for emasculation is removed by genetic or cytoplasmic
male sterility. Commercial hybrid production of cole crops, chilli, onions, muskmelon, etc. can
benefit from this technique. Emasculation may not be required in species that are self-
incompatible or in cases of protogyny because self-fertilization is inhibited.
Application of Gametocide: Male gametes are specifically targeted by chemical hybridising
agents, which do not impact female gametes. FW450, for instance, is used in tomatoes.

Flowers or inflorescences are quickly covered with bags of the right size after emasculation to
avoid accidental cross-pollination. The emasculated flowers are then gently given pollen grains
that have been extracted from the preferred male parent; this process is usually done in the
morning when the blooms are at their peak of bloom. The flowers are promptly packaged to
preserve isolation after this simulated crossover. Every bloom is then tagged so that it may be
identified. Using a thread, tags are attached to the flower or to the inflorescence. Important
details are written in pencil on these tags, such as the number of flowers that have undergone
emasculation, the date of pollination, and the specifics of parentage. Each breeding event is
accurately documented and tracked thanks to this painstaking tagging process.
 EXERCISE-10

Objective- Write the details about the self and cross-pollination along with emasculation
strategies in vegetable crops.
Self & Cross poliination-
Strategies of the emasculation-
 Practical Exercise-11
❖ Objective-

To study about the nursery management in vegetable crops

Introduction
A vegetable nursery management refers to a location or facility where immature vegetable
crops are cultivated and cared for until they are ready to be permanently planted. A vegetable
nursery is a facility dedicated to cultivating vegetable seedlings prior to their transplantation in
the primary cultivation areas. Seeds are typically used for cultivating crops and nurturing
seedlings. Certain vegetable plants are unable to grow immediately by sowing their seeds into
the plot. For vegetable plants like tomato, eggplant, Rayo, cabbage and cauliflower, it is
necessary to first cultivate seedlings and then transfer them to the plot.
Requirements

A young plant, whether grown from seed or through vegetative reproduction, demands
meticulous attention, particularly in its initial phases of growth. Furthermore, it is important to
shield them from unfavourable temperatures, heavy rainfall, arid conditions, strong winds, as
well as a multitude of pests and diseases. When little vegetable seeds are planted directly in the
field, the process of germination is not successful and the young plant grows at a very slow
pace, taking a significant amount of time to reach maturity. Additionally, there may be
constraints on the specific season during which full development in the field is possible. In
order to address these challenges, vegetable plants are cultivated in a nursery prior to being
transferred to the field.
Site selection

Selecting the appropriate site for a nursery is essential for its efficient management. Important
considerations for choosing a location for cultivating vegetable crops include ensuring effective
drainage to avoid waterlogging, sufficient exposure to sunlight, proximity to a water source for
convenient irrigation, and protection from both domestic and wild animals to safeguard the
nursery area.
Soil preparation

The soil must have a composition ranging from loam to sandy loam, with a loose and crumbly
texture. It should be abundant in organic matter and have good drainage. Additionally, the soil
pH should be precisely 7.0 in order to cultivate vegetable seedlings successfully. The process
of preparing the soil for planting involves thorough cultivation of the nursery site, which can
be achieved through methods such as soil turning, ploughing with a shovel, and then doing 2
to 3 rounds of hoeing using a cultivator. Clear the field of all clods, stones and weeds, and
ensure that the area is levelled. Mix 100 kilogrammes of thoroughly decomposed and finely
textured farmyard manure with around 500 grammes of vermicompost per square metre, and
incorporate it into the soil.
Soil treatment

Implementing soil solarization for a duration of approximately 4 to 5 weeks on the tilled soil
that is shielded by a plastic tunnel is more advantageous. To prepare the soil for sowing, it is
recommended to thoroughly wet the soil 15-20 days in advance using 4 to 5 litres of water per
square metre. This water should be mixed with a 1.5 to 2% concentration of formalin solution.
After wetting the soil, it should be covered with a plastic sheet. The application of fungicides
such as Captan and Thiram can effectively eliminate infections in a nursery area at a rate of 5-
6 grammes per square metre. Furadon and Heptachlor are pesticides that should be mixed into
dry soil at a rate of 4-5 gm/m2. The mixture should be incorporated to a depth of 15 to 20 cm
for nursery preparation. Provide a continuous supply of hot steam for a minimum of 4 hours
under a polythene sheet cover to prepare the soil for the vegetable seed bed.
Nursery bed preparation

The preparation of nursery beds is subject to variation based on the season and the choice of
crop. Raised beds are appropriate for the rainy season, whilst flatbeds are favoured during
winter and summer, with the exception of crops such as onions in the Rabi season, which also
necessitate flatbeds. In order to achieve consistent and optimal seed germination rates, it is
necessary to have a finely textured soil that is appropriately saturated with moisture. Seedlings
can be cultivated in various containers, such as flower pots, polythene bags, potting plugs,
wooden trays, or earthen pots, when the weather circumstances are not ideal. The soil mixture
for these pots normally comprises a 1:1:1 ratio of soil, sand and well-rotted FYM (Farm Yard
Manure) or leaf mould. The procedure for preparing nursery beds entails constructing elevated
seedbeds, integrating compost, creating shallow furrows, spreading seeds, lightly covering with
soil, compacting firmly, applying mulch, and providing sufficient hydration. Avoiding the use
of new manure on the seedbeds is crucial as it can be detrimental to the seedlings. Additionally,
once the seedlings have emerged, it is important to remove the mulch to expose them to
sunshine. Young seedlings want an ample amount of water, however, one week prior to
transplantation, the water supply should be diminished in order to toughen them. Tomato
seedlings are considered suitable for transplantation when they have developed 3 to 5 true
leaves or have reached a height of 15-25 cm. Onion seedlings, on the other hand, are ready for
transplantation when they have grown 3 to 5 fully developed leaves. Transplanting is most
effectively performed during overcast weather conditions or in the late afternoon.
Sowing of seeds

Various techniques are employed to sow vegetable seeds in the nursery once the seedbed has
been prepared. An often used technique is the broadcast method, which involves evenly
dispersing seeds across a prepared nursery bed and subsequently covering them with a layer of
well decomposed and sifted FYM or compost. Nevertheless, a significant disadvantage of this
approach is the uneven dispersion of seeds, resulting in dense proliferation. Notwithstanding
this disadvantage, the broadcast approach continues to be extensively utilised and
implemented. Line sowing is a highly successful technique that is widely regarded as the
optimal approach for spreading seeds in a nursery. This technique involves creating shallow
furrows that run parallel to the breadth of the bed, with a usual depth of 0.5 to 1 cm and a
spacing of 5 cm. Subsequently, the seeds are sowed or positioned separately with a spacing of
approximately 1 cm along these designated lines. Following the act of sowing, the seeds are
enveloped with a finely blended combination of soil, sand, and FYM in equal proportions.
Subsequently, a gentle application of water using a small watering can with a fine nozzle is
given to aid in the process of seed germination.
Irrigation

For optimal growth, vegetable nursery beds necessitate gentle irrigation using a rose can until
the seeds begin to sprout. It is essential to rapidly remove any extra precipitation or irrigated
water from the field when needed to avoid waterlogging, as an excessive amount of water can
cause plant mortality.
Weed management

Ensuring prompt removal of weeds in the nursery is essential for promoting the growth and
well-being of young plants. Weeds can be eliminated by manually removing them or by using
pre-emergence herbicides like Stomp. To apply Stomp, mix 3ml of the herbicide with one litre
of water and spray it onto the nursery bed after sowing the seeds and covering them.
Furthermore, it is crucial to swiftly tackle prevalent problems such as damping-off of seedlings,
light blight disease, and infestations by pests like leaf miners and borers in order to maintain
maximum plant health. Consistent surveillance and prompt action are crucial elements of
efficient plant maintenance in the nursery.
Disease management

Pathogenic infections frequently lead to seedling stress symptoms including as damping off,
wilt, root rot, rust, and powdery mildew, which ultimately hinder the growth of seedlings.
These infections might come from the soil, seeds, or sources in the air. Nurseries created on
recently deforested ground have a lower probability of hosting parasitic organisms. If
seedlings exhibit stunted growth, it could be an indication of problems such as soil fertility
depletion, excessive irrigation, or incorrect placement of seedlings in shaded locations. To
mitigate the risk of such diseases, employing sterilisation techniques on the nursery mixture
and applying pre-treatment of vegetable seeds with fungicides such as Captan can prove to be
efficacious methods. In the event that a disease does manifest, it is possible to control the
problem by identifying the specific pathogen responsible through the expression of symptoms
and thereafter using suitable fungicides.
Pest management

Nursery stock can suffer considerable harm from many categories of insects, which can be
classified into three primary groups: major nursery pests, minor nursery pests, and non-insect
pests. Significant pests in nurseries include white grubs, cutworms, termites, and crickets, while
less significant pests include defoliators, sapsuckers, and grasshoppers. Non-insect pests
encompass nematodes and vertebrate pests. To accomplish effective control of insect damage,
it is necessary to maintain sufficient sanitation in the nursery area, execute suitable cultural
practices, and use chemical and biological insecticides as necessary.
 EXERCISE-11

Objective- Write the details about the nursery management of vegetable crops.
Nursery management of vegetable crops-
Nursery management of vegetable crops-
Nursery management of vegetable crops-
 Practical Exercise-12
❖ Objective-

To study about the types of mulching.

Introduction
Mulching is the act of placing a protective layer over the soil to preserve moisture and manage
the growth of unwanted plants. Additionally, it serves as a factor that contributes to the fertility
of the soil. Agricultural mulching can be carried out using either organic or inorganic materials,
and can be either permanent or temporary, depending on the specific needs of the farmers.
Organic mulch elements include compost, dried leaves, hay, and straw. Various types of plastic
mulching sheets are available in the agriculture business for use as inorganic mulching.
Mulching farming can be implemented in diverse locations such as farms, gardens, and
landscapes to conserve soil moisture, manage weed growth, regulate temperature, and enhance
soil health. In addition to being used in gardens, landscapes, and farms, mulching is also utilised
in orchards, vegetable rows, raised beds, paths, around trees, in containers, nurseries, and
greenhouses, depending on the unique objectives and needs.
Types of mulches

➢ Organic mulch
➢ Inorganic mulch
Organic mulch
This kind of mulching involves the use of organic materials known as organic mulch. Below
is a compilation of commonly utilised mulch components for organic mulching.
Lawn trimmings-
Grass clippings or mowed lawn grass are highly favoured organic mulch materials by farmers
for soil mulching. A small covering of grass clippings is evenly distributed over the young
seedlings, while a substantial layer of dried grass is subsequently applied in the cultivated area.
Furthermore, it is advisable for farmers to refrain from utilising grass clippings that have been
treated with pesticides as a form of mulch. Grass clippings decompose and provide nitrogen to
the soil.
Straw and hay-
These are the most often utilised organic mulching materials in agriculture, aside from others.
The reason for this is that straw and hay have a longer lifespan compared to other materials
commonly used as mulch. Additionally, they contribute to enhancing soil fertility through their
breakdown. Straw and hay contribute to the maintenance of a cool environment by reflecting
sun away from the soil's surface. There is a possibility that the crop may become infested with
weeds, but the use of a substantial amount of straw can serve as a preventive measure.
Furthermore, it is advisable to provide nitrogen fertiliser to the soil prior to applying straw
mulch, as straw contains a significant amount of carbon and depletes nitrogen from the soil.
Leaves-
Deciduous tree leaves, when they fall, are the optimal material for soil mulching. Due to their
excellent insulating properties, they are particularly beneficial for root vegetables such as
carrots and parsnips.
Peat moss-
This is a durable mulch material that has long-lasting properties and is renowned for its ability
to reduce the soil's pH. Therefore, it is employed in crops that require acidic soil conditions.
Inorganic mulch
Farmers choose for the use of inorganic mulching techniques, namely using inorganic mulch
materials like as plastic, when organic mulch is unavailable. The mulching sheets are offered
in various colours and sizes to meet specific needs. The following are the types of inorganic
mulch.
Transparent mulch-
The translucent mulch sheet permits the passage of light and facilitates the growth of weeds.
Nevertheless, the application of herbicide on the inside surface of the film effectively controls
weed growth. This particular variety of mulching sheet is employed in nurseries for the purpose
of soil solarisation, with the objective of achieving optimal seed germination and a nursery
environment devoid of any diseases. Additionally, it serves a crucial function in mountainous
regions by raising the soil temperature throughout the winter season.
Black colour mulch-
Dark-colored organic material used for covering soil, typically made from decomposed plant
matter. In contrast, the black mulch inhibits the passage of sunlight into the soil. As a result,
the photosynthetic process ceased behind the black coating. Utilising this form of mulching in
agriculture helps to manage weed development and enhance soil warmth.
Double coloured Mulch-
These mulching papers are designed to selectively block specific wavelengths of energy from
the sun. Thus, alterations in sunshine have a direct impact on the growth and maturation of
plants. These films are believed to regulate various traits of a plant, such as fruit colour, size,
root growth, height, and more. Furthermore, these pigmented mulching sheets have a reduced
heat re-emission capacity, so aiding in the preservation of a cooler leaf temperature. Among
the most favoured types of double-colored mulch are Red-black, White-black, Silver-black,
and Yellow-black/brown. Each type of crop has its own unique qualities and requires specific
support from growers.
Biodegradable Mulch-
Two categories of degradable mulching paper may be found in the market: photo-degradable
and bio-degradable mulch. The photo-degradable Mulch decomposes when exposed to sunlight
within a specific timeframe. Likewise, the biodegradable Mulch breaks down in natural
environmental conditions after a specific duration.
 EXERCISE-12

Objective- Write the details about the mulching and their types.
Mulching and their types-
Mulching and their types-
 Practical Exercise-13
❖ Objective-

To study about the selecting the mulches and techniques of mulches.

Selection of mulches-

Choosing the appropriate mulch is crucial since different mulches possess specific features that
are essential for maximising the benefits of mulching. Organic mulch retains its properties
without alteration, whereas inorganic or artificial mulch should be chosen based on their
individual attributes and your farming needs. When selecting mulch material, it is crucial to
consider the following key factors:

Width-
The thickness of the material has minimal or negligible effect on Mulching, save for the
solarization of the soil. The optimal thickness for an artificial mulch film used for vegetable
crop mulching is 15-30 microns. The ideal thickness for orchids is 100-150 microns, whereas
for short-duration crops, the mulch sheet should be 25 microns thick. The measurement of the
extent of something from side to side. The width, however, should be equal to the space
between rows. Under typical cultivation conditions, the film's average width should be
approximately 1 or 1.5 metres.

Colour-
The hue of the Mulch has an impact on the soil temperature, the ambient temperatures
surrounding the plants, the proliferation of weeds, the presence of insects, and the salinity of
the soil.

Perforation-
To ensure optimal distribution of water and fertilisers to the crop, it is advisable to choose
unperforated Mulch. However, if your intention is to avoid the accumulation of stagnant water
around the plants, it would be advisable to opt for the use of perforated film. Nevertheless, it
may promote the proliferation of unwanted vegetation.
Techniques of mulches-

Surface mulching-
Surface mulching is the direct application of a layer of mulch material onto the soil surface
surrounding plants. This process aids with the preservation of soil moisture by reducing
evaporation, inhibiting weed growth by blocking sunlight, and regulating soil temperature.
Typically, surface mulching involves the use of organic materials like as straw, hay, or grass
clippings. Alternatively, plastic or fabric mulches can also be used.
Strip mulching-
It refers to a method of mulching where a layer of organic material is applied in a narrow strip
along the base of plants or crops. This mulching technique involves the application of Mulch
in thin strips or rows between crop rows, leaving the space between rows unprotected.
This approach takes into account improved water infiltration and air circulation in the soil,
while also offering weed control and moisture retention in the mulched areas.
Plastic mulching or landscaping fabric is commonly employed for strip mulching due to its
ability to be spread in perfect rows using specialised equipment.
Whole-field mulching-
It refers to the practice of covering the entire field with a layer of organic material, such as
straw or wood chips, to improve soil health and prevent weed growth. Whole-field mulching
involves applying a layer of mulch material throughout the entire field, providing even
protection and benefits to the entire soil surface. This mulching technique is commonly
employed in orchards, vineyards, and perennial crop systems where weed management,
moisture retention, and soil vitality are of utmost importance. Organic mulch materials, such
as straw or compost, can be evenly distributed across the field using equipment, while plastic
mulching can be applied using plastic mulch layers.
In-row mulching
It involves placing mulch directly around individual plants or rows of crops, while keeping the
area between rows exposed. The use of this mulching technique is highly beneficial as it serves
to safeguard young plants against weed growth, maintain soil moisture, and minimise soil
erosion in the vicinity of the root zone. Organic mulch materials like as wood chips, shredded
bark, or compost can be used as in-row mulch to provide a protective layer that allows for the
interchange of air and water. Ground cover vegetation used to protect soil and provide benefits
to plants.
Living Mulch-
It is the implementation of low-growing cover crops or long-lasting ground covers between
rows of primary crops to provide continuous soil mulching and benefits. Cover crops such as
clover, vetch, or rye can help to control weeds, enhance soil structure, and improve nutrient
cycling, while also acting as a living mulch. This mulching technique also enhances the
presence of beneficial insects and pollinators, contributing to the general health and resilience
of the ecosystem. Through the utilisation of these mulching techniques, farmers can enhance
soil health, conserve water, inhibit weed growth, and enhance crop output in a sustainable and
ecologically sound manner. Choosing the appropriate mulching method depends on factors
such as the type of crop, the environment, soil conditions, and farming goals.
 EXERCISE-13

Objective- Write the details about the selection of mulch and techniques of mulching.
Mulching and their types-
Techniques of mulching-
 Practical Exercise-14
❖ Objective-

To study about the types of greenhouse on shape based.

Introduction
Currently, almost 92% of cultivated plants are cultivated in open fields, exposed to the
elements. Throughout the course of agricultural history, farmers have faced the difficulties
presented by natural growth circumstances. In locations characterised by severe climates where
conventional crops face difficulties in flourishing, humans have developed technological
techniques to nurture high-value crops by protecting them from excessive temperatures. The
method referred to as Greenhouse Technology is designed to establish optimal environmental
conditions for the growth of plants. Greenhouses provide protection for plants against
unfavourable weather conditions, including wind, cold, precipitation, intense sunlight, severe
temperatures, as well as pests and diseases. Growers can create optimum microclimates for
cultivation by building framed or inflatable buildings covered with transparent or translucent
materials. These structures provide regulated conditions that promote optimal plant
development and productivity.
The commonly followed types of greenhouses based on shape are:
❖ Lean to type greenhouse.
❖ Even span type greenhouse.
❖ Uneven span type greenhouse.
❖ Ridge and furrow type.
❖ Saw tooth type.
❖ Quonset greenhouse.

1. Lean to type greenhouse.

A lean-to design is employed when a greenhouse is positioned adjacent to the side of an already
existing structure. The structure is constructed adjacent to a building, utilising the pre-existing
framework for one or more of its sides. Typically, it is connected to a house, although it can
also be connected to other structures. The building's roof is expanded using suitable greenhouse
covering material and the space is effectively enclosed. It generally faces the southern side.
The lean-to style greenhouse is restricted to plant benches arranged in either a single or double
row, with a combined width ranging from 7 to 12 feet. Its length can match that of the building
to which it is connected. It should be oriented in the optimal direction to receive sufficient
sunlight.

Benefits:
Proximity to Utilities: Due to its attachment to an existing building, a lean-to greenhouse is
typically situated in close proximity to vital utilities such as electricity, water, and heat sources.
This close proximity can streamline the installation and operation of these services.

Economical: The lean-to form is typically more cost-effective to construct in comparison to

independent greenhouses. It utilises an already existing framework, minimising the
requirement for more resources and workforce.
Solar Energy Utilisation: The lean-to greenhouse is strategically positioned on the south side
of an existing building to maximise the capture of sunlight. This design enables optimal
utilisation of natural light, hence minimising the requirement for artificial illumination during
daylight hours. The current structure of the building acts as a support for one or more sides of
the greenhouse, reducing the requirement for extra structural components. This has the
potential to streamline the construction process and lower expenses.

Drawbacks:
Restricted Capacity: The dimensions of the current structure impose limitations on the size of
a lean-to greenhouse. This constraint can hinder the potential growing area, rendering it
unsuitable for large-scale operations.
The close proximity to the existing building may result in less access to natural light and limited
choices for ventilation. Plants situated on the side of the greenhouse that is connected to the
building can experience less exposure to sunlight, and the structure may have restricted air
circulation.
Temperature regulation can pose greater difficulties in a lean-to greenhouse. The presence of
a supporting wall can influence temperature regulation by absorbing and emitting heat. In
addition, the transparent cover can result in significant heat dissipation, particularly in colder
weather.
Height Constraints: The maximum height of the greenhouse may be limited by the height of
the supporting wall. This constraint could impact the variety of plants that can be cultivated
and the overall efficiency of the construction.
To summarise, the lean-to type greenhouse has cost, utility closeness, and sunshine utilisation
benefits, but it also has restrictions regarding size, light exposure, ventilation, and temperature
control. Thorough evaluation of these elements is crucial when selecting this design for
particular agricultural or horticultural requirements.
2. Even span type greenhouse

The even-span is a conventional and full-sized construction, where the two roof slopes have
the same pitch and width. This design is specifically intended for small-sized greenhouses and
is built on flat terrain. The structure is affixed to a home at one of its gable ends. It has the
capacity to accommodate either two or three rows of plant benches. An even-span greenhouse
incurs a higher cost compared to a lean-to type, nevertheless, it offers enhanced design freedom
and accommodates a larger number of plants. Due to its larger dimensions and increased
surface area of glass, the even-span structure will incur higher heating expenses.
The design exhibits superior aerodynamics compared to a lean-to structure, facilitating optimal
air circulation to ensure consistent temperatures during the winter heating season. Unless the
structure is in close proximity to a heated building, a distinct heating system is required. The
structure will contain two side seats, two walkways, and a spacious centre bench. There are
several types of single and multiple span structures that can be used in different locations of
India. The typical span length for a single span is generally between 5 and 9 metres, with a
total length of approximately 24 metres. The height ranges from 2.5 to 4.3 metres.
3. Uneven span type

Hilly terrain is used for the construction of this particular sort of greenhouse. Because the
width of the roofs is not uniform, the construction can be adapted to accommodate the side
slopes of the hill. These greenhouses are not suitable for automation, which is one of the
reasons why they are not utilised very frequently these days.

4. Ridge and furrow type

The designs of this type make use of two or more A-frame greenhouses that are joined to one
another along the length of the eave. The eave functions as a furrow or gutter, removing snow
and rain that has melted away from the roof. Because the side wall that was previously there
between the greenhouses has been removed, the structure now consists of a single huge room.
Due to the fact that there is less exposed wall surface through which heat escapes, consolidation
of interior space results in a reduction in the amount of manpower required, a decrease in the
cost of automation, an improvement in personal management, and a reduction in fuel
consumption. Because the snow does not roll off the roofs of these greenhouses like it would
in the case of individual free standing greenhouses, but rather melts away, the snow loads need
to be taken into consideration while designing the frame specifications for these greenhouses.
The ridge and furrow greenhouses are still operational despite the snow loads.
5. Saw tooth type

This form of greenhouse is likewise comparable to ridge and furrow greenhouses, with the
exception that it allows for natural ventilation to be incorporated into the design. The saw-tooth
type greenhouse is responsible for the development of a particular natural ventilation flow
channel.

6. Quonset type greenhouse

This is a greenhouse in which the pipe arches or trusses are supported by pipe purling that runs
along the length of the greenhouse. Generally speaking, polyethylene is the substance that is
utilised for the covering of greenhouses of this kind. These types of greenhouses are often more
cost-effective than gutter-connected greenhouses, and they are beneficial in situations when a
small culture area that is set apart from others is necessary. In either a freestanding or standing
design, or in an interlocking ridge and furrow arrangement, these dwellings are joined to one
another on each side. The interlocking form of truss is characterised by a considerable amount
of overlap between the truss elements, which enables a bed of plants to develop between the
overlapping portions of neighbouring homes. There is therefore a single huge cultural area that
is available for a collection of dwellings of this sort, which is an arrangement that is more suited
to the automation and movement of labour.
 EXERCISE-14

Objective- Write the details about the types of greenhouses on shape based.
Green house and their types-
 Practical Exercise-15
❖ Objective-

To study about the types of greenhouses based on utility and construction.

Greenhouse based on utility-

Greenhouses can be categorised according to their functions or utilities, with two primary
varieties differentiated by their heating or cooling needs. Firstly, greenhouses that are
specifically designed for active heating are customised to regulate or increase temperatures
within the building, which is especially important during colder seasons or in places with cold
climates. These greenhouses usually have active heating systems, such as heaters or heat
pumps, to generate warmth, combined with insulation elements to reduce heat loss. Thermal
curtains or double-glazed windows can be added to improve the retention of heat. This category
is ideal for growing crops that flourish in higher temperatures or for initiating the growth of
seedlings at the beginning of the season. In contrast, greenhouses designed for active cooling
have the objective of reducing temperatures inside the structure, which is particularly important
in hot areas or during the summer season. These greenhouses utilise active cooling devices
such as fans, evaporative coolers, or air conditioning units to reduce heat accumulation.
Ventilation systems are crucial for facilitating air circulation and dispersing surplus heat,
frequently accompanied by the use of shade materials to minimise the impact of solar radiation.
They are well-suited for growing plants that are sensitive to heat or for activities that demand
accurate temperature regulation, such as tissue culture or propagation. By classifying
greenhouses into various categories according to their heating or cooling requirements,
cultivators can more effectively customise their greenhouse configurations to suit the precise
needs of their crops and environmental circumstances.
Greenhouses for active heating-
At night, the temperature inside the greenhouse drops. In order to prevent plants from being
damaged by freezing temperatures, it is necessary to provide a certain quantity of heat. The
heating requirements of a greenhouse are determined by the rate at which heat is dissipated to
the surrounding environment. Several techniques are employed to minimise heat loss,
including the use of double layer polyethylene, thermo pane windows (consisting of two layers
of factory sealed glass with a space of non-conductive air in between), as well as heating
systems such as unit heaters, central heat, radiant heat, and solar heating systems.
Greenhouses for actively cooling-
In order to promote optimal crop growth, it is advantageous to lower the temperatures within a
greenhouse throughout the summer season compared to the surrounding ambient temperatures.
Therefore, appropriate adjustments are made in the greenhouse to facilitate the intake of
significant amounts of cooled air. This type of greenhouse can include either an evaporative
cooling pad with a fan or fog cooling. This greenhouse is designed to allow for a roof opening
of 40% and, in certain instances, almost 100%.
Green house based on construction-

The choice of structure is mostly determined by the structural material, however the sort of
covering material also has an influence. The strength of the material and the number of
structural components employed to create tough tissues increase as the span increases. For
shorter durations, it is advisable to use uncomplicated designs such as hoops. Greenhouses can
be characterised based on their construction-
❖ Wooden framed structure.
❖ Pipe framed structure.
❖ Truss framed structure.

Wooden framed structure-

Typically, greenhouses with a span of less than 6 m only utilise wooden framed buildings. The
side pillars and columns are made of wood, and they are not supported by a truss. Pine wood
is frequently utilised because to its affordability and adequate strength. Locally sourced timber
exhibits excellent strength, durability, and machinability, making it suitable for construction
purposes.
Pipe framed structure

Pipes are utilised in the construction of greenhouses, particularly when the distance between
supports is approximately 12 metres. Typically, pipes are used to construct the side posts,
columns, cross ties, and purlins. In this variation, trusses are omitted.

Truss framed structure

Truss frames are utilised when the span of the greenhouse is 15m or more. A truss is created
by welding together flat steel, tubular steel, or angular iron to produce a structure that includes
rafters, chords, and struts. Struts are structural components that bear compressive forces, while
chords are structural components that bear tensile forces. The angle iron purlins are fastened to
each truss over the whole length of the greenhouse. Columns are exclusively employed in truss
frame houses that have a width of 21.3 metres or greater. The majority of glass houses are
constructed using truss frame structures, as these frames are very suitable for pre-fabrication.
 EXERCISE-14

Objective- Write the details about the types of greenhouses on utility and construction
based.
Green house and their types-
 Practical Exercise-16
❖ Objective-

To study about the types of greenhouses based on covering material.

Green house based on covering materials-

The greenhouse structure relies heavily on the covering materials, which play a crucial role.
The choice of covering materials has a direct impact on the greenhouse effect within the
building and can modify the air temperature inside the house. The frames and methods of
attachment also vary depending on the type of covering material. Greenhouses are categorised
into glass, plastic film, and rigid panel types based on the materials used for their covering.
Glass Greenhouses-

Prior to 1950, the only type of greenhouses that existed were those made entirely of glass, with
glass serving as the material used to cover them. The use of glass as a covering material has
the benefit of increased interior light intensity. These greenhouses have a higher rate of air
infiltration, resulting in reduced interior humidity and improved prevention of diseases. The
construction of glass greenhouses utilises lean-to, even span, and ridge and furrow designs.
Plastic film Greenhouses-

The greenhouse utilises flexible plastic sheets made from polyethylene, polyester, and
polyvinyl chloride as a covering material. Plastics have gained popularity as a covering
material for greenhouses due to its affordability and lower heating costs compared to glass
greenhouses. Plastic films have a significant drawback in that they have a limited lifespan. For
instance, the highest quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilised film has a lifespan of about four years.
Both the Quonset design and the gutter-connected design are appropriate for utilising this type
of covering material.

Rigid panel greenhouse-

Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fiberglass-reinforced plastic, acrylic, and polycarbonate rigid
panels are used as the covering material in quonset type frames or ridge and furrow type frames.
This material exhibits greater durability and maintains consistent light intensity throughout the
greenhouse, in contrast to glass or plastic. Durable panels of superior quality can have a lifespan
of up to 20 years. A significant drawback is the propensity of these panels to accumulate dust
and foster algae growth, leading to the darkening of the panels and consequent decrease in light
transmission. There is a substantial risk of a fire hazard.
 EXERCISE-16

Objective- Write the details about the types of greenhouses on covering based and shade
net.
Green house and their types-
 Practical Exercise-17
❖ Objective-

To study about the shade net along with its planning and considerations.

Introduction
The recent trend in global climate change, which is primarily caused by manmade influences,
has not been beneficial to people in general. In India, the population pressure on agricultural
land is greatly exaggerated by the addition of 2 crore people to the base population each year.
Protected agriculture is a solution to the problems of sustainable food production brought on
by irregular climatic conditions and increasing population pressure on agricultural land, which
together make up the current 140.8 Mha of net cultivated area and are on the declining side. A
type of crop farming known as protected cultivation that allows for convenient adjustment of
the plant's microclimate as needed for optimum growth and development. India has about
30,000 acres of land under protected agriculture, with states like Maharashtra and Karnataka
setting the bar high. The commercial protected growing of high-value crops is currently being
adopted by innovative farmers (Maitra et al. 2020). Crop microclimate and crop activity
underwent diverse modifications as a result of the shading effect of crops. Shade nets are used
to protect a variety of horticultural crops from abiotic factors such as intense sunlight, high
winds, bird and rodent damage, as well as from the thermal environment (Kittas et al. 2009)
and diseases spread by insects. Shade netting clearly reduces light intensity compared to a
typical field environment, and the capacity to alter different spectral aspects that alter light
quality has a significant impact on plant growth and development.

Planning consideration
Prior to building the shade house structure, consideration
should be given to the sort of crop that will be cultivated
there, the local climate, and the materials that are readily
available there. The key to future planning is that there
should be sufficient space for expansion in the future.
(A) Site Selection: In the current situation, the location of
the shade net house is essential. For forward and backward linkage, the distance and
connectivity between the market and the shade net is crucial. For safety and security reasons,
the shade net structure should be built as far away from trees, industrial plants, big man-made
monuments, and apartments as possible, with important systems for waste management,
irrigation, and drainage in place.
(B) Orientation: Two important variables for the orientation of the shade net house are the
direction of the predominant wind and a sufficient level of light intensity. The orientation
direction is typically more adjustable for a single span shade net structure than it is for a multi
span structure. The north-south orientation is ideal for receiving the greatest solar radiation,
and it should be placed perpendicular to the predominant wind direction to serve as a windbreak
structure.
(C) Structural materials: The shade house's primary frame and cladding materials are its two
most essential and fundamental parts. The frame of the shade net construction serves as a
platform for support for the cladding material and aids in protection from weather extremes
and natural forces including intense rain, excessive wind, hail, and blistering radiation. When
manufactured of angle iron, a shade net house can last up to 20 years, as contrast to 3–4 years
for bamboo-made structures. The design of shade net house frames is influenced by the climate,
level of usage, and technical issues.
(D) Choice of crops: Different types of crops like vegetables, fruits, flowers and
ornamentals are grown under shade net. The requirement of specific microclimate varies from
crop to crop which in turn depends upon shade net materials used and their characteristics. The
general cultivation practice followed in a shade net can be summarized like.
(E) Preparation of land: The soil is prepared not much in difference with the open field
conditions. It is tilled as per the seed size of the crop in order to make a seed bed with good air-
water conducting properties.
(F) Sowing and Transplanting: As per convenience either direct sowing or transplanting can
be done after mixing of FYM @ 20 tons per hectare. The no. of days to transplanting or the
number of leaf stages are of utmost importance whereas seed treatment with various
agrochemicals are important in direct sowing to get rid out of various soil borne diseases in
seedling stages.
(G) Fertilizer application and Intercultural operations: There is a greater scope of
fertigation lies in these controlled environmental structures than under open field conditions.
The recommended dose of fertilizers does not vary with open field conditions. Intercultural
operations like weeding may be manual, mechanical or chemical method, earthing-up, pruning
and various plant protection measures are done for the yield advantages.
Colour variation
Color-nets are a part of the more modern agro-technology, which on the one thing contributes
in physical protection and on the other hand modifies light intensity and associated chromatic
characteristics. These effects are the consequence of the manufacturing process' inclusion of
various chromatic additives, light-diffusing, and reflecting materials into the cladding material.
It is employed in two dimensions, either directly over net-house constructions or in conjunction
with greenhouse technologies. These shadow nets have two main effects: they disperse light
and change the spectral compositions. The manufacturing process for photo selective net
products involves adding different chromatic additives, light dispersive elements, and
reflective components to the netting materials. These shade nets include "coloured- colour nets"
that absorb spectral bands like infrared or ultraviolet radiation as well as "neutral- colour nets"
that do not. In particular, the promotion of light morphogenetic-physiological reactions is the
goal of the spectrum manipulation. Numerous ornamentals (Nissim-Levi et al. 2008),
vegetables (Fallik et al. 2009; 2010), fruit trees (Shahak et al. 2004), and vineyards have all
been researched using the colour net method. Using color-shade nets to temper climate spikes
production.

Shading Percentage
Shade nets come in a variety of shades, or shade variables, including 15%, 35%, 40%, 50%,
75%, and 90%. For instance, a 35% shade factor means that only 65% of light will flow through
the net while cutting 35% of the light's intensity. It varies depending on the crop and variety.
For instance, crops like tomatoes perform better in 35% shadow factors in terms of both quality
and yield characteristics. For the majority of crops, a shadow factor of 50–70% is regarded as
the typical range.
 EXERCISE-17

Objective- Write the details about the shade net planning and considerations.
Shade net planning and considerations-
 Practical Exercise-18
❖ Objective-

To study about the vertical farming system.

The concept of the vertical farming was given by Professor Despommier, and in this concept
generally production of vegetables and other food is done on vertical inclined surface having
staked layers commonly integrated into other structure like skyscraper or large containers. In
the controlled environmental conditions by controlling the various factors like light,
temperature, humidity and different gases and in absence of the arable land the production of
the various vegetables are done, it is same as the greenhouse in which crop is produced in the
partially or fully controlled environment and to increase the yield per unit area.
Various techniques used in the vertical farming-
A. Hydroponics

In hydroponics medium, different types of the vegetable crops are grown in the nutrient-rich
water basin and water is recirculated, creating better efficiency and reduce water consumption.
Scalable in size and cost, hydroponic farming is highly adaptable to its farmers’ production
goals and needs. It includes methods like Drip Irrigation, Deep Water Culture, Ebb and Flow,
Nutrient Film Technique, and the Wick System.
B. Aeroponics

In aeroponics medium, the vegetable crops are grown without the soil medium or the various
vegetable crops are grown by spraying nutrient-based mist along specific period of time. It is
method in which the nutrients are sprayed directly to the roots of the crop plant, it helps to
reduce the labour cost also and easy harvesting is done.
C. Aquaponics

In aquaponics medium the cultivation of the plant and fish is done together. In this medium the
fish provide nutrient and beneficial bacteria to the plants, and plant filter the water by absorbing
the nutrients. It is highly productive and balanced ecosystem with many benefits, including its
water-conservative approach.
However peat moss or coconut husks and similar non-soil mediums are very common in
vertical farming. In all of the mediums the basic target is to high productivity per unit area by
efficient use of the water, nutrients and fertilizers.
Future prospects-

Vertical farming will not be able to totally replace traditional farming methods. Vertical
farming, on the other hand, must be integrated into our agricultural systems as quickly as
feasible if we are to fulfil tomorrow's food demands. The good news is that vertical farming is
no longer a fiction; it is now a reality in our own country.

In the past, there have been small-scale vertical farming adaptations in West Bengal and
Punjab. West Bengal's Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidhyala has succeeded in vertically
producing tomatoes and brinjals. Punjab has also grown potatoes as a result of it. Vertical
farming will not only show to be a cost-effective means of utilising underused space, but also
a source of jobs and revenue.
 EXERCISE-18

Objective- Write the details about the vertical farming and various techniques used in it.
Vertical farming and their techniques-
 Practical Exercise-19
❖ Objective-

To study about the crops suitable for vertical farming along with merits and demerits.

Crops appropriate for vertical farms include those that grow well in somewhat low light
intensity, have a short growth cycle, and flourish at high planting density. Because the gap
between vertical layers is normally approximately 40cm, these plants are often 30cm or shorter,
such as leafy greens, herbs, medicinal plants, or transplants. Some of the examples are as
follows-

• Lettuce- Lettuces are in high demand throughout most of the world and at all times of
the year. In vertical farms, lettuce is a simple crop to raise. Lettuces come in a variety
of shapes and sizes, making them enjoyable to cultivate and sell. It's quick and easy to
produce, has fluctuating demand throughout the year, and comes in hundreds of various
kinds, allowing farmers to shift up their product without having to move to a new crop.
• Chive & Mints- Some of the greatest vertical farming crops for beginners are chives
and mint. Despite being classified as herbs, chives and mint change quickly and produce
thickly like grass. It's simple to harvest. These herbs are some of the ideal crops to start
with for beginner vertical farmers. Due to its thick, grass-like growth structure, chives
and mint are easy to manage for, have fast turns, and are easy to harvest. Customers
love them because of their unique tastes.
• Basil- Basil is an excellent crop for vertical farming in many ways. Basil is susceptible
to freezing temperatures, and it is only accessible for a few months each year when
cultivated in soil. As a result, it thrives in the climate-controlled environment of a
vertical growing plant. Also, some studies indicate that hydroponically-grown basil is
richer in flavor than field-grown basil because it contains 20 to 40% more oils.
• Chard and collard green- The chard and collards green resemble a thicker, darker
variant of spinach. Chard, like kale and collard greens, may be picked numerous times,
each time plucking only 30 percent of the plant and growing back for higher harvests
later.

These are some of the crops which are suitable for the vertical farming.
Merits-

The maximum yield per unit area is not the only benefit of the vertical farming. Following are
the some major advantages of the vertical farming-

▪ Tackle the future need- The population of the India is increasing day by day so by
efficient use of the vertical farming the future increasing demand of the food can be
fulfilled.
▪ Year round crop production- The vertical farming is indoor controlled farming
method which is completely devoid of outside adverse climate change which allows the
production of the different vegetables at needed time.
▪ Less use of the water- The vertical farming makes us to produce the crop with
comparatively 70% to 90% less water than other normal cultivation.
▪ Increase yield of the organic crops- The crops are produced in well controlled indoor
environment so the incidence of the pests and diseases are low which allows to
successful production of the different vegetable crops without use of the chemical
pesticides and insecticides.
▪ Ecofriendly farming- Indoor vertical farming can significantly lessen the occupational
hazards associated with traditional farming. Farmers are not exposed to hazards related
to heavy farming equipment, diseases like malaria, poisonous chemicals and so on. As
it does not disturb animals and trees inland areas, it is good for biodiversity as well.

Demerits-

Vertical farming has the both merits and demerits, sometimes advantages are highlighted and
demerits are not one. Following are the some major limitations of the vertical farming-

▪ No Established Economics- The financial feasibility of this new farming method remains
uncertain. The financial situation is changing, however, as the industry matures and
technologies improve.
• Difficulties in the pollination- vertical farming is the indoor controlled cultivation without
any insects which cause lack of the insect pollination so in the case of the cross pollinated
crops it is very difficult to do pollination manual. Manual pollination may become one of
the more labor-intensive functions in vertical farms.
▪ Labor cost- The labor cost is higher because we need skilled labour for the successful
production of the crops also the urban areas the wages are high.
▪ Technology dependency- The vertical farming is a lot more dependent on the technology
because it is the indoor cultivation so need of the lighting, maintaining temperature and
humidity for the successful crop production, losing power for a single day cost huge loss
in the vertical farms due to which these farming methods are not ready for adopted in mass.
 EXERCISE-19

Objective- Write the details about the crop grown in vertical farming and its merits and
demerits.
Crop details, merits and demerits-
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