Lesson 01

Product Design and Development

Introduction

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Outline of Presentation

 Course Details
 New Product Design
 Need of a New Product Design
 Product Development
 New-Product Development Strategy
 New-Product Development Process
 Successful Product Development
 Product Life-Cycle (PLC)
Course Details Course Details
Brief Contents
• Introduction

• Product life cycle

• Product policy of an organization

Week 1
• Selection of a profitable product

• Product design process

• Product analysis
Course Details Course Details
Brief Contents
• Value engineering concepts: Advantages, applications in
product development

• Problem identification and selection

Week 2
• Analysis of functions: Anatomy of function

• Types of functions, functional analysis system technique

• Case studies
Course Details Course Details
Brief Contents
• Introduction to product design tools

• Quality function deployment (QFD)

• Computer Aided Design

Week 3
• Design for excellence (DFX), robust design

• Design for manufacturing (DFM), design for assembly

(DFA)

• Ergonomics in product design

Course Details Course Details
Brief Contents
• Design for manufacturing and assembly (DFMA) guidelines

• Product design for manual assembly

Week 4 • Design guidelines for manufacturing of metallic and non-

metallic products

• Rapid prototyping, concept, advantages

• Working principle of SLA, LOM and SLS

 New Product Design

 Every organization has to design, develop and introduce new

products as a survival and growth strategy.

 Product design is conceptualization of an idea about a product and

transformation of the idea into a reality.

 To transform the idea into reality a specification about the product

is prepared.
 New Product Design
 This specification is prepared by considering different constraints
such as production process, customer expectation, etc.

 In product design stage, various aspects of the product are

analyzed. Also final decision regarding the product is taken on the
basis of the analysis.

 Thisdecision can be any aspect related to the product, e.g.

dimension and tolerances, type of material for each component.
 Need of a New Product Design
 Organization’s are required to design the new products for the following reasons:
• To be in business for a long time

• To satisfy unfulfilled needs of the customers

• Too much competition in the existing product line

• The profit margin is on the decline

• The company’s existing product line becomes saturated
and the sale is on the decline
New Product Design

How the Product Design and Manufacturing

Influence the Price, Quality, & Cycle Time?
Product Development

Source: http://eurasiacm.com/?tag=velosiped
New-Product Development Strategy
Reasons for new product failure:
• Overestimation of market size
• Poor design
• Incorrect positioning
• Wrong timing
• Priced too high
• Ineffective promotion
• Management influence
• High development costs
• Competition
New-Product Development Process

1. Idea generation
2. Idea screening
3. Concept development and testing
4. Marketing strategy development
5. Business analysis
6. Product development
7. Test marketing
8. Commercialization
Successful Product Development

There are five characteristics of successful product

development:
• Product quality
• Product cost
• Development time
• Development cost
• Development capability
 Product Life-Cycle (PLC)

 Product life cycle (PLC) is the course that a product’s sales and
profits take over its lifetime

 The product life cycle concept is derived from a fact that a given
product’s volume and revenue follow a typical pattern of four
phases
 Product Life-Cycle

 The four phases of life-cycle of a product: • Introduction

• Growth
• Maturity
• Decline
Thank You
 Lesson 02
Product Design and Development
Product Life-Cycle

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Product Life-Cycle (PLC)
 Product Life-Cycle (PLC)
 Product life cycle (PLC) is the course that a product sales and
profits take over its lifetime

 It shows the stages that products go through from development to

decline from the market
Why PLC?
• PLC determines revenue earned

• Contributes to strategic marketing planning

• Helps the firm to identify when a product needs support, redesign,

withdrawal, etc.

• Helps in planning for the new product development

• Helps in forecasting and managing cash flow

The Phases of the PLC
• Product development
• Introduction/Launch
• Growth
• Maturity
• Decline
 Sales and Profits Over the Product’s Lifetime

Product
Development Introduction Growth Maturity Decline
Sales and Profits

Sales

Profits

Time
Phase I: Product development
• New ideas
• Market survey-is it required? Can it be produced at a profit?
• Product development and refinement
• Test Marketing
• Analysis of test marketing results
• Preparation for launch, publicity, marketing campaign
Phase II: Introduction/Launch
• Introduction of the product into the market
• It may be new product or old product to the new market
• Demand is low
• High cost/low sales
• Advertisement and promotion
• Monitor initial sales
Introduction phase
Characteristics and Objectives
Sales Low
Costs High cost per customer
Profits Negative
Marketing Objectives Create product awareness and trial
Phase III: Growth
• This period is the time to improve efficiency and product availability
as well as service

• Cost efficiency,time-to-market, pricing and discount policies are the

major factors in gaining customer confidence

• Increased consumer awareness

• Sales growth rate increases because of limited or no competition
• Revenue increases
Growth phase
Characteristics and Objectives

Sales Rapidly rising

Costs Cost per customer is average

Profits Rising

Marketing Objectives Maximize market share

Phase IV: Maturity
• This period is the period of the highest returns from the product.
• Sales reach peak
• Marketing cost of the product declines
• Ratio of revenue to cost high
• Sales growth likely to be low
• Competition likely to be greater
• Monitor market-changes/new strategies?
Maturity phase
Characteristics and Objectives
Sales Peak

Costs Low cost per customer

Profits High
Maximize profits while defending
Marketing Objectives
market share
Phase V: Decline
• Competitors enter the market with
-Better product features
-Advanced technology
-Reduced prices

• Sales starts declining

• Marketing cost of product rises
• Decision to withdraw may be dependent on availability of new
products and whether fashions/trends will come around again?
Decline phase
Characteristics and Objectives
Sales Declining

Costs Low cost per customer

Profits Declining
Reduce expenditures and milk
Marketing Objectives
the brand
Strategies based on Product Life-Cycle

• Product
-Introduction: Offer basic product
-Growth: Offer product extension, service, warranty
-Maturity: Diversify brands/models
-Decline: Phase out weak products
• Price
• Distribution
• Advertising
• Sales promotion
Thank You
 Lesson 03
Product Design and Development
Product Policy of an Organization and Selection of a
Profitable Product

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Product Policy of an Organization
 Product Policy of an Organization

 Product policy is the top management decision.

 Every organization has its own product strategies or policies.
 These policies becomes the unique selling proposition (USP) of
the company.

 The same company can opt for different policies for the different
products.
Various Product Policies
 Lowest price
 Highest quality
 Compromise between cost and quality
 Safety
 Lowest price
• Lower cost is the main criteria used to compete in the market.

• Company offer the product at the cheaper price than its competitor.

• Profit is less, but the company makes the substantial profit by the
large volume.
Example: Sanitary paper,
Carry bags
 Highest quality

• Some organizations offer highest quality products irrespective of

the cost.

• It is to fulfill the need of special class of customers who value the

quality as the only criteria to purchase the product.

Example: Medical Equipment

Compromise between cost and quality
• Some organizations offer the product with the optimum blend of
quality and cost to capture the larger section of the customers.

• The products are reasonably of good quality in proportion to its

price.

• The
organizations try to give good value to the customer for his
money
Example: Mobile, Television
 Safety

• Safety is the main criteria on which they compete the market.

Example: Electrical gadgets,
Medical instruments,
Home appliances
• Product policy is not only concerned with the product, but also with the functions
the product fulfills.

• Products can be classified according to various features, some of which are

important in preparing product policies.
Feature Explanation Example
Durability Non-durable Vs. Durable Hair spray Vs. Automobile
Re-usability Non- reusable Vs. Reusable Detergent Vs. Glass bottles
Recyclability Non-recyclable Vs. Recyclable Pesticides Vs. Paper
Way of Mass production (Standardized) Vs. Light bulb Vs. Craft made furniture
production Craft made goods (Non-standardized)
Selection of a Profitable Product
 Selection of a Profitable Product
• Before selecting a product, organizations have to carryout SWOT
Analysis in order to know their strength areas, weaknesses or
limitations, opportunities and the perceived threat.

• Product selection is a team effort.

 SWOT Analysis
Strength

Threat SWOT Weakness

Opportunity
 Strengths Weaknesses
• Abundant financial resources • Limited financial resources
• Well-known brand name • Weak spending on R & D
• Superior management talent • Limited distribution
• Better marketing skills • Higher costs
• Committed employees • Poor marketing skills
• Limited management skills
• Under-trained employees.
 Opportunities Threats
• Rapid market growth • Entry of foreign competitors
• Changing customer needs/tastes • Introduction of new substitute
• New uses for product discovered products
• Sales decline for a substitute product • Product life cycle in decline
• Economic downturn.
 The Challenges in Selection
An ever-increasing variety of products are now available, each having
its own

• Characteristics,
• Applications,
• Advantages,
• Limitations.
Select the optimal product according to the requirement of customers,
cost, design, in-service requirements etc.
Thank You
 Lesson 04
Product Design and Development
Product Design

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Product Design

Source: https://img.clipartfest.com
http://blog.timereaction.com
http://nobacks.com
http://www.victor-aviation.com
 Product Design Concept
• Product design is conceptualization of an idea about a product
and transformation of the idea into a reality.

• To transform the idea into reality a specification about the

product is prepared.

• This specification is prepared by considering different

constraints such as production process, customer expectation,
etc.
 Product Design Concept cont….
• In product design stage all aspects of the product are analyzed.

• Final decision regarding the product is taken on the basis of the

analysis.

• This decision can be any aspect related to the product, e.g.

dimension and tolerances, type of material for each component.
 Objectives of Product Design
• To ensure growth of the organization
• To meet new requirement of the customers
• To utilize the surplus capacity of the organization, such as
physical facility, man power, etc.
• To utilize the surplus fund of the organization
• To increase company’s market share and to target new market
segment
 Features of a Good Product Design
• Functionality: The product must function properly for intended
purpose.

• Reliability: The product must perform properly for the designated

period of time.

• Productivity: The product must be produced with a required

quantity and quality at a defined and feasible cost.
 Features of a Good Product Design cont..
• Quality: The product must satisfy customer’s stated and unstated
needs.
• Standardization: The product should be designed in such a fashion,
so that most of the components are standardized and easily
available in the market.
• Maintainability: The product must perform for a designated period
with a minimum and defined maintenance. Adequate provision for
maintenance should be kept in the product.
 Concepts of Product Design
Research & Development:

• Basic research is a search for new

knowledge.
• It does not have any immediate application,
but based on the basic research new
product can be developed in future.
Source:http://blogs.staffs.ac.uk/research/
files/2016/01/research-icon11.jpg
 Concepts of Product Design cont..
Reverse Engineering:

• Reverse engineering is the process

of carefully dismantling a product,
understanding its design and
developing a product which is
better than the existing one.
Source: http://www.3dscan.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2013/05/robat.gif
 Concepts of Product Design cont..
CAD-CAM:
• By using 3D modeling software system,
designers develop a computerized model of
a new product and analyze its design
parameters.

• After computer aided design (CAD),

Source:http://www.fabricatingandmetalworking.c
computer aided manufacturing (CAM) om/wpcontent/uploads/2014/01/03_InventorCA
system produce the product by using CNC M_MillTurn.jpg

facility.
 Concepts of Product Design cont..
Concurrent Engineering (CE):

• Concurrent engineering, also known as simultaneous

engineering.
• It is a method of designing and developing products, in
which the different stages run simultaneously, rather
than consecutively.
• It decreases product development time and also the
Source:http://www.referenceforbu
time to market, leading to improved productivity and siness.com/photos/concurrent-
reduced costs. engineering-642.jpg
Thank You
 Lesson 05
Product Design and Development
Product Design Steps and Product Analysis

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Product Design

Source: https://img.clipartfest.com
http://blog.timereaction.com
http://nobacks.com
http://www.victor-aviation.com
Product Design :Steps
1. Synthesis
2. Sketching Idea
3. Analysis
4. Selection
5. Basic engineering
6. Detail design
7. Prototype
8. Manufacturing
9. Operation Products
10. Product development Source: http://www.lgi-consulting.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/09/innovation.jpg
http://www.victor-aviation.com/images/Lrg_Isotropic_Gears_Crank.jpg
 Product Design :Steps
1. Synthesis: Try to develop different alternatives

2. Sketching: Draw sketches in exact scale for different alternatives

3. Analysis: Analysis different alternatives with respect to operability,

maintainability, inspection, assembling and dismantling issues, cost parameters,
production methods, etc.

4. Selection: Select the best alternative

 Product Design :Steps cont..

5. Basic engineering: Prepare layout in exact scale, calculate strength of

components, select proper cost effective material.

6. Detail design: Prepare detail engineering drawing for each component.

7. Prototype: If option is there, then prepare prototype and test it.

 Product Design :Steps cont..
8. Manufacturing: If prototype is not made, then follow manufacturing
steps and solve manufacturing problems and assembly problems, if
any.

9. Operation: Collect feedback during actual operation of the new

product. If any problem exists, try to provide design based solution.
Also, implement lessons in the future design.

10. Product development: If any modification can be done, implement

the same in the next generation product.
Product Analysis
 Product Analysis
• Many factors have to be analyzed in connection with
development and design.

• Factors varying in character and complexity.

• Factors affiliated with different fields in production and

industrial engineering.
Some of these factors may be grouped as follows:
1. Marketing aspect
2. Product characteristics

-Functional aspect
-Operational aspect
-Durability and dependability aspect
-Aesthetic aspect

3. Economic analysis

-The profit consideration

-The effect of standardization, simplification and specialization
-The break-even analysis

4. Production aspect
1. Marketing aspect

• Once the product is selected, then it is very important to know the marketability
of the product.

• All further steps are dependent upon the demand for the proposed product and
customer acceptability of the product.

• If there is no potential market, then it is a wasteful exercise to design and

manufacture the product.

• It give the answer of following questions:

• What will be the expected demand for the product both short-term
and long-term?
• Whether the functions that are offered by the product are desirable
and acceptable to the customers?
2. Product characteristics
-Functional aspect

• When the marketing possibilities have been explored, the functional scope of
the product has to be carefully analyzed and properly defined.

• The definition of the objective itself rarely tells us much about the predicted
functional scope.
 2. Product characteristics
-Functional aspect
Example
• A washing machine, for example, has a clearly defined objective: to wash
clothes.
• This does not state, however, how the washing should be carried out,
whether the machine should be capable of heating the water prior to
washing, whether rinsing or drying, or both, are to be done by the
machine, and if so by what method, and what should the proportion be
between automatic functioning and manual supervision.

• A functional analysis of this kind obviously affects the design of the

machine, its complexity, its appearance, and its price.
2. Product characteristics
-Operational aspect

• The product is not only expected to perform its functions satisfactorily but it
should be easy to handle and operate at the customers end.

• The product is used at different operational conditions and the customers vary
with respect to skill and knowledge and the designer’s problem becomes
complicated with addition of more functions.
2. Product characteristics
-Durability and Dependability aspect

• These two factors define the quality and reliability of the product.

• Durability refers to the length of the active life of the product under given
working conditions.

• Dependability refers to the reliability with which the product serves its
intended function.

• Thus, quality of the product is directly proportional to the quality of inputs

(materials, men, etc.) and the process of manufacture.

• Thus, it is a function of cost.

2. Product characteristics
-Aesthetic aspect

• It refers to the ‘external look good’ aspect of the product and it is concerned with
molding the final shape around the basic skeleton.

• It helps the sales function of the product by attracting the customers and creating the
first impression about the product.

• Designers use variety of tools to build aesthetic characteristics into the products such
as:
• Use of special material
• Use of colour
• Texture
• Packaging
http://www.floatproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Flower-
pot-design-ideas-with-Unique-Design.jpg
3. Economic analysis

• An economic analysis is the key to the management decision in product design

policy.

• It answer the following questions:

• What will be the amount of investment needed to manufacture the new product?
• What are the estimated production costs per piece?
• What will be the expected profit margin?
• Whether the prices proposed to be offered by the company are competitive?
Tools in economic analysis
• The three S’s (standardization, simplification and specialization)

• The break-even analysis

http://www.12manage.com/images/picture_break_even_chart.gif
4. Production aspect

• The design will be converted in the production shop where it will be

transformed into a physical product to be offered to the customers

• Successful transformation of design into a saleable product is a challenge to

the organization.

Tools in production aspect

• DFM
• DFA
• DFX
Thank You
 Lesson 06
Value Engineering Concepts

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 History
• Shortage of materials during World War II

• General Electric company found that many of the substitutes

have better or equal performance at less cost. Lawrence D.Miles
1904 - 1985
• Lawrence D. Miles launched an effort to make the concept
systematic

• Establishment of Society of American Value Engineers “SAVE”

in 1959
 What is not Value Engineering?
• Cost Cutting
• Design Review
• Project Elimination
• Scope Reduction
• Quality Reduction
• Detailed Cost Estimating
• Redesign
What is Value Engineering
An organized study of FUNCTIONS to satisfy the
USER’S NEEDS with a QUALITY PRODUCT at the
LOWEST LIFE CYCLE COST through APPLIED
CREATIVITY
 Definition of Value Engineering
• An analysis of materials, processes, and products in which
functions are related to cost and from which a selection may
be made so as to achieve the desired function at the lowest
overall cost consistent with performance.

• An Organized, Creative, Cost Search Technique for Analysing

the Function of a Product with the purpose of Value
Enhancement without Compromising with it’s Quality,
Performance & Efficiency.
 Definition of Value Engineering

• The value of a function is defined as the

relationship of cost to performance
Performancemax
Valuemax =
Costmin
 Reasons for Poor Value…
• Lack of and/or poor coordination among designers

• Failure to network with customer – poor definition of needs and wants

• Design based on habitual thinking or mistaken beliefs

• Outdated or inappropriate design standards

• Incorrect assumptions based on poor information

• Fixation with previous design concepts

 When to apply Value Engineering

The Design team has

the greatest impact
on the cost savings

8
The Value Engineering cycle
The Value Engineering Cycle

Source:-http://www.t.itcinfotech.com/Engineering-Services/Value-Engineering
9
 Application areas
• Construction projects

• Manufactured products

Source:- http://www.cpmscheduling.com/construction-projects
10
 Application areas
• Business systems and processes

• Service organizations

Source:-http://www.posgroup.com.au/business-process

11
 Advantages of Value Engineering
• Helps in achieving an improved product design and quality.

• Suggests to eliminate the unnecessary functions in the organization that

increase costs.

• Emphasizes on seeking the alternatives for achieving the function and

on applying the best alternative among the various courses of actions
available.

• Enhances the customers' satisfaction and sales by determining the exact

need and expectation of customers.
12
Thank You
 Lesson 07

Problem Identification and VEJP

Dr. Inderdeep Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Problem Identification

Defining the problem is the most important

step (five W’s)
• Who ? - would need it
• What ? - is needed
• When ? - is it needed
• Where ? - is it needed
• Why ? - is it needed

2
 Steps in defining Problem

• Identify the Background Issues.

• Resources and constraints of the firm.
• Objective of the decision maker.
• Buyer behavior.
• Legal environment.
• Economic environment.
• Marketing and technological skills of the firm.
3
 Value Engineering Job Plan
• Orientation
• Information
• Functional analysis
• Creative alternatives
• Evaluation
• Development
• Presentation
• Implementation
 Orientation Phase
 Identify issues

 Prioritize Issues

 Drafts scopes and objective

 Establish evaluation factors

 Determine Study Team

 Collect Data

 Prepare for value study Source:-http://career.iresearchnet.com/career-development/orientation/

 Information Phase
• Gathering and tabulation of
information concerning the item
as presently designed

• Areas of high cost or low worth

are identified

Source:-https://www.lynda.com/Higher-Education-tutorials/Information-Literacy/368046-2.
 Functional Analysis Phase
• Function Analysis is a technique
used to identify and understand the
needs of the project, product or
service, (what does it do, what must
it do).
• Function Analysis supports creative
problem solving by moving the focus away from
the expected solution and placing the focus on the
required performance or need. Source:-http://valueanalysis.ca/functionanalysis.php
 Creative Alternatives
The Value Engineering Cycle
• Opportunity for the team to produce alternate
means of performing the functions associated with
the product, service or project.

• The goal is to generate as many ideas as possible in

a short period of time. This can be accomplished
through Function-based Brainstorming.

• All team members, including the stakeholders and

designers, participate in the creative brainstorming
session.
Source:-https://www.goconqr.com/en/examtime/blog/brainstorming-with-mind-maps
8
 Evaluation Phase
• The ideas generated from the Creative Phase are
systematically evaluated, screened prioritized and
short-listed for their potential to save cost and/or
value.

• Ideas found to be irrelevant or not worthy of

additional study are disregarded.

• Those ideas that represent the greatest potential

for cost savings and improvements are selected for
development.
Source:-http://www.slideshare.net/manumelwin/evaluation-and-making-modification-phase-od-process

9
 Development Phase

• The objective of the Development Phase is to

develop the idea/alternative in sufficient detail
for the idea to be compared the originally
proposed solution.

• It enables the proposals to be developed

systematically and evaluated against the
proposed solution.
Source:-http://www.m2mit.uk/services/development/

10
 Presentation Phase
• The Presentation Phase is the team's
opportunity to present the proposals
in better way than the originally
proposed solution.

• It is also an opportunity for decision

makers to question the team and
assess the depth of analysis that has
taken place.

Source:-https://www.englishtrackers.com/english-blog/powerpoint-presentations-what-not-to-write/

11
 Implementation phase
• Develop an implementation
plan

• Execute the plan

• Monitor the plan to completion

Source:-http://www.sixsigmadaily.com/how-to-implement-six-sigma-in-an-organization/

12
Thank You
 Lesson 08
Functional Analysis

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Function
• Value engineering defines Function as that which makes a product
work or sell.

• Function is certainly the end result or action desired by customer.

• Customer wants a function to be achieved reliably, efficiently and

effectively by product or service.

2
 Function
Questions helps to achieve a function

• What is the purpose of the product?

• What does it cost?

• What is it worth?

• What alternative would do the same job?

• Is it exactly what it does for the customer?

3
 Function
• Project or product is evaluated by identifying the function in two words:-
Verb and Noun

• Verb:- Describes the specific action to achieve intended purpose

Noun:-Defines the object onto which the action operates

• Example:- An electrical cable has function of Conducting Current

Conduct:- verb
Current:- noun

4
 Types of value in terms of function of product

• Use value:- value received from the performance of product

• Esteem value:- aesthetics and appeal of product

• Exchange value:- amount accepted in trade for an item.

• Cost value:- money incurred to produce an item.

5
 Types of function
Primary function Secondary function
• Basic functions • Supporting functions
• Cannot be changed • Can be modified or
Example eliminated

• Boil water • Indicate level of water

• Pour water safely • Cordless
• Water filtration
• Power indication
6
 Types of function
Primary function Secondary function
• Make phone calls • Camera
• Send text message • Take/play video
• Portability • Social networking
• Games
• Internet
• Apps
 Functional
Function Analysis
Parts Function Basic Secondary
Foundation Support load S
Resist load S
Transfer load B

Anchor bolts Transfer load B

Hold pole S
Base Hold pole S
Support pole B
Cover bolts S
Extension Arm Hold fixture S
Spread light B
Protect wire S

8
 Function Analysis

Parts Function Basic Secondary

Housing (fixture) Holds bulb B
Transfers elec. S
Diffuses light B
Reflects light S
Light bulb Produces light B
Dissipates light S

9
 Steps to Perform Function Analysis
• Random function identification

• Functional Analysis System Technique or FAST Diagramming

• Cost to Function Relationships

• Identify the functions that have the best opportunity to

improve value.
 Random function identification
• It is beginning of the function analysis phase.
• Randomly determining verb-noun combinations that
describe the functions of the project under study.
• Listing the function of entire product and identifying basic
function.
• Then Bill of Material (BOM) of each component is prepared
and identify the function or functions of each and every part
in the BOM.
 Cost-Function relationship
S.No Component Function B S Cost (Rs) %(cost/total)
1 Lead Make Mark B 0.50 10
2 Wood Protect lead S 1.00 20
3 Metal cap Hold eraser S 0.25 5
4 Eraser Remove marks S 0.75 15 60
5 Shaping of wood Provide grip S 0.50 10
6 Printing Display information S 0.50 10
Profit 1.50
Price of pencil= Rs 5/-
Total 5.00
12
Thank you

13
 Lesson 09

Function Analysis System Technique

Dr. Inderdeep Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Cost-Function relationship
S.No Component Function B S Cost (Rs) %(cost/total)
1 Lead Make Mark B 0.50 10
2 Wood Protect lead S 1.00 20
3 Metal cap Hold eraser S 0.25 5
4 Eraser Remove marks S 0.75 15 60
5 Shaping of wood Provide grip S 0.50 10
6 Printing Display information S 0.50 10
Profit 1.50 30
Price of pencil= Rs 5/- Total 5.00

2
 Functional analysis system technique (FAST)
• Charles Bytheway developed FAST Diagrams in 1964.

• FAST Diagrams are FUNCTION-ORIENTED, not time-oriented.

• FAST permits people with dissimilar technical backgrounds to effectively

communicate and resolve issues that require multi-disciplined considerations.

• FAST builds upon VA by linking the simply expressed, verb-noun functions to

describe complex systems.

• FAST is not an end product or result, but rather a beginning.

FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM TECHNIQUE – (FAST)

• Visual layout (Tree Diagram) of product’s Functions.

• Starts with the Basic Function, and builds to the right with supporting
or Secondary Functions.

Why do a FAST Diagram?

Understand Functions to be eliminated, or improved, to
deliver Basic Functions

4
FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM TECHNIQUE – (FAST)

5
 FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM TECHNIQUE – (FAST)

Ask How? Secondary Function

Secondary Function
Basic Function Secondary Function
Secondary Function
OR logic
AND logic
Secondary Function Ask Why?

Source: Value Management, J. Kaufman

FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM TECHNIQUE – (FAST)

FAST Model is complete

Secondary
Function when
Ask How? Customer Needs can be
Secondary Customer Need
Function Mapped to Functions
Basic Customer Need Secondary
Function Function

Customer Need
Secondary Secondary
Function Function
Ask Why?
Customer Need Customer Need
Pencil FAST Diagram
Overhead projector FAST Diagram

9
 Benefits of the Function Analysis System
Technique
• Develop a shared understanding of the project
• Identify missing functions.
• Define, simplify and clarify the problem.
• Organize and understand the relationships between
functions.
• Identify the basic function of the project, process or product.
• Improve communication and consensus.
• Stimulate creativity.
Thank You
 Lesson 10

Case Study on Value Engineering

Dr. Inderdeep Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Case Study of
Household Furniture (Divan)

• A case study of furniture industry M/s Gayatri Industries,

Sangli (Maharashtra)
• Item to be Studied : A Divan

2
 Steps followed during VE

• Functional Analysis Worksheet is prepared for the different

parts of the product.
• Functional Evaluation is done of each part
• Numerical Evaluation Sheet is prepared
• Creativity Worksheet
• Selection of alternative is done through Decision Matrix
• Finding and Recommendation
• Conclusions

3
Functional Analysis of Parts of Divan

4
Costing of different parts
Functional evaluation of different parts

Major Performance-3
Medium Performance-2
Minor Performance-1
 Creative phase
The following ideas were generated during this phase :
1. Make the design simpler
2. Use the wheels for movement
3. Make it in powder coating
4. Reduce the thickness of the board
5. Use waste pieces of required size in some places
6. Reduce the size of the board in same places
7. Reduce the gauge of the pipe
Function-Cost-Worth-Analysis

8
Function-Cost-Worth-Analysis
 Evaluation phase
• Parameters
a) Rigidity b) Light Weight
c) Durability d) Appearance
• Alternative –I Change gauge of
material (Pipe) Weightage of the Parameters
• Alternative –II Reduce thickness of Board
(Wherever Required)

10
• Evaluation matrix
for existing and
proposed

11
 Recommendation phase
• Cost Benefit Matrix

12
 Implementation phase
• The samples as per alternative-I & alternative-II were
manufactured and are tested with the customer.
• Reports were found to be satisfactory for both alternatives
• In Alternative-I and Alternative-II, weight reduction was
found with cost reduction.
• The proposal was put up to the management / finance
department for approval

13
 Conclusion and Future scope
• Value engineering was used for the cost reduction without
the change in the product design & its value.
• The total saving incurred per product by the implementation
of above recommendations are 19.60% for alternative-II and
14.61% for alternative-I.
• In future, furniture product design can be modified so that
the value of the product can be enhanced.
• Other Industrial Engineering techniques can be used for
further improvement in the product.
14
 Reference
• Chougule Mahadeo Annappa, 2014, Application of Value Engineering for
Cost Reduction of Household Furniture Product - A Case Study,
International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology, 3, 16577-83.

15
Thank You
 Lesson 11
Product Design and Development
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Quality Function Deployment
History
• It was first introduced at Mitsubishi’s Kobe Shipyard, Japan in 1972.

• It is a method of structuring customer requirements and translating into

technical specifications as a basis for new product development, “ HIN SHITU
KI NOTEN KAI”.

• It has been translated into English as “Quality Function Deployment (QFD)”

 Quality Function Deployment

Definition

“QFD is a method for structured product planning and development that

enables a development team to specify clearly the customer’s wants and needs,
and then to evaluate each proposed product or service capability systematically in
terms of its impact on meeting those needs”
(Cohen, 1995)
 QFD Concept
• It has been developed to help translate requirements as seen by the
customer into technical specifications that can be used by designer and
production engineer.

• It is a method for linking customer requirements to technical

specifications.

• It helps to focus on needs of the customers by using matrices and charts.

QFD Concept cont..
QFD is a systematic approach of translating customer requirements into
appropriate requirements at each stage right from:

• Research and development to engineering

• Engineering to manufacturing
• Manufacturing to distribution and sales

The complete journey of the product is covered right from conception till it
reaches the customer.
The Phases of QFD
Comprehensive QFD may provide four phases:

1. Product Planning (House of Quality):Translate customer requirement into

product technical requirement to meet them.
2. Product Design: Translate technical requirement to key part characteristics
or systems.
3. Process Planning: Identify key process operations necessary to achieve key
part characteristics.
4. Production Planning (Process Control): Establish process control plans,
maintenance plans, training plans to control operations.
Source: Garg and Kumar, Quality Function Deployment (QFD): A Case Study, 2014
QFD -Matrices
• QFD matrix is the main tool to bridge the customer requirement and process
evaluation.

• This matrix helps in understanding customer voice and response and

transformation of this voice into technical specification.

• The cascading of the information is achieved by a series of matrices (called

house).
House of Quality
• QFD is known by the house of quality.

• It is called house of quality because of its triangular roof structure.

• The house of quality is a kind of conceptual matrix that provides the means
for inter-functional planning and communication.
Building a House of Quality
Correlation
Matrix

Technical Requirements

Competitive
Assessment
Customer
Importance
Voice of the Relationship Matrix

Ratings
Customer (Strong, Weak, Medium)

Competitive Technical
Assessment

Operational Goals or Targets

 Customer Matrix
• It is the horizontal part in the house of quality.

• This matrix evaluates the voice and response of customer on

particular product.

Complaints
Important
Ratings Customer
Voice of the
Competitive
Customer
Assessment
Customer Matrix cont..
1. Voice of the Customer: It is an input to QFD. This implies actual needs and
wants of the customer and it is referred as the heart of the matrix as further
evaluation depends on this matrix.
2. Importance Ratings: It shows the importance levels from customer point of
view.
3. Complaints: It represent the dissatisfaction of the customer.
4. Customer Competitive Evaluation: It refers to the fact that how customer rates
the product of the company in relation to its competitors.

Complaints
Important
Customer

Ratings
Voice of the
Competitive
Customer
Assessment
 Vertical Matrix Evaluation of relationship between
technical requirements
Correlation
Translation of voice into Matrix Evaluation of
actionable , measurable the strength of
requirements the relationships
Technical Requirements between the
voices and the
technical
requirements
Relationship Matrix
(Strong, Weak, Medium)

Competitive Technical
How much the company Assessment Goals or targets set by the
fares against its competitors company to achieve
for performance against its Operational Goals or Targets competitiveness (How much)
competitors
 House of Quality Evaluation of relationship between
technical requirements
Correlation
Translation of voice into Matrix Evaluation of
actionable measurable the strength of
requirements the relationships
Technical Requirements between the

Competitive
Assessment
Customer section voices and the

Customer
technical

Important
requirements
Customer Relationship Matrix

Ratings
Requirements (Strong, Weak, Medium)

Competitive Technical
How much the company Assessment Goals or targets set by the
fares against its competitors company to achieve
for performance against its Operational Goals or Targets competitiveness (How much)
competitors
House of Quality Correlation
Matrix
Low relationship (1) G = Good
of Pizza Medium relationship (3)
F = Fair
P = Poor
Technical
High relationship (6) Requirements

Determination of company’s importance ratings Customer

Requirements
Pizza color 3x1 3
App. Weight, size, etc. 6x6+3x3 45
Low fatty eatables 6x4+3x2 30
Optional eatables 5x1+3x2 11
Delicious and Fresh toppings 3x1+3x3 12
Density of toppings 1x6+3x2 12

Source: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pizza- Competitive Technical Assessment

100706065152-phpapp01/95/qfd-for-pizza-12-
728.jpg?cb=1278399272 Operational Goals or Targets
Benefits of QFD
The companies, which use this methodology benefits in the following ways:

• Reduction in product development time by 30 to 50 percent.

• Reduced complaints during warranty period.
• Reduction in number of design changes.
• Increased customer satisfaction.
 Lesson 12
Product Design and Development
Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Computer Aided Design

http://www.globalspec.com/ImageRepository/LearnMore/20135/Autodesk_moldflow2011_features_cad_intero
p_tools_large_1141x823b3aeea3dd5cf469b84e8ae3e4968af3d.png
http://nsghpc.com/images/header_computer_aided.png
http://auworkshop.autodesk.com/sites/default/files/core-page-images/Video%20Thumb_Section1Module3.jpg
 Computer Aided Design

Definition

“Computer-Aided Design is the use of a wide range of computer based tools that
assist engineers, architects, and other design professionals in their design
activities”
Definition of CAD tools based on constituents

Computer
graphics CAD tools
concepts

Design tools
(analysis,
Geometric
codes,
modeling
heuristics.
etc.)
 Computer Aided Design
• Computer-aided design is used to draw things.

CAD design software is used in many industry including:

• Automobile
• Aerospace
• Medical devices
• Defense
• Plastic injection molding
Conventional Design Process
Computer Aided Design
Recognition
of need

Problem
definition

Synthesis Geometric
modeling

Analysis & Engineering

Optimization analysis

Evaluation Design review

and evaluation

Presentation Automated
drafting
Geometric Modeling
• In computer-aided design, geometric modeling is concerned Geometric
modeling
with the computer-compatible mathematical description of the
geometry of an object. Engineering
analysis

• The mathematical description allows the image of the object Design review
to be displayed and manipulated on a graphics terminal and evaluation
through signals from the CPU of the CAD system.
Automated
drafting
• The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object.
Engineering Analysis
• In the formulation of any engineering design project, different
types of analysis is required. Geometric
modeling

Two important types of analysis: Engineering

analysis
1. Analysis of mass properties: It provides properties of a
solid object being analyzed, such as the surface area, weight, Design review
volume, center of gravity, and moment of inertia. and evaluation

Automated
2. Finite-element analysis: With this technique, the object is drafting
divided into a large number of finite elements which form an
interconnecting network of concentrated nodes.
Design Review and Evaluation
• Checking the accuracy of the design can be accomplished
Geometric
conveniently on the graphics terminal. modeling

Engineering
analysis

Design review
Automated Drafting and evaluation

• Automated drafting involves the creation of hard-copy Automated

engineering drawings directly from the CAD data base drafting
Generic CAD Process

Source: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-810-
engineering-design-and-rapid-prototyping-january-iap-2005/lecture-notes/l4.pdf
Advantages of CAD
1. To increase the productivity of the designer

• Create conceptual design of product.

• Better visualization – rotate and view the objects from various
sides and directions, display in several colors to appeal the
customers, display all inner details of the assembly.
• Reduction in design cost.
• Editing or refining the model to improve aesthetics,
ergonomics and performance.
Advantages of CAD cont..
2. To improve the quality of design
• Use of analysis tools such as FEM – stress analysis, vibration,
CFD- thermal, fluid analysis.
• Greater accuracy in design calculations and reduction in errors.
• Study the product from various aspects such as material
requirements, cost, value engineering, manufacturing processes,
standardization, simplification, variety reduction, service life,
lubrication, servicing and maintenance aspects etc.
Advantages of CAD cont..
3. To improve communication

• Better visualization, greater legibility.

• Standardization of design, drafting, documentation procedures.
• Use of design data for analysis, drafting and documentation,
process planning, tool and fixture design, manufacturing,
inspection etc.
Major CAD Software Products
• AutoCAD (Autodesk)
• Pro Engineer
• Solid Works
• CATIA
• Unigraphics
• I-DEAS
 Lesson 13
Product Design and Development
Robust Design

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 What is Robust?
• A system (product or process) is robust if it performs properly in a wide range
of conditions.

Robust products Products that are not robust

A pen that writes until the Pen that stops writing
ink is empty after a few months
A car that starts at -20° A car that does not start
A vacuum cleaner that A vacuum cleaner that
maintains suction levels loses suction
 Robust Design
• In the design of a new product, any design activity can be called robust, if it
leads the product;

 To have longer life (higher reliability)

 To be more consistent with use
 To be more consistent from product to product
 To perform consistently as temperature and other conditions change
 General rules for robust design
 Always identify critical characteristics (CTQs) that quantify
customer satisfaction.
 Always look for ways to reduce variation in CTQs.
 Robust Design cont..
• Robust product design is a concept, developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi.

• It is defined as reducing variation in various product characteristics

• In other words, making the product or process insensitive to variation. This

variation (sometimes called noise) can come from a variety of factors.
Three types of undesirable and uncontrollable factors can cause deviations
(sometimes called noise) from the desired performance.
• External noise factor
Operating environmental variables such as temperature, humidity are
examples of external noise factors.

• Internal noise factors

The problems caused by deterioration such as wearing of parts, manufacturing
imperfections like machine setting etc. are internal noise factors.

• Unit to unit or variational noise factors

It indicates the difference between individual products, which are produced to
same specifications.
• Taguchi suggested a robust design method, which is a systematic method for
identifying process parameters that are most sensitive to inherent process
variation and minimize the effect of causes of variation.

• The primary goal of robust design is to evaluate these losses and effects and
determine the process conditions that would assure the product manufactured
is initially on target and the characteristics of a product, which would make
performance insensitive (Robust) to environmental and other factors.
 Designing Performance into Product

• Taguchi has recommended a three-stage process for building performance and

quality into the products.

The three stages are:

1. System (Primary or Functional ) design
2. Parameter design
3. Tolerance design
1. System (Primary or Functional ) design

• This is the first step in design and it makes use of technical knowledge to
reach the initial design of the product that delivers the basic, desired functional
performance.
• This includes the design system, sub-system and finally at the elemental level
design.

2. Parameter design

• This step aims at finding the optimum setting of the design parameters.
• At this stage, to obtain the optimum parameters, a physical or mathematical
prototype is built for the product based on the functional design.
3. Tolerance design
• In this step, the tolerances on the product design parameters are determined
considering the loss that would be caused to society when the performance
deviates from the target.

• Once the system has been designed along with the values for parameters,
the designer has to set the tolerance of the parameters.

• In tolerance design, the manufacturing tolerances that minimize the effect of

noise factors and manufacturing cost is determined.
 Example
• An automobile manufacturer wants to improve the quality of the painted
surface of its cars.
• Quality is measured by the gloss reading of the surface. The manufacturer
wants the painted surface to have a higher gloss reading (i.e., maximize the
response) and to be robust against the environment.
• Environmental factors, particularly temperature and humidity, are known to
affect the painted surface. Thus, a robust design will be used here.
The control factors have been identified to be the:
• Flow rate of the paint
• The pressure in the paint gun
• The viscosity of the paint and the cure temperature.

Table 1: Control Factors

Controllable Name Low level High level
Factors
A Flow Rate 30 50
B Pressure 3 5
C Viscosity 10 15
D Cure Temperature 120 160
Two noise factors will be taken into account:
• The air temperature (ambient = room temperature)
• Humidity (ambient = room humidity).

Table 2: Noise Factors

Controllable Name Low level High level
Factors
A’ Air Temperature 15 30
B’ Humidity 30 90
 Lesson 14
Product Design and Development
Design for X (DFX)
Dr. Inderdeep Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Design for Excellence (DFX)
• Design for Excellence or DFX is a systematic design approach that entails
wide range of guidelines and standards focused on optimizing the product
realization lifecycle.

• In reality, the term DFX is better thought of as Design for “X” where the
variable X is interchangeable with one of many values depending on the
particular objectives of the venture.
 Design for Excellence (DFX) cont..

These guideline ensures the issues related to manufacturing, cost, quality,

assembly and serviceability are addressed at the design stage.

If these guidelines are not adhered during the design stage, it can lead to
engineering changes occurring at later stages of product lifecycle which are
highly expensive and can cause product delays and cost over-runs.
Some of the most common
substitutes for X includes: Design for
Assembly

Design for Design for

• Design for Manufacturing Reliability Manufacturing

(DFM)

• Design for Assembly (DFA)

Design for
Manufacturing
and Assembly DFX Design for
Production

• Design for Manufacturability

and Assembly (DFMA) Design for
Safety
Design for Cost

Design for

• Design for Production

Service
 Design for Manufacturing

Definition
“DFM is the method of design for ease of manufacturing of the collection
of parts that will form the product after assembly”

“Optimization of the manufacturing process”

 Design for Manufacturing cont..

• Design for manufacturing (DFM) is a development practice, emphasizing

manufacturing issues throughout the product development process.

• Successful DFM results in lower production cost without sacrificing

product quality.
 Estimate the Manufacturing Costs
Equipment Information Tooling

Raw Materials

Labor Manufacturing
Finished Goods
Purchased
System
Components

Energy Supplies Services Waste

Source: Ulrich, K. & Eppinger, S. (2000). Product Design and Development. Boston, MA: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
 Elements of the Manufacturing Cost of a Product

Manufacturing
Cost

Components Assembly Overhead

Equipment Indirect
Standard Custom Labor and Tooling Support
Allocation

Raw
Processing Tooling
Material
 Manufacturing Cost of a Product
• Component Costs (parts of the product)
 Parts purchased from supplier
 Custom parts made in the manufacturer’s own plant or by suppliers according to the
manufacturer’s design specifications

• Assembly Costs (labor, equipment, & tooling)

• Overhead Costs (all other costs)

 Support Costs (material handling, quality assurance, purchasing, shipping, receiving,
facilities, etc.)
 Indirect Allocations (not directly linked to a particular product but must be paid for
to be in business)
 Fixed Costs vs. Variable Costs

• Fixed Costs: incurred in a predetermined amount, regardless of number of

units produced (i.e. setting up the factory work area or cost of an injection
molding machine)

• Variable Costs: incurred in direct proportion to the number of units

produced (i.e. cost of raw materials)
 Proposed Design

DFM Method Estimate the

Manufacutring Costs

Reduce the Costs of Reduce the Costs Reduce the Costs of

Components of Assembly Supporting Production

Consider the Impact of

DFM Decisions on
Other Factors

Recompute the
Manufacturing Costs

Good
N
enough
?
Y

Ulrich, K. & Eppinger, S. (2000). Product Design and Development. Boston,

Acceptable Design
MA: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
 DFM Method

• Estimate the manufacturing costs.

• Reduce the costs of components.
• Reduce the costs of assembly.
• Reduce the costs of supporting production.
• Consider the impact of DFM decisions on other factors.
 Example
• In a sheet-metal design, specifying hole sizes, locations, and their alignment is critical.
• It is always better to specify hole diameters that are greater than the sheet’s thickness (T).
• Spacing between holes also matters. It should be at least two times the sheet thickness
(2T), if not more.
• Distance between holes ensures strength of the metal and prevents holes from deforming
during the bending or forming processes.

Source: http://machinedesign.com/metals/following-dfm-guidelines-working-sheet-metal
Design for Assembly
(DFA)
 Design for Assembly

Definition
DFA is the method of design of the product for ease of assembly.

“Optimization of the part/system assembly”

 Design for Assembly cont..

• DFA is a tool used to assist the design teams in the design of products that
will transition to production at a minimum cost, focusing on the number of
parts, handling and ease of assembly.

.
 Design for Assembly Principles
• Minimize part count
• Design parts with self-locating features
• Design parts with self-fastening features
• Minimize reorientation of parts during assembly
• Design parts for retrieval, handling, & insertion
• Emphasize ‘Top-Down’ assemblies
• Standardize parts…minimum use of fasteners.
• Encourage modular design
• Design for a base part to locate other components
• Design for component symmetry for insertion
Example 1

• Original design for a thermal

gunsight reticle in a US tank,
made by Texas Instruments,
Inc.

• There are a large number of

fasteners.

Source: Boothroyd, Dewhurst and Knight (1994)

• Redesigned thermal gunsight reticle:
simpler to assemble, and less to go
wrong!

Source: Boothroyd, Dewhurst and Knight (1994)

 Measuring Improvement

Original Redesign Improvement

Assembly time (h) 2.15 0.33 84.7%

Number of different parts 24 8 66.7%

Total number of parts 47 12 74.5%

Total number of operations 58 13 77.6%

Metal fabrication time (h) 12.63 3.65 71.1%

Weight (lb) 0.48 0.26 45.8%

Example 2

• Redesign of
motor drive
assembly
following
design for
assembly
(DFA)
analysis.
 Cost of Assembly Vs Cost of Part Manufacture
Saving Total Saving

Assembly Saving
(DFA)

Part Manufacture
Optimum Saving (DFM)

Part Count Reduction

 Lesson 15
Product Design and Development
Ergonomics in Product Design

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 What is Ergonomics ?

It is derived from two Greek words:

Ergo = Work
Nomos = Laws
Hence, ergonomists study human capabilities in relationship to work
demand.
 What is Ergonomics ?
Definition

“The scientific discipline concerned with understanding

of interactions among humans and other elements of a
system, and the profession that applies theory,
principles, methods and data to design in order to
optimize human well-being and overall system
performance”.

Source : International Ergonomics Association (IEA) in 2000

 Benefits of Ergonomics

• Increased productivity and efficiency

• Reduce fatigue and discomfort
• Helps to prevent injuries
• Improve quality of work and life
• Improved moral and job satisfaction

4
Types of Ergonomics
Physical

Ergonomics

Organiza
Cognitive
tional
 Types of Ergonomics

Physical Ergonomics is the human body’s responses to physical and

physiological work loads. Repetitive strain injuries from repetition,
vibration, force, and posture fall into this category.

Source: http://www.toc.md/images/egronomics.jpg
 Types of Ergonomics

Cognitive Ergonomics deals with the mental processes and capacity

of human when at work. Mental strain from workload, decision
making, human error, and training fall into this category.

Source: https://www.uoguelph.ca/psychology/sites/uoguelph.ca.psychology/files/public/HiRes500nacs.png
 Types of Ergonomics

Organizational Ergonomics deals with the organizational structures, policies

and processes in the work environment, such as shift work, scheduling, job
satisfaction, motivation, supervision, teamwork, telecommuting and ethics.

Source: http://www.eorm.com/images/image_ergonomics.jpg
 Objectives
• The objective is to improve the efficiency of operation by taking
into account a typical person's height, strength, speed,
visual capability, and physiological stresses, such as:

• Fatigue
• Speed of decision making,
• Demands on memory and perception.
 Objectives

• To maximize productivity while lowering the risk of Musculoskeletal

Disorders (MSDs).

Musculoskeletal Disorders or MSDs are injuries and disorders that

affect the human body's movement or musculoskeletal system (i.e.
muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, discs, blood vessels, etc.)
 Case Study 1
Design of Ergonomically Efficient Office Chair
 An Office Chair at a Glance
• An average person makes 53 changes to his or her torso position in an hour
while sitting in a chair according to 2001 study of desk bound office
workers.

• The design of the chair should be such that it is stable, yet promote
dynamic, active, natural motion allowing sitting in any position.

• The chair should support you in whatever position you feel most
comfortable.
 Components
Head Rest

Back Rest
Arm Rest

Seat
Height Controller - Knobs

Rotating Wheel 5 Arm Stand

13
 An ergonomically designed chair has a
Base solid, safe, and stable 5-post chair base. It
should be made of strong material to
support up to five times the body weight.

Curved armrests with depression in between

Arm Rest to support the forearm properly

• Adjustable
Foot Rest • Does not restrict leg movement
• As wide as your FEET
• Large enough for the soles of both feet
• Has a nonskid surface
 Relaxed posture that helps relieve the
Head Rest pressure on your postural muscles which
can decrease fatigue and increase comfort.

The backrest should be large enough to

Back Rest cover the entire width of the back. A
minimum of 12” is recommended for width
 Final Design: 3D View

• Base
• Adjusting Knobs
• Seat Depth
• Seat Slope
• Seat Material
• Head Rest
• Back Rest
• Arm Rest
• Foot Rest
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/poojaarch28/ergonomic-chair-product-
design?qid=1cc168ef-156f-422a-969c-5b6892fc06b0&v=&b=&from_search=2
 Case Study 2

Ergonomics of a Tower Crane Cabin

Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/S8O0Jczs7Do/maxresdefault.jpg
https://www.stroyteh.ru/file/Manitou/Manitowoc_Potain_MDT.png
Recommendations
• Fully adjustable seats with adjustable arm, head and back rest.
• Use of a tilting forward seat, with option available to work by seating or standing.
• It should absorb the shock and vibration.
• Primary controls should be located with in the cabin operator’s visual field without
having to twist and turn the neck beyond normal range.
• Improve visibility by cleaning windows equipped with wiper blades, washers etc.
• Sliding windows for ventilation and outside window wipers with washers to clean
debris.
 Lesson 16

DFMA Guidelines
Dr. Inderdeep Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Similarities
• Both DFM and DFA seek to reduce material, overhead,
and labor cost.

• They both shorten the product development cycle time.

• Both DFM and DFA seek to utilize standards to reduce cost

 Differences
Design for Assembly (DFA)
concerned only with reducing product assembly cost
• Minimizes number of assembly operations
• Individual parts tend to be more complex in design

Design for Manufacturing (DFM)

concerned with reducing overall part production cost
• Minimizes complexity of manufacturing operations
• Uses common datum features and primary axes
 What is DFMA
• DFMA is a DESIGN REVIEW METHOD

It identifies:

-OPTIMAL PART DESIGN

-MATERIAL CHOICE
-ASSEMBLY AND FABRICATION OPERATIONS TO PRODUCE AN
EFFICIENT AND COST EFFECTIVE PRODUCT

• It reveals that initial ideas may not be the most effective.

4
 DFMA Guidelines

• Design guidelines are qualitative

description of good design
practices.

• Design guidelines are intended

to be used by designer during
design synthesis.

5
 DFMA Guidelines
By Professor Henry Stoll

• Number of components in a product should be minimum.

• Design a modular product.

• Use standard components.

• Integrate parts, aim to multifunctional components.

• Design components, which can be used widely on different components.

6
 DFMA Guidelines

• Design easily manufacturable product.

• Avoid using separate fasteners.

• Minimize assembly stages and positions.

• Maximize compatibility.

• Minimize handling.
 DFMA Guidelines

According to Boothroyd & Dewhurst ideal characteristic of part assembly

are:-
• Part is inserted from top of the assembly so that gravity helps to stabilize
the partial assembly.
• Parts and assembly site can be designed to be self aligning. The chamfer
is most common self alignment feature.
• Parts are assembled in one single linear motion.
• Parts are secured immediately after insertion
 Examples
Source: Boothroyd, Dewhurst and Knight (1994) Product
Design for Manufacture and Assembly

9
 DFMA Guidelines
Creative phase
DFMA Guidelines

11
 DFMA Guidelines
Similar looking screws having
Different Sizes are confusing.

12
DFMA Guidelines
DFMA Guidelines

14
 DFMA Guidelines
Design to eliminate Fasteners and to place them away from obstructions.

15
DFMA Guidelines

16
Thank You
 Lesson 17

Product design for Manual Assembly

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

The process of manual assembly can be divided into two separate

areas:

• Handling (acquiring, orienting, and moving the parts)

• Insertion and fastening (mating a part to another part or group of

parts)

2
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Part Handling

• Design parts that have end-to-end symmetry and rotational symmetry
about the axis of insertion.
• If this cannot be achieved, try to design parts having the maximum
possible symmetry.

3
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Part Handling

• Provide features that will prevent jamming of parts that tend to nest or
stack when stored in bulk.

4
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Part Handling

• Avoid features that will allow tangling of parts when stored in bulk

5
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Part Handling

Avoid parts that:

– Stick together or are slippery
delicate, flexible, very small
– Are very large
– Are hazardous to the handler
(parts that are sharp, splinter
easily, etc.).

6
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening

Design so that there is little or no

resistance to insertion and provide
chamfers to guide insertion of two
mating parts.
Generous clearance should be
provided, but care must be taken
to avoid clearances that will result
in a tendency for parts to jam or
hang-up during insertion
7
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening

• Provision for air relief passages to improve insertion into blind holes

8
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening

• Provision of chamfers to allow easy insertion

9
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening

• Avoid the necessity for holding parts down to maintain their orientation during
manipulation of the subassembly or during the placement of another part.
• If holding down is required, then try to design so that part is secured as soon as
possible after it has been inserted.

10
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening

• Design so that a part is located before it is released

11
 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

Design Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening

• Design so that a part is located before it is released

12
 Types of Manual Assembly

• Bench assembly • Multi-station assembly

For small parts with easy For major body motion
reach of worker
 Types of Manual Assembly

• Modular assembly center Custom assembly center

 Types of Manual Assembly
• Flexible assembly layout • Multi assembly of large products
Thank You
 Lesson 18

Design guidelines for different processes

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Design Considerations in Casting
• Design the part so that the shape is cast easily.

• Select a casting process and material suitable for the part, size,
mechanical properties, etc.

• Locate and design the gates to allow uniform feeding of the mold cavity
with molten metal.

• Select an appropriate runner geometry for the system.

• Locate mold features such as sprue, runner, gate and risers, as

appropriate.
2
 Design Considerations in Casting
Corners, angles and section
thickness: avoid using sharp
corners and angles (act as
stress raisers) and may cause
cracking and tearing during
solidification. Use fillets with
radii ranging from 3 to 25
mm

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, 5th Edition, by Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education.

3
 Design Considerations in Casting

• Designs showing the

importance of
maintaining uniform
cross-sections in
castings to avoid hot
spots and shrinkage
cavities

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, 5th Edition, by Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education.

4
 Design Considerations in Casting
• Designs modification to avoid • Use of metal padding (chills) to
shrinkage cavities increase the rate of cooling in
thick regions

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, 5th Edition, by Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education.

5
 Design guidelines for Machining

Use standard hole sizes Deep and small diameter

holes are avoided

6
 Design guidelines for Machining

• Avoid partial hole (if large

portion of hole is outside the
part), it causes wandering of
drill bit.

• If partial hole is unavoidable

then ensure that at least 75%
hole area should be within the
material

7
 Design guidelines for Machining
• Features should be assessable • Avoid the features that are too
to cutting tool in preferred close to each other
machining orientation

8
 Design guidelines for Machining
• Square end keyways are • Rounded keyways are suited to
difficult to machine and costly cutting tool and easy to
to generate develop.

9
 Design guidelines for Machining
• Long slender part (supported by • Ratio of total length of part to
tailstock) may deflect towards the its minimum diameter should
center be less than or equal to 8
• Turned part is deigned in such a
way that use of tailstock is avoided

10
 Design guidelines for Injection Molding
• Part corners should be with a radius • Ejector pins of various sizes are used
rather than a sharp edge to avoid to push the plastic part out of the
being scratched mold after it has solidified.

11
 Design guidelines for Injection Molding
Draft
• At least 0.5 degrees on all “vertical”
faces.
• 2 degrees works very well in most
situations.
• 3 degrees is required for light
texture.
• 5 or more degrees is required for
heavy texture.

12
 Design guidelines for Injection Molding

Uniform wall thickness

• Maintaining consistent wall thickness can avoid
sink marks and part wrapage.

• Thicker and non-uniform wall thicknesses can

often result in sinks in the material

• Thin ribs on thicker walls may provide stiffness

but also can result in sinking on the outside of
the wall. To prevent sink, the thickness of the rib
should be about half of the thickness of the wall
13
 Design guidelines for Injection Molding
• Recommended Wall
Thickness by Resin Type

14
 Design guidelines for Welding

• Guidelines for shielding and purging gases (in terms of

purity).

• Guidelines for preheating.

• Guidelines for post weld heat treatment.

15
Thank You
 Lesson 19

Rapid prototyping: Concept, Advantages

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
 Rapid Prototyping
Prototype
• Originated from Greek word (1603),
prototypon "a first or primitive form,

" Protos “First" + Typos “Form”.

• It is an art of managing expectation.

• An original, full scale, and usually working

model of new product or new version of
existing product.

2
 Rapid Prototyping
Historical development of Rapid Prototyping and related technology

Year of Inception Technology

1770 Mechanization
1946 First Computer
1952 First Numerical Control Machine
1960 First Commercial Laser
1961 First Commercial robot
1963 First Interactive Graphics System
1988 First Commercial Rapid Prototyping

3
 Rapid Prototyping

Introduction
• Rapid prototyping technologies are able to produce physical model in a
layer by layer manner directly from their CAD models without any tools,
dies and fixtures and also with little human intervention.

• RP is capable to fabricate parts quickly with complex shape easily as

compared to traditional manufacturing technology.

• RP helps in earlier detection and reduction of design errors.

4
 Rapid Prototyping Systems
All RP techniques employ the basic five-step process.

• Create a CAD model of the design

• Convert the CAD model to STL format

• Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers

• Construct the model one layer a-top another

• Clean and finish the model

5
Rapid Prototyping System

Source-http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmpandey/MEL120_html/RP_document.pdf
6
 Rapid Prototyping System

CAD Model Creation:

• First, the object to be built is modelled using a Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) software package.

• Solid modellers, such as Pro/ENGINEER, tend to represent 3-D objects

more accurately than wire-frame modellers such as AutoCAD, and will
therefore yield better results.

• This process is identical for all of the RP techniques.

7
 Rapid Prototyping System
Conversion to STL Format:

• The second step, therefore, is to convert the CAD file into STL format. This
format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar
triangles

• STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces
exactly. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation

8
 Rapid Prototyping System

Slice the STL File:

In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built.

The pre-processing software slices the STL model into a number of layers
from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick, depending on the build technique.

The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the model
during the build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as
overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled sections.

9
 Rapid Prototyping Systems

Layer by Layer Construction:

• The fourth step is the actual construction of the part.

• RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or

powdered metal.

• Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human

intervention.

10
 Rapid Prototyping System

Clean and Finish:

• The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype
from the machine and detaching any supports.

• Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use

• Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment.

• Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance
and durability.

11
 Advantages of Rapid Prototyping
• Process is fast and accurate.

• Superior quality surface finish is obtained.

• Separate material can be used for component and support.

• No need to design jigs and fixtures.

• No need of mould or other tools.

12
 Advantages of Rapid Prototyping

• Post processing include only finishing and cleaning.

• Minimum material wastage.

• Reduces product development time considerably

13
 Techniques of Rapid Prototyping

• SLA (Stereo Lithography)

• SLS (Selective Laser Sintering)

• LOM (Laminate Object Manufacturing)

• FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling)

Thank You
 Lesson 20
Rapid prototyping processes

Dr. Inderdeep Singh

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

1
Stereolithography (SLA)

2
Stereolithography (SLA)

3
 Stereolithography (SLA)

• Builds 3D model from liquid photo sensitive polymers when exposed to

UV rays.
• Model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface of liquid
epoxy or acrylate resin.
• A low power highly focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying
model cross section.
• An elevator incrementally lowers the platform into the liquid polymer.
• Process is repeated until prototype is complete.
• Model is placed in an UV oven for complete curing.

4
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

5
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Uses a high power laser and powdered materials.

• A wide variety of materials can be used, ranging from thermoplastic

polymers, such as nylon and polystyrene, to some metals.

• 3D parts are produced by fusing a thin slice of the powdered material

onto the layers below it.

• The surfaces of SLS prototypes are not as smooth as those produced by

SLA processes.

• SLS parts are sufficiently strong and resistant for many functional tests.
6
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

7
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• The powdered material is kept on a delivery platform and supplied to the building
area by a roller.
• For each layer, a laser traces the corresponding shape of the part on the surface of
the building area, by heating the powder until it melts, fusing it with the layer below
it.
• The platform containing the part lowers one layer thickness and the platform
supplying the material elevates, providing more material to the system.
• The roller moves the new material to the building platform, levelling the surface, and
the process repeats.
• Some SLS prototype machines use two delivery platforms, one on each side of the
building platform, for efficiency, so the roller can supply material to the building
platform in both directions.

8
Laminated Object Manufacturing

9
 Laminated Object Manufacturing
• Laminated Object Manufacturing is a relatively low cost rapid prototyping
technology
• Thin slices of material (usually adhesively coated paper, plastic or metal) are
successively glued together to form a 3D shape.
• The process uses two rollers to control the supply of paper with heat-activated
glue to a building platform.
• When new paper is in position, it is flattened and added to the previously created
layers using a heated roller.
• The shape of the new layer is traced and cut by a blade or a laser. When the layer
is complete, the building platform descends and new paper is supplied.
• When the paper is in position, the platform moves back up so the new layer can
be glued to the existing stack, and the process repeats.

10
Fused Deposition Modeling

11
 Fused Deposition Modeling
• A numerically controlled extruder head (nozzle) moves in two principle
directions (vertical and horizontal) over a table

• Table can be raised or lowered as needed

• Thermoplastic or metal filament is extruded through the small orifice of

heated nozzle

• Initial layer placed on a foam foundation with a constant rate

• Extruder head follows a predetermined path from the file

• After first layer the table is lowered and subsequent layers are formed
12
Components developed by Rapid Prototyping

13
Components developed by Rapid Prototyping

14
Thank You