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Contents
Preface xvi
About the 11th Edition of This Book xvi
Changes in the 11th Edition xvii
Instructor’s Resource Manual With Tests and Practica xviii
Acknowledgments xviii
To the Student xix
Using This Book to Study for the Behavior Analysis Certification Board®
Examinations xx
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 2
What Is Behavior? 3
What Is Behavior Modification? 5
What Is Behavioral Assessment? 6
Some Historical Highlights of Behavior Modification 6
Current Use of “Behavior Modification,” “Behavior Modifier,”
and Related Terms 7
Some Misconceptions About Behavior Modification 8
The Approach of This Book 8
Summary of Chapter 1 11
Application Exercises 11
Notes for Further Learning 12
CHAPTER 11 Responding at the Right Time and Place: Operant Stimulus Discrimination and Stimulus
Generalization 121
Teaching Darcy When to Pick Up the Phone 121
Learning to Respond at the Right Time and Place 121
Types of Controlling Stimuli of Operant Behavior: SDs and S∆s 122
Operant Stimulus Discrimination 123
Operant Stimulus Generalization 123
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Operant Stimulus Discrimination
Training 126
Pitfalls of Operant Stimulus Discrimination Training 127
Guidelines for Effective Operant Stimulus Discrimination Training 127
Summary of Chapter 11 128
Application Exercises 129
Notes for Further Learning 129
CHAPTER 13 Getting a New Sequence of Behaviors to Occur With Behavior Chaining 139
Teaching Steve to Follow a Consistent Pre-putt Routine 139
Behavior Chaining 140
Methods for Teaching a Behavioral Chain 140
Chaining Compared With Fading and Shaping 144
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Behavioral Chaining 144
Pitfalls of Behavioral Chaining 146
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Behavioral Chaining 147
Summary of Chapter 13 147
Application Exercises 148
Note for Further Learning 148
Contents xi
CHAPTER 18 Transferring Behavior to New Settings and Making It Last: Programming of Generality
of Behavior Change 187
Helping Carole Have a Successful Class Presentation 187
Generality 188
Programming Generality of Operant Behavior 188
Programming Generality of Respondent Behavior 193
Pitfalls of Generality 195
Guidelines for Programming Generality of Operant Behavior 195
Summary of Chapter 18 196
Application Exercises 197
Notes for Further Learning 197
CHAPTER 20 Antecedent Control: Modeling, Physical Guidance, and Situational Inducement 212
A Mindfulness-Based Intervention for Aggression 212
Capitalizing on Existing Stimulus Control 212
Modeling 213
Physical Guidance 215
Situational Inducement 216
Summary of Chapter 20 219
Application Exercises 220
Note for Further Learning 220
Glossary 332
References 343
Author Index 387
Subject Index 396
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Preface
7. To provide information and references regarding behavior therapy (BT), including cognitive behavior therapy (CBT),
acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). In this book, students will not
be taught how to do these therapies, as they require advanced training and qualifications.
8. To describe briefly the most effective behavioral treatments for 10 representative psychological disorders, including
specific phobias, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and depression
(Chapters 26 and 27).
9. To describe historical highlights of behavior modification (Chapter 28).
10. To describe ethical guidelines for the design, implementation, and evaluation of behavioral treatment programs
(Chapter 29). Although we placed the chapter on ethical issues at the end of the book, we believe that this topic is
as important as any other topic we cover. In fact, we stress ethical issues throughout the book. Thus, the last chapter
provides a reiteration and elaboration of this vital subject. We hope that after reading the concluding chapter,
the reader will fully understand that the only justification for behavior modification is its usefulness in serving
humanity in general and its recipients in particular.
operant behavior versus respondent behavior, elaborated on the use of high-probability instructions to increase com-
pliance with low-probability instructions, and removed references to behavioral momentum because this theory has
not been supported by the evidence (see Odum, A. L. [2018]. Editorial: Nevin’s momentum. Journal of the Experimen-
tal Analysis of Behavior, 109(1), 1–3). In Chapters 19 to 21 we expanded the learning objectives, shortened and sim-
plified some parts, and added new material on rule-governed vs. contingency-shaped behavior, motivating operations,
and modeling. In Chapter 22 we expanded the learning objectives, shortened and simplified some parts, and discussed
the hypothesis-testing approach to functional analysis. In Chapter 23 we added a new lead case, revised the learning
objectives, and divided the section (from the 10th edition) on “Program Design and Implementation” into three sec-
tions. In Chapters 24 we added a new lead case and a systematic discussion on doing research on token economies.
In Chapter 25 we added a new lead case and literature on behavior modification and dieting. We also discussed the
problem of short-circuiting contingences. In Chapter 26 we provided a discussion and table on the generic cognitive
model. However, in discussing this model, we retained our position that cognitive techniques can be fruitfully inter-
preted in strictly behavioral terms—such as by appropriate reference to rule-governed behavior, self-instructions, and
covert or private behavior. In Chapter 27 we intensified our discussion of empirically established effective psychologi-
cal treatments, still referencing the Clinical Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association (Division
12) website on research-supported psychological treatments. We also continued to stress that these treatments are best
viewed behaviorally—i.e., reducible to the basic behavioral principles discussed in the earlier chapters. We also made
changes to ensure that our classification of technical terms, while remaining consistent with behavioral terminology,
are in accord with the classification scheme in the DSM-5. In Chapter 28 we added developments since the previous
edition that we believe will be shown to be of historical importance, such the growing emphasis on cognitive therapy
and current interpretations of it in strictly behavioral terms. In Chapter 29 we expanded on our discussion of creden-
tialing by organizations such as the Behavior Analyst Certification Board®(BACB®) and the increasing emphasis on
ethical codes by various professional organizations concerned with behavioral interventions. We also added material
on supervision to ensure high ethical practices.
Finally, we added over 140 new references across all chapters to accurately reflect recent developments in the field
and to ensure that the book is completely up-to-date in all areas of behavior modification. This has also allowed us to
cover state-of-the-art topics that are seldom or never touched upon in other introductory or even advanced behavior
modification textbooks.
Acknowledgments
Writing the 11 editions of this book was made possible through the help of many individuals. We gratefully acknowledge
the cooperation and support of Dr. Glen Lowther (former Superintendent) and the staff at the Manitoba Developmental
Centre and Dr. Carl Stephens (former CEO) and the staff at the St. Amant Centre. Much of the material in this book was
initially generated while the authors were involved with these institutions.2 Without the support of the staff members of
the above institutions, this book would likely not have been written. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to our many
Preface xix
students for their constructive feedback on the current and earlier editions. We also thank Jack Michael, Rob Hawkins,
Bill Leonhart, and Iver Iversen and his students for their many excellent suggestions for improvements of earlier edi-
tions. For this edition, special thanks are due to Lauren Kaminski for her cheerful and efficient word processing, to
Lorraine De-Wiele for her excellent suggestions for updating Part V, and to Frances Falzarano for her skillful critiquing,
which greatly improved the book’s readability.
We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers whose helpful comments greatly improved this edition.
We also express our appreciation to Jennifer Bonnar and the other members of the very capable editorial and
production team of the Taylor & Francis Group.
Finally, we thank the Knowledge Translation Branch of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research that facilitated
the preparation of this edition with a grant (KAL 114098) to Joseph Pear.
To the Student
This book is designed to help you learn to talk about and apply behavior modification effectively. You need no prior
knowledge about behavior modification to read and understand this text from beginning to end. From experience
using previous editions of this book in our teaching, we are confident that students at all levels—from beginners to
advanced—will find the text informative and useful. Another important use of this book is as study material for those
taking the Board Certified Behavior Analyst® (BCBA®) or the Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analyst® (BCaBA®)
exams. The chapters relevant to these exams are outlined in the table following this Preface.
Behavior modification is a broad and complex field with many ramifications. Realizing that some students require
a deeper knowledge of behavior modification than others, we have separated foundational content from advanced
material that demands more thought and study. The foundational content is presented in the main body of the text. The
advanced content is presented at the end of each chapter in sections called Notes for Further Learning (NFL). Because
the main text does not depend on the material in the NFL sections, you can still obtain a good working knowledge of the
principles and procedures of behavior modification without referring to them. We believe, however, that many students
will find the NFL sections very informative and that many instructors will find the material useful in stimulating class
discussion and imparting additional background information.
Another major way we attempt to help you learn the material is by providing Guidelines for Effective Applications
of all the behavior modification methods discussed in the text. These guidelines provide useful summaries of the mate-
rial as well as assisting you in the application of the methods described in the text.
Most chapters also present numerous Questions for Learning and Application Exercises, including Self-
Modification Exercises and Excercise Involving Others. The Questions for Learning are intended to help you check
your knowledge of the material when preparing for tests and exams. The Application Exercises are intended to help you
develop the practical skills you will need to complete behavior modification projects effectively.
To help make your study productive and enjoyable, the book progresses from simpler to more complex material.
But a word of caution: Do not be misled by the seeming simplicity of the earlier chapters. Students who conclude that they
are skilled behavior modifiers after they have learned a few simple behavior modification principles unfortunately end
up proving the old maxim that “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” If we personally had to pick the most import-
ant chapter in this book in terms of a review of the knowledge and skills that define a competent behavior modifier, it
would be Chapter 23—Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program. We therefore strongly suggest that you
reserve judgment about your abilities as a behavior modifier until you have mastered Chapter 23 and all the preliminary
material on which it is based.
We also point out that—as emphasized in Chapter 29 (Ethical Issues)—organizations regulating behavior mod-
ification are highly influential. If you are considering applying behavior modification on any level beyond per-
sonal, we strongly recommend that you check with the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (www.bacb.com), the
Analysis of Behavior International Accreditation Board (www.accreditation.abainternational.org), or other certifi-
cation bodies such as state or provincial psychological associations to determine how you may obtain the necessary
qualifications.
With those words of caution, we wish you much success and enjoyment as you pursue your studies in this exciting
and rapidly expanding field.
Garry Martin and Joseph Pear
xx Preface
Using This Book to Study for the Behavior Analysis Certification Board®
Examinations
For individuals using this book to study for the Board Certified Behavior Analyst® (BCBA®) or the Board Certified
Assistant Behavior Analyst® (BCaBA®) exam, the following are the chapters in this book where the content for the cur-
rent task list may be found:
Notes
1. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives. New York: Longmans, Green & Company; Pear, J.J., Crone-Todd, D.E., Wirth, K., & Simister, H. (2001).
Assessment of thinking levels in students’ answers. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 5(4), 94–98.
2. See Walters, K., & Thomson, K. (2013). The history of behavior analysis in Manitoba: A sparsely populated
Canadian province with an international influence on behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 36(1), 57–72.
PART I
Behavior modification focuses on both the public or overt and private or covert behavior of individuals. Since its incep-
tion as a field of scientific study, behavior modification—which includes the subfields known as applied behavior anal-
ysis and behavior therapy—has proven to be an effective means of modifying behavior in a wide variety of applied
settings. This has been accomplished by the development of powerful scientific methods for studying behavior. Behavior
modification stresses an individual case design that does not rely on formal statistical methodology that focuses on
group averages.
1 Introduction
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
M
ANY OF SOCIETY’S best achievements—from democratic government to helping the less fortunate,
and from great works of art to important scientific discoveries—as well as some of its most pressing
health and social challenges—from unhealthy lifestyles to environmental pollution and from racism to
terrorism—are firmly rooted in behavior. But what is behavior? Before attempting an answer, consider the follow-
ing scenarios:
1. Withdrawn behavior. A class of nursery school youngsters is in the playground. While most of the children are
playing, one little boy sits quietly by himself, making no effort to join in the fun.
2. Ineffective studying. With two term papers due next week and a midterm exam at the same time, Sam is wondering
how he is ever going to make it through his first year at university. Yet he continues to spend several hours each day
on social media.
3. Performance nervousness. Karen, a 14-year-old gymnast, is waiting for her turn to perform on the balance beam at
a championship. Showing signs of extreme nervousness, she says to herself, “What if I don’t perform well? What if
I fall on my backflip? I can’t believe how my heart is pounding.”
4. Campground littering. Tom and Sally have just arrived at the place where they intend to set up camp and are looking
in disgust and amazement at the litter left by previous campers. “Don’t they care about the environment?” asks Sally.
“If people keep this up,” Tom says, “there won’t be any nature left for anyone to enjoy.”
5. Migraine headaches. While preparing dinner for her family, Betty was vaguely aware of a familiar feeling creeping
up on her. Then, all at once, she felt nauseous. She looked around fearfully, knowing from past experience what
to expect. “Tom, Joe,” she called to her sons watching TV in the living room, “you’ll have to finish fixing dinner
yourselves—I’m having another migraine.”
6. Staff management. Jack and Brenda were having coffee one morning at the restaurant they owned. “We’re going to
have to do something about the evening staff,” said Brenda. “When I came in this morning, the ice cream machine
wasn’t properly cleaned and the cups and lids weren’t restocked.” “That’s only the tip of the iceberg,” said Jack. “You
should see the grill!”
7. Irrational thinking. Mary, after getting a poor mark on her first exam in her first year at college, thinks, “I’ll never be
a good student. I must do well in all of my courses. My professor must think I’m an idiot.”
Close inspection shows that each of the above vignettes involves some sort of human behavior. They illustrate
a few of the many problems with which specialists in behavior modification are trained to deal. Each of these types
of behavior problems and many others are discussed in the following pages. Behavior modification, as you will see, is
applicable to the entire range of human behavior.
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
What Is Behavior?
(In this book, key terms are found in bold, followed by their definitions. We encourage you to master them as you
encounter them.)
Essentially, behavior is anything that a person says or does. Some commonly used synonyms include “activity,” “action,”
“performance,” “responding,” “response,” and “reaction.” Technically, behavior is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activ-
ity of an organism. Is the color of someone’s eyes behavior? Is blinking behavior? Are the clothes someone is wearing
behavior? Is dressing behavior? If you said no to the first and third questions and yes to the second and fourth, we are in
agreement. One of the goals of this book is to encourage you to begin thinking and talking very specifically about behavior.
How about getting an “A” in a behavior modification course, or losing 10 pounds; are those behaviors? No. Those
are products of behavior. The behavior that produces an “A” is studying effectively. The behaviors that lead to weight loss
are resisting overeating and exercising more.
Walking, talking out loud, throwing a baseball, yelling at someone—are all overt behaviors that could be observed
and recorded by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. As will be discussed in later chapters, the
term behavior can also refer to covert activities that cannot be observed by others. However, in the field of behavior
modification, covert behaviors do not typically refer to behaviors done in private, such as undressing in one’s bedroom
with the door locked and the blinds closed. Nor do they usually refer to secretive actions, such as cheating on an exam.
Rather, in behavior modification they more commonly refer to activities that occur “within one’s skin” and that there-
fore require special instruments or procedures for others to observe. For example, just before stepping onto the ice at an
important competition, a figure skater might think, “I hope I don’t fall,” and he or she is likely to feel nervous. Covert as
well as overt behaviors can be influenced by behavior modification techniques.
The opposite of private or covert behavior is public or overt behavior. Although, as stated above, behavior modifiers
sometimes deal with covert behavior, they tend to focus on overt behavior, because the latter is generally more important
to the individual and to society as a whole. Also, it is easier to measure overt behavior more accurately than covert behavior.
Sometimes we think in words. This is called private self-talk and is illustrated by the figure skater mentioned pre-
viously. And sometimes we think by imagining. If you were asked to close your eyes and imagine a clear, blue sky with
a few white fluffy clouds, you would likely be able to do so although there are large differences between individuals in
the vividness of their imagery (Cui, Jeter, Yang, Montague, & Eagleman, 2007). Imagining is usually thought of as being
visual, but it can also involve other senses. For example, we can imagine a scent, a taste, and a feeling of rubbing one’s
hand across a rough surface. Imagining and private self-talk, in addition to being called covert behaviors, are some-
times referred to as cognitive behaviors.
Characteristics of behavior that can be measured are called dimensions of behavior. Three dimensions of behavior
are duration, rate, and intensity. The duration of a behavior is the length of time that it lasts (e.g., Mary studied for one
hour). The rate of a behavior is the number of instances that occur in a given period of time (e.g., Frank planted five
tomato plants in his garden in 30 minutes). The intensity or force of a behavior refers to the physical effort or energy
involved in emitting the behavior (e.g., Mary has a strong grip when shaking hands).
“nervous” are summary labels for human actions, but they do not refer to specific behaviors. If, for example, you were to
describe a man as nervous, others might know generally what you mean. But they would not know if you were referring
to that person’s tendency to chew his fingernails, his constant fidgeting, the tendency for his left eye to twitch when
talking to someone, his tendency to jump when startled, or some other behavior.
For behavior modification specialists, many terms that are commonly used by psychologists, such as intelligence,
attitudes, and creativity, are also summary labels for behavior. Behavior modifiers find it advantageous to talk about
these concepts behaviorally; or, in other words, in what is called a behavioral language. What do we mean when we say
that a person is intelligent? To many people, intelligence is something that you are born with, a sort of “inherited brain
power” or innate capacity for learning. But we never observe or directly measure any such thing. On an intelligence test,
for example, we simply measure people’s behavior—their answers to questions—as they take the test. The word intelli-
gent is best used in its adjective form (e.g., “he is an intelligent speaker,” “his speech is intelligent”) or its adverb form (e.g.,
“she writes intelligently”) to describe how people behave under certain conditions, such as taking a test, but not as a noun
for some “thing.” Perhaps a person described as intelligent readily solves problems that others find difficult, performs
well on most course examinations, reads many books, talks knowledgeably about many topics, or gets a high score on
an intelligence test. Depending on who uses the word, intelligence can mean any or all of these—but whatever it means,
it refers to ways of behaving. Therefore, in this book we avoid using the word intelligence as a noun. (For an excellent
discussion of a behavioral approach to intelligence, see Williams, Myerson, & Hale, 2008.)
What about an attitude? Suppose that Johnny’s teacher, Ms. Smith, reports that he has a bad attitude toward school.
What does Ms. Smith mean by this? Perhaps she means that Johnny frequently skips school, refuses to do his classwork
when he does attend, or swears at the teacher. Whatever she means when she talks about Johnny’s “bad attitude,” it is
clearly his behavior with which she is really concerned.
Creativity also refers to the kinds of behavior that a person is likely to engage under certain circumstances. The
creative individual frequently emits behaviors that are novel or unusual and that, at the same time, have desirable effects.
(For an excellent discussion of a behavioral approach to creativity, see Marr, 2003.)
Summary labels commonly used to refer to psychological problems include autism spectrum disorder, attention-
deficit/hyperactive disorder, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, road rage, interpersonal difficulties, and sexual dysfunc-
tion. There are positive reasons that summary terms or labels for behavior patterns are so frequently used in psychology
and in everyday life—not in a special institutional or therapeutic situation. First, they may be useful for quickly pro-
viding general information about how an individual might perform. We would expect that a 10-year-old child who has
been labeled as having a severe developmental disability, for example, would not be able to read even at the first-grade
level. Second, the labels may imply that a particular treatment program will be helpful. Someone with road rage might
be encouraged to take an anger-management course. Someone who is unassertive might benefit from an assertiveness
training course. However, the use of summary labels also has disadvantages. One is that they may lead to pseudo-
explanations of behavior (pseudo meaning false). For example, a child who inverts words while reading, such as “saw” for
“was,” might be labeled as having dyslexia. If we ask why the child inverts words, and we are given the answer “Because
he has dyslexia,” then the summary label for the behavior has been used as a pseudo-explanation for the behavior.
Another name for pseudo-explanation is circular reasoning.
A second disadvantage of labeling is that labels can negatively affect the way an individual might be treated, such
as by focusing on an individual’s problem behaviors rather than strengths. Suppose, for example, that a teenager consis-
tently fails to make his bed but reliably mows the lawn and places the garbage cans on the street on pickup days. If the
parents describe their son as “lazy,” that label may cause them to focus more on the problem behavior than to praise the
positive behaviors. In some societies, racial minorities have been given the negative label “lazy” even though they were
the ones doing most of the hard, physical work.
In this book, we strongly stress the importance of defining all types of problems in terms of behavioral deficits
(too little behavior of a particular type) or behavioral excesses (too much behavior of a particular type). We do so for
several reasons. First, we want to avoid the problems of using general summary labels discussed earlier. Second, regard-
less of the labels attached to an individual, it is behavior that causes concern—and behavior that must be treated to
alleviate the problem. Certain behaviors that parents see and hear, or fail to see and hear, cause them to seek professional
help for their children. Certain behaviors teachers see and hear prompt them to seek professional help for their students.
Certain behaviors that can be seen or heard cause governments to set up institutions, clinics, community treatment
centers, and special programs. And certain behaviors that you emit might cause you to embark on a self-improvement
program. Third, specific procedures are now available that can be used to improve behavior in schools, in workplaces, in
home settings—in fact, just about anywhere that there is a need to establish more desirable behaviors. These techniques
are referred to collectively as behavior modification.
Other documents randomly have
different content
okmányt, ő is megtalálhatja kulcsát, mint én! Azért meg kell
semmisiteni.“
A kandallóban még volt tűz. Megragadtam nemcsak az általam
beirt papirost, hanem Saknussemm pergamentjét is; lázasan remegő
kézzel akartam már a tűzbe dobni e két levelet, midőn a
dolgozószoba ajtaja megnyilt s bátyám belépett.
V.
Vagy leforditva:
Á
„Ugy van! Általánosan tudva van, hogy a föld belsejében minden
hetven láb mélységen egy fokkal növekszik a meleg; már most ha
felteszszük, hogy az arány folytonos, a föld félmérője 1500 mértföld
lévén, a központnál két millió fok meleg a hévmérsék. A föld
belsejében levő anyagok, tehát forró gáz alakjában vannak, mert
sem a fémek, arany vagy ezüst, sem a legkeményebb sziklák nem
állhatnak ellen ily melegnek. Teljes joggal kérdhetem tehát, hogy
lehetséges-e oda leszállanunk?“
„Ugy, ugy, Axel, te a melegtől félsz.“
„Kétségkivül. Ha csupán tiz mértföldnyire hatolunk is, elértük a
földkéreg végső határát, mert ott is már a hévmérsék ezer
háromszáz foknál több.“
„S te attól tartasz, hogy elolvadsz?“
„Döntse el bátyám maga e kérdést,“ feleltem roszkedvün.
„Halljad tehát, hogy mit határozok,“ válaszolt Lidenbrock tanár
ünnepélyes hangon; „sem te, sem senki nem tudhatja biztosan,
hogy a föld belsejében mi történik, mivel a föld félmérőjének alig
tizenkétezred része ismeretes; tudjuk, hogy a tudomány
tökéletesithető és folyvást tökéletesedik, és hogy elmélet folyvást
elméletet ront. Nem hitték-e egész Fourier idejeig, hogy a bolygókat
környező térben az égi testektől távozva, folyvást csökken a
hévmérsék, s nem tudjuk-e most, hogy az aetherrel tölt regiók
legnagyobb hidege nem több 40–50 foknál a fagypont alatt. Miért
nem állhatna ez a föld belsejének hévmérsékét illetőleg is? Miért
nem volna lehetséges, hogy bizonyos mélységben a hévmérsék
emelkedésének folytonossága megszünjék, a helyett, hogy oly fokra
emelkedjék, melyen a legnehezebben olvadó fémek is
megolvadnak?“
Bátyám a hypothesisek terére tévén át a kérdést, nem volt többé
mit felelnem.
„Tudd meg tehát, hogy valódi tudósok, többi közt Poisson,
bebizonyitották, hogy ha a föld belsejében kétmillió foknyi volna a
meleg, a forró gázzá vált megolvadt anyagok oly ruganyossággal
birnának, hogy annak a földkéreg nem lenne képes ellentállani, és
széllyelpattanna, mint a tulságosan fűtött gőzkatlan.“
„Ez Poisson véleménye, de nem tudjuk, hogy helyes-e.“
„Más kitünő földtudósok is osztják azon nézetet, hogy a föld
belsejét se nem gáz, se nem viz, sőt nem is az előttünk ismeretes
legnehezebb kövek képezik, mert ez esetben a föld súlya csak felényi
lehetne.“
„Hiszen számokkal be lehet bizonyitani akármit.“
„De hát a tények, fiam, hát a tények? Nem tudjuk-e bizonyosan,
hogy a világ kezdete óta a tűzhányó hegyek száma nagyot csökkent,
és hogy, ha a földközponti melegség valóban létezik is, okunk van
következtetni, hogy az folyvást gyengül?“
„Édes bátyám, ha hypothesisek mezejére viszszük át a
vitatkozást, ugy többé nincs mit mondanom.“
„Én pedig azt mondom, hogy véleményemet számos szakmabeli
tekintély osztja. Emlékszel-e, midőn a hires angol vegyész Davy
Humphry meglátogatott 1825-ben?“
„Nem emlékezhetem, miután tizenkilencz évvel utóbb születtem.“
„Nos tehát, Davy Humphry Hamburgon átutaztában
meglátogatott. Sokáig vitatkoztunk egyéb kérdések közt, a föld
belseje hig voltának hypothesise fölött. Mindketten abban egyeztünk
meg, hogy ez lehetetlen, oly ellenvetésnél fogva lehetetlen, melyre a
tudomány soha nem tudott feleletet találni.“
„És mi azon ellenvetés?“ kérdém csodálkozva.
„Az, hogy e hig tömeg a hold vonzerejének lenne alávetve, mint
az Ocean, és ennélfogva bolygónk belsejében naponta kétszer
dagály állana elő, mely felemelvén a földkérget, rendszeresen
megujuló földrengést okozna!“
„De annyi mégis csak bizonyos, hogy a föld felülete égésen ment
át, és fel lehet tennünk, hogy a külső kéreg elébb hült meg, mig a
belső részek tovább megtartották a meleget.“
„Csalódol,“ felelt bátyám; „a föld tisztán csak felületének elégése
által melegittetett meg. Felülete nagy mennyiségü fémekből állott,
mint p. o. a potassium, sodium, melyeknek azon sajátságuk van,
hogy a lég vagy a vizzel való érintkezés is lángba boritja őket; e
fémek tehát meggyuladtak, mikor az atmosphaera gőzei eső
alakjában hullottak alá, s a mint a viz a földkéreg hasadékain át
lassanként a föld belsejébe hatolt, ez ott uj kigyuladásokat okozott,
melyek felrobbanásokat és kitöréseket vontak maguk után. Ezért
létezett az ős időkben annyi tűzhányó hegy.“
„Nem tagadhatom, hogy e hypothesis valóban nagyon elmés!“
szóltam önkénytelen bámulattal.
„És ezt Davy Humphry itt szemem láttára bebizonyitotta, igen
egyszerü kisérlet által. Az emlitett fémekből golyót készitett, mely
mindenben a földgömbre hasonlitott; mikor e golyó fölületére
vizcsepp esett, a fém forrni kezdett, oxydált és kis hegyet képezett,
melynek csúcsán tölcsér nyilt; e tölcsérből azután tűz tört ki, mely az
egész golyónak oly melegséget kölcsönzött, hogy lehetetlen volt azt
kézben tartani.“
Bátyám okadatolása valóban megingatni kezdte
meggyőződésemet; ő egyébiránt most is szokott szenvedélyességgel
és lelkesüléssel beszélt.
„Átláthatod Axel,“ folytatá ő, „hogy a föld bensejének állapota
különféle hypothesisek felállitására szolgáltatott tárgyat; ezek közt
legvalószinütlenebb a központi meleg elmélete; véleményem szerint
ez nem állhat, lehetetlen, hogy álljon; egyébiránt meg fogjuk látni,
és mint Arne Saknussemm, mi is tudni fogjuk, hogy e nagy kérdést
illetőleg mely nézet a leghelyesebb.“
„Jól van tehát!“ szóltam én, miután bátyám lelkesedését
önkénytelenül osztani kezdém; „meg fogjuk látni, ha t. i. ott
egyáltalában lehet látni.“
„És miért ne lehetne? Miért ne remélhetnénk, hogy valami
elektricus tünemény fogja megvilágitani utunkat, vagy maga az
atmosphaera, melyet saját nyomása is megvilágithat a földközpont
közelében?“
„Igen,“ szóltam én, „valóban, ez nem lehetetlen.“
„Sőt bizonyos,“ felelt bátyám diadalmasan; „de hallgass e
tárgyról, ne szólj senkinek, nehogy valakinek sikerüljön a föld
központját előttünk fedezni föl.“
VII.