WATER: PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Water is a transparent and virtually colorless chemical substance that is the main
constituent of the earth’s surface. It is indispensable to life. Its chemical formula is H2O,
meaning that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms that
are connected by covalent bonds.
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
From the biological viewpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for
the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by
allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All
known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of
the body’s solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within
the body. Water is fundamental to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells
use the suns energy to split off water’s hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined
with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living
cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the suns energy and
reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration).

Structure of Water
The two hydrogen atoms of water are linked covalently to oxygen, each sharing an
electron pair, to give a nonlinear arrangement. This “bent” structure of the H2O
molecule is of enormous significance to its properties. If H2O were linear, it would be a
non-polar substance. In the bent configuration, however, the electronegative O atom
and the two H atoms form a dipole that renders the molecule distinctly polar.
Furthermore, this structure is ideally suited to Hydrogen (H) -bond formation.
Water can serve as both an H donor and an H acceptor in H-bond formation. The
potential to form four H bonds per water molecule is the source of the strong
intermolecular attractions that endow this substance with its anomalously high
boiling point, melting point, heat of vaporization, and surface tension. Hydrogen
bonding in water is cooperative. That is, an H-bonded water molecule serving as an
acceptor is a better H-bond donor than an unbounded molecule (and an H2O molecule
serving as an H-bond donor becomes a better H-bond acceptor). Thus, participation in H
bonding by H2O molecules is a phenomenon of mutual reinforcement. The H bonds
between neighboring molecules are weak (23 kJ/mol each) relative to the H-O covalent
bonds (420 kJ/mol). As a consequence, the hydrogen atoms are situated asymmetrically

Fig. Model of hydrogen bond between molecules of water

Water Forms H Bonds with Polar Solutes

In the case of nonionic but polar compounds such as sugars, the excellent solvent
properties of water stem from its ability to readily form hydrogen bonds with the polar
functional groups on these compounds, such as hydroxyls, amines, and carbonyls. These
polar interactions between solvent and solute are stronger than the intermolecular
attractions between solute molecules caused by van der Waals forces and weaker
hydrogen bonding. Thus, the solute molecules readily dissolve in water.
Hydrophobic Interactions
The behavior of water toward nonpolar solutes is different from the interactions just
discussed. Nonpolar solutes (or nonpolar functional groups on biological
macromolecules) do not readily H bond to H2O, and, as a result, such compounds tend
to be only sparingly soluble in water. The process of dissolving such substances is
accompanied by significant reorganization of the water surrounding the solute so that
the response of the solvent water to such solutes can be equated to “structure making.”
Because nonpolar solutes must occupy space, the random H-bond network of water
must reorganize to accommodate them. At the same time, the water molecules
participate in as many H-bonded interactions with one another as the temperature
permits. Consequently, the H-bonded water network rearranges toward formation of a
local cagelike (clathrate) structure surrounding each solute molecule. Under these
conditions, nonpolar solute molecules experience a net attraction for one another that is
called hydrophobic interaction.
Amphiphilic Molecules
Compounds containing both strongly polar and strongly nonpolar groups are called
amphiphilic molecules (from the Greek amphi meaning “both,” and philos meaning
“loving”), also referred to as amphipathic molecules (from the Greek pathos meaning
“passion”). Salts of fatty acids are a typical example that has biological relevance. They
have a long nonpolar hydrocarbon tail and a strongly polar carboxyl head group, The
ionic carboxylate function hydrates readily, whereas the long hydrophobic tail is
intrinsically insoluble. Sodium palmitate and other amphiphilic molecules readily
disperse in water because the hydrocarbon tails of these substances are joined together
in hydrophobic interactions as their polar carboxylate functions are hydrated in typical
hydrophilic fashion. Such clusters of amphipathic molecules are termed micelles. Of
enormous biological significance is the contrasting solute behavior of the two ends of
amphipathic molecules upon introduction into aqueous solutions.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Indeed, normal metabolic activity can occur only when cells are at least 65% H2O. This
dependency of life on water is not a simple matter, but it can be grasped through a
consideration of the unusual chemical and physical properties of H2O. The Major
Chemical and Physical Properties of Water Are:
1. Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure.
2. It’s a good solvent, often called ‘the universal solvent’. All the major components in
cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water.
3. The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric
pressure.
4. At 4181.3 J/(kg·K), water has a high specific heat capacity, as well as a high heat
of vaporization (40.65 kJ·mol−1), both of which are a result of the extensive
hydrogen bonding between its molecules.
5. The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F).
6. Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in all proportions, forming a
single homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible,
usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. As a gas, water
vapor is completely miscible with air.
7. Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.
8. As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or hydrogen-containing
compounds burn or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds.
9. Elements which are more electropositive than H e.g lithium, sodium, calcium,
potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. Being a
flammable gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerous and the reaction of water with
the more electropositive of these elements may be violently explosive.
10. Taste and odor: Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying
tastes and odors. However, pure H2O is tasteless and odorless.

ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, pH and BUFFER SYSTEMS

For the purpose of enzyme activity and to maintain the shape and structure of the
proteins, the body must maintain the right state of acidity and alkalinity. If there are
more H+ (hydrogen ions), a solution is acidic. If there are more OH - (hydroxyl) ions, the
solution is alkaline. The acidity and alkalinity of a solution is measured in terms of pH
(hydrogen ion concentration). As the quantity of hydrogen ion is so small, it is
cumbersome to express in actual numbers. If needed, the number would be something
like 0.0000001. To make it easier, this is expressed by pH.
The pH is actually a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in the body fluid; the pH
scale extends from 0 to 14. Water is considered to be a pH of 7.0; a neutral pH. This
means that water contains 0.0000001, or 1x 10-7 of a mole of hydrogen ions per liter. If
the pH is lower than 7.0, it denotes that the fluid has more hydrogen ions or that it is
acidic. For example, if a solution has a pH of 5.0, it contains 0.00001 or 1 x10 -5 of a mole
of hydrogen ions per liter (i.e., more hydrogen ions than a solution of pH 7.0). If a
solution has a pH above 7.0, it has less hydrogen ions than water and is alkaline.

The pH of the body is 7.4 (range, 7.35–7.45) (i.e., slightly alkaline). For body enzymes
to be active and for chemical reactions to proceed optimally, it is vital that pH be
maintained at this level. This implies that the body needs regulatory mechanisms that
monitor the hydrogen ion levels carefully and get rid of them as and when they form
above normal levels.

One of the body’s compensatory mechanisms is the presence of many BUFFERS. Buffers
are compounds that prevent the hydrogen ion concentration from fluctuating too
much and too rapidly to alter the pH. The body uses buffers to convert strong acids
(that dissociate easily into hydrogen ions) to weak acids (that dissociate less easily).
Examples of buffers that are present in the body fluid include:

1. Proteins,
2. Hemoglobin, and
3. A combination of bicarbonate and carbonic acid compounds.
The later is an important buffer. The following chemical reaction indicates how a
combination of bicarbonate and carbonic acid compounds work as buffers.

HCO3- + H → H2CO3 → H2O + CO2

In this chemical reaction, HCO3 (bicarbonate), a weak base, combines with the hydrogen
ions to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid), a weak acid. This weak acid can be further broken
down to CO2 (carbon dioxide), which can be breathed out, and H 2O (water), which can
be used for other reactions or excreted by the kidneys. Alternately, if the pH becomes
acidic, the weak carbonic acid H2CO3 can break down to form HCO3-(a weak base) and H+
(hydrogen ions).
 Ionization of Water
Water shows a small but finite tendency to form ions;
H2O – H+ + OH-
Free protons (H+] are immediately hydrated to form hydronium ions, H3O+ .Indeed,
because most hydrogen atoms in liquid water are hydrogen-bonded to a neighboring
water molecule, this protonic hydration is an instantaneous process and the ion
products of water are H3O+ and OH-:
H+ + H2O - H3O+
The amount of H3O+ or OH- in 1 L (liter) of pure water at 25°C is 1 X 10-7 mol
Kw, the Ion Product of Water
The dissociation of water into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions occurs to the extent that
10-7 mol of H+ and 10-7 mol of OH- are present at equilibrium in 1 L of water at 25°C.
H2O – H+ + OH-
The equilibrium constant for this process is

where brackets denote concentrations in moles per liter.

Because the concentration of H2O in pure water is essentially constant, a new constant,
Kw, the ion product of water (or water equilibrium constant), can be written as
Kw = [H+][OH-]
Experimentally, [H+] has been found to be same as [OH-] which is equal to 10-7 ,
Kw is therefore equal to 10-7 x 10-7 =10-14
The equation shows that there is a reciprocal relationship between H + and OH-
concentrations of aqueous solutions. If a solution is acidic, that is, of significant [H +],
then the ion product of water dictates that the OH - concentration is correspondingly
less.
For example, if [H+] is 10-2 M, [OH-] must be 10-12 M
i.e: Kw = 10-14 = [10-2][OH_];
[OH_] = 10-12 M).
Similarly, in an alkaline, or basic, solution in which [OH-] is great, [H+] is low.
Questions
1. What is the concentration of H+ in a solution of 0.1 M NaOH?
2. What is the concentration of OH- in a solution with an H+ concentration of 1.3x10-4 ?
 pH

To avoid the cumbersome use of negative exponents to express concentrations that

range over 14 orders of magnitude, Sørensen, a Danish biochemist, devised the pH
scale by defining pH as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

pH = -log10 [H+]

Note also that from water equilibrium constant, we can have:

pKw = pH + pOH = 14

Note that the pH scale is logarithmic, not arithmetic. To say that two solutions differ in
pH by 1 pH unit means that one solution has ten times the H + concentration of the other,
but it does not tell us the absolute magnitude of the difference. For example, a cola drink
(pH 3.0) or red wine (pH 3.7) has an H + concentration approximately 10,000 times that
of blood (pH 7.4).
Measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used procedures in
biochemistry. The pH affects the structure and activity of biological macromolecules; for
example, the catalytic activity of enzymes is strongly dependent on pH. Measurements
of the pH of blood and urine are also commonly used in medical diagnoses. The pH of
the blood plasma of people with severe, uncontrolled diabetes, for example, is often
below the normal value of 7.4; this condition is called acidosis. In certain other disease
states the pH of the blood is higher than normal, the condition of alkalosis.
Dissociation of Electrolytes (Bases and Acids)
Hydrochloric, sulfuric, and nitric acids, commonly called strong acids, are completely
ionized in dilute aqueous solutions; the strong bases NaOH and KOH are also completely
ionized. Of more interest to biochemists is the behavior of weak acids and bases—those
not completely ionized when dissolved in water. These are common in biological
systems and play important roles in metabolism and its regulation. The behavior of
aqueous solutions of weak acids and bases is best understood if we first define some
terms:
1. ACID AND BASES: Acids may be defined as proton donors and bases as proton
acceptors. A proton donor and its corresponding proton acceptor make up a
conjugate acid-base pair.
E.g, Acetic acid (CH3COOH), a proton donor, and the acetate anion (CH3COO-), the
corresponding proton acceptor, constitute a conjugate acid-base pair, related by the
reversible reaction
CH3COOH = H+ + CH3COO-
Each acid has a characteristic tendency to lose its proton in an aqueous solution: the
stronger the acid, the greater its tendency to lose its proton.
2. ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANT: The tendency of any acid (HA) to lose a proton and
form its conjugate base (A-) is defined by the equilibrium constant (Keq) for the
reversible reaction
HA ⇆ H+ + A-,

Which is

Equilibrium constants for ionization reactions involving acids are usually called acid
ionization or acid dissociation constants, often designated Ka. Stronger acids, such as
hydrochloric acids, phosphoric and carbonic acids, have larger dissociation
constants; weaker acids, such as acetic acid (CH3COOH) and monohydrogen
phosphate (HPO42-), have smaller dissociation constants.
Reason: For strong acids, there are more [H+] in solution compared to [HA] (because
they dissociate completely), hence the value for Ka from the equation becomes large.
Reverse is true for weak acids
3. pKa: To avoid the cumbersome use of negative exponents associated with Ka, we
can take a negative logarithm of Ka to give pKa (like the case for pH).
For weak acids, Titration Curves can be used to calculate pKa
4. TITRATION CURVE: Titration is used to determine the amount of an acid in a given
solution. A measured volume of the acid (V1) is titrated with a solution of a strong
base, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH), of known concentration (C1. The NaOH is
added in small increments (V2) until the acid is consumed (neutralized), as
determined with an indicator dye or a pH meter. The concentration of the acid in the
original solution can be calculated from the volume and concentration of NaOH
added (Recollect: C1V1 = C2V2). A plot of pH against the amount of NaOH added
(a titration curve) reveals the pKa of the weak acid.

5. HENDERSON HASSELBACH EQUATION: Once the concentration of the acid in the

solution is determined using C1V1=C2V2, and the pH is taken using a pH
meter/indicator, as described above, the pKa of the acid can be calculated using HH
equation. How is this equation derived? It is as shown below:

METABOLIC ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS

Acidosis refers to an excess of acid in the blood that causes the pH to fall below 7.35,
and alkalosis refers to an excess of base in the blood that causes the pH to rise above
7.45. Many conditions and diseases can interfere with pH control in the body and cause
a person's blood pH to fall outside of healthy limits.
Causes of Metabolic acidosis

Causes of primary metabolic acidosis are commonly classified by the anion gap:

Anion Gap.

Some causes of metabolic acidosis, e.g., lactic acidosis, release anions into the ECF which
are not normally measured. When this occurs there will be an unexpected discrepancy
between the sums of the principal cations and anions. The usual sum is:

Gap = Na+ + K+ - Cl- - HCO3-

15 = 140 + 5 - 105 - 25 mMol/L

In addition to Cl- + HCO3- there are extra unmeasured anions, e.g., lactate, phosphate,
sulphate, which increase the "gap". A gap greater than 30 indicates a significant
concentration of unmeasured anions. If information is required about the unmeasured
anions, it is probably more appropriate to measure their concentration, i.e., lactate in
tissue hypoxia, 3-hydroxybutyrate in diabetic ketosis, and phosphate or sulfate in renal
failure.

Metabolic Acidosis with a Normal Anion Gap:

 Longstanding diarrhea (bicarbonate loss)

 Uretero-sigmoidostomy
 Pancreatic fistula
 Renal Tubular Acidosis
 Intoxication, e.g., ammonium chloride, acetazolamide, bile acid sequestrants
 Renal failure

Metabolic Acidosis with an Elevated Anion Gap:

 lactic acidosis
 ketoacidosis
 chronic renal failure (accumulation of sulfates, phosphates, uric acid)
 intoxication, e.g., salicylates, ethanol, methanol, formaldehyde, ethylene glycol,
paraldehyde, INH, toluene, sulfates, metformin.
 rhabdomyolysis

Treatment: involves treatment of the underlying cause

Metabolic Alkalosis

Causes:

 Loss of acid via the urine, stools, or vomiting

 Transfer of hydrogen ions into the cells
 Excessive bicarbonate administration, e.g. alkali given to patients with renal
failure.
 Contraction of the extracellular space due to excessive diuretic treatment

Prolonged Metabolic Alkalosis may be caused by a number of different mechanisms:

 Decrease in renal perfusion: occurs in dehydration, cardiac failure, or

cirrhosis, stimulates the renin-angiotensis system which increases sodium
reabsorption in the nephron.
 Chloride Depletion: may occur via vomiting or through the use of loop
diiuretics and this enhances bicarbonate reabsorption with associated hydrogen
ion loss.
 Hypokalemia: Metabolic alkalosis may be associated with hypokalemia which
can then maintain metabolic alkalosis by various mechanisms such as
o Shift of hydrogen ions intracellularly which enhances bicarbonate
reabsorption in the collecting duct.
o Stimulation of the H+/K+ ATPase in the collecting duct: this leads to
potassium ion reabsorption and hydrogen ion secretion. The net gain of
bicarbonate maintains the metabolic alkalosis.
o Renal ammonia genesis: Ammonium ions (NH4+) are produced in the
proximal tubule from glutamine metabolism. Alpha-ketoglutarate is
produced The metabolism generates bicarbonate.
o Impaired chloride ion reabsorption in the distal nephron increases
luminal electronegativity with enhanced hydrogen ion secretion.
 o Lowered glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Hypokalemia may decrease
GFR, which in turn decreases the filtered load of bicarbonate. In volume
depletion this impairs excretion of the excess bicarbonate.

Treating Severe Metabolic Alkalosis

Adequate hydration normally allows the kidneys to correct the problem. However, in
severe cases accompanied by hypokalemia, correction of the hypokalemia may be
necessary first. As with metabolic acidosis, ideal treatment is the correction of the
underlying abnormality.

Other therapies: Intravenous dilute hydrochloric acid is occasionally used but carries
the risk of hemolysis. Potassium chloride may also be used unless there is kidney
failure. In severe cases which are unresponsive to other measures ammonium chloride
may be given

What is respiratory alkalosis?

Respiratory alkalosis occurs when the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood
are not balanced. Your body needs oxygen to function properly. When you inhale, you
introduce oxygen into the lungs. When you exhale, you release carbon dioxide, which is
a waste product. Normally, the respiratory system keeps these two gases in balance.

Respiratory alkalosis occurs when you breathe too fast or too deep and carbon
dioxide levels drop too low. This causes the pH of the blood to rise and become
too alkaline. When the blood becomes too acidic, respiratory acidosis occurs.

Hyperventilation is typically the underlying cause of respiratory alkalosis.

Hyperventilation is also known as overbreathing. Someone who is hyperventilating
breathes very deeply or rapidly.

Causes of hyperventilation

Panic attacks and anxiety are the most common causes of hyperventilation. However,
they’re not the only possible causes. Others include:
  heart attack
 pain
 drug use
 asthma
 fever
 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
 infection
 pulmonary embolism
 pregnancy

Symptoms of respiratory alkalosis

Overbreathing is a sign that respiratory alkalosis is likely to develop. However, low

carbon dioxide levels in the blood also have a number of physical effects, including:

 Dizziness . bloating . feeling lightheaded . numbness or muscle spasms in the

hands and feet . discomfort in the chest area .confusion
 dry mouth
 tingling in the arms
 heart palpitations
 feeling short of breath

What is respiratory acidosis?

Respiratory acidosis is a condition that occurs when the lungs can’t remove enough of
the carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the body. Excess CO2 causes the pH of blood and
other bodily fluids to decrease, making them too acidic. Normally, the body is able to
balance the ions that control acidity. This balance is measured on a pH scale from 0 to
14. Acidosis occurs when the pH of the blood falls below 7.35 (normal blood pH is
between 7.35 and 7.45).

Respiratory acidosis is typically caused by an underlying disease or condition. This is

also called respiratory failure or ventilatory failure.
Normally, the lungs take in oxygen and exhale CO2. Oxygen passes from the lungs into
the blood. CO2 passes from the blood into the lungs. However, sometimes the lungs
can’t remove enough CO2. This may be due to a decrease in respiratory rate or decrease
in air movement due to an underlying condition such as:

 asthma
 COPD
 pneumonia
 sleep apnea

Types

Forms of respiratory acidosis

There are two forms of respiratory acidosis: acute and chronic.

Acute respiratory acidosis occurs quickly. It’s a medical emergency. Left untreated,
symptoms will get progressively worse. It can become life-threatening.

Chronic respiratory acidosis develops over time. It doesn’t cause symptoms. Instead,
the body adapts to the increased acidity. For example, the kidneys produce more
bicarbonate to help maintain balance.

Chronic respiratory acidosis may not cause symptoms. Developing another illness may
cause chronic respiratory acidosis to worsen and become acute respiratory acidosis.

Symptoms

Symptoms of respiratory acidosis

Initial signs of acute respiratory acidosis include:

 headache
 anxiety
 blurred vision
 restlessness
 confusion
Without treatment, other symptoms may occur. These include:

 sleepiness or fatigue
 lethargy
 delirium or confusion
 shortness of breath
 coma

The chronic form of respiratory acidosis doesn’t typically cause any noticeable
symptoms. Signs are subtle and nonspecific and may include:

 memory loss
 sleep disturbances
 personality changes