Semester Paper Paper Title No.

of CA UE Total
Code Credit
III ELC-232 II Digital communication 2 15 35 50
and Networking

Chapter 3: Multiplexing Spread Spectrum & MAC

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 Chapter 3

Q. Define multiplexing technique OCT 2022 :1mks

Multiplexer is device that has many input and one output . Depending on select input
one of the input is routed to output
A Multiplexer is used in various applications wherein multiple data can be transmitted
using a single line.

A Multiplexer is used to increase the efficiency of the communication system by

allowing the transmission of data, such as audio & video data from different channels
via cables and single lines.

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B A

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Q. What is Demultiplexer?
Demultiplexer is device that has one input and many output. Depending on select input
one of the input is routed to output

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Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and
digital.
They are further divided into Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM),
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), and Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM). The following figure gives a detailed idea about
this classification.

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Analog Multiplexing
The signals used in analog multiplexing techniques are analog in
nature. The analog signals are multiplexed according to their
frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).
Q. Explain FDM technique used in communication system. OCT 2023
FDM: In telecommunications, frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM) is a technique by which the total bandwidth available in a
communication medium is divided into a series of non-
overlapping frequency bands, each of which is used to carry a
separate signal. This allows a single transmission medium such as a
cable or optical fiber to be shared by multiple independent signals.
Another use is to carry separate serial bits or segments of a higher
rate signal in parallel.

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The most natural example of frequency-division multiplexing
is radio and television broadcasting, in which multiple radio signals
at different frequencies pass through the air at the same time.
Another example is cable television, in which many television
channels are carried simultaneously on a single cable. FDM is also
used by telephone systems to transmit multiple telephone calls
through high capacity trunklines, communications satellites to
transmit multiple channels of data on uplink and downlink radio
beams.
FDM Advantages
FDM does not require synchronization of transmitters and receivers for operating.
Allows propagation of multiple signals at once.
Only a particular channel is affected by fading of slow narrow bands.
Demodulation in frequency modulation is relatively easy.

FDM Disadvantage
All the frequency division multiplexing channels get affected due to wideband fading.
A large number of modulators and filters are required.
The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
The frequency division multiplexing suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
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Q. How many voice channels are multiplexed together in the basic
group of FDM (Aprl 22)
In frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), 12 separate voice signals, each of 4-
kilohertz bandwidth, are modulated onto carrier waves in the 60–108-kilohertz
range. These modulated signals are combined to form a single complex group
signal

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10
Q. What is working principle of WDM? OCT 20
WDM is a technique in fiber optic transmission that enables the use
of multiple light wavelengths (or colors) to send data over the same
medium.
The term WDM is commonly applied to an optical carrier, which is
typically described by its wavelength, whereas frequency-division
multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier which is more often
described by frequency

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Q Short note on TDM Oct 20
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and
receiving independent signals over a common signal path by means
of synchronized switches at each end of the transmission line so that
each signal appears on the line only a fraction of time in an
alternating pattern.

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Q. WDM is very similar in concept to
1.TDM
2.FDM
3.AM
4.FM

2.FDM

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique used to combines ________

a) analog signals
b) digital signals
c) both analog and digital signals
d) alternatively passes analog and digital signals

a) analog signals

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Q. Which multiplexing technique transmits digital signals?
a) FDM
b) TDM
c) WDM
d) Both FDM and TDM

b) TDM
Q. ______ is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical
signals.
A) WDM
B) FDM
C) TDM
D) None of the above

A) WDM

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Q. ____ is designed to use the high bandwidth capability
of fiber-optic cable.
A) WDM
B) FDM
C) TDM
D) None of the above

A) WDM
Q. Internet is classic example of.
A) FM
B) FDM
C) TDM
D) None of the above

C) TDM

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Q .Write a short note on Code division Multiplexing
Q. State any five features of CDMA. OCT 20
CDM is a technique in which each communicating station is assigned a unique
code. All channels use same spectrum at the same time.
Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a multiplexing technique that uses spread
spectrum communication. In spread spectrum communications, a narrowband
signal is spread over a larger band of frequency or across multiple channels via
division. It does not constrict bandwidth’s digital signals or frequencies. It is less
susceptible to interference, thus providing better data communication capability
and a more secure private line.
CDM is used in cellular telephone system and for some satellite communication
Advantages
1. Bandwidth efficient
2. Synchronization is not required
3. Good protection against interference

Disadvantages
1. Varying user data rates
2. Complex signal is generated
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Q. State Features of CDMA. OCT 20
Features of CDMA:
• At a defined time, it enables more users to
communicate and thus offers enhanced capacity for
voice and data communication.
• Many of the channels in CDMA use a complete
spectrum.
• To reduce interference & noise and thereby increase the
efficiency of the network, CDMA systems make use of
power control.
• To protect its signals, CDMA encodes user transmissions
into separate and special codes.
• The same frequency can also be used by all cells in
CDMA systems.
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Applications of CDMA
• CDMA is used in the GPS (Global Positioning System)

• Several cell phone firms use this technology

• The UTMS 3 G cell phone standard uses W-CDMA.

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Q .Write a short note on Spread spectrum
Spread Spectrum refers to a system originally developed for military applications,
to provide secure communications by spreading the signal over a large frequency
band.
Following figure represents a narrow band signal in the frequency domain. These
narrowband signals are easily jammed by any other signal in the same band.
Likewise, the signal can also be intercepted since the frequency band is fixed and
narrow (i.e. easy to detect).

The idea behind spread spectrum is to use more bandwidth than the original
message while maintaining the same signal power. A spread spectrum signal
does not have a clearly distinguishable peak in the spectrum. This makes the
signal more difficult to distinguish from noise and therefore more difficult to jam
or intercept. 25
The block diagram of a typical communication system with the difference that the
modulator/demodulator has as input the spreading generator.

Spread-spectrum communication is the modulation method used in standard wireless

systems such as wireless LAN, Bluetooth, and ZigBee. With spread-
spectrum communication, a spread code sequence is applied to the information signal.

There are two predominant techniques to spread the spectrum:

1) Frequency hoping (FH), which makes the narrow band signal jump in random narrow bands
within a larger bandwidth.
2) Direct sequence (DS) which introduces rapid phase transition to the data to make it larger
in bandwidth.
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Q. Explain frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum.
FHSS is used in the original 802.11 standard and provides
1Mbps to 2Mbps RF communication on 2.4GHz ISM band
from 2.402GHz to 2.480GHz. Frequency hopping spread
spectrum works by transmitting data using a small
frequency carrier space and then hops to another. The
period of time it stays in a space is called dwell time. When
the dwell time expires it moves. Hop time is the time
between dwell times where the transmission hops to the
next frequency. This predefined hopping pattern is known
as the hopping sequence and is repeated once it reaches
the end.

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Application of FHSS

AGB 29
Q .Explain DSSS in brief. 4 Marks
Direct sequence spread spectrum is very widely used technique due
to high data rates. The majority of wireless LAN equipment on the
market today uses DSSS technology.
The wide channel enables devices to transmit more information at a
higher data rate than FHSS system
The direct-sequence modulation makes the transmitted signal wider
in bandwidth than the information bandwidth.
DSSS technology breaks down the transmitted stream of data into
small pieces across a frequency channel. A redundant bit pattern
(known as a chipping code) is generated for each bit transmitted.
Generally, the longer the chipping code, the more likely it is that
the original transmitted data will be properly received. DSSS
technology uses more bandwidth than FHSS, but is considered more
reliable and resists interference. Because of the chipping code, data
can still be recovered without retransmission of the signal, even in
the case of damaged data bits.
 Multiple Access Protocols

IEEE has actually made this division for LANs. The upper sublayer that
is responsible for flow and error control is called the logical link
control (LLC) layer; the lower sublayer that is mostly responsible for
multiple access resolution is called the media access control (MAC)
layer.

AGB 33
Random access methods Controlled access Channelization

• In random access methods, • In controlled access, the • Channelization is a

no station is superior to stations consult one multiple-access method in
another station and none is another to find which which the available
assigned the control over station has the right to bandwidth of a link is
another. send. shared in time, frequency,
• No station permits, or does • A station cannot send or through code, between
not permit, another station unless it has been different stations..
to send. authorized by other • Bandwidth of channel is
• At each instance, a station stations. statistically partitioned
that has data to send uses
a procedure defined by the
protocol to make a decision
on whether or not to send.
• This decision depends on
the state of the medium
(idle or busy).
Collision or conflict can
occurs if more than one
station
ALOHA, CSMA/CS,CSMA/CA Reservation, Polling, token FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA
AGB 34
What is meant by CSMA/CD?

AGB 35
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision
Detection. It is also a network protocol for transmission and operates
in the Medium Access Control Layer. In this protocol, each station
senses the collision by broadcast sensing. In case of collision, the
transmission is stopped and they send a jam signal and then wait for a
random time context before retransmission.

AGB 36
CONTROLLED ACCESS
In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which
station has the right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been
authorized by other stations. We discuss three popular controlled-
access methods.
Reservation
In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation
before sending data. Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a
reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval.
If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation
minislots in the reservation frame. Each minislot belongs to a station.
When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a reservation in
its own minislot. The stations that have made reservations can send
their data frames after the reservation frame.
Polling
Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a
primary station and the other devices are secondary stations. All data
exchanges must be made through the primary device even when the
ultimate destination is a secondary device. The primary device controls
the link; the secondary devices follow its instructions. It is up to the
primary device to determine which device is allowed to use the
channel at a given time.

AGB 38
If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondaries if they
have anything to send; this is called poll function. If the primary wants
to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive; this is
called select function.
Select
The select function is used whenever the primary device has
something to send. Remember that the primary controls the link.
If it has something to send, the primary device sends it. What it does
not know, however, is whether the target device is prepared to
receive. So the primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming
transmission and wait for an acknowledgment of the secondary's
ready status. Before sending data, the primary creates and transmits
a select (SEL) frame, one field of which includes the address of the
intended secondary.
Poll
The poll function is used by the primary device to solicit transmissions
from the secondary devices. When the primary is ready to receive
data, it must ask (poll) each device in turn if it has anything to send.
When the first secondary is approached, it responds either with a
NAK frame if it has nothing to send or with data (in the form of a data
frame) if it does. If the response is negative (a NAK frame), then the
primary polls the next secondary in the same manner until it finds
one with data to send. When the response is positive (a data frame),
the primary reads the frame and returns an acknowledgment (ACK
frame), verifying its receipt.
Token Passing
In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in
a logical ring. In other words, for each station, there is a predecessor
and a successor. The predecessor is the station which is logically before
the station in the ring; the successor is the station which is after the
station in the ring. The current station is the one that is accessing the
channel now. The right to this access has been passed from the
predecessor to the current station. The right will be passed to the
successor when the current station has no more data to send.
But how is the right to access the channel passed from one station to
another? In this method, a special packet called a token circulates
through the ring. The possession of the token gives the station the
right to access the channel and send its data. When a station has some
data to send, it waits until it receives the token from its predecessor. It
then holds the token and sends its data. When the station has no
more data to send, it releases the token, passing it to the next logical
station in the ring.
The station cannot send data until it receives the token again in the
next round. In this process, when a station receives the token and has
no data to send, it just passes the data to the next station.
Token management is needed for this access method. Stations must
be limited in the time they can have possession of the token. The
token must be monitored to ensure it has not been lost or
destroyed.
For example, if a station that is holding the token fails, the token will
disappear from the network. Another function of token
management is to assign priorities to the stations and to the types of
data being transmitted. And finally, token management is needed to
make low-priority stations release the token to highpriority stations.
Logical Ring
In a token-passing network, stations do not have to be physically
connected in a ring; the ring can be a logical one.
In the physical ring topology, when a station sends the token to its
successor, the token cannot be seen by other stations; the successor
is the next one in line. This means that the token does not have to
have the address of the next successor. The problem with this
topology is that if one of the links-the medium between two adjacent
stations fails, the whole system fails
The dual ring topology uses a second (auxiliary) ring which operates in
the reverse direction compared with the main ring. The second ring is
for emergencies only (such as a spare tire for a car). If one of the links
in the main ring fails, the system automatically combines the two
rings to form a temporary ring. After the failed link is restored, the
auxiliary ring becomes idle again. Note that for this topology to work,
each station needs to have two transmitter ports and two receiver
ports. The high-speed Token Ring networks called FDDI (Fiber
Distributed Data Interface) and CDDI (Copper Distributed Data
Interface) use this topology.
The dual ring topology uses a second (auxiliary) ring which operates
in the reverse direction compared with the main ring. The second
ring is for emergencies only (such as a spare tire for a car). If one of
the links in the main ring fails, the system automatically combines
the two rings to form a temporary ring. After the failed link is
restored, the auxiliary ring becomes idle again. Note that for this
topology to work, each station needs to have two transmitter ports
and two receiver ports. The high-speed Token Ring networks called
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) and CDDI (Copper Distributed
Data Interface) use this topology.
In a star ring topology, the physical topology is a star. There is a hub,
however, that acts as the connector. The wiring inside the hub
makes the ring; the stations are connected to this ring through the
two wire connections. This topology makes the networkless prone to
failure because if a link goes down, it will be bypassed by the hub
and the rest of the stations can operate. Also adding and removing
stations from the ring is easier. This topology is still used in the Token
Ring LAN designed by IBM.
Q. In _________ each station sends a frame whenever it has to
send a frame
a) Pure ALOHA
b) Slotted ALOHA
c) A and B
d) none
ans a

Q. In pure Aloha the vulnerable time _____ the frame

transmission
a) same
b) 2
c) 3
d) none
Answer b
Q. In _________ each station is forced to send only at the
begining of the time slot.
a) Pure ALOHA
b) Slotted ALOHA
c) A and B
d) none
ans b

Q. In _________ method no station is superior to another

a) Random access
b) Control access
c) Channalize
d) none

Answer a
Q. In _________ method each station consults one another to
find which station has right to send.
a) Random access
b) Control access
c) Channelized
d) none
ans b

Q. In _________ method a station cannot send unless it has been

authorized by other stations.
a) Random access
b) Control access
c) Channalize
d) none
Answer b
Q. _________ is a multiple-access method in which the available
bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code,
between different stations.
a) Random access
b) Control access
c) Channelized
d) none
ans c

Q. In _________ Available bandwidth is divided into frequency

slots
a) FDMA
b) TDMA
c) CDMA
d) All of above
Answer a
Q .What is Time division multiple access? APRl 22
Multiple access refers to the remote sharing of communication
channel such as a satellite or radio channel. The users of these
recourses are at highly dispersed location.
Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access
method for shared-medium networks. It allows several users to
share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into
different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one
after the other, each using its own time slot.
This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission
medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while using only a part of
its channel capacity.
TDMA was first used in satellite communication systems
by Western Union in its Westar 3 communications satellite in 1979.
It is now used extensively in satellite communications
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone
communication technology. It facilitates many users to share the
same frequency without interference. Its technology divides a signal
into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.
In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the available channel
bandwidth in its entirety is used by every user, but the users take
turns in making use of the channel in a timely manner. In other
words, the channel is sequentially time-shared among many users
through nonoverlapping time slots in a circular manner (i.e., one
after the other).
A user is allowed to transmit in a buffer-and-burst mode only in
its allocated time slot. The transmission for any user is thus non-
continuous, and that in turn requires transmission to be in digital
form. The noncontinuous transmission also results in low battery
consumption, since the transmitter can be turned off when not in
use, which is most of the time. All users employ the same
frequency band to transmit their signals
Typical TDM and TDMA Application system

AGB 53
Typical TDMA Frame Structure

AGB 54
 Q .What is difference between TDM and TDMA

TDMA is a type of time-division multiplexing (TDM), with the

special point that instead of having one transmitter connected to
one receiver, there are multiple transmitters.

The main difference between tdm and tdma (also fdm/fdma, etc) is
that with tdm (also fdm, etc.) the signals multiplexed (i.e. sharing a
resource) come from the same node, whereas for tdma (also fdm,
etc.) the signals multiplexed come from different
sources/transmitters.
AGB 56
Q .State advantages and disadvantages of TDMA
TDMA Advantages
TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice band data,
and SMS as well as bandwidth-intensive application such as
multimedia and video conferencing. Since TDMA technology
separates users according to time, it ensures that there will be no
interference from simultaneous transmissions.

TDMA Disadvantages
In TDMA each user has a predefined time slot so that users roaming
from one cell to another are not allotted a time slot. ...
It is subjected to multipath distortion. ...
Network and spectrum planning is intensive.
Too few users result in ideal channels rural versus urban
environment.
High synchronization overhead.
Q. TDMA systems transmit in a continuous way.
a) True
b) False
Answer b: TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer and burst method. Thus, the
transmission for any user is not continuous.

Q. In TDMA the Preamble contains __________

a) Address
b) Data
c) Guard bits
d) Trail bits
Answer a:TDMA frame is made up of a preamble, an information message and the trail
bits. In a TDMA frame, the preamble contains the address and synchronization
information that both the base station and the subscribers use to identify each other.
Q. __________ are utilized to allow synchronization of the receivers
between different slots and frames.
a) Preamble
b) Data
c) Guard bits
d) Trail bits
Answer c: Guard times are utilized to allow synchronization of the receivers between
different slots and frames. TDMA/FDD systems intentionally induce several time slots of
delay between the forward and reverse time slots for a particular user.

Q. Which of the following is not true for TDMA?

a) Single carrier frequency for single user
b) Discontinuous data transmission
c) No requirement of duplexers
d) High transmission rates
Answer a:TDMA share a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user
makes use of non-overlapping time slots. The number of time slots per frame depends on
several factors, such as modulation technique, available bandwidth etc.
Q. TDMA allocates a single time per frame to different users.
a) True
b) False
Answer b: TDMA has an advantage that it can allocate different numbers of time slots per
frame to different users. Thus, bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by
concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority.
Q. TDMA is a multiple access technique that has
a. Different users in different time slots
b. Each user is assigned unique frequency slots
c. Each user is assigned a unique code sequence
d. Each signal is modulated with frequency modulation technique
a) Different users in different time slots

Q. In TDMA, the user occupies the whole bandwidth during

transmission.
a. True
b. False
a) True
Q. GSM is an example of
a. TDMA cellular systems
b. FDMA cellular systems
c. CDMA cellular systems
d. SDMA cellular systems
a. TDMA cellular systems

Q .What is difference between TDMA and FDMA

As TDMA makes efficient use of the spectrum, more number of

users can use same spectrum than FDMA system.
The operational costs of TDMA networks are lower compare to
traditional FDMA network.
Q .What is Frequency division multiple access? APRL 22
FDMA allows multiple users to send data through a
single communication channel, such as a coaxial
cable or microwave beam, by dividing the bandwidth of the channel
into separate non-overlapping frequency sub-channels and
allocating each sub-channel to a separate user.
Users can send data through a subchannel by modulating it on
a carrier wave at the subchannel's frequency. It is used in satellite
communication systems and telephone trunklines.
FDMA (frequency division multiple access) is the division of the
frequency band allocated for wireless cellular telephone
communication into 30 channels, each of which can carry a voice
conversation or, with digital service, carry digital data.
FDMA assigns individual channels to individual users. It can be seen
from following Figure that each user is allocated a unique frequency
channel. These channels are assigned on demand to subscribers who
request service. Guard bands are maintained between adjacent
signal spectra to minimize cross talk between channels. During the
period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency
band. In frequency division duplex (FDD) systems, the users are
assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies; one frequency is used for
the upward channel, while the other frequency is used for the
downward channel.
In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available channel
bandwidth is divided into many nonoverlapping frequency bands,
where each band is dynamically assigned to a specific user to
transmit data
In an FDMA system, signals, while occupying their assigned
frequency bands, can be transmitted simultaneously and
continuously without interfering with each other. In FDMA, there is a
central controller that allocates the frequency band to users, solely
based on their needs. This is usually done during the call set up.
Once a band is allocated to a user, it then belongs to the user
exclusively for the continuous flow of information during the call.
To prevent interference, the allocated bands are separated from one
another by small guard bands. In other words, FDMA allows the users
to transmit simultaneously, but over disjoint frequency bands, a user
exploits a fixed portion of the band all the time
 Q .State advantages and disadvantages of FDMA
The advantages of FDMA are the following:
• The complexity of FDMA systems is lower when compared to
TDMA and CDMA systems, though this is changing as digital
signal processing methods improve for TDMA and CDMA.
•FDMA it is technically simple to implement.
•A capacity increase can be obtained by reducing the information
bit rate and using efficient digital codes.
• Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits
are needed for overhead purposes as compared to TDMA.
Disadvantages of FDMA
It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the
capacity depends on the signal-to-interference reduction, or a
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
Q. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) assigns ______
channels to _______ users.
a) Individual, individual
b) Many, individual
c) Individual, many
d) Many, many
a) Individual, individual Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) assigns individual
channels to individual users. Each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.
These channels are assigned on demand to users who request service.

Q. During the period of call, other users can share the same channel
in FDMA.
a) True
b) False
Answer b: In FDMA systems, no other user can share the same channel during the period
of call. In FDD systems, the users are assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies; one is
used for the forward channel while the other frequency is used for the reverse channel.
Q. The bandwidth of FDMA channel is ______
a) Wide
b) Narrow
c) Large
d) Zerov
Answer b: The bandwidth of FDMA channels is relatively narrow as each channel supports
only one circuit per carrier. That is, FDMA is usually implemented in narrow band systems.

Q. In _________ the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in

time
a) FDMA
b) TDMA
c) CDMA
d) All above
a) TDMA
Q. Radio capacity may be increased in cellular concept by
a. Increase in radio spectrum
b. Increasing the number of base stations & reusing the channels
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above
b) Increasing the number of base stations & reusing the channels

Q. The advantage of using frequency reuse is

a. Increased capacity
b. Limited spectrum is required
c. Same spectrum may be allocated to other network
d. All of the above

d. All of the above

 Q. The FDMA channel carries ____________ phone circuit at a time.
a) Ten
b) Two
c) One
d) Several
Answer c: The FDMA channel carries one phone circuit at a time. Each individual band or
channel is wide enough to accommodate the signal spectra of the transmissions to be
propagated.

Q. If the FDMA channel is not in use, it can be used by other users.

a) True
b) False
Answer b: If an FDMA channel is not in use, it sits idle and cannot be used by other users
to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
Q .State advantages and disadvantages of CDMA
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access
method used by various radio communication technologies.
CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters
can send information simultaneously over a single communication
channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that
facilitates various signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It
optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The technology is
commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone
systems, bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.
CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by
processing each voice packet with two PN codes.
CDMA technology is known as a spread-spectrum technique which
allows many users to occupy the same time and frequency
allocations in a given band and space.
A popular competing standard to GSM is Code-Division Multiple
Access (CDMA). On CDMA networks, your phone number is tied to
the phone itself, so CDMA carriers have complete control over
what phones they can allow or not allow on their network.
CDMA takes an entirely different approach from TDMA. CDMA, after
digitizing data, spreads it out over the entire available bandwidth.
Multiple calls are overlaid on each other on the channel, with each
assigned a unique sequence code
CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several
protocols used in second-generation (2G) and third-generation (3G)
wireless communications.
LTE is a protocol used in 4G broadband technology and has high-
speed data access
Long – term evolution or LTE is a standard for wireless technology
based upon GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies. It offers
increased network capacity and speed to mobile device users. It is
an extension of the 3G technology for high-speed mobile
communications.
Q.Comment on “Guard band is essential in FDMA”.
A guardband is a narrow frequency band between adjacent frequency channels.
Guardbands are usually employed in FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
systems to avoid interference from the adjacent channels.

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Q. How many voice channels are multiplexed in a master group?
600 voice channel in master group.
Q. Define Backoff time in pure ALOHA.
Pure ALOHA dictates that when the time-out period passes,
each station waits a random amount of time before
resending its frame this period is called Backoff time

What is the vulnerable time in ALOHA?

In slotted ALOHA, the vulnerable time period for collision
between two frames is equal to the time duration of 1 slot.

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