MEE403 – Heat Transfer N.

Zakhia – LAU - SOE – IME Department

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER MODES

Objec�ves
• Defini�ons
• Terminologies
• Modes of heat transfer
• Heat transfer rates.

Defini�ons
Thermal science consists of three major areas:
1. Thermodynamics:
It is the conversion of Heat into Work or vice versa, which can only be analyzed when the proper�es
of end states are known. Thus, it is the study of the change between two equilibrium states.
2. Fluid Mechanics:
It is the study of fluid behavior at rest or in mo�on under the effect of applied forces.
3. Heat Transfer:
It is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference between two loca�ons. Heat transfer
has three modes, namely, conduc�on, convec�on, and radia�on.
Terminologies
• 𝑄𝑄̇ = Heat rate. It is the transfer of thermal energy per unit �me, in W.
• 𝑞𝑞 ′ = Heat rate per unit length, in W/𝑚𝑚
• 𝑞𝑞 ′′ = Heat rate per unit surface area or heat flux, in W/𝑚𝑚2
• 𝑞𝑞 ′′′ = Heat per unit volume, in W/𝑚𝑚3
1. Conduc�on (diffusion) heat transfer – figure 1.1
It is the heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid due to temperature gradient, ∆𝑇𝑇. Heat conduction is
𝑞𝑞�⃗
governed by “Fourier's law” showing that the heat flux, 𝑞𝑞⃗ ′′ , is proportional to ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑞𝑞⃗ ′′ = 𝐴𝐴 �⃗𝑇𝑇
∝∆
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑞𝑞�⃗
Fourier defines 𝑞𝑞⃗ ′′ , in vector form, as: 𝑞𝑞⃗ ′′ = 𝐴𝐴 �⃗𝑇𝑇 ← Fourier’s law
= −𝑘𝑘∆
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

• 𝑞𝑞⃗ ′′ is the heat flux (heat rate per surface area), in 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2
• "𝑘𝑘“ is the thermal conductivity of the material. It describes how fast heat flows
through substance. The higher "𝑘𝑘", the better a substance conducts heat. It is
determined experimentally and depends strongly on "𝑇𝑇" and materials of the
substance. It is expressed in 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚 . 𝐾𝐾. See sample figures below.
• �⃗𝑇𝑇" is the vector temperature gradient, in ℃/𝑚𝑚 or 𝐾𝐾/𝑚𝑚. For instance, in
"∆
�⃗𝑇𝑇 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘�
Cartesian coordinates: ∆ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2 - Thermal conduc�vity of some solids Figure 1.3 - Thermal conduc�vity of some gases

Figure 1.4 - Thermal conduc�vity of some liquids

Refer to Appendix for 𝒌𝒌-values

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2. Convection – figures 1.5 & 1.6
It is the transportation of heat by a fluid due to ∆𝑇𝑇. Usually, heat is transferred from a solid surface to a
moving Fluid. Thus, fluid velocity and temperature distribution in the boundary layer are major variables of
heat convection. The convection heat flux is governed by “Newton’s cooling law”:
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞 ′′ = 𝐴𝐴 ∝ (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) or 𝑞𝑞 ′′ = 𝐴𝐴 = ℎ(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

• ℎ = It is the convection heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient. It is

usually measured experimentally where
ℎ = 𝑓𝑓(𝜇𝜇, 𝑇𝑇∞ , 𝑢𝑢, 𝑘𝑘, 𝐶𝐶, 𝜌𝜌, … ), in 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 . 𝐾𝐾. (See appendix)
• 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = Surface or wall temperature.
• 𝑇𝑇∞ = It is the free stream temperature of the moving fluid. Figure 1.5
Types of heat convection: 2 types
 Free convection: heat transfer due to buoyance force (difference of
densities between 2 locations)
 Forced convection: heat transfer by a fluid driven by a device
(i.e. pump, blower, fan, compressor …).

3. Radia�on heat transfer – figure 1.7 Figure 1.6

The theory of radia�on was first established in 1864 by the physicist James Maxwell,
who postulated that accelerated charges (photons) give rise to electric and
magne�c fields. These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves
(electromagnetic radiation). These waves represent the energy emited as a result
of the changes in the electronic configura�ons of the atoms or molecules.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz experimentally demonstrated the existence of such waves
and showed that all electromagne�c waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum
(𝑐𝑐 = 3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) characterized by: 𝑐𝑐 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 where
𝜆𝜆 ≡ Wavelength, in angstroms (1 Å = 10−8 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) or micrometers (1𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = 10−6 𝑚𝑚).
𝜈𝜈 ≡ Frequency, in Hertz
Figure 1.7 shows the electromagne�c spectrum where we are only interested in the
“Thermal Radiation” por�on where its wavelength ranges from 0.1 → 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇.
This thermal radia�on includes a part of infrared + visible light + a part of
ultraviolet where the visible light (very narrow) ranges from 0.35 to 0.75 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇.
Plank defines the energy of thermal radia�on using his quantum theory as:

𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 where ℎ ≡ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝐽. 𝑠𝑠

Figure 1.7 – Electromagne�c
Spectrum.

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a) Radiation emission: energy emitted from a surface – figure 1.8
• For a blackbody (perfect surface), the emitted flux is governed by Stefan-Boltzman’s law as:
𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏′′ = 𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 = 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4
𝑠𝑠

Ts ≡ Surface temperature, in 𝐾𝐾 𝜎𝜎 ≡ Stefan-Boltzman (5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾 4 )

• For a gray body (real surface), a factor called emissivity "𝜀𝜀", is introduced to take account of the
“gray” nature of the surfaces. This factor relates the radiation of the “gray” surface to that of a
“blackbody” surface. Moreover, not all the radiation leaving one surface will reach the other
surface since electromagnetic radiation travels in straight lines and some will be lost to the
𝑞𝑞
surroundings. Therefore, the emitted flux becomes: 𝑞𝑞 ′′ = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏′′ = 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 where
𝑠𝑠

𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 ≡ Surface emissivity which depends strongly on the surface material. For the same temperature
and wavelength and under the same viewing conditions, it is defined as:
energy radiated from a gray surface
𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 = energy radiated from a blackbody
where (0 ≤ 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 ≤ 1) See Appendix A.

b) Radiation absorption (Irradiation),"𝐺𝐺": radiation absorbed from the surroundings – figure 1.8

It is governed by its absolute value as: 4

𝐺𝐺𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝛼𝛼𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 ′′ = 𝛼𝛼𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝐺𝐺𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≡ Absorbed incident radiation, in 𝑊𝑊

𝐺𝐺 ′′ ≡ Irradiation flux, in 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≡ Surrounding temperature, in 𝐾𝐾 Figure 1.8
𝛼𝛼 ≡ Surface absorptivity (0 ≤ 𝛼𝛼 ≤ 1). It depends on "𝜆𝜆" and surface finishing (see appendix A)
c) Radiation exchange between 2 surfaces
• Radiation exchange between 2 blackbodies:
′′ 4 4)
The net flux exchanged between two perfect surfaces is: 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝜎𝜎(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠2 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠1 > 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠2

• Radiation exchange between 2 gray surfaces:

When radiation is exchanged between surface at T1 which is completely enclosed by a much larger

surface at T2, the net radiant exchange becomes: 𝑞𝑞 = 𝜀𝜀1 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴1 (𝑇𝑇14 − 𝑇𝑇24 ) 𝑇𝑇1 > 𝑇𝑇2

For instance, the net radiant exchange between a surface enclosed inside a room (large enclosure)

is: 𝑞𝑞 = 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

4 )
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 > 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Alternatively, following Newton’s cooling law, 𝑞𝑞 ′′ can be expressed as: 𝑞𝑞 ′′ = ℎ𝑟𝑟 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
where "ℎ𝑟𝑟 " is the radiation heat transfer coefficient, in 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾, given by:
ℎ𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 )
(derived in chapter 8)
Note: when a surface is exposed to convection and radiation, the combined heat flux becomes:
′′
𝑞𝑞 ′′ ′′
𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) + ℎ𝑟𝑟 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠

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 ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Note: if 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 → ′′

𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �� ����
(ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +���
ℎ𝑟𝑟 ) (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ )
Radiation heat-transfer phenomena can be extremely complex.

Illustrative example – figure 1.9:

Consider a plate that is heated as shown. The energy balance at the upper surface is:
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
������𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ��� ��������� ��������
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 → −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� = ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤4 −�𝑇𝑇
�𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
�4�� )
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 Flow, 𝑇𝑇∞

Proper�es tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 –A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 –A.7
Figure 1.9

Summary of heat transfer processes

Mode Mechanism Rate Equa�on, W/m2 Transport property
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Conduc�on Diffusion of energy due to molecular mo�on 𝑞𝑞𝑥𝑥′′ = −𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = thermal conduc�vity, W/m.k
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Diffusion of energy due to molecular mo�on ′′
Convec�on 𝑞𝑞 = ℎ(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ) ℎ = convec�ve heat transfer coef, W/m2.k
plus energy transfer due to bulk mo�on
𝜀𝜀 = surface emissivity
𝜎𝜎 = Stefan-Boltzman coefficient
𝑞𝑞 ′′ = 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4 )
= (5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾 4 )
Radia�on Energy transfer by electromagne�c waves
= ℎ𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
(𝑇𝑇 ℎ𝑟𝑟 = radia�ve heat transfer coef., W/m2.k
= 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )(𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 )

Examples 1.1 & 1.2

End of chapter 1. Introduc�on