Lecture notes by Engr.

Azhar Iqbal
Shad
B.Sc. Engg (Civil), M.Sc. Engg
(WRM)

ACMA, MBA-
Marketing
M.A. & M.Pill-Education Planning &
Management

TRANSPORTATION

From the beginning of history, human sensitivity has revealed an urge for mobility
leading to a measure of Society's progress. The history of this mobility or transport is the history
of civilization. For any country to develop with right momentum modern and efficient Transport
as a basic infrastructure is a must. Transport (British English) or transportation (American
English) is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is
derived from the Latin trans ("across") and portare ("to carry").
Importance of Highway transportation:
Highway transportation is the means of detail distribution between homes, shops,
factories, etc. It is only the roads which can carry goods from and to aerodromes,
harbors and railway stations. Considering the utility of roads anywhere in the different
parts of a country, they can be rightly compared to arteries in a human body just as
arteries maintain man's health by providing circulation of blood; similarly roads promote
nation's wealth by keeping its people and goods moving. Thus, we see that progress
and well-being of a nation depends much on roads. In fact, roads are the life lines of
nation's economy.
The importance or necessity of highway transportation can be easily judged from
the following purposes or advantages of roads:- They facilitate conveyance of people,
goods, raw-materials, manufactured articles, etc. speedily and easily in the different
parts of a country.
 1. They act as the only source of communication in regions of high altitude i.e in
mountainous regions.
2. They help in growth of trade and other economy activities in and outside the
villages and towns by establishing contact between towns and villages.
3. They help in providing efficient distribution of agricultural products and natural
resources all over the country.
4. They help in price stabilization of commodities due to mobility of products all over
the country.
5. They help in social and cultural advancement of people and making the villagers
active and alert members of the community.
6. They help in promoting the cultural and social ties among people living in
different part of a country and thus strengthen the national unity.
7. They help in providing improved medical facilities quickly to human beings,
especially to those who live in rural areas.
8. They provide more employment opportunities.
9. They enhance land value and thus bring better revenue.
10. They serve as feeders for Airways, Waterways and Railways.
11. They help in reducing distress among the people, caused due to famine, by
supplying them food and clothing quickly.
Lastly, it can be sad that roads are the symbol of country's progress and thus
development made by any country can be judged by the quality and network of its road
system.
Elements of transport
The movement of goods or passenger traffic, through rail, sea, air or road
transport requires adequate infrastructure facilities for the free flow from the place of
origin to the place of destination. Irrespective of modes, every transport system has
some common elements:
a. Vehicle or carrier to carry passenger or goods
b. Route or path for movement of carriers
 c. Terminal facilities for loading and unloading of goods and passengers from
carriers
d. Prime Mover
e. Transit time and cost
f. Cargo
These elements influence the effectiveness of different modes of transport and
their utility to users.
 Vehicles: The dimension of vehicles, its capacity and type are some of the
factors, which influence the selection of a transport system for movement of
goods from one place to the other.
 Routes:
Routes play an important role in movement of carriers from one point to another
point. It may be surface roads, navigable waterways and roadways. Availability of
well-designed and planned routes without any obstacle for movement of
transport vehicles in specific routes, is a vital necessity for smooth flow of traffic.
 Terminal Facilities:
The objective of transportation can’t be fulfilled unless proper facilities are
available for loading and unloading of goods or entry and exit of passengers from
carrier. Terminal facilities are to be provided for loading and unloading of trucks,
wagons etc on a continuous basis.
 Prime Mover:
The power utilized for moving of vehicles for transportation of cargo from one
place to another is another important aspect of the total movement system.
 Transit time and cost:
Transportation involve time and cost. The time element is a valid factor for
determining the effectiveness of a particular mode of transport. The transit time
of available system of transportation largely determines production and
consumption pattern of perishable goods in an economy.
 Cargo:
 Transportation basically involves movement of cargo from one place to another.
Hence, nature and size of cargo constitute the basis of any goods transport
system.
Transport System in Pakistan

Transport system is the foundation stone of economic infrastructure. It helps in the

development of trade, commerce and industry.
If agriculture and industries are supposed to be the body, transport may be called
the veins of the economy.
Transport system removes the hindrance of place and time. It facilitates the mobility
of goods and services from producers to consumers. It also helps in removing
regional inequalities. Development of transport facilities is also essential for
surve3ang and tapping of natural resources. Transport system is known as symbol
of civilization. Broadly speaking, transport system of a country refers to the different
means which carry men and material from one place to another.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Road Transport

Advantages and Disadvantages of Road Transport in India are as follows!
Advantages of Road Transport:
1. Less Investment:
Roads need less capital than the railways. Laying of railway line needs much
capital than road. So it is cheaper.
2. Door to Door Service:
Railways have the drawback that they cannot go to each village while road
transport provides door to door service. So it is more beneficial.
 3. Flexibility in Service:
Unlike railways, the road transport provides flexible service to men and
materials.
4. Employment:
Road transport provides emplo3mient to many persons directly and indirectly.
5. Useful for Small Distances:
While railways are useful in long distances, road transport is useful in small
distances.
6. Complementary to Rail Transport:
Road transport is helpful to rail transport. People reach railway station taking
the help of road transport so it provides feeder service to rail transport.
7. Personal Service:
Rail transport is managed by Govt. alone while road transport has private and
public carriers. So there is completion in road transport. Even people have
their own vehicles. So it is also a kind of personal service.
8. Helpful in Production of Perishable Goods:
Road transport is helpful in production of perishable goods as it facilitates the
distribution of perishable goods from point of production to point of
consumption.
9. Beneficial to Industries:
Industries which are situated away from railway links, the road transport helps
them a lot. It facilitates the mobility of men and materials for these industries.
Disadvantages of Road Transport:
The following are the disadvantages of road transport system:
1. Frequent Accidents:
Road transport system is dotted with frequent accidents. According to an
estimate, there are large number of deaths due to road accidents. So it is not
safer mode of transport.
 2. Inadequate Roads:
Most of the roads are in bad shape and are inadequate. There are only 34 km
long roads per 100 sq. km area in India while in Japan 270 km roads per 100
sq. km.
3. Heavy Taxes:
There is heavy tax burden on motor transport in Pakistan.
4. Poor Maintenance of Roads:
Roads are not maintained properly in Pakistan. Less than 0.1 percent of
national income is spent on the maintenance of roads in Pakistan, while in
Japan it is 3 percent of the national income.
5. Rising Cost of Petrol and Diesel:
Due to high prices of petroleum products and diesel, operational costs of road
transport are rising and making the mode of transport more costly.
6. Unsuitable for Long Distances and Bulky Goods:
Road transport is unsuitable for long distances as it is uncomfortable as
compared to railways. It is also not suitable for bulky goods.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Transport

Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Transport are as follows:
Advantages:
1. Less Maintenance Cost:
Maintenance cost in rail and road transport is quite high but maintenance cost
of water transport is quite less.
2. Cheap:
The transport channel is quite cheap as compared rail and road Transport.
3. Useful for Bulky Goods:
Heavy and bulky goods can be transported easily at little cost through water
transport.
 4. Useful During Natural Calamities:
During natural calamities like flood and rains, when rail and road transport is
disrupted, relief operations can be operated through water transport.
5. Helpful in Defense:
Development of shipping is essential for the defense of the country also. It is
also called second line of defense.
6. Important for Foreign Trade:
Water transport plays important role in foreign trade. India’s foreign trade is
mainly dependent on water transport.
Disadvantages of Water Transport:
The following are the disadvantages of water transport:
1. Slow Speed:
It is a slow means of transport. Failure of monsoon results into fall in the
water level of rivers making navigation difficult.
2. More Risky:
Water transport is more risky as compared to other means because there is
always danger of sinking ships or boats.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Rail Transport

Railways have increased the mobility of labour and capital which has
contributed to the rapid industrialization of the country.

Advantages of Railway Transport:

The following are the main advantages of Railway Transport:
Employment:
Railways are an important source of employment in India. Lakhs of skilled and
unskilled people are employed in operating the railway. It also creates many
opportunities of employment.
2. Encouragement to Tourism:
The connectivity of Railways to various tourist spots gives encouragement to
tourism. Railways sell circular tickets to the tourists to -remote tourism.
3. Helpful during Calamities:
During natural calamities railways help the stranded persons to reach their
destinations and these are helpful during famines by carrying food grains from
surplus to affected areas.
4. Social Importance:
Railways here tied the people in on string. They have shortened the distance and
developed the outlook of people.
5. Strategic Importance:
These are useful for internal security of country and also carry the defense material
to various locations during external threat.
6. Help in Internal Trade:
By connecting various areas of the country railways have made internal trade
convenient. They carry goods and passengers to various places easily.
7. Development of Agriculture:
Railways have commercialized agriculture. Now farmers do not produce for self-
consumption only but also for sale in the market.
8. Growth of Markets:
Railways have increased the size of markets. Bulky goods can easily be transported
by Railways.
9. Mobility of Labour and Capital:
Railways have increased the mobility of labour and capital which has
contributed to the rapid industrialization of the country.

Disadvantages of Railway:
The following are the disadvantages of Railways:
1. Railway Accidents:
The incidence of railway accidents in our country is greater as compared to
other countries of the world. Accident occurs due to the errors and negligence
of the employees.
 2. Attack on Railways:
The Pakistan Railways had to suffer a heavy loss of crores of rupees. The
railways are attacked during the time of disturbances and violence that arise
in any part of the country.
3. Outdated Technology:
The technology used in railways is quite outdated. It needs to be modernized.
4. Problem of Replacement:
Railway Engines, wagons and other equipment’s are quite old and these
require replacement. It is a huge expenditure.
5. Problem of laying Double Line:
Most of the railway lines are single lines. It creates great inconvenience to
railway organization and passengers.
6. Travel without Tickets:
In India large number of passengers travel without tickets. Pakistan railways
have to bear extra loss every year on account of travelling without tickets.
7. Not Door to Door Service:
Railways do not provide door to door service like road transport.

Air Transport: Advantages and Disadvantages

The mobility of men and material by air is called air transport. It is the fastest
means of transport. It is very useful for long distances and saves time.
Advantages of Air Transport:
The following are the main advantages:
1. High Speed:
It is the fast speed means of transport. Passengers and goods can be
transported easily from one place to the other.
2. Minimum Cost:
Unlike railways and road transport, there is no need to spend money on the
construction of any track or road, only airports have to be constructed.
3. Strategic Importance:
 An airway has great strategic importance. It can be used for internal and
external security.
4. Easy transport of costly and light goods:
It is quite convenient to send costly, light and perishable goods through air
transport.
5. Free from physical barriers:
Air transport is free from physical barriers like river, mountains and valleys
etc.
6. Useful for Agriculture:
Air transport is useful for aerial spray on pests and insects which cause harm
to crops.
7. Useful in natural calamities:
During earth quake, flood, accidents and famine air transport is used for
rescue operations.
Disadvantages of Air Transport:
The following are the disadvantages:
1. High Costs:
Air transport is a costly service. Its operational costs are too high. Middle
class and poor people cannot affect its cash.
2. More Risks:
Air transport is prone to accidents. A small mistake can be very dangerous for
passengers. Hijacking of planes is easily possible.
3. Huge Investments:
For creating aviation facilities, huge investments are required. The cost of
aero planes, construction and maintenance of aerodromes and control
mechanism needs a capital expenditure.
History of highway engineering
Road network provides the arterial network to facilitate trade, transport, social
integration and economic development. It facilitates specialization, extension of markets
and exploitation of economies of scale. It is used for the smooth conveyance of both
people and goods.
 Transportation by road has the advantage over other means of transport
because of its easy accessibility, flexibility of operations, door-to-door service and
reliability. Consequently, passenger and freight movement in India over the years have
increasingly shifted towards roads vis-à-vis other means of transport.
The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient
times. Roads in Rome were constructed in a large scale and it radiated in many
directions helping them in military operations. Thus they are considered to be pioneers
in road construction. In this section we will see in detail about Ancient roads, Roman
roads, British roads, French roads etc.
a. Ancient Roads:
The most primitive mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would
have been developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for
drinking water etc. The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the
development of animal drawn vehicles. To provide adequate strength to carry the
wheels, the new ways tended to follow the sunny drier side of a path. After the invention
of wheel, animal drawn vehicles were developed and the need for hard surface road
emerged. Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient civilization
dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was found from Assyrian
empire constructed about 1900 BC.
b. Roman roads
The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who
constructed an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome.
Romans recognized that the fundamentals of good road construction were to provide
good drainage, good material and good workmanship. Their roads were very durable,
and some still exist. The roads were bordered on both sides by longitudinal drains. A
typical cross section is shown in Figure below. This was a raised formation up to a 1
meter high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials excavated during the
side drain construction. This was then topped with a sand leveling course. In the case of
heavy traffic, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal ag stones were
provided They mixed lime and volcanic puzzolana to make mortar and they added
gravel to this mortar to make concrete. Thus concrete was a major Roman road making
innovation.

c. French roads
The significant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764 and a typical cross
section of this road is given in Figure below. He developed a cheaper method of
construction than the lavish and locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice. The
pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried stone of a more compact form and shaped
such that they had at least one at side which was placed on a compact formation.
Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces between larger
stones to provide a level surface. Finally the running layer was made with a layer of 25
mm sized broken stone. All this structure was placed in a trench in order to keep the
running surface level with the surrounding country side. This created major drainage
problems which were counteracted by making the surface as impervious as possible,
cambering the surface and providing deep side ditches.
 d. British roads
The British government also gave importance to road construction. The British
engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road
construction method. Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe. By
empirical observation of many roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well
compacted broken angular stone would provide the same strength a better running
surface than an expensive pavement founded on large stone blocks. Thus he
introduced an economical method of road construction. A typical cross section of British
roads is given in Figure below.

e. Modern roads
The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use of
bituminous concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments.
Development of new equipment helps in the faster construction of roads. Many easily
and locally available materials are tested in the laboratories and then implemented on
roads for making economical and durable pavements.