MEE403-Heat transfer Solu�on – ch. 8 – Natural convec�on N. Zakhia – LAU – SOE – IME Dept.

Example 8.1
Consider a 0.25-m-long ver�cal plate that is at 70°C. The plate is suspended in free
air that is at 25°C. Es�mate 𝛿𝛿 and maximum upward velocity at the trailing edge of
the plate. How does "𝛿𝛿" compare with the thickness that would exist if the air were
flowing over the plate at a free stream velocity of 5 m/s?
Solu�on:
1
Proper�es are evaluated at 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 2 (70 + 25) = 47.5℃ = 320.5 𝐾𝐾
1 1
𝑘𝑘 = 0.02685, 𝜈𝜈 = 17.95 × 10−6, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.7, and 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑇𝑇 = 320.5 = 3.12 × 10−3
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐿𝐿3 9.81�3.12×10−3 �(70−25)(0.25)3
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = = = 6.69 × 107
𝜈𝜈 2 (17.95×10−6 )2

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = (6.69 × 107 )(0.7) = 4.68 × 107 < 109 → Laminar
𝛿𝛿 −1/4
𝐿𝐿
= �3.93𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 −1/3 (0.952 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)1/4 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐿𝐿 � = 0.05888 → 𝛿𝛿 = 0.05888𝐿𝐿 = 0.0147 𝑚𝑚
4 4 𝜈𝜈 1/2
𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =? 𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 27 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 27 �𝐿𝐿 �5.15(0.952 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)−1/2 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐿𝐿 �� = 0.349 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

For airflow at 𝑢𝑢∞ = 5𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠, → this can be assumed forced convection flow. So:
𝑢𝑢∞ 𝐿𝐿 5×0.25
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜈𝜈
= 17.95×10−6 = 6.97 × 104 < 5 × 105 → Laminar
5𝐿𝐿 5×0.25
𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 = = √6.97×104 = 0.0047 𝑚𝑚
√𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

Conclusion: 𝛿𝛿𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 > 𝛿𝛿𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 → Free convec�on B.L. typically have smaller veloci�es than in forced
convec�on, which leads to thicker B.L. Also, free convec�on B.L. typically pose a larger resistance to heat
transfer than forced convec�on B.L.

Problem 8.1
A large ver�cal plate 4.0 m high is maintained at 60°C and exposed to atmospheric air at 10°C. Calculate
the heat transfer if the plate is 10 m wide.
Solu�on:
1
@ Proper�es of air at 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 2 (60 + 10) = 35℃ = 308 𝐾𝐾: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.02685 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚℃,
1 1
𝜈𝜈 = 16.5 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.7, and 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑇𝑇 = 308 = 3.25 × 10−3 𝐾𝐾 −1
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐿𝐿3 9.81�3.25×10−3 �(60−10)(0.4)3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = (0.7) = 2.62 × 1011 > 109 (turbulent)
𝜈𝜈 2 (16.5×10−6 )2
1/6 2 1/6 2
0.387 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 0.387 �2.62×1011 � 𝑘𝑘 𝑊𝑊
����𝐿𝐿 = �0.825 +
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 8/27 � = �0.825 + 8/27 � = 716 → ℎ� = 𝑑𝑑 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
���� = 4.80 2
𝑚𝑚 𝐾𝐾
�1+(0.492/𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)9/16 � �1+(0.492/0.7)9/16 �

𝑞𝑞 = ℎ�𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = 4.80 × 4 × 10 × (60 − 10) = 9606 𝑊𝑊

Note: we could employ 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0.10𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1/3 = 0.10(2.62 × 1011 )1/3 = 640 which is about 10% lower.

Problem 8.2
A fine wire having a diameter of 0.02 mm is maintained at a constant temperature of 54°C by an electric
current. The wire is exposed to air at 1 atm and 0°C. Calculate the electric power necessary to maintain the
wire temperature if the length is 50 cm.
Solu�on:
1
@ Proper�es of water at 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 2 (54 + 0) = 27℃ = 300𝐾𝐾: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.02624 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚℃,
1 1
𝜈𝜈 = 15.69 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.708, and 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑇𝑇 = 300 = 3.33 × 10−3 𝐾𝐾 −1
3
𝑔𝑔𝛽𝛽(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐿𝐿3 9.81�3.33×10−3 �(54−0)�0.02×10−3 �
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = (0.708) = 4.05 × 10−5
𝜈𝜈 2 (15.69×10−6 )2
����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 where, from table 7.1 or table 7.2: 𝐶𝐶 = 0.675 & 𝑚𝑚 = 0.058
���� = 0.675 × (4.05 × 10−5 )0.058 = 0.375 → ℎ� = 𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ���� = � 0.02624−3 � 0.375 = 492.6 𝑊𝑊
𝑑𝑑 0.02×10 𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾
The heat transfer or power required is:
𝑞𝑞 = ℎ�𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = 492.6 × (𝜋𝜋)(0.02 × 10−3 )(0.5) × (54 − 0) = 0.836 𝑊𝑊

Problem 8.3
A horizontal pipe 1 � (0.3048 m) in diameter is maintained at a temperature of 250°C in a room where the
ambient air is at 15°C. Calculate the free-convec�on heat loss per meter of length.
Solu�on:
1
Proper�es of air at 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 2 (250 + 15) = 132.5℃ = 405.5 𝐾𝐾:
1 1
𝑘𝑘 = 0.03406 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚℃, 𝜈𝜈 = 26.54 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.687, and 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑇𝑇 = 405.5 = 2.47 × 10−3 𝐾𝐾 −1
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐿𝐿3 9.81�2.47×10−3 �(250−15)(0.3048)3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = (0.687) = 1.571 × 108
𝜈𝜈 2 (26.54×10−6 )2
1 𝑘𝑘
From Table 7.2, 𝐶𝐶 = 0.53 & 𝑚𝑚 = 4 → 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 = 0.53(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)1/4 = 59.4 → ℎ = 𝑑𝑑 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 6.63 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾
𝑞𝑞
The heat transfer per unit length: 𝐿𝐿
= ℎ𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = 6.73 × 𝜋𝜋 × 0.3048 × (250 − 15) = 1.49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚
Alterna�vely, you could employ the more complicated correla�on by Churchill & Chu:
2
1/6
0.387 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷
����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = �0.60 + 8/27 � = 64.7 → This is about 8% higher (acceptable)
0.559 9/16
�1+� � �
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

Problem 8.4
A glass-door firescreen, used to reduce exfiltra�on of room air through a
chimney, has a height of 0.71 m and a width of 1.02 m and reaches 232°C.
If the room temperature is 23°C, estimate the convection heat rate from
the fireplace to the room.
Solu�on:
1
@ 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 2 (232 + 23) = 127.5℃ = 400 𝐾𝐾: 𝛼𝛼 = 38.3 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠,
1 1
𝑘𝑘 = 0.0338 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚℃, 𝜈𝜈 = 26.4 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.690, and 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑇𝑇 = 400 = 0.0025 𝐾𝐾 −1
The heat transfer is: 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ�𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐿𝐿3 9.81(0.0025)(232−23)(0.71)3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = (38.3×10−6 )(26.4×10−6 )
(0.687) = 1.813 × 109 > 109 (transi�on to
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

turbulence occurs on the panel). Thus, use:

1/6 2 1/6 2
0.387 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 0.387 �1.813×109 �
����𝐿𝐿 = �0.825 +
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 8/27 � = �0.825 + 8/27 � = 147
�1+(0.492/𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)9/16 � �1+(0.492/0.690)9/16 �
𝑘𝑘
ℎ� = ����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 �𝐿𝐿 � = 7.0 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 . 𝐾𝐾 → 𝑞𝑞 = (7.0)(1.02 × 0.71)(232 − 23) = 1060 𝑊𝑊

2
Comments:
O�en, radia�on heat transfer effects are significant rela�ve to free convec�on. Assume 𝜀𝜀 = 1.0 for the
glass surface and 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 23℃, the net rate of radia�on between the glass and its surroundings is:
𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝜎(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4 )
= (1)(1.02 × 0.71)(5.67 × 10−8 )(5054 − 2964 ) = 2355 𝑊𝑊 (almost twice the
effect of free convec�on).

Example 8.5
Atmospheric air is contained between two 0.5-m-square ver�cal plates separated by a gap of 15 mm. The
temperatures of the plates are 100 and 40°C, respec�vely. Calculate the free-convec�on heat transfer
across the air space. Calculate the radia�on heat transfer across the air space if both surfaces have 𝜀𝜀 = 0.2.
Solu�on:
100+40
Proper�es are evaluated at 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 2
= 70° = 343 𝐾𝐾:
𝑃𝑃 1.0132×105 1
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 1.029 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 , 𝛽𝛽 = 343 = 2.915 × 10−3, 𝜇𝜇 = 2.043 × 10−5, 𝑘𝑘 = 0.0295, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.7
287×343
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔2 𝛽𝛽(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )𝐿𝐿3 (9.81)(1.029)2 �2.915×10−3 �(100−40)(0.015)3
a) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = (0.7) = 1.027 × 104
𝜇𝜇 2 (2.043×10−5 )2

𝐻𝐻 −0.3 0.5 −0.3

���� 1/4
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 0.42𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 0.012 � 𝐿𝐿 � = 0.42(1.027 × 104 )0.25 (0.7)0.012 �0.015� = 1.47
𝑘𝑘 0.0295
ℎ = 𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = (1.47) = 2.891 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 ℃
0.015

𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ𝐴𝐴∆𝑇𝑇 = 2.891(0.5 × 0.5)(100 − 40) = 43.4 𝑊𝑊

b) The radiation heat transfer across the air space if both surfaces have 𝜀𝜀 = 0.2
The radia�on flux is calculated from (will be shown in Chapter 10):
𝑞𝑞 𝜎𝜎�𝑇𝑇14 −𝑇𝑇24 � 5.669×10−8 �3734 −3134 �
�𝐴𝐴� = 1 1 = 1 1 = 61.47 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + −1 + −1
𝜀𝜀1 𝜀𝜀2 0.2 0.2
𝑞𝑞
Thus, 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = �𝐴𝐴� × 𝐴𝐴 = 61.47 × (0.5)2 = 15.37 𝑊𝑊
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Problem 8.6
Airflow through a long rectangular hea�ng duct that is 0.75 m
wide and 0.3 m high maintains the outer duct surface at 45°C.
If the duct is uninsulated and exposed to air at 15°C in the
crawlspace beneath a home, what is the heat loss from the
duct per meter of length?
Solu�on:
For air (Table A.4), at 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 303 𝐾𝐾: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.0265 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚 . 𝐾𝐾, 𝜈𝜈 = 16.2 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.71, 𝛽𝛽 = 0.0033.
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐿𝐿3 9.81(0.0033)(30)(𝐿𝐿)3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = (16.2×10−6 )(22.9×10−6 ) = 2.62 × 109 𝐿𝐿3
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

 For the two vertical sides, L = H = 0.3 m → 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 7.07 × 107 (laminar). Hence, use:
1/4 1/4
0.67 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 0.67 �7.07×107 �
����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 0.68 + 4/9 = 0.68 + 4/9 = 47.83
�1+(0.492/𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)9/16 � �1+(0.492/0.71)9/16 �
𝑘𝑘
ℎ�𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 4.23 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 ℃. This is the convec�on coefficient associated with the sides.
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑊×𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊
 For the top & bottom sides, the characteristic length: 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = = 2(𝑊𝑊+𝐿𝐿) ≈ = 0.375 𝑚𝑚 (𝑊𝑊 ≪ 𝐿𝐿).
𝑃𝑃 2

Hence, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 1.38 × 108

3
 𝑘𝑘 𝑊𝑊
• ����𝐿𝐿 = 0.15𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1/3
For the top face: 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐿𝐿 = 77.51 → ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 5.47 𝑚𝑚2 ℃
𝑐𝑐
1/5 𝑘𝑘 𝑊𝑊
• For the bottom face: ����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 0.52𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 21.65 → ℎ�𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 1.56 𝑚𝑚2 ℃
𝑐𝑐

The rate of heat loss per unit length of duct becomes:

′
𝑞𝑞 ′ = 2𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ′
+ 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ′
+ 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = ��2ℎ�𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝐻𝐻� + �ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 × 𝑊𝑊� + �ℎ�𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 × 𝑊𝑊��(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )
= [(2 × 4.23 × 0.3) + (5.47 × 0.75) + (1.56 × 0.75)](45 − 15) = 234 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚

Example 8.7
Steam is flowing inside a long tube of 0.1-m diameter maintaining the tube inner surface at 120°C. A
radia�on shield is installed concentrically with an air gap of 10 mm. The shield is at 35°C.
1. Estimate the heat transfer by free convection from the tube per unit length.
2. Suppose the shield is filled with glass-fiber blanket insulation. What would be the heat loss?
You may neglect radia�on heat transfer and the contact resistance with insula�on.
Solu�on:
1 1
For air (Table A.4), at 𝑇𝑇 = 2 (𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 + 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 ) = 2 (120 + 35) = 77.5℃ = 350 𝐾𝐾

𝑘𝑘 = 0.03, 𝜈𝜈 = 20.92 × 10−6 , 𝛼𝛼 = 29.9 × 10−6, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.70, 𝛽𝛽 = 0.00285.

For the insula�on, Table A.3, at T ≈ 300 K: 𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0.038.
2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘
1. The heat transfer per unit length of cylinder is 𝑞𝑞 ′ = ln(𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
⁄𝑟𝑟 )
(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇0 )
𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖

𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )𝐿𝐿3𝑐𝑐 2[ln(𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 ⁄𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 )]4/3 2[ln(0.06⁄0.05)]4/3

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = where 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = −3/5 5/3
= 5/3 = 0.00117 𝑚𝑚
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 −3/5
�𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 +𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 � �0.05−3/5 +0.06−3/5 �

9.81(0.00285)(120−35)(0.00117)3 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 1/4

1/4
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = (29.9×10−6 )(20.92×10−6 )
= 171 and 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.386𝑘𝑘 �0.861+𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃� 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = 0.0343
2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 2𝜋𝜋(0.0343)
The heat loss is: 𝑞𝑞 ′ = ln(𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
⁄𝑟𝑟 )
(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇0 ) = (120 − 35) = 100 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚
𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖 ln(0.06⁄0.05)

2. With fiber-glass insulation:

′ 𝑘𝑘 0.038
The heat loss through the shield is now done by conduc�on: 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑞𝑞 ′ 𝑘𝑘 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 100 �0.0343� = 111 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Note: Although there is slightly more heat loss by conduc�on through the insula�on than by free
convec�on across the air space, the total heat loss across the air space may exceed that through the
insula�on because of the effects of radia�on. The heat loss due to radia�on may be minimized by using a
radia�on shield of low emissivity, and the means for calcula�ng the loss will be developed in later chapter.

Example 8.8
A heated plate, 20 by 20 cm, is inclined at an angle of 60° with the horizontal (see figure) and placed in
water. A constant-heat-flux condi�on prevails with a surface plate temperature of 40°C. The water
temperature is 20°C. Calculate the heat lost by the plate for 2 condi�ons:
a) The heated surface facing downward as shown
b) The heated surface facing upward as shown
Solu�on:
Proper�es evalua�on:
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞
At 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 + = 40 − 0.25(40 − 20) = 35℃ = 308 𝑘𝑘: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.626, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 4.90, 𝜈𝜈 = 7.25 × 10−7
4
4
 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ 40−20
At 𝑇𝑇� = 𝑇𝑇∞ + = 20 + = 30 = 303 𝐾𝐾: 𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 341.6 × 10−6 𝐾𝐾 −1
2 2
a) The heated surface facing downward → 𝜃𝜃 = +30°
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝑥𝑥 3 9.81�341.6×10−6 �(20)(0.2)3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = (4.90) = 5.0 × 109
𝜈𝜈 2 (7.25×10−7 )2
θ
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 5.0 × 109 cos 30 = 4.33 × 109
60°
1
Use ����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 0.56(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃) 4 since 𝜃𝜃 < 88° & 105 < 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃 < 1011
����𝐿𝐿 = 0.56(4.33 × 109 )1/4 = 143.65 = ℎ𝐿𝐿 → ℎ = 143.65×0.626 = 449.63 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 ℃
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑘𝑘 0.2
The heat transfer: 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = 449.63(0.2 × 0.2)(40 − 20) = 360.0 𝑊𝑊
b) The heated surface facing upward → 𝜃𝜃 = −30°
����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 0.14�(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 )1/3 − (𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 )1/3 � + 0.56(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃)1⁄4
From table 7.3, @ 𝜃𝜃 = −30° → 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 = 2 × 109
θ
����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 0.14�(5.0 × 109 )1/3 − (2 × 109 × 4.9)1/3 � + 0.56(4.33 × 109 )1⁄4 = 83.45
60°
83.45×0.626 2
ℎ= 0.2
= 261.2 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚 ℃

The heat transfer: 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) = 261.2(0.2 × 0.2)(40 − 20) = 209.0 𝑊𝑊. What do you conclude?

Example 8.9
A solar water heater consists of a flat-plate collector coupled to a storage tank. The collector consists of a
transparent cover plate and an absorber plate that are separated by an air gap.
Although much of the solar energy collected by the absorber plate is transferred to a working fluid passing
through a coiled tube brazed to the back of the absorber, some of the energy is lost by free convec�on and
net radia�on transfer across the air gap. The contribu�on of radia�on exchange is neglected. For now, we
restrict our aten�on to the free convec�on effect.
1. Consider a collector that is inclined at an angle of
𝜃𝜃 = 60° and has dimensions of H = w = 2 m on a side,
with an air gap of L = 30 mm. If the absorber and
cover plates are at T1 = 70°C and T2 = 30°C,
respec�vely, what is the rate of heat transfer by free
convec�on from the absorber plate?
2. The heat loss by free convection depends on the
spacing between the plates. Compute and plot the
heat loss as a function of spacing for 5 ≤ L ≤ 50 mm. Is there an optimum spacing?
Solu�on:
1
Proper�es for air at 𝑇𝑇� = 2 (𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 ) = 323 𝐾𝐾: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.028,
𝜈𝜈 = 18.2 × 10−6 , 𝛼𝛼 = 25.9 × 10−6 , 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.70, 𝛽𝛽 = 0.0031.
𝐻𝐻 2
1. Since 𝐿𝐿 = 0.03 = 66.7 > 12 → 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜃𝜃 ∗ . Thus, use:
����𝐿𝐿 = 1 + 1.44(𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 where for 𝐿𝐿 = 30 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚:
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )𝐿𝐿3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 6.96 × 104
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

5
 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝐿𝐿,𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 6.96 × 104 cos 60 = 3.48 × 104
1708 1708(sin 1.8𝜃𝜃)1.6 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜃𝜃 1/3
𝐴𝐴 = 1 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0.95092, 𝐵𝐵 = 1 − = 0.9547 , 𝐶𝐶 = �� � − 1� = 0.814
𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜃𝜃 5830
𝑘𝑘 𝑊𝑊
Hence, ����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 3.12 → ℎ = 𝐿𝐿 ����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 2.91 𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾.
Therefore, 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝐴𝐴∆𝑇𝑇 = 2.91 × 4 × 40℃ = 466 𝑊𝑊
2. Do it on your own.

Problem 8.10 Glass cover

Tg = 43°C
A solar collector consists of a horizontal aluminum tube having an outer
diameter of 5 cm enclosed in a concentric thin glass tube of 10-cm-diameter.
Water is heated as it flows through the tube, and the annular space between 21 °C
the aluminum and the glass tubes is filled with air at 1 atm. The pump 10 cm
circula�ng the water fails during a clear day, and the water temperature in
the tube starts rising. The surface glass temperature is 43°C. The ambient air
is at 21°C. Neglec�ng any heat loss by radia�on, determine the temperature
Aluminum tube
of the aluminum tube when steady opera�on is established (when the rate Water
of heat loss from the tube equals the amount of solar energy gained by the tube).
Solu�on:
We have a horizontal cylindrical enclosure filled with air at 1 atm pressure. The problem involves heat
transfer from the aluminum tube to the glass cover and from the outer surface of the glass cover to the
surrounding ambient air.
When steady opera�on is reached, these two heat transfer rates must equal the rate of heat gain. That is,
𝑄𝑄̇𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
• 𝑄𝑄̇𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the natural convection heat transfer rate from the glass cover to the ambient air,
given by 𝑄𝑄̇𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑜𝑜 = ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 (𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) where properties of air are evaluated at
1
𝑇𝑇� = 2 �𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 � = 32℃ = 305 𝐾𝐾: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.0266 W⁄m . ℃, 𝜈𝜈 = 16.45 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠,
𝛼𝛼 = 23.11 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.713, and 𝛽𝛽 = 1/305.
The surface area of the glass cover is 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 = 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿 = 𝜋𝜋(0.1𝑚𝑚)(1𝑚𝑚) = 0.314 𝑚𝑚2
2
1/6
0.387 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷
For isothermal cylinders, using Churchill and Chu correla�on ����
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = �0.60 + 8/27 �
0.559 9/16
�1+� � �
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇∞ )𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜3 9.81×0.00328(43−21)(0.1)3
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = × 0.713 = 1.865 × 106
𝜈𝜈 2 (16.45×10−6 )2
2
1/6
���� = �0.60 +
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
0.387 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷
8/27
𝑘𝑘
���� = 0.0266 × 17.35 = 4.62 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾
� = 17.35 → ℎ𝑜𝑜 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
0.559 9/16 𝑜𝑜 0.1
�1+� � �
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

𝑄𝑄̇𝑜𝑜 = 4.62 × 0.314 × (43 − 21) = 31.88 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚

6
 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘
• Now, 𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 is the heat transfer rate in the gap: 𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = ln(𝐷𝐷 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
⁄𝐷𝐷 )
�𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 � where
𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖
1
properties are evaluated at 𝑇𝑇� = 2 �𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 �. Since "𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 " is unknown (to be determined), assume
1
𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 83℃, and 𝑇𝑇� = 2 (83 + 43) = 336 𝐾𝐾: 𝑘𝑘 = 0.0462 W⁄m . ℃, 𝜈𝜈 = 54.14 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠,
1
𝛼𝛼 = 76.97 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.710, and 𝛽𝛽 = 336.
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )𝐿𝐿3𝑐𝑐 𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 −𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 0.1−0.05
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = where 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = = = 0.025 𝑚𝑚
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 2 2
9.81×(1/336)(83−43)0.0253
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 4379.0
76.97×10−6 ×54.14×10−6
[ln(𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 /𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 )]4 [ln(10/5)]4
The cylinder shape factor is: 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −3/5 −3/5 5
= 5 = 0.1466
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 3 �𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 +𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 � (0.025)3 �(0.05)−3/5 +(0.1)−3/5 �

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 1⁄4 1⁄4

𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.386𝑘𝑘 �0.861+𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃� �𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 �
0.710 1/4
= 0.386 × 0.0462 × �0.861+0.710� (0.1466 × 4379.0 )1/4 = 0.0736 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚 . 𝐾𝐾
2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 2𝜋𝜋×0.0736
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = ln(𝐷𝐷 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
⁄𝐷𝐷 )
(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇0 ) =
ln(10⁄5)
(83 − 43) = 26.7 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚 < 31.88 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚. Thus, the
𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖

assumed "𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 " is low. By trying other values, the tube temperature corresponding to 31.88 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚 is
determined to be 95°C. Therefore, the tube will reach an equilibrium temperature of ∼ 95°C when the
pump fails.