King Saud University

College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Harmonic Reduction in the Utility Interface

SCR Rectifier

By:

Turki S. Alsaleh

Supervised By:

Dr. Ali M. Eltamaly

January 2007
Table of Contents

Table of contents 2
Acknowledgement 3
Abstract 4

Chapter 1: Introduction

1–1 Definition of Power Electronics 5

1–2 Harmonics 5
1–3 Three Phase Full Wave Fully Controlled Rectifier Bridge 8

Chapter 2: Harmonic Reduction in the Utility Interface SCR Rectifier

2–1 Introduction 10
2–2 System Analysis 14
2–3 An Improved Current Injection Scheme 19

Chapter 3: Implementation of Boost Circuit

3–1 Introduction 21
3–2 Control Circuit Components 22
3–2–1 DC Power Supply 22
3–2–2 Voltage Controlled Saw-tooth Oscillator and Comparator 25
3–2–3 Comparator 27
3–3 Power Circuit 29
3–4 Isolating Circuit 31
3–5 Simulation and Experimental Results 34
3–6 Conclusions 44

2
 Acknowledgement

At the outset, I thank almighty Allah for completion of this project then, I would like to express my
deep gratitude and appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Ali Eltamaly for his valuable guidance, advice,
patience and helpful suggestions in completing this work.

Turki S. Alsaleh

3
Abstract
In this study an improved approach to reduce harmonics in the three-phase controlled rectifier are
presented. The approach is based on circulating third harmonic current injection from the DC link to
the utility lines to reduce utility line current harmonics in SCR converter. In the previous project
(EE-498) the injection current controlled by zigzag transformer and variable R_L_C circuit, but in
this project the resistance in the 3rd harmonic injection path has been replaced by boost converter to
return the power that was dissipated in the resistor back to DC link to increase the efficiency of the

system. The injection current is varied with the load current and the angle of this current also varied
with the firing angle of the converter. A complete mathematical analysis, simulation results have
been presented. Experimental prototype has been used to verify the mathematical and simulation
results. Mathematical, simulation and experimental results show the superiority of the proposed
system.

4
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1. Definition of Power Electronics

Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power by power semiconductor
devices wherein these devices operate as switches. Advent of silicon-controlled rectifiers,
abbreviated as SCRs, led to the development of a new area of application called the power
electronics. Once the SCRs were available, the application area spread to many fields such as
drives, power supplies, aviation electronics, high frequency inverters and power electronics
originated.
Power electronics has applications that span the whole field of electrical power systems, with the
power range of these applications extending from a few VA/Watts to several MVA / MW.
"Electronic power converter" is the term that is used to refer to a power electronic circuit that
converts voltage and current from one form to another. These converters can be classified as:
• Rectifier converting an AC voltage to a DC voltage,
• Inverter converting a DC voltage to an AC voltage,
• Chopper or a switch-mode power supply that converts a DC voltage to another DC
voltage.

1.2 Harmonics
The invention of the semiconductor controlled rectifier (SCR or thyristor) in the 1950s led to
increase of development new type converters, all of which are nonlinear. The major part of power
system loads is in the form of nonlinear loads too much harmonics are injected to the power system.
It is caused by the interaction of distorting customer loads with the impedance of supply network.
Also, the increase of connecting renewable energy systems with electric utilities injects too much
harmonics to the power system.
There are a number of electric devices that have nonlinear operating characteristics, and when it
used in power distribution circuits it will create and generate nonlinear currents and voltages.
Because of periodic non-linearity can be analyzed using the Fourier transform, these nonlinear
currents and voltages have been generally referred to as “Harmonics”. Also, the harmonics can be

5
defined as a sinusoidal component of a periodic waves or quality having frequencies that are an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
Among the devices that can generate nonlinear currents transformers and induction machines
(Because of magnetic core saturation) and power electronics assemblies.
The electric utilities recognized the importance of harmonics as early as the 1930’s such
behavior is viewed as a potentially growing concern in modern power distribution network.

Harmonics standards and limits evolved to give a standard level of harmonics can be injected to
the power system from any power system component. The first standard (EN50006) by European
Committee for Electro-technical Standardization (CENELEE) that was developed by 14th European
committee. Many other standardizations were done and are listed in IEC61000-3-4, 1998.
The IEEE standard 519-1992 is a recommended practice for power factor correction and
harmonic impact limitation for static power converters. It is convenient to employ a set of analysis
tools known as Fourier transform in the analysis of the distorted waveforms. In general, a non-
sinusoidal waveform f(t) repeating with an angular frequency ω can be expressed as in the
following equation.
∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ (an cos( nωt ) + bn sin( nωt ) ) (1.1)
n =1

2π
1
where a n =
π ∫ f (t ) cos (nωt ) dωt (1.2)
0
2π
1
and bn =
π ∫ f (t ) sin (nωt ) dωt (1.3)
0

Each frequency component n has the following value

f n (t ) = a n cos (nωt ) + bn sin (nωt ) (1.4)

fn(t) can be represented as a phasor in terms of its rms value as shown in the following equation

an2 + bn2
Fn = e jϕ n (1.5)
2
− bn
Where ϕ n = tan −1 (1.6)
an
The amount of distortion in the voltage or current waveform is qualified by means of an Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD). The THD in current and voltage are given as shown in (1.7) and (1.8)
respectively.

6
 I −I
2 2 ∑I
n ≠1
2
sn
THDi = 100 * s s1
= 100 * (1.7)
I s1 I s1

Vs2 − Vs21
∑Vsn2
n≠n (1.8)
THDv = 100 * = 100 *
Vs1 Vs1
Where THDi & THDv are the Total Harmonic Distortion in the current and voltage waveforms
respectively.
Current and voltage limitations included in the update IEE 519 1992 are shown in Table(1.1) and
Table(1.2) respectively.

Table (1.1) IEEE 519-1992 current distortion limits for general distribution systems

(120 to 69kV) the maximum harmonic current distortion in percent of IL

Individual Harmonic order (Odd Harmonics)

I SC / I L n<11 11≤ n<17 17≤ n<23 23≤ n<35 35≤ n< THD

<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0

20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0

Where; THD as shown in (1.7).

I SC is the maximum short-circuit current at the point of common coupling (PCC).
I L is the maximum demand load current at the point of common coupling (PCC).

Table (1.2) Voltage distortion limits

Bus voltage at PCC Individual voltage distortion (%) THDv (%)
69 kV and blow 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001kV and above 1 1.5

7
1.3 Threee Phase Fu
ull Wave Fully
F Controlled Recctifier Brid
dge:

Three-pphase full wave

w controolled rectifier shown in Fig.1.1. As
A we can see in thiss figure thee
thyristors has labels T1, T2,……,T6. Thee label of each
e thyrisstor is chossen to be identical
i too
triggering sequence where
w thyristtors are trigggered in the sequence of T1, T2,…
……,T6 wh
hich is clearr
from the thhyristors currrents show
wn in Fig.1.22.
Three-pphase full wave-fully
w c
controlled r
rectifier witth pure DC load currennt is shown
n in Fig.1.1..
Fig.1.2 shoows variouss currents annd voltage of the conv
verter shownn in Fig.1.11 when the delay
d anglee
is less thann 60o. As we
w see in Fig.1.2,
F the load voltag
ge is only positive
p and there is no
n negativee
period in thhe output waveform.
w F
Fig.1.3 show
ws FFT com
mponents off output volttage of recttifier shownn

in Fig.1.1 for
f α < 600o .

Fig.1.1 Three phasee full wave fullly controlled rectifier with pure dc load current

Fig.1.2 Ouutput voltage and h three phase line voltages ffor the rectifieer shown in
a supply cuurrent waveforrms along with
Figg.1.1 for α < 60
6 o with pure DC current looad.

8
 Fig.1.3 FFT compponents of SC
CR, secondary,, primary currrents respectivvely of rectifieer shown in Fiig.1.1

π / 2+α
3 π 3 3 Vm
ππ ∫α
Vdc = 3 Vm siin(ω t + ) dω t = cos α (1.9)
/ 6+
6 π

The maxximum averrage outputt voltage forr delay anglle α=0 is

3 3 Vm
Vdm = (1.10)
π
The norrmalized average outpuut voltage iss as shown in
i (1.20)
Vdc (1.11)
Vn = c α
= cos
Vdm

The rmss value of thhe output vooltage is fouund from th

he followingg equation:
π / 2 +α 2
3  π  1 3 3  (1.12)
π π / ∫6+α  m
Vrms = 3 V sin(ω t + )  dω t = 3 Vm  + cos 2 α 
6  2 4 π
 

9
 Chapter 2
Harmonic Reduction in the Utility Interface SCR
Rectifier

2.1 Introduction
The line commutated SCR rectifier is reliable and easily scalable to higher voltage/ power
ratings. Fig.2.1 (a).shows a line commutated SCR rectifier employed as a utility interface. The
utility line current and its FFT are shown in Fig.2.2(b).This wave-shape described by the following
series.
2 3  1 1 1 1 
i(ωt ) = I o  cos ωt − cos (5ωt ) − cos (7ωt ) + cos (5ωt ) + cos (13ωt ).... (2.1)
π  5 7 11 13 
Where i(t) is the instantaneous line current and Io is the DC current
Therefore the line current contains components at 5ωt, 7ωt, 11ωt, 13ωt etc. These are so called
characteristics harmonics of the three-phase six-pulse bridge. From (2.1) the THD for this
waveform is about 35%. This current waveform presents high harmonics and contributes to many ill
effects to the electric utility.

Electric SCR
utility Converter

Ia

(a) (b)
Fig.2.1 SCR converter without 3rd harmonic injection and utility line current.

Many researches have been done to reduce the harmonic contents in utility line currents like
increase the pulse numbers of utility line currents or by injection technique. Twelve-pulse bridge
connection is the most widely used in high number of pulses operation. Twelve-pulse technique is
using in most HVDC schemes and in very large variable speed drives for DC and AC motors as
well as in renewable energy system. An example of twelve-pulse bridge is shown in Fig.2.2. In fact
any combination such as this which gives a 30o-phase shift will form a twelve-pulse converter. In

10
 Chapter 2
Harmonic Reduction in the Utility Interface SCR
Rectifier

2.1 Introduction
The line commutated SCR rectifier is reliable and easily scalable to higher voltage/ power
ratings. Fig.2.1 (a).shows a line commutated SCR rectifier employed as a utility interface. The
utility line current and its FFT are shown in Fig.2.2(b).This wave-shape described by the following
series.
2 3  1 1 1 1 
i(ωt ) = I o  cos ωt − cos (5ωt ) − cos (7ωt ) + cos (5ωt ) + cos (13ωt ).... (2.1)
π  5 7 11 13 
Where i(t) is the instantaneous line current and Io is the DC current
Therefore the line current contains components at 5ωt, 7ωt, 11ωt, 13ωt etc. These are so called
characteristics harmonics of the three-phase six-pulse bridge. From (2.1) the THD for this
waveform is about 35%. This current waveform presents high harmonics and contributes to many ill
effects to the electric utility.

Electric SCR
utility Converter

Ia

(a) (b)
Fig.2.1 SCR converter without 3rd harmonic injection and utility line current.

Many researches have been done to reduce the harmonic contents in utility line currents like
increase the pulse numbers of utility line currents or by injection technique. Twelve-pulse bridge
connection is the most widely used in high number of pulses operation. Twelve-pulse technique is
using in most HVDC schemes and in very large variable speed drives for DC and AC motors as
well as in renewable energy system. An example of twelve-pulse bridge is shown in Fig.2.2. In fact
any combination such as this which gives a 30o-phase shift will form a twelve-pulse converter. In

10
this kind of converters, each converter will generate all kind of harmonics described above but some
will cancel, being equal in amplitude but 180o out of phase. This happened to 5th and 7th harmonics
along with some of higher order components. An analysis of the waveform shows that the AC line
current can be described by:
2 3  1 1 1 1 
i(ωt ) = I d  cos (ωt ) − cos (5ωt ) + cos (13ωt ) − cos (23ωt ) + cos (25ωt ) (2.2)
π  11 13 23 25 
As shown in (2.2) the THDi is about 13.5%. The waveform of utility line current is shown in
Fig.2.3. Higher pulse number like 18-pulse or 24-pulse reduces the THD more and more but its
applications very rare. In all kind of higher pulse number the converter needs special transformer.
Sometimes the transformers required are complex, expensive and it will not be ready available from
manufacturer.
The main idea here is to use a six-pulse bridge directly to three-phase supply without
transformer. But the THD must be lower than the IEEE-519 1992 limits.

2N :1
a a1 Vd

b1
c c1

2 3 N :1
a2
b2

c2

Fig.2.2 Twelve-pulse converter arrangement

(a) Utility input current. (b) FFT components of utility current.

Fig.2.3 Simulation results of 12-pulse system.

11
 In order to minimize harmonics generated by SCR rectifier, Fig.2.4 shows a third harmonic
current injection scheme to reduce utility current THD. This scheme suffers from the following
disadvantages:
• It requires an Υ / ∆ input isolation transformer which increases the total system cost.
• Two IGBTs on the DC side are in the series path of the power flow.
• The DC link voltage is higher than nominal and warrants re-design of the inverter stage.
• Suffer from increased loses.

SCR Two Step down DC-DC

Electric Isolation rectifier converters
Utility Transformer
DC
voltage

If

Fig.2.4 Harmonic reduction in SCR rectifier type utility interface using two step down DC-DC converters.

Fig.2.5 shows another injection of third harmonic current If technique for utility interface of WTG
using SCR converter. A tuned LC branch connected in star is employed to provide the neutral. This
scheme suffers from the following disadvantages:

(i).The LC branches are bulky and draw reactive power of fundamental frequency.
(ii).The LC branch can resonate with other element in the electric utility.
(iii).The current in the reinjection branch is very sensitive to the deviation of L and C values.
(iv).This technique does not take into account the harmonic level in the DC-link current.

12
 Io+If/2 Io
d
Ia 4 6 2 Vd
a
b If/2
c If/2
1

If / 3
3 5
If / 3

If / 3
L . . . Io-If/2

Fig.2.5 The injection technique using three-LC branches.

Another harmonic reduction scheme is shown in Fig.2.6. This scheme consists of zig/zag
transformer, single-phase transformer connected between the DC-link mid-point ‘o’ and the zig/zag
transformer neutral ‘n’. The secondary of single-phase transformer is connected to a rectifier, boost
converter stage feeding the DC-link. By operating the single switch (Qb), the injected current shape
If can be regulated and reduction in utility line current harmonics can be achieved. The controllable
single switch boost converter (Qb) connected in shunt regulates the utility line current harmonics
against load variations. The boost converter is controlled to emulate a loss less resistor by returning
power back to DC-link. The zig/zag transformer exhibits high magnetizing impedance for
fundamental frequency voltages and very low leakage for third harmonics (zero sequence current).
Also, the zig/zag transformer creates a neutral point to circulate the injection current from DC to
line currents.
In Fig.2.6 a shape for injected current is derived, such that utility line current shape is sinusoidal.
A controllable single switch boost converter connected in shunt regulates the injected current
against load variations. The proposed approach has the following advantages:
(i) It can be applied to line commutated SCR rectifier or SCR inverter.
(ii) No additional components in the path of power flow.
(iii) A single switch boost converter connected in shunt is sufficient to inject the circulating
current If.
(iv) The utility line current is near sinusoidal in shape under varying load conditions.
(v) The proposed approach can be viewed as an add-on option.

13
 DC
UG SCR rectifier d Link
ia(ωt) Vd
c Van a
o
Vcn

n Qb

f
Zig-zag
Transformer
Vbn
b
Von
n
If
Fig.2.6 The injection technique by using zig-zag transformer and boost converter

2.2 System Analysis

In this section a thoroughly analysis of the SCR rectifier output line currents and principles of
harmonic current cancellation by the proposed harmonic current injection is presented. To facilitate
this analysis we will assume the voltage drops across the forward thyristors are negligible. The
operation can be divided into six switching states as shown in Fig.2.7 to Fig.2.12. In each state pair
of thyristors are on and indicated in bold style to identify on ones. The path of circulating third
harmonic current, DC-link current and electric utility line currents are indicated in each state.
By inspecting the current of phase (a) in Fig.2.7 to Fig.2.12 we can see that:
ƒ Ia=-If/3 in state-1 and state-4.
ƒ Ia= Io + If/6 in state-2 and state-3.
ƒ Ia= -Io + If/6 in state-5 and state-6.
where If : Total injection current and Io is the DC-link current.
It is clear that the line current Ia of phase (a) is altered in shape with the 3rd harmonic injection
current and in order to represent this current mathematically, switching functions SW1, SW2, SW3 are
designed and are shown in Fig 2.13. The utility line currents of phase (a) of SCR converter can be
expressed in terms of Io, If and the switching functions SW1, SW2, and SW3 as in the following
equation (See Fig.2.13):
I f (ωt ) I f (ωt )
I a (ωt ) = SW1 (ωt ) + SW 3 (ωt ) + SW 2 (ωt ) I o (2.3)
3 6

14
 By simplifying (2.3), we can obtain the following equation:
I f (ωt )  SW3 (ωt ) 
I a (ωt ) =  SW1 (ωt ) +  + SW 2 (ωt ) I o (2.4)
3  2 
Where Ia(ωt) is the AC line current of phase (a)
The current in (2.4) is shown in Fig.2.13. The resultant utility line current is altered and
becomes near sinusoidal in shape. Injection current shape for If is derived in order to drastically
improve the quality of Ia.

If DC
SCR Io +
Electric Link Io
utility rectifier d 2
If
ia (wt) 1 Vd
3 3 5
If
2
o

If
2
If
4 6 2
3 Io
f
If
Zig-zag Io - 2
Transformer

n If

Fig.2.7 State-1 SCR5 and SCR6 are on.

If DC
Electric SCR Io +
rectifier d 2 Link Io
utility
If
Io + Vd
ia (wt) 6
1 3 5 If
2
o

If
2
If 4 6 2
3 Io
f
If
Zig-zag Io - 2
Transformer

n If

Fig.2.8 State-2 SCR1 and SCR6 are on.

15
 If DC
Electric SCR Io +
rectifier d 2 Link Io
utility
If
Io + Vd
ia (wt) 6
1 3 5 If
2
o

If
2
If 4 6 2
3 Io
f
If
Zig-zag Io - 2
Transformer

n If

Fig.2.9 State-3 SCR1 and SCR2 are on.

If DC
Electric SCR Io +
rectifier d 2 Link Io
utility
If
ia (wt) 1 Vd
3 3 5
If
2
o

If
2
If
4 6 2
3 Io
f
If
Zig-zag Io - 2
Transformer

n If

Fig.2.10 State-4 SCR3 and SCR2 are on.

16
 If DC
SCR Io +
Electric Link Io
utility rectifier d 2
If
ia (wt) Io 1 Vd
- 6 3 5
If
2
o

If
2
If
4 6 2
3 Io
f
If
Zig-zag Io - 2
Transformer

n If

Fig.2.11 State-5 SCR3 and SCR4 are on.

If DC
Electric SCR Io +
rectifier d 2 Link Io
utility
If
ia (wt) Io 1 Vd
- 6 3 5
If
2
o

If
2
If
4 6 2
3 Io
f
If
Zig-zag Io - 2
Transformer

n If

Fig.2.12 State-6, SCR4 and SCR5 are on.

17
 States
1 2 3 4 5 6 1

Io

If

SW1

SW2

SW3

2π
Ia

Fig.2.13 Waveforms of Io, If, SW1, SW2, SW3 and Ia derived from switching states.

The relationship between the utility line current ia(ωt), injected current if(ωt) and DC-Link
current io(ωt) is given in (2.4) and Fig.2.13. This current became more sinusoidal and using the
injection technique reduces total harmonic distortion. It is clear from Fig.2.13 and (2.4) that for a
given load current io(ωt) a proper choice of If would minimize the THD of input current. The
Fourier series of SW1, SW2 and SW3 (Fig.2.13) can be written as in (2.5), (2.6) and (2.7).
1 2 3 cos(2ωt ) cos(4ωt ) cos(8ωt ) cos(10ωt ) cos(14ωt ) cos(16ωt ) (2.5)
SW1 (ωt ) = − + * (− − + + − − + − −)
3 π 2 4 8 10 14 16

2 3 sin(5ωt ) sin(7ωt ) sin(11ωt ) sin(13ωt ) sin(17ωt ) sin(19ωt ) (2.6)

SW2 (ωt ) = * (sin(ωt ) − − + + − − + − −)
π 5 7 11 13 17 19

2 2 3 cos( 2ω t ) cos( 4ω t ) cos( 8ω t ) cos(10ω t ) cos(14ω t ) cos(16ω t ) (2.7)

SW 3 (ω t ) = + * (− − + + − − + − −)
3 π 2 4 8 10 14 16

Fig.2.14 shows the results of 3rd harmonic current If and the shape of ia(ωt) at If=Io. It can be
seen that the utility line current shape is not pure sine wave. In case of higher harmonic contents in
the DC-link current, the THD of utility line current will be higher. For this reason, we have to
modify the injection current to generate pure sine-wave utility line current for any level of harmonic
contents in DC-link current. In the new proposed technique the utility line current will be more
sinusoidal in shape by changing the shape of injection current.

18
 1.5
Ia If
1

Utility line current 0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 0.005 time 0.01 0.015
Fig.2.14 Utility line current and 3rd harmonic injection current at If=Io.

2.3 An Improved Current Injection Scheme.

In this section an improved shape for injection current is derived to achieve sinusoidal line
current in the presence of DC-link current ripple. From (2.4) we have the following equation for
if(ωt):
i a (ωt ) − SW2 (ωt )io (ωt )
i f (ωt ) = (2.8)
1  SW3 (ωt ) 
* SW1 (ωt ) + 
3  2 

By forcing the utility line current ia(ωt) in (2.8) to be sinusoidal; the required shape for the
injection current if(ωt) can be obtained. In this case, zero THD in the utility line current can be
achieved for any harmonic level in DC-link current. The injection current shape can be calculated
for pure DC-link current. The DC-link inductor has been assumed to be high and the DC-link
current ripples is negligible as shown in (2.9).
io(ωt)=Io (2.9)
Substituting (2.5), (2.6), (2.7) and (2.9) into (2.8) and forcing the utility line current ia(ωt) to
sinusoidal with fundamental component amplitude yields:
 sin(5ωt ) sin(7ωt ) sin(11ωt ) sin(13ωt ) 
2 * − − + + − −
i f (ωt )  5 7 11 13  (2.10)
=
Io  cos(2ωt ) cos(4ωt ) cos(8ωt ) cos(10ωt ) 
− 2
−
4
+
8
+
10
− −
 

From (2.10), the new shape of injection current can be drawn as shown in Fig.2.15. Therefore,
by injecting the current if(ωt) as shown in Fig.2.15, sinusoidal utility line current is obtained.
Fig.2.16 shows the utility line current ia(ωt) as a result of injected current if(ωt) shown in Fig.2.15.
It is clear that ia(ωt) is near sinusoidal and is of much higher quality compared to Fig.2.14. The
THD of waveform in Fig.2.16 is less than 1% and it is easy to achieve the requirements of IEC
61000-3-4, 1998 standardization. Fig.2.17 shows the voltage Vdn , V fn , and Von .

19
 Fig.2.15 New
w injection cuurrent shape fo
or a complete one
o period

1.5

0
0.5

0
Ia

-0
0.5

-1

-1.5
0 0.002
2 0.004 0.0 006 0.008 0.01 0.012 2 0.014 0.016
Fig.2.16 Uttility line currrent ia(ωt)/Io

Fig.2.17 The voltages in SCR rectiffier, (V) Vdn iss The voltage between
b pointt ‘d’ and ‘n’’, Vfn is Th
he voltage
bettween point ‘ff’ and ‘n’ and Von is The voltage betweenn point ‘o’ andd ‘n’

20
Chapter3

Implementation of boost circuit

3-1 Introduction
The boost or step-up converter has an output voltage that is always greater than the input voltage.
Fig.3.1 shows a conceptual diagram of boost converter. The basic operation mechanism is that
when the switch is closed the load is isolated from the input by the diode, and current builds up in
the inductor. This current build is effectively storing energy in the field of the inductor. When the
switch is opened, the current in the inductor wishes to continue to flow in the same direction and
with the same magnitude. Therefore the diode will turn on and the current will immediately flow
into the filter capacitor and any connected load.

IT + VL - Io

Vo
Vd RL

Fig.3.1 Step Up DC-DC converter (Boost converter)

The aim of this chapter is to express the system as a series of interconnected systems that interact to
provide a collective response.
The expression of the project as sub-system blocks constitutes a significant portion of this text. By
dividing the project into these sub system blocks the design can become a simpler project with each
block relying on set assumptions and design goals. The goal of this approach is to design a system
that can be altered with ease and can more importantly be tested on a per entity basis. This testing
concept allows each system to have a greater reliability due to the high reliability of surrounding
components. Thus prerequisite for each sub system module is justified. The system can be

21
simplified for design purposes by breaking down the system into a series of sub-systems connected
together in a network configuration. Consider the block representation of the system below.

Fig.3.2 Block diagram of the structure of a typical DC-DC converter.

The system of a DC speed controller was separated into several components, which rely on each
component around them for operation. This may be related to an object oriented design approach
taken in software design.
The project was divided into sub-sequent parts, control circuit components and power circuit
components.
Each of these component parts is related together to represent the entire system. This approach
was also useful in regards to testing the various features of the system where the functionality of
each block could be completed separately.
These sub-systems are the subject of analysis, design and implementation throughout the remainder
of the chapters comprising this project composition.

3-2 Control Circuit Components

The control circuit components consist of the following parts:
3-2-1 DC Power Supply
The most critical system with regard to the entire system is the power supply. If the power supply is
not operational then the entire circuit is not operational. It could be said that the power supply is the
stomach of the system and without energy the system would not operate. It is used to supply power
to the integrated circuits (ICs) and for the analog circuits.
This division of the system supplies +15 V, -15 V, and 0 V to the entire system to operate all the
integrated circuitry of the micro-controller unit. The following are some details of the power supply
components:

22
Transform
mer Connecction
To convvert the AC mains voltaage to a useeable voltag
ge to then bee filtered a ttransformerr is requiredd
to step dow
wn the voltage rectifieer bridge. Thhe transform
mer connecctions to suppply the reg
gulators aree
as shown in Fig.3.3.

Fig.3.3 Trransformer wh
hich we use itt.

The transfformer seleccted for thiis section was

w 240 V 30 VA tappped seconddary transfformer. Thee
secondary taps selecteed to be ussed from thee transform
mers were 0 V, 15 V, aand 30 V, which
w weree
arranged to provide +15
+ V, 0 V and –15 V to the system. A 500
5 mA fusse was used with thiss
transformeer to providee a protectioon and safetty device.

Rectifier Circuit
C
The voltagge output froom the trannsformer is given
g as shown in Fig..3.4. But whhen the tran
nsformationn
through thee rectifier bridge
b occurrs, the outpuut DC voltag
ge is obtainned from thee following equation:
2 Vm 2 * 2
2 * 24
Vdc1 = = = 15.2V (3.1)
π π

Fiig.3.4 Transfoormer and recttifier connectioon.

23
 Fig.3.5 The output voltage
v for the previous connection.

The inittial stage off this projecct was to proototype a Power Supplly Module. LM7815 an
nd LM79155
are used too supply +115 Volts annd –15 Voltts respectiv
vely. The exxpected totaal power co
onsumptionn
required by the circuuits is approoximately 10
1 Watts. All
A capacitoors should bbe the high
hest quality,,
especially the outputt capacitor.. The inpuut capacitorr is an eassier-to-get ssize capaciitor of 1000
microfaradds; I includeed the outpuut capacitor of 10 micro
ofarads to help
h eliminaate any disto
ortion whenn
it is supplyying the anaalog circuitss. The compponent requiired:

Tran
nsform
mer 22
20/ 24
4‐0‐24
4

Two
o Regu
ulatorr 7815
5 & 79
915

Twoo capaacitorss 100u

uF & two
t
cap
pacitorrs 10u
uF

Brid
dge diode

24
 In out +15
7815
0.1A Fuse 24 + +
100uF 10uF
220V 0 0

+ 100uF +
10uF
24
In 7915
out -15

Fig.3.6 Schematic diagram of the power supply module.

3-2-2 Voltage Controlled Saw-tooth Oscillator and Comparator

The voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is an oscillator whose frequency can be changed by a
variable DC control voltage. One way to build a voltage controlled saw-tooth oscillator is with an
op-amp integrator that uses a switching device (PUT) in parallel with the feedback capacitor to
terminate each ramp at a prescribed level and effectively "rest" the circuit. Fig.3.7 shows the
implementation of this circuit.

The PUT is a programmable unijunction transistor with an anode, a cathode and a gate terminal.
The gate is always biased positively with respect to the cathode. When the anode voltage exceeds
the gate voltage by approximately 0.7 V, the PUT turns on and acts as forward biased diode, when
the anode voltage falls below this level, the PUT turns off. Also, the current must be above the
holding value to maintain conduction. The frequency of the saw-tooth oscillator can be obtained
from the following equation:

(R2 )Vcc 1  1 
 
fs = * (3.2)
R1 + R2 Ri C  VP − 1 

R4
Where V P = (Vcc ) + 0.7 (3.3)
R3 + R4

10
Then, V P = (15) + 0.7 = 10.075 V (3.4)
6 + 10

Then the minimum switching frequency can be obtained when the input resistance is at its
maximum value as following:

f s _ min =
(6)*15 * 1  1 
−9   = 1042Hz (3.5)
6+6 100 *10 * 10 *10  8.2 − 1 
3

25
The maximum value can be obtained from the performance of the circuit. The sawtooth signal has
to be compared using voltage comparator (see Fig.3.7) with variable control signal by us 100 k
potentiometer. The output from comparator depends on the following logic.

If Vcontrol > Vsawtooth the output voltage will be +15V and

If Vcontrol < Vsawtooth the output voltage will be -15V

So, if we need the output voltage to be zero when Vcontrol < Vsawtooth we can use diode at the

output signal as shown in Fig.3.7. Therefore, with the diode connected at the output, the output
from comparator depends on the following logic.

If Vcontrol > Vsawtooth the output voltage will be +15V and,

If Vcontrol < Vsawtooth the output voltage will be 0 V

Fig.3.7 Voltage controlled saw-tooth oscillator and comparator circuit

26
 Fig.3.8 Sawtooth wave.

3-2-3 Comparator

Comparator is the second op-amp in control circuit, it compare between the sawtooth wave and a
DC voltage at specified level we make control on the DC voltage by an potentiometer 100 kilo
ohms it can make the output DC voltage from 10V to 15V the applied DC voltage at the 3rd
terminal of the 741 IC (positive input).
The negative input is the sawtooth wave it is applied at the 2nd terminal of the 741 IC as we see
in the Fig.3.7.
The output of the comparator is +15 voltage when the control voltage (DC voltage) is greater
than the sawtooth wave it be -15 when the control voltage is less than the sawtooth wave as we see
in the middle waveform of Fig.3.8.
At the output of the comparator we connect a suitable diode to remove –Ve component at the
output of the comparator to make it +Ve only.
Resistance connected between the output and the MOSFET gate to protect the gate of the
MOSFET and make it surly open or closed.

+15V
2
7 10 kΩ
+12V 741 6
4
3
1 kΩ -15V
100k

Fig.3.9 The comparator circuit.

27
 Fig.3.10 The output of voltage of the comparator circuit.

Voltage controlled saw-tooth circuit components:-

28
3-3 Power Circuit:

Power circuits feed the DC motor with a voltage between 10V and 80V as a variable DC voltage.
The DC Motor speed is proportional with the applied voltage on it. So we design our power supply
to vary the input voltage of the DC motor to change its speed. Power Circuit (see Fug.3.11) is
consisting of the following components:

Power Transformer
We choose a suitable step down transformer with the following specification:
Primary voltage is 220V sinusoidal AC
Secondary voltage is 12V sinusoidal AC
It has VA equal 25 VA

Fig 3.11 Power circuit of boost converter.

Bridge or 4 suitable diodes

The bridge has the following specification:
It can operate with the full load current (10A) without over heated. The output of the bridge can be
obtained by the following equation:

π
1 2Vm 2 *12 * 2
π∫
Vdc = V sin ωt dωt = == = 10.8V (3.6)
π π
m
0

29
Inductance
We made our inductance with the following specifications.
Ferromagnetic core, Diameter of the wire is suitable for the full load current

Switch (MOSFET or IGBT)

MOSFET plays a significant role in controlling the applied voltage on the DC Motor. It's Gate
triggered by the output of the controlling circuit. We can recognize that the MOSFET is used on this
design in place of IGBT switch.

Smoothing Capacitor
We use this capacitance to make the output nearing the pure DC voltage. We choose this
capacitance suitable and can be withstand with the applied voltage (80 V). Power circuit component
required:-

30
3-4 Isolating Circuit:

We will implement this circuit to make isolation between the ground of supply and the ground of
switch, the component required are:

Fig.3.12 Schematic diagram of the isolating circuit.

31
Fig.3.13 Schematic diagram of control circuit

32
Fig.3.14 Schematic diagram of connection between power circuit and control circuit after isolation

Fig.3.15 The injection technique by using boost converter

33
3-5 Simulation and Experimental Results:

The simulation performed for 110 V line-to-line voltages and 220 µ F, DC-link capacitor.
Fig.3.16 (a) and (b) shows the simulation, experimental result for utility line current ia(ωt) along
with phase a voltage for zero injection current at α =20ْ . Fig.3.16 (b) shows the FFT components of
phase a current. It is clear from this figure that the line current containes high harmonics especially
from 5th and 7th components.
Fig.3.17 (a) and (b) shows the simulation, experimental result for utility line current ia(ωt) along
with phase a voltage for optimum injection current, I f at α =20ْ . Fig.3.17 (b) shows the FFT

components of phase a current. It is clear from this figure that the line current become very near to
sine-wave with very low THD which prove the superiority of the third harmonic injection
technique.
Fig.3.18 (a) and (b) shows the simulation and experimental results for the voltage Vdn along with

phase a voltage. Fig.3.18 (c) shows the FFT components for the voltage Vdn at α = 20o . It is clear
from this figure that this voltage contains high 3rd harmonic component. This component is used to
drive the third harmonic injection current.
Fig.3.19 (a) and (b) shows the simulation and experimental results for the voltage V fn along with

phase a voltage. Fig.3.19 (c) shows the FFT components for the voltage V fn at α = 20o . It is clear

from this figure that this voltage contains high 3rd harmonic component. This component is used to
drive the third harmonic injection current.

Fig.3.20 (a) and (b) shows the simulation result for Va and injection current If at α =20ْ , Fig.3.20
(c) shows the FFT components of the 3rd harmonic injection current.

Fig.3.21 (a) (b) shows the simulation and experimental result line current ia(ωt) and injection
current I f at α =20ْ .

34
 (a) Simulation result.

(b) Experimental Results

(c) FFT of I a
Fig.3.16 The utility line current at α = 20 alonge with phase a voltage and its FFT components without injection.
35
 (a) Simulation result

(b) Experimental results

(c) FFT of I a
Fig.3.17 The utility line current at α = 20 alonge with phase a voltage and its FFT components with optimum
injection current.

36
 (a): Simulation results

(b): Experimental result.

(c) FFT for Vdn at α =20ْ .

Fig.3.18 The voltage Vdn and its FFT components.

37
 (a): Simulation results

(b): Experimental result.

(c) FFT for Vdn at α =20ْ .

Fig.3.19 The voltage V fn and its FFT components.

38
 (a) Simulation Result

(b) Experimental Results

(c) FFT of I f
Fig.3.20 The voltage Va and injection current I f at α =20ْ

39
 (a) Simulation result

(b) Experimental result.

Fig.3.21 The simulation and experimental result of line current ia(ωt) and injection current I f at α =20ْ .

40
Fig.3.22 output of two regulator

Fig.3.23 Sawtooth and pulse

41
 Fig.3.24 input and output of pulse

Fig.3.25 input and output of control bridge

42
Fig.3.26 input and output of bridge for power circuit

Fig.3.27 input boost voltage AC and If

43
3.6 Conclusions:

An approach to reduce harmonic based on circulating third harmonic current in the DC-link
back to the utility line currents to reduce utility line current harmonics. A new shape is computed
from analysis to achieve clean power characteristics with zero THD in utility line current. The
computed shape is very near to sinusoidal third harmonic current. The optimal rms value of
injection current is found about 1.2 times the DC current. The angle of injection current is varied
with the firing angle of the converter. For this reason a variable R-L-C circuit has been used to
control the amplitude and angle of the injected current. The resistance in the 3rd harmonic injection
path has been replaced by boost converter to return the power that was dissipated in the resistor
back to DC link to increase the efficiency of the system. The proposed technique eliminates the
high power interface transformer with only 25% zig/zag transformer. Mathematical and simulation
results verified the concepts. Experimental results were provided from 110V supply agrees with
mathematical and simulation results. The proposed approach shows high performance and
eliminates most problems associated with utility interface of SCR converters.

44