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MODELING AND SIMULATION
OF CATALYTIC REACTORS FOR
PETROLEUM REFINING
MODELING AND SIMULATION
OF CATALYTIC REACTORS FOR
PETROLEUM REFINING

JORGE ANCHEYTA

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Ancheyta, Jorge.
Modeling and simulation of catalytic reactors for petroleum refining / Jorge Ancheyta.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-18530-8 (cloth)
1. Catalytic reforming–Simulation methods. I. Title.
TP690.45.A534 2011
665.5′3–dc22
2010030993

Printed in the United States of America

oBook ISBN: 9780470933565

ePDF ISBN: 9780470933558
ePub ISBN: 9781118002162

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

PREFACE ix
ABOUT THE AUTHOR xii

1 PETROLEUM REFINING 1
1.1 Properties of Petroleum, 1
1.2 Assay of Crude Oils, 4
1.3 Separation Processes, 10
1.3.1 Crude Oil Pretreatment: Desalting, 10
1.3.2 Atmospheric Distillation, 12
1.3.3 Vacuum Distillation, 13
1.3.4 Solvent Extraction and Dewaxing, 13
1.3.5 Deasphalting, 14
1.3.6 Other Separation Processes, 15
1.4 Upgrading of Distillates, 17
1.4.1 Catalytic Reforming, 18
1.4.2 Isomerization, 18
1.4.3 Alkylation, 21
1.4.4 Polymerization, 23
1.4.5 Catalytic Hydrotreating, 25
1.4.6 Fluid Catalytic Cracking, 27
1.5 Upgrading of Heavy Feeds, 29
1.5.1 Properties of Heavy Oils, 29
1.5.2 Process Options for Upgrading Heavy Feeds, 31

2 REACTOR MODELING IN THE PETROLEUM

REFINING INDUSTRY 53
2.1 Description of Reactors, 53
2.1.1 Fixed-Bed Reactors, 56
2.1.2 Slurry-Bed Reactors, 62

v
vi CONTENTS

2.2 Deviation from an Ideal Flow Pattern, 63

2.2.1 Ideal Flow Reactors, 63
2.2.2 Intrareactor Temperature Gradients, 66
2.2.3 Intrareactor Mass Gradients, 69
2.2.4 Wetting Effects, 77
2.2.5 Wall Effects, 81
2.3 Kinetic Modeling Approaches, 86
2.3.1 Traditional Lumping, 86
2.3.2 Models Based on Continuous Mixtures, 99
2.3.3 Structure-Oriented Lumping and Single-Event
Models, 101
2.4 Reactor Modeling, 102
2.4.1 Classification and Selection of Reactor Models, 102
2.4.2 Description of Reactor Models, 106
2.4.3 Generalized Reactor Model, 155
2.4.4 Estimation of Model Parameters, 176
References, 188
Nomenclature, 203

3 MODELING OF CATALYTIC HYDROTREATING 211

3.1 The Hydrotreating Process, 211
3.1.1 Characteristics of HDT Reactors, 213
3.1.2 Process Variables, 220
3.1.3 Other Process Aspects, 229
3.2 Fundamentals of Hydrotreating, 241
3.2.1 Chemistry, 241
3.2.2 Thermodynamics, 243
3.2.3 Kinetics, 246
3.2.4 Catalysts, 258
3.3 Reactor Modeling, 261
3.3.1 Effect of Catalyst Particle Shape, 261
3.3.2 Steady-State Simulation, 269
3.3.3 Simulation of a Commercial HDT Reactor with
Quenching, 273
3.3.4 Dynamic Simulation, 283
3.3.5 Simulation of Countercurrent Operation, 293
References, 304
Nomenclature, 308

4 MODELING OF CATALYTIC REFORMING 313

4.1 The Catalytic Reforming Process, 313
4.1.1 Description, 313
4.1.2 Types of Catalytic Reforming Processes, 316
4.1.3 Process Variables, 318
CONTENTS vii

4.2 Fundamentals of Catalytic Reforming, 319

4.2.1 Chemistry, 319
4.2.2 Thermodynamics, 321
4.2.3 Kinetics, 322
4.2.4 Catalysts, 330
4.3 Reactor Modeling, 331
4.3.1 Development of the Kinetic Model, 331
4.3.2 Validation of the Kinetic Model with Bench-Scale Reactor
Experiments, 345
4.3.3 Simulation of Commercial Semiregenerative Reforming
Reactors, 350
4.3.4 Simulation of the Effect of Benzene Precursors in the
Feed, 357
4.3.5 Use of the Model to Predict Other Process Parameters, 361
References, 364
Nomenclature, 366

5 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF FLUIDIZED-BED

CATALYTIC CRACKING CONVERTERS 368
Rafael Maya-Yescas

5.1 Introduction, 370

5.1.1 Description of the Process, 370
5.1.2 Place of the FCC Unit Inside the Refinery, 371
5.1.3 Fractionation of Products and Gas Recovery, 373
5.1.4 Common Yields and Product Quality, 373
5.2 Reaction Mechanism of Catalytic Cracking, 374
5.2.1 Transport Phenomena, Thermodynamic Aspects, and
Reaction Patterns, 374
5.2.2 Lumping of Feedstock and Products, 376
5.2.3 More Detailed Mechanisms, 378
5.3 Simulation to Estimate Kinetic Parameters, 378
5.3.1 Data from Laboratory Reactors, 379
5.3.2 Data from Industrial Operation, 384
5.4 Simulation to Find Controlling Reaction Steps During Catalytic
Cracking, 385
5.5 Simulation of Steady Operation of the Riser Reactor, 387
5.6 Simulation to Scale Up Kinetic Factors, 390
5.7 Simulation of the Regenerator Reactor, 393
5.7.1 Simulation of the Burning of Nonheterogeneous
Coke, 393
5.7.2 Simulation of Side Reactions During the Burning of
Heterogeneous Coke, 402
5.7.3 Simulation of the Energy Balance in the Regenerator, 409
5.8 Modeling the Catalyst Stripper, 410
viii CONTENTS

5.9 Simulation of a Controlled FCC Unit, 411

5.9.1 Mathematical Background, 412
5.9.2 Controllability of the Regenerator, 415
5.9.3 A Technique to Regulate Tregenerator in Partial Combustion
Mode, 423
5.10 Technological Improvements and Modifications, 438
5.10.1 Effect of Feedstock Pretreatment, 438
5.10.2 Pilot-Plant Emulation, 453
5.10.3 The Sulfur Balance, 459
5.11 Conclusions, 466
References, 468
Nomenclature, 472

INDEX 475
PREFACE

The reactor is the heart of a chemical process, and a thorough understanding

of the phenomena occurring during the transformation of reactants into the
desired products is of vital importance for the development and optimization
of the process. Particularly in the petroleum refining industry, in which apart
from the reactors, other operations (separations, heating, cooling, pumping,
etc.) are carried out in series or in parallel and each plant is connected with
others, improper design and operation of reactors can cause shutdown of a
plant or, even worse, of the entire refinery, with the consequent loss in produc-
tion and income. It is thus essential to have a thorough knowledge of the
fundamental equations critical to chemical reactor design, such as reactor
sizing and optimal operating conditions.
The reactors used during petroleum refining are among the most complex
and difficult to model and design. The composition and properties of the
various petroleum fractions that are converted in reactors is such that the
reaction system can involve various phases, catalysts, reactor configuration,
continuous catalyst addition, and so on, making the development of a model
a challenging task. In addition, the presence of hundreds of components under-
going different reaction pathways and competing for the active sites of cata-
lysts, contributes to increasing the complexity of the formulation of the kinetics
and reactor models.
Over the years, many excellent textbooks have been published dealing with
various aspects of reactors: chemical reactor design, modeling of chemical
reaction kinetics, reaction mechanisms, chemical reaction engineering, scale-
up, and so on. The level of sophistication in each book varies from academic
reactions (e.g., A → B), represented by simple kinetic models (e.g., the power-
law model, −rA = kC An ) and using integrated equations for the design of ideal
reactors (e.g., PFR, CSTR), to complex catalytic reaction systems employing
a set of differential equations to solve for mass and energy balances. However,

ix
x PREFACE

detailed descriptions of the various reactor models, reaction kinetics, and real
examples of the application of these models for the simulation of experimental
reaction units and commercial plants have not previously been treated in
detail. Moreover, most books do not discuss the modeling of the reactors that
are typically used during the conversion of oil distillates in the petroleum
refining industry, and do not describe reactor models in an uncluttered or
thorough manner.
Modeling and Simulation of Catalytic Reactors for Petroleum Refining is
designed to give an up-to-date treatment of all the important aspects of reactor
modeling, with particular emphasis on reactors employed in the petroleum
refining industry. We explain and analyze approaches to modeling catalytic
reactors for steady-state and dynamic simulations and discuss such aspects as
thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, process variables, process schemes, and
reactor design. To validate the models developed, experimental data obtained
directly from laboratory and commercial plants are used. Our goal is that the
book will become an essential reference for chemical and process engineers,
computational chemists and modelers, catalysis researchers, and professionals
in the petroleum industry, as well for use as a textbook either for full courses
in chemical reaction engineering or as a supplement to related courses.
The book is organized in five chapters, each with individual reference and
nomenclature sections. About 500 references are cited and discussed, covering
most of the published literature regarding the modeling of reactors used in
the petroleum refinery industry. Chapter 1 provides an in-depth introduction
to topics related to petroleum refining, such as petroleum properties, separa-
tion processes, upgrading of distillates, and upgrading of heavy feeds. A brief
description of all the conversion and separation processes is given in this
chapter. Detailed experimental data on light, medium, and heavy crude oil
assays are also provided.
General aspects of reactor modeling in the petroleum refining industry are
treated in Chapter 2. The emphasis is on reactors, deviations from ideal flow
patterns, kinetic modeling approaches, estimation of model parameters, and
classification and description of reactor models. The fundamental equations
are given for each reactor model, together with their advantages and disad-
vantages. A generalized reactor model is proposed from which each previously
reported reactor model can easily be derived.
Chapter 3 is devoted to the modeling of catalytic hydrotreating reactors.
The most important features of this type of reactor are highlighted in the first
sections, such as the characteristics and classification of hydrotreating reactors,
process variables, other process aspects (quench systems, reactor internals),
and fundamentals of hydrotreating (chemistry, thermodynamics, kinetics, and
catalysts). The final section covers hydrotreating reactor modeling, with exam-
ples of the modeling and simulation of reactors operating with catalysts of
different particle shapes, steady-state operation, hydrotreating reactors with
quenching, dynamic simulation, and co-current and countercurrent operations
for both laboratory and commercial reactors.
PREFACE xi

The modeling of catalytic reforming reactors is the subject of Chapter 4.

The description and types of processes, process variables, and fundamentals of
catalytic reforming are described at the beginning of the chapter, followed by
a section on reactor modeling in which the development of a kinetic reforming
model is reported. Validation of the model developed, with bench-scale iso-
thermal reactor experiments and simulation of commercial semiregenerative
reforming reactors, is discussed. The effect of benzene precursors in the feed
in both laboratory and commercial reactors is also simulated, and use of the
reactor model to predict other process parameters is highlighted.
In Chapter 5, Dr. Maya-Yescas describes the modeling and simulation of
the fluid catalytic cracking reactor. Descriptions of the process, reaction mech-
anism, transport phenomena, thermodynamics, and kinetics are provided in
the initial sections. Simulations used to estimate kinetic parameters from labo-
ratory and commercial reactors, to determine the controlling reaction steps, of
steady-state operation, of scale-up kinetic factors, of the regenerator reactor,
of burning nonheterogeneous coke, of side reactions during the burning of
heterogeneous coke, and of the energy balance in the regenerator are dis-
cussed in detail. Other sections deal with modeling a catalyst stripper, simula-
tion of the controlled unit, pilot-plant emulation, and industrial plant
emulation.
Detailed experimental data and comparisons with reactor model predic-
tions are provided in each chapter. Also, all data and parameters required to
build up each reactor and kinetic model are detailed, so that readers can adapt
their own computer programs for use in reactor simulation, optimization, and
design purposes.
It is our intention that Modeling and Simulation of Catalytic Reactors for
Petroleum Refining will quickly become a leading book in this field through
its emphasis on detailed descriptions of catalytic reactor modeling used in the
petroleum refining industry, its use of laboratory and commercial data for
model validations, the details provided of results of simulations in steady-state
and dynamic operations, and in general its focus on more practical issues
regarding reactor modeling than have been available in previous textbooks on
chemical reactor engineering.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like especially to acknowledge Dr. Rafael Maya-Yescas, Professor of

Chemical Reaction Engineering. Universidad Michoacana de Nicolás de
Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, México, who kindly agreed to write Chapter 5.
I also thank all the M.Sc., Ph.D., and postdoctoral students who over a period
of many years have contributed enormously to the preparation of this book.

JORGE ANCHEYTA
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Jorge Ancheyta, holds a bachelor’s degree in petrochemical engineering

(1989), a master’s degree in chemical engineering (1993), and a master’s degree
in administration, planning, and economics of hydrocarbons (1997) from the
National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico. He split his Ph.D. between the
Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico and the Imperial College
London (1998), and was awarded a postdoctoral fellowship in the Laboratory
of Catalytic Process Engineering of the CPE-CNRS in Lyon, France (1999).
He has also been a visiting professor at the Laboratoire de Catalyse et
Spectrochimie, Université de Caen, France (2008, 2009, 2010), and Imperial
College London (2009).
Dr. Ancheyta has worked for the Mexican Institute of Petroleum (IMP) since
1989, where his present position is project leader of research and development.
He has also worked as a professor on the undergraduate and postgraduate
levels at the School of Chemical Engineering and Extractive Industries at the
National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico since 1992 and for the IMP postgradu-
ate program since 2003. He has supervised about 100 B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D.
theses as well as a number of postdoctoral and sabbatical-year professors.
Dr. Ancheyta has worked on the development and application of petroleum
refining catalysts, kinetic and reactor models, and process technologies, primar-
ily in catalytic cracking, catalytic reforming, middle distillate hydrotreating,
and heavy oils upgrading. He is the author or co-author of a number of patents,
books, and about 200 scientific papers, and has been awarded the highest dis-
tinction (level III) as a national researcher by the Mexican government and
is a member of the Mexican Academy of Science. He has also been guest editor
of various international journals: Catalysis Today, Petroleum Science and
Technology, Industrial Engineering Chemistry Research, Energy and Fuels,
Chemical Engineering Communications, and Fuel. Dr. Ancheyta has also
chaired numerous international conferences and is a member of the scientific
boards of various prestigious journals.

xii
1
PETROLEUM REFINING

1.1 PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM

Petroleum is the most important substance consumed in modern society. It

provides not only fuel and energy for transportation but is also used in plastics,
paint, fertilizer, insecticide, medicine, and elsewhere. The exact composition of
petroleum varies widely from source to source, but the percentage of chemical
elements changes over fairly narrow limits. Hydrogen and carbon are the
major components, and sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and metals are present in
relatively lower quantities (Table 1.1). Usually, petroleum or crude oil comes
from deep underground, where the vestiges of plants and animals from mil-
lions of years ago have been heated and pressurized over time. It is blackish
in color and has a characteristic odor that comes from the presence of small
amounts of chemical compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, and metals.
The change in crude oil quality around the world (e.g., heavy petroleum
production has been increased in recent years) has obliged crude oil refiners
to reconfigure current refineries and to design new refineries specifically to
process heavier feedstocks (i.e., blends of various crude oils with elevated
amount of heavy petroleum). These new feeds are characterized by high
amounts of impurities (sulfur, metals, nitrogen, asphaltenes) and low distillate
yields, which make them more difficult than light crude oils to process.
Comparisons of some properties of various crude oils are presented in
Tables 1.2 and 1.3. It is clear that light and heavy crude oils have remarkable
Modeling and Simulation of Catalytic Reactors for Petroleum Refining, First Edition.
Jorge Ancheyta.
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1
2 PETROLEUM REFINING

TABLE 1.1. Typical Elemental Composition

of Petroleum
Element Weight Percentage
C 84–87
H 11–14
O 0.1–0.5
N 0.1–2
S 0.5–6
Metals 0–0.1

TABLE 1.2. Range of Properties of Various Types of Petroleum

Extra-light Light Crude Heavy Extra-Heavy
Crude Oil Oil Crude Oil Crude Oil
API gravity >50 22–32 10–22 <10
Hydrocarbons (wt%)
Asphaltenes 0–<2 <0.1–12 11–25 15–40
Resins 0.05–3 3–22 14–39
Oils — 67–97 24–64
Impurities (wt%)
Total sulfur 0.02–0.2 0.05–4.0 0.1–5.0 0.8–6.0
Total nitrogen 0.0–0.01 0.02–0.5 0.2–0.8 0.1–1.3
Ni + V (wppm) <10 10–200 50–500 200–600

TABLE 1.3. Properties of Various Crude Oils

Crude Oil Lagrave Isthmus Maya Lloyminster Athabasca
Country France Mexico Mexico Canada Canada
API gravity 43 33.34 21.31 15.0 8.0
Sulfur (wt%) — 1.46 3.57 — 1.25
Nitrogen (wt%) — 0.1467 0.32 4.30 7.95
Insolubles in nC7 (wt%) 4 1.65 11.32 12.9 15.0

differences. Heavy petroleum is characterized by low API gravity, large

amounts of impurities, and low distillates yields; light petroleum is of much
better quality. In general, the lower the API gravity (i.e., the heavier the crude
oil), the higher the impurities content and the lower the distillates yield. Such
properties make processing of heavy petroleum different from that used for
light crude oil refining. In other words, a refinery capable of processing light
petroleum cannot, without changes in some units or even complete reconfigu-
ration, be employed to process 100% heavy petroleum.
PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 3

TABLE 1.4. SARA Analysis and Physical Properties of Petroleum

Physical Properties
Non-polar Low density Low aromaticity

Saturates M
a
l
Aromatics t
e
n
Resins e
s

Asphaltenes
Most polar High density High aromaticity

In general, light crude oil is rich in light distillates, and heavy crude oil, in
residuum. However, the petroleum composition may vary with its API gravity
and origin. Physical properties and exact chemical composition of crude oil
also vary from one source to another. As a guide to chemical composition,
Table 1.4 provides qualitative data on saturate, aromatic, resin and asphaltene
(SARA) contents in the heavy fractions present in various crude oils. The most
complex impurity of petroleum is asphaltene, which consists of condensed
polynuclear aromatics containing small amounts of heteroatoms (S, N, O) and
traces of nickel and vanadium. Asphaltenes are typically defined as brown and
black powdery material produced by the treatment of petroleum, petroleum
residua, or bituminous materials with a low-boiling liquid hydrocarbon (e.g.,
pentane or heptane); and soluble in benzene (and other aromatic solvents),
carbon disulfide, and chloroform (or other chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents).
Asphaltene molecules are grouped together in systems of up to five or six
sheets, which are surrounded by the maltenes (all those structures different
from asphaltenes that are soluble in n-heptane) and resin.
The properties of petroleum, such as viscosity, density, boiling point, and
color, may vary widely, and the ultimate or elemental analysis varies over a
narrow range for a large number of samples. Metals have a tendency to con-
centrate more in the heavier fraction (asphaltene) than in the saturated and
aromatic fractions. The higher the asphaltene content in crude oil, the higher
the metal content; however, the increase in vanadium concentration is not
proportional to that of nickel. Nitrogen and sulfur can be present in traces in
light petroleum, but with heavier or extra heavy crude oil, the sulfur and
nitrogen contents also increase.
4 PETROLEUM REFINING

1.2 ASSAY OF CRUDE OILS

It is important to determine the physical and chemical characterizations of

crude oil through a crude oil assay, since they are used in different areas in
the petroleum refining industry. The most common applications of petroleum
assays are:

• To provide extensive detailed experimental data for refiners to establish

the compatibility of a crude oil for a particular petroleum refinery
• To anticipate if the crude oil will fulfill the required product yield, quality,
and production
• To determine if during refining the crude oil will meet environmental and
other standards
• To help refiners to make decisions about changes in plant operation,
development of product schedules, and examination of future processing
ventures
• To supply engineering companies with detailed crude oil analyses for
their process design of petroleum refining plants
• To facilitate companies’ crude oil pricing and to negotiate possible penal-
ties due to impurities and other nondesired properties

A crude oil assay is a compilation of laboratory (physical and chemical

properties) and pilot-plant (distillation and product fractionation) data that
characterize a specific crude oil. Assay analyses of whole crude oils are carried
out by combining atmospheric and vacuum distillation units, which when
combined will provide a true boiling-point (TBP) distillation. These batch
distillation methods, although taking between 3 and 5 days, allow the collection
of a sufficient amount of distillation fractions for use in further testing. The
values of the distillation ranges of the distilled fractions are usually defined

TABLE 1.5. Typical Distillation Range of Fractions in

Petroleum Assays
TBP Distillation
Range (°C) Distillate
IBP–71 Light straight-run naphtha
71–177 Medium straight-run naphtha
177–204 Heavy straight-run naphtha
204–274 Jet fuel
274–316 Kerosene
316–343 Straight-run gasoil
343–454 Light vacuum gasoil
454–538 Heavy vacuum gasoil
R 538°C+ Vacuum residue
ASSAY OF CRUDE OILS 5

on the basis of their refinery product classifications. The most common distilla-
tion ranges used in international assays of crude oils are reported in Table 1.5.
There are various types of assays, which vary considerably in the amount
of experimental information determined. Some include yields and properties
of the streams used as feed for catalytic reforming (naphtha) and catalytic
cracking (gas oils). Others give additional details for the potential production
of lubricant oil and/or asphalt. At a minimum, the assay should contain a distil-
lation curve (typically, TBP distillation) for the crude oil and a specific gravity
curve.
The most complete assay includes experimental characterization of the
entire crude oil fraction and various boiling-range fractions. Curves of TBP,
specific gravity, and sulfur content are normal data contained in a well-produced
assay. As an example, assays of various Mexican crude oils are presented in
Table 1.6. The API gravity of these crude oils ranges from 10 to 33°API. API
gravity is a measure of the relative density of a petroleum liquid and the density
of water (i.e., how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water).
Although, mathematically, API gravity has no units, it is always referred to as
being in “degrees.” The correlation between specific gravity (sg) and degrees
API is as follows (the specific gravity and the API gravity are both at 60°F):

141.5
API gravity = °F
− 131.5 (1.1)
sg 60
60° F

Viscosity must be provided at a minimum of three temperatures so that one

can calculate the sample viscosity at other temperatures. The most common
temperatures used to determine viscosity are 15.5, 21.1, and 25°C. If viscosities
of the sample cannot be measured at those temperatures, the sample needs to
be heated and higher temperatures are used, such as in the case of the 10 and
13°API crude oils reported in Table 1.6. Once viscosities at three temperatures
are available, a plot of a double logarithm (log10) of viscosity against the tem-
perature can be constructed, and viscosities at other temperatures can be
obtained easily, as shown in Figure 1.1.
The characterization factor (KUOP or KWatson) of the Mexican crude oils
reported in Table 1.6 ranges from 11.5 to 12.0. The K factor is not determined
experimentally; rather, it is calculated using the following equation (for petro-
leum fractions):

3
MeABP
K= °F
(1.2)
sg 60
60° F

where MeABP (in degrees Rankine) is the mean average boiling point of the
sample calculated with distillation curve data.
In general, if K > 12.5, the sample is predominantly paraffinic in nature,
while K < 10.0 is indicative of highly aromatic material. The characterization
 TABLE 1.6. Assay of Various Mexican Crude Oils
6

Crude Oil
ASTM Method 10°API 13°API Maya Isthmus Olmeca
Specific gravity, 60°F/60°F D-1298 1.0008 0.9801 0.9260 0.8584 0.8315
API gravity D-287 9.89 12.87 21.31 33.34 38.67
Kinematic viscosity (cSt) D-445
At 15.5°C — — 299.2 16.0 5.4
At 21.1°C — — 221.6 12.5 4.6
At 25.0°C — 19,646 181.4 10.3 4.1
At 37.8°C — 5,102 — —
At 54.4°C 7,081 1,235 — —
At 60.0°C 4,426 — — —
At 70.0°C 2,068 — — —
Characterization factor, KUOP UOP-375 11.50 11.60 11.71 11.95 12.00
Pour point (°C) D-97 +12 0 — –33 –39
Ramsbottom carbon (wt%) D-524 20.67 16.06 10.87 4.02 2.10
Conradson carbon (wt%) D-189 20.42 17.94 11.42 4.85 2.76
Water and sediments (vol%) D-4007 1.40 0.10 0.20 <0.05 <0.05
Total sulfur (wt%) D-4294 5.72 5.35 3.57 1.46 0.99
Salt content (PTB) D-3230 744.0 17.7 15.0 4.1 3.9
Hydrogen sulfide (mg/kg) UOP-163 — — — 44 59
Mercaptans (mg/kg) UOP-163 — — — 65 75
Total acid number (mg KOH/g) D-664 0.48 0.34 0.30 0.61 0.46
Total nitrogen (wppm) D4629 5650 4761 3200 1467 737
Basic nitrogen (wppm) UOP-313 1275 1779 748 389 150
nC7 insolubles (wt%) D-3279 25.06 18.03 11.32 1.65 0.68
Toluene insolubles (wt%) D-4055 0.41 0.20 0.11 0.09 0.11
Metals (wppm) Atomic absorption
Nickel 94.2 83.4 53.4 8.9 1.6
Vanadium 494.0 445.0 298.1 37.1 8.0
Total 588.2 528.4 351.5 46.0 9.6
Chloride content (wppm) D-808 86 10 4 10 9
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 COOLING THE When the boiling is completed, the brewer
BREW
again descends to a still lower floor, where we see,
besides many engines, pumps and other gear, a
large black rectangular tank which is placed directly under, and
connected with the boiling-coppers. This is technically called a hop-
retainer or hop-back; the former term undoubtedly more intelligible
than the latter, and certainly more appropriate because the function
of this tank is to check or retain the hops, while the hopped wort,
flowing through open valves in the bottom of the coppers, is being
rapidly pumped back to the top floor, where an expansive iron
receptacle called the cooling-tank, stands ready to receive it. Poor
John Barleycorn! In different conditions he has now made this same
trip up and down for the fourth time, and yet the end of his journey
is still far off. The contrivance which effects the retention of the hops
consists of a perforated false bottom within the hop-back, or, in
other words, of a sieve equally as large as the iron tank into which it
is fitted, and so fixed as to leave between it and the real bottom of
the vessel a sufficient space for the reception of the wort. At this
stage, the head-brewer thinks of but two things, namely, to send his
wort to the cooling-tank as rapidly as possible and to have it reach
its destination clear and brilliant. For the latter purpose he allows the
wort to settle in the hop-back for about twenty minutes; this done,
he adjusts the pumps, sets them in motion, and then ascends to the
top floor to watch the steaming liquid, as it issues from the pipe and,
with a sound between a hiss and a roar, rushes into the tank. If we
wish to form an idea of the shape and dimensions of this cooling-
tank, we must do it now, for in a few moments, as the hot liquid
accumulates, a dense cloud of steam, fraught with the enlivening
aroma of the hops, begins to fill the immense room, rendering
everything indistinct, except when a particularly strong gust of wind
rushes through the wide openings in the lattice-work of the windows
and for a moment lifts the vaporous veil. The shape of this vessel is
that of a gigantic rectangular pan; its depth is three feet; its lateral
dimensions are 30 x 42 feet; its capacity equals that of two of the
three boiling-coppers, each one of which holds three hundred and
seventy-five barrels.
seventy five barrels.
Although he has the most perfect refrigerating apparatus at his
command, our brew-master now evinces considerable anxiety; he is
pretty sure of the usual result of his operations; but he knows
“there’s many a slip between the cup and the lip,” or, rather, between
the cooling-tank and the fermenting tun; and right here appears to
be the only loophole which human ingenuity left to chance. His
object is to reduce the temperature of the liquid and render the wort
properly amenable, in the desired measure, to the action of the
yeast which he will presently add to it, and thus place it in a fair way
for the beginning of fermentation. But unless this is done rapidly, the
wort may turn sour, and besides, many believe that other dangers
usually accompany a protracted exposure of the liquid to the open
air. In many breweries, particularly those situated on depressed
ground, or hedged in by other high buildings, artificial means are
employed to accelerate this first stage of the cooling process.
Cooling is one of the most interesting, as it is one of the most
important, phases of brewing. The manner in which it is
accomplished in model breweries of to-day, impresses us with the
greatness of science and its illimitable resources when pressed into
service of a progressive industry. Formerly, the successful brewer of
lager-beer depended very much upon the climate, the supply of ice
and the chances of securing what the Germans style “Felsenkeller,”
rock cellars; that is, deep caverns hewn into the rocks. The
refrigerators of to-day completely emancipate the brewer from the
thraldom of these contingencies; he can now brew almost anywhere
and everywhere, even in Southern climates. Mild winters and
consequent scarcity of ice have no terrors for him; and if it were not
for his second nature to utilize every natural advantage offered him,
he might get along without any cellars, certainly without
“Felsenkeller.” From the cooling-tank the wort is conveyed through
pipes into a pan, whence it trickles over two refrigerators. These two
refrigerators are on separate floors, one above the other; the one
over which the wort passes first is supplied with water from an
artesian well; the other derives its cooling capacity from a
refrigerating plant, of which we shall presently speak at some
length. Having now reached the temperature most suitable for the
beginning of fermentation, the wort passes directly into the
fermenting tuns.
FERMENTATION Fermentation, artificially induced by the
admixture of yeast, at the rate of about one pound
per barrel, sets in at once and gradually converts the saccharine
principle into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, thus imparting to beer
that quality which places malt liquors in the category of intoxicating
beverages.
While fermentation continues, the same vigilance which prevails
in every part of the brewery, must be constantly exercised. The
conversion of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas should be
gradual, not sudden; hence, when the fermenting process becomes
too rapid, either by reason of defective yeast or on account of the
unsuitable temperature, it must be restrained by means of
attemperators, that is, coils which are placed in the fermenting-tun
and connected with the refrigerating plant.
As in all other operations thus far described, so here, too, the
prolific genius of our age of inventions has placed at the command
of the brewer machineries with which he can regulate the
temperature of these oceans of turbulent, foaming liquids, either by
a light pressure of his hand, by the turning of a small wheel, by
pressing upon a knob, or by such other equally simple manipulation.
In this fermenting room, as well as in the cellars, into which we shall
pass presently, everything assumes Titanic proportions, and the
human beings who move about these places appear like pigmies.
When we see fermenting-tuns holding from three hundred to four
hundred barrels, and settling tuns of the size of an ordinary house,
extending through two stories, and holding seven hundred barrels or
twenty-one thousand seven hundred gallons of beer; and when we
consider that these monster casks, filled with John Barleycorn’s
blood, cover miles upon miles of cellar-room, we begin to realize and
appreciate the power of the engines which are at work in this
brewery.
 As fermentation progresses, workmen are constantly in
attendance to watch the process. On ladders, almost three times the
size of their own bodies, they climb to the top of the tuns to skim
the beer with huge ladles, testing at the same time, by taste and
touch, the condition of the liquid mass, in order to determine when
to draw it off to the resting-tuns.
The transfer of the beer from the fermentation vats to the
resting-tuns and from these to the storage casks is accomplished by
hydraulic and air pressure, and in such a way as to require no other
labor but that of opening or closing valves or depressing levers. As
we descend into the cellars, three stories under the ground, the
temperature becomes more and more stinging, the walls and ceiling
are covered with ice to the depth of from three to five inches, and
every vat and cask is thickly encrusted with frost. In forming an idea
of the capacity of these cellars, we cannot simply depend upon the
number of square feet of ground occupied by them, because both
vats and casks rise to a height almost equal to that of the cellars,
and they vary in capacity from fifty to five hundred barrels. The beer
contained in them would float a fleet, since their aggregate
minimum capacity amounts to 125,000 barrels.
FINAL The last operations to which the beer is
OPERATIONS
subjected are those of cleansing, fining and
krausening. The beer passes from the settling vats
to the storage casks, in which it remains from three to four months,
when, after another winding journey through miles of pipes, it
emerges bright and clear and brilliant, only to be racked, that is to
say, filled into kegs which go to the retailers.
The same continuity of operations which we have witnessed on
the floors above ground, is also observed in the three tiers of cellars,
and the relation between the latter is almost as close as that
between the former. We have already indicated the character of the
connection which exists between the different kinds of tuns, vats
and casks into which the beer is filled at different stages after the
brew is completed. We have seen that fermentation takes place in
open vats, and is regulated by attemperators, fed by the
refrigerating plant and by means of powerful pumps. Formerly,
another means of restraining fermentation, which was applied
manually, was resorted to; it consisted of conical cans, called
swimmers, which the brewer filled with ice and placed in the
fermenting liquid, where they floated about and depressed the
temperature.
When the desired results of fermentation are secured, then, and
not until then, is the wort transformed into beer but before it
becomes fit for consumption, it must rest for a considerable length
of time, to be then transferred to the storage casks, where the
processes of fining and krausening take place. For the former
process, chips or shavings are used, usually those gained from the
beech-tree, by which the muddy particles, resulting from
fermentation and still remaining in the beer, are attracted and held,
leaving the bulk of the liquid clear and translucent. While this is
going on, large quantities of carbonic-acid gas continually escape
from the lager-casks, and, ultimately, in order to re-enliven the
liquid, a second fermentation must be produced by adding one-fifth
of a new beer to four-fifths of the old. This is done by means of
pipes which convey the new beer through two tiers of cellars to the
lager-casks.
Mashed, sparged, boiled, cooled, doubly fermented, clarified and
thoroughly aged, the beer is now ready for racking. This is done by
several gangs of men at the same time. The quantity to be racked
and the capacity of the packages to be filled being known, the
foreman is enabled to determine how many kegs must be held in
readiness. Each “racker” has a given number of kegs before him.
Above a wide board, which runs along the wall, there is a long row
of faucets through which the beer, drawn from the lager-casks, flows
into a detachable hose and thence into the kegs. When one keg is
full, the hose is quickly inserted into another, and, while this is being
filled up, the first is being closed up with a wooden bung tightly
hammered into the bung-hole. In the lower end of the pipes, to
which the faucets are attached, glass tubes are inserted, which
enable the “racker” to discover immediately the slightest change in
the color or clearness of the beer. When such a change occurs, the
stream of beer must be turned off at once, because the presence of
muddy particles indicates that the sediment in the lager-cask has
been reached and is being stirred up.
The kegs are now ready for delivery to the retailer, and pass out
of the proper domain of the brewer, until they are returned empty
and are again conveyed to the wash-house, or, perhaps, if their
condition should require it, to the pitching-yard or to the cooper-
shop—all of which places we shall presently visit on our tour of
inspection.
 CHAPTER IX.
WATER, ICE, STEAM, AND LIGHT
Having witnessed the process of brewing, from the grinding of
the malt to the racking of the beer, we now turn our attention to the
extensive and complicated plant which furnishes this brewery with
water, ice, steam and light. The first inquiry addressed to the brew-
master concerning the water brings on a highly interesting lecture
on the importance of this element in brewing, and the difficulty of
obtaining it in the state best suited for our purpose. True, the water
which gushes from the gneiss-rocks of Manhattan Island, as well as
that which is conveyed to us from afar through the aqueduct, is very
good and wholesome; but it will not bear a comparison with the
water that the Munich brewer receives from the river Isar, nor that
which, ever since the 13th century, has rendered famous the ales of
Burton-on-Trent. The reputation of the Munich beer is quite as old as
that of this English ale, and in both instances popular superstition
attributed the excellent qualities of these beers to secret recipes,
possessed only by the monks who operated the breweries. The real
and only secret, however, was the exceptionally favorable quality of
the water. Our water is not the worst by any means; quite the
contrary, it is, as we have said, good and suitable enough for
brewing; but not a single experienced brewer in our land would dare
to deny that if we had Isar water, our beers would be better than
those of Munich; in fact, even with this difference in the water
operating against us, much American beer is pronounced by
connoisseurs to be superior to the average Munich beer.
In an establishment of the size of the brewery we are describing,
water plays an important part, not only as a component of beer, but
also as an essential agent of cleanliness, motive-power and
temperature. For all these purposes the ordinary supply of water
does not suffice. To cover the deficiency, this brewery has two
sources from which copious supplies are drawn. The one is an
artesian well, which yields, daily, 50,000 gallons of water; the other,
a pumping station on the East River which, during the summer
months, or whenever needed, supplies daily 900,000 gallons of salt
water, used for the condensers of the refrigerating machine. The
artesian well is seven hundred feet deep, drilled through solid rock,
and constructed in the best manner; it is worked by a powerful
duplex pump. The enormous quantities of water flowing into the
brewery, and used for purposes other than brewing proper, supply
eight steam boilers, furnishing steam for fourteen engines of twelve
hundred horse-power; a refrigerating plant, consisting of three
machines, of an aggregate ice-melting capacity of 330 tons; the
different stables, and the wash-houses, where barrels, chips,
wagons, etc., are cleaned.
In describing the different floors on which the processes of
mashing, boiling and cooling are carried on, we noticed the presence
of many large wooden vats full of water. The water in these vats,
used principally for mashing and boiling, receives a preliminary
heating by means of exhaust-steam, which proceeds from the
brewery engines and would be wasted, unless utilized in the manner
indicated. An apparatus, specially designed for this purpose,
conducts the exhaust-steam into coils fixed in the vats; in this
manner the temperature of the water is raised and less heat is
required to bring it to the boiling-point. Ordinarily, these vats are
entirely covered with thickly padded canvas, to the end that the heat
may be more effectually retained. When we consider that the annual
consumption of fuel in this brewery amounts to six thousand tons of
coal, we can readily understand that a waste of heat, in whatever
form, must, in the long run, result in a very considerable pecuniary
loss. In its downward course, from floor to floor, the water used for
the purposes before mentioned, flows through pipes which empty
into the tubs and boilers, and are supplied, at suitable points, with
instruments for gauging quantities and determining temperature. By
means of powerful steam-pumps, the water is pumped from the
Croton main into the vats, where it is heated as described. The vats
on the floor next to the ground-floor furnish warm water for cleaning
the kegs. Thus, the water, too, passes through a series of connected
pipes, vats, tubes and tuns, up and down the entire height of the
building, serving a different purpose at every stage and forming
another circle within a circle.
 REFRIGERATION The refrigerating plant rests upon a massive
foundation; it has three floors, including the
ground floor, and covers twelve thousand five hundred square feet of
the brewery premises. The system of cooling rests upon the
principles first applied to this purpose, in 1849, by Gorrie, but has
been improved upon during the successive stages of its development
to an extent far exceeding the progress of any other scientific
discovery. As applied in this brewery, the system performs its
functions by means of the direct expansion of ammonia in iron
pipes, placed under the ceilings and on the walls of the cellars; a far
more effective and economical method than the system by which the
brine, after being cooled in large tanks, is forced through the cooling
pipes by means of steam pumps. The plant consists of four De La
Vergne machines, each of an ice-melting capacity of 310 tons; these
cool about forty cellars, or an aggregate space of 1,750,000 cubic
feet, and furnish, in addition to this, all the ice-cold water required
for the attemperators in the fermenting tuns, and for the coolers
over which the wort passes when it leaves the cooling-tank, as
explained. To describe the intricate process of cooling is a difficult
task, save on the assumption that the reader fully understands the
principles upon which the system is based. We must take it for
granted that the reader knows that the rapid expansion of a
compressed gas, as well as the volatilization of some liquids, is
invariably followed by a lowering of the temperature, and that by a
proper utilization of this change of temperature intense cold, to
almost any degree below the freezing point, may be produced at
will. The machines invented for this purpose vary considerably, both
in effectiveness and cost, and in almost every country a different
system is in vogue. The best American machines appear to be
compounds of all the virtues and advantages of the most approved
systems now in use; and it is claimed that the De La Vergne
refrigerator yields to none in any respect. The principal parts of this
apparatus are the boilers, expansion cocks, refrigerating coils,
compressors, separating tank and ammonia condensers. The boilers
are placed on the ground-floor, the machines on the next, and the
condensers on the top-floor. Like every other material or agent we
condensers on the top floor. Like every other material or agent we
have thus far described, the ammonia, too, passes through a
number of variously connected circuits, down into tiers upon tiers of
cellars, and up again through the three floors above ground, only to
recommence the same journey and repeat it again and again for the
self-same purpose. The ammonia first goes in a liquid state into the
cellar, where it is distributed by means of expansion cocks into the
refrigerating coils; thence the three machines draw it up in a
gaseous state and compress it. From the compressors, it passes into
a separating tank, and here the oil is eliminated and sent to the oil-
cooler, while the ammonia, still in a gaseous state, ascends to the
ammonia condensers on the top-floor of the building. By the use of
salt water on the outside of these condensers, the ammonia is
reliquified, and in this liquid state again descends to the cellars, as
before described. Still another circle within a greater circle! A
recapitulation of the functions of this refrigerating plant may not be
out of place. It cools 1,750,000 cubic feet of space in cellars;
supplies ice-cold water for the attemperators in fermenting tuns and
reduces the temperature of the wort, as it passes over the cooling
pipes, to 40° Fahrenheit. During the summer months the beer to be
cooled, in the latter manner, amounts on an average to two
thousand barrels, daily—the maximum daily brew being twenty-
seven hundred barrels.[5]
[5] Multiplied by four, these figures give present output.
 THE The steam required in this brewery for all the
STEAM PLANT
operations already described, and others still to be
spoken of, is generated by eight colossal boilers,
each five and a half feet in diameter, and containing fifty-six four-
inch tubes. They are of the horizontal return tubular type, fitted with
patent furnaces and water arches, and rated at 130 horse-power,
each. This boiler plant is really of double the capacity needed, and,
hence, only one-half of the number of boilers is alternately in use,
the other half being provided as a reserve in case of emergencies.
The steam generated in these boilers drives fourteen engines. Of
these, one is used in the machine shop; three serve the purposes of
the refrigerating plant; two are used for the electric-light plant;
three, varying from 100 to 165 horse-power, set in motion the
mashing apparatus, the malt-mill, malt elevators, keg-washing
machines, rotary pumps in cellar, two Otis belt elevators and four
keg elevators. Two of the latter are used for lowering empty kegs
into the cellar, and the other two for raising filled kegs. In addition to
these, there are four more engines, one each for driving a feed-
grinder and fodder-cutter in the stables, a set of revolving and
suspended fans in the office, the cask-rollers in the pitch-yard and
the machine for washing chips.
All these steam motors, as well as the refrigerating machines, are
connected with that system of steam condensation to which we
referred in describing the partial heating of brew-water by means of
exhaust steam. Previous to condensation the exhaust-steam passes
from the engine through an apparatus, called grease extractor, which
eliminates the oil; it is then conveyed to a Gannon surface condenser
and thence returned to the boilers. In this process of condensation a
vacuum of from twenty-five to twenty-six inches is produced by
means of an air-pump. The immense quantity of salt water used
daily for the condensers of ammonia is so profitably utilized in this
manner, that condensation is effected without an extra supply of
water.
 COOPERAGE Cooperage is no longer a handicraft in America;
the inventive genius of our people, to which we
owe the greater part of the progress that has placed us at the head
of civilized nations in point of machine-building, has virtually wiped
out the cooper’s handicraft, and given us, in its stead, a half-dozen
enormous manufacturing establishments, in which nearly all the
barrels required by brewers and distillers are made by machine.
There was a time when nearly every brewer had at least a
smattering of the cooper’s art, and when the cellar men, employed
in breweries, had to produce satisfactory evidence of having passed
through the regular course of training prescribed for apprentices and
journeymen by the ancient and honorable guild of coopers. Although
this is now all changed, yet in so large an establishment as the one
we are describing, the employment of a considerable force of
coopers is indispensable. The large casks and vats, ranging in
capacity from 50 to 800 barrels, which fill the cellars of the brewery,
number about 1,500, and there are about 100,000 packages—i.e.,
barrels of thirty-one gallons, and half, quarter and sixth barrels—in
constant use; and a considerable reserve stored away for
emergencies. The coopers keep an accurate account of these
packages and vessels, examine them from time to time, and make
such repairs as their condition may require.
The pitching of barrels, which serves the two-fold purpose of
facilitating the process of cleaning and preventing the beer from
acquiring a smell of the wood, is performed periodically, with such
methodical regularity that not a single package can escape this fiery
ordeal. The pitching yard, enclosed by a wall, is the scene of this
part of the cooper’s task; here, too, manual labor forms only an
adjunct to steam power. Four large cask-rollers, and many smaller
ones, all driven by a steam engine of ten-horse power, a pitch oven
and a pitch cauldron take the place of the single implements with
which, in former days, the cooper used to perform this work. After
the liquid pitch has been poured into the casks, the latter are placed
upon the moving rollers and continually rotated, by which process
the pitch is evenly spread over the inner surface of the barrels and
kegs.
The manufacture of brewers’ pitch yields a considerable income
to an important industry, and is of no small benefit to the producers
of the raw material. A number of substitutes for pitch have been
offered in the market, and some of them, especially one made of the
residuary substances obtained in the process of refining petroleum,
possess many qualities lacking in pitch; but here the conservative
spirit of the brewers prevails against innovation, for none of the
substances have that peculiar, although exceedingly faint, flavor for
which the ordinary pitch is so highly prized by both the brewer and
the drinker.
All kegs are washed as soon as they return from the retailer, and
the importance which the brewer attaches to this part of his
business may be inferred from the fact that no less than one
hundred barrel-washing machines have been invented—a sure sign
of pressing demand. The machines used for this purpose are of the
very latest pattern, and perform the work of washing and scrubbing
with a thoroughness that leaves nothing to be desired. The kegs are
washed several times, and always with hot water, supplied, as we
have already stated, from one of the vats on the floor above. They
are washed both inside and outside. The operation is entirely
automatic. Although the cleaning of the outside of the barrels is not
essential, great care is, nevertheless, bestowed upon this work,
which is performed by scrubbing-machines. The latter seem to give
much satisfaction, and are, therefore, in general use in all large
breweries.
It is one of the characteristics of the American brewers to
disregard expense, when the quality of their product is at stake, and
can be enhanced by the use of modern appliances; in that case they
give no thought to anything else, but when no such considerations
prevail, they show a remarkably conservative spirit, and prefer to
adhere to old methods, particularly when the use of modern
inventions would necessitate a reduction of the number of workmen.
Cleanliness being a principal condition of the keeping quality of the
beer, the brewer devotes to it all the modern appliances he can
secure. The wash-room, situated on the ground floor of the main
building, has a cemented floor and is bordered with open gutters,
which empty into the sewers. The men employed in it wear heavy
boots, impervious to water, but are otherwise clad in the usual dress
of the “Brauburschen.” In the matter of dress, by the way, the spirit
of our age has wrought many innovations; excepting the blue
blouse, every article of dress that used to distinguish the brewer’s
guild from other handicrafts, has disappeared.
Although but indirectly connected with the cooperage, the
treatment of chips or shavings may as well be disposed of under this
heading. As we have seen, beech shavings are used for the
clarification of the beer while in storage casks, where a second
fermentation takes place. Before being so used, the chips undergo a
thorough process of boiling and washing, which is accomplished by
steam-driven machines of very modern origin. Under favorable
circumstances the chips serve this purpose more than once; but,
when this is the case, they must again be subjected to boiling and
cleaning. In this brewery, beech chips are used exclusively. The
stock on hand at the time of our visit was in keeping with the
enormous quantities of raw material which filled the store-rooms.
 A GREAT In concluding this sketch of a modern brewery,
INDUSTRY
a few words must be said concerning the position
which the brewing industry occupies as one of the
great wealth-producing factors of our nation, and the extent to
which it contributes to the maintenance of other industries. It is
impossible, of course, to search out all those branches of business
which directly or indirectly depend upon brewing, but even an
incomplete statement will serve to dispel many errors which have
been fostered by the enemies of our product. We cannot even
approximately estimate the amount of money paid annually by the
brewers of this country to the masons, machine builders, pump
manufacturers, coopers, lumber dealers, and the manufacturers of
the many instruments and utensils used in brewing; nor can we fully
determine the advantages which agriculture derives from our
industry. Much less can we state, with any degree of accuracy, the
help which other industries receive from the trade generally. But
there are a few items which we can estimate roughly, at least. Thus,
from statistical exhibits, officially published, it appears, that the
brewers of this country pay, annually, for agricultural products about
$180,000,000. The capital invested in breweries, of which 80 per
cent. represents cost of buildings and machineries, is estimated at
$800,000,000. These figures alone suffice to demonstrate the
economic short-sightedness of those persons who advocate the
annihilation of the brewing industry.
The extent to which brewers contributed towards the payment of
the national debt, caused by the war of the rebellion, is eloquently
expressed by the annual reports of the Internal Revenue
Department. Since 1863 and up to 1908, no less than one thousand
one hundred and seventy-eight million dollars have been paid into
the United States Treasury by the brewers of this country.
 CHAPTER X.
AMERICAN HOP CULTURE.
American hop-culture has a great future, in spite of the fact that
it is confined to but few States, as hops will not grow profitably
everywhere.
The climate forbids the profitable growth of hops in all sections
of the United States south of the latitude of New York City,
Cincinnati, and St. Louis. In the Southern climate the hops run too
much to vine, and the fruit fails of its full development. The hop is a
Northern plant, and as far north as Manitoba grows wild and in great
profusion. On the other hand, not every soil will produce the hop in
perfection.
The rich prairie lands of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota
are not favorable to hops, although the climate is propitious. These
soils lack something that is essential to the full development of the
lupulin. The sections where both soil and climate favor the
cultivation of hops are the central and northern counties of New
York; here we have a cool climate and a rich soil, full of all the
elements that go to make fine hops; Washington and Oregon, with a
cool climate, and a soil so deep and rich and virginal that the yield of
hops is exceptionally good, both in quantity and quality; and, lastly,
California, where the hops are raised mostly in the valleys of the
Sacramento and Russian rivers.
Forty years ago Wisconsin raised a crop of about 10,000 bales of
hops, but the hop-louse suddenly cut off the crop, and now not
more than 2,000 bales are raised annually in that State. A few hops
are raised each year in the New England States, where the soil is
generally too poor to make the yield profitable, and a few in
Michigan.
A hop-yard is planted by means of cuttings or “sets,” taken from
the roots of old vines, and set in the ground about seven feet apart
each way, so that there are about 750 hills of hops to an acre. In
New York State the vines from these “sets” produce nothing in the
first year of growth, being allowed to spread on the ground; about
half a crop in the second year, and a full crop in the third year. In
California, Oregon and Washington the “sets” are furnished with
poles the first year, and produce that year about half a crop, and a
full crop the second year. In New York a fair average crop is about
one pound of cured hops to the hill, or 750 pounds to the acre;
while on the Pacific coast two or three, and, not infrequently, four
times that weight is harvested. The hop-yards are generally
equipped with poles about fifteen feet high, upon which the vines
grow spirally upward; sometimes, however, the hop-vines are trained
upon wires, stretched horizontally between stout posts over the rows
of hills, with smaller wires or strings leading up to the horizontal
wires from each hill.
Some hop-yards are furnished with a single pole to a hill, the
poles being from twelve to eighteen feet high, with strings running
obliquely upward from the middle of one pole to the top of its
neighbor. The prettiest hop-yard—that is the one most beautiful at
the time of harvest—is the “tent-yard,” where a straight pole, twenty
feet high, is set in the center of six or seven hills, into which stakes
about five feet high, are placed, and provided with strings leading to
the top of the tall central pole, thus forming a regular tent. These
tent-yards closely resemble a military camp, a fact which gave rise to
the designation, “Camps of King Gambrinus.”
In California, in former years, the hops were largely picked by
Chinamen, but since the labor movement, which culminated in the
exclusion of Chinese immigration, has brought the employment of
such labor into disfavor, the majority of planters hire other help, and
Chinamen are now but rarely seen in the hop-yards.
 In Washington, and to some extent also in Oregon, the hops are
mostly picked by Indians from British Columbia. They cross Puget
Sound in their canoes, bringing all their women and children and all
their household goods along, and go into camp on the borders of the
hop-yards, about the 1st of September of every year. They board
and lodge themselves, and always work “by the piece,” that is to say,
they get a fixed compensation for every box of hops picked by them.
All the Indians have to do, is to pick the hops from the vine, and
they “pick for all they are worth,” most literally; for every cent they
earn, for the whole year in most cases, is earned in the three or four
weeks of the hop-harvest. Every squaw and papoose picks, from
early morning until night, into baskets or shawls, which are emptied
into the box and help to swell the family’s income for the year.
Before the introduction of hops into Washington, about twenty-five
years ago, these Indians did not earn a dollar in money in a year,
but now, at the close of the hop-harvest, a single Indian family
composed of man, wife, and usually several children, will carry home
with them one hundred dollars in cash. The difference to that poor
family, in comfort and civilization, can easily be understood.
 HOP-PICKING We now come to the hop-harvest in the State
IN
NEW YORK
of New York, and here it is in its glory. The great
counties of Otsego, Schoharie, Montgomery,
Herkimer, Oneida, Madison, Onondaga, and Ontario lie along, and
mostly a little south of the Erie Canal and the New York Central
Railroad, between Albany and Rochester, a belt two hundred miles
long and fifty miles wide. Franklin and Lewis counties, along the
Canadian frontier of New York, have also a considerable hop
interest, but for our present purpose we shall confine ourselves to
the region situated in the belt we have mentioned, bounded by
Albany on the East and Rochester on the West, and dotted, along its
whole length of two hundred miles, with the cities of Albany,
Schenectady, Amsterdam, Utica, Rome, Syracuse, Auburn and
Rochester. Towns and villages of from one to two and three
thousand inhabitants, many of them manufacturing towns, and all of
them full of women and children willing to work and eager to
rusticate for a time, are scattered all over the hop-belt; and from
this long line of populous cities, and these thickly settled towns and
villages, come the pickers for the hop-harvest. On or about the first
day of September, they come with a rush, and usually find a demand
equal to the supply. For weeks the hop-grower’s good wife has been
preparing for them; beds, rough, but comfortable and clean, are set
up in every building on the farm—in the house for the women and
children, and in the out-buildings (sometimes put up for the
purpose), for the men and boys. Bread is baked by the barrel;
“doughnuts” are fried by the bushel. The farmer has already
engaged his pickers in the neighboring cities or villages, and, on the
appointed day, in they come, some by wagons, sent out the day
before to the city, often twenty miles away, some by special railroad
trains, chartered for the purpose, and some on foot. Whole families
are in the crowd, father, mother and all the children, from the active
boy or girl of fifteen years, who can pick two or three boxes, and
earn a dollar a day, down to the baby whom the mother takes out
into the field and watches while she picks her box, and earns its
clothing for the coming winter.
 These families are frequently those of hard-working mechanics in
the cities, who are glad to give their wives and children an outing in
the fresh air for three or four weeks, and find them all the richer and
happier by reason of the escape from the stony and dirty streets of
their urban home. It is a picnic for the children, and their pranks,
when they first arrive, are a sore trial to the steady farmer and his
wife. But after the first day’s work (from six in the morning until
twelve at noon, and from 12:30 P.M. until six at night) is over, they
are well sobered down for bed, and their surplus energies are
thereafter turned into the channel that leads to the hop-box in the
morning and to bed at night. Many a poor factory girl finds in the
hop-fields the only fresh country air she breathes in the whole year;
and while she is laying in the year’s stock of health, her nimble
fingers are bringing to her more money than the work in the stifling
mill.
To the hop-grower, the harvest, by reason of high prices for
hops, is sometimes very profitable. Sometimes, by reason of low
prices, it is very unsatisfactory. But to the poor families in the
surrounding towns and villages it is always a blessing; for, no matter
whether the price of hops be high or low, the compensation for
picking is always the same. Let us see how it foots up. The hop-crop
of the United States amounts to about 200,000 bales, of 180 pounds
each. It takes fifteen boxes for a bale, and for each box the picker is
paid about fifty cents cash, or its equivalent in cash and board.
Fifteen boxes at fifty cents each makes $7.50; hence, for 200,000
bales the pickers receive about fifteen hundred thousand dollars.
We have taken a round number which does not accurately
represent the actual production for the year 1908, for in that year
the American hop-growers produced about 216,660 bales or
39,000,000 pounds of hops—a comparatively very small quantity; in
fact, 11,000,000 pounds less than in the preceding year and
21,000,000 pounds less than in the year 1906.
There are two reasons for this decrease, viz.: 1. because
between 1901 and 1907 the production of beer increased at an
unusual rate and the growers extended their operations accordingly,
running perhaps a trifle ahead of prospective demand; 2. because as
a result of the panic the production of beer has decreased.
Up to 1899 New York produced the largest quantity of hops;
thereafter Oregon took and maintained first place and from 1902 to
the present time California wrested even second place from New
York, so that in point of production this State now holds the third
place among the four hop-producing States of our country, the
fourth being Washington. Less than one per centum of the total
quantity of hops raised in the United States is produced outside of
these four States in each of which hop-culture is confined to a few
counties. This peculiar localization obtains in all countries, Germany
excepted.
The United States, Germany, Austro-Hungary, Russia and New
Zealand are the only countries which produce more hops than they
consume. The quantity exported from Germany is largest, almost
equal to the exportation from the United States and Austro-Hungary
combined.
For the years 1895 to 1899 the average annual exportation from
the United States amounted to 15,827,630 pounds; and from 1900
to 1904 to 11,863,626 pounds; the average annual imports during
the same periods amounted to 2,414,966, and 3,704,411 pounds,
respectively. In 1906 and 1907 the exportation amounted to
17,701,436 and 16,099,950 pounds, respectively.
The available but unused area of soil suitable for the cultivation
of hops, the fertility of such soil (in the Pacific States), and the
favorable climate secure to American brewing an abundance of
material for all future time, no matter how rapidly and extensively
the industry may develop hereafter. In all likelihood the insignificant
importation of Bohemian and German hops, noted for their superior
quality, will cease entirely within a few years when the laudable
efforts of the United States Agricultural Department to improve and
perfect the quality of the American product shall have accomplished
its purpose.
 CHAPTER XI.
AMERICAN BARLEY.
Although any cereal artificially germinated is termed malt, yet, for
various reasons malt made from barley is meant when no other
designation save this general term is given. In past ages, wheat,
corn and oats were used in brewing quite as frequently as barley,
and there are many statutory evidences, showing that the
governments of the various beer-producing countries forbade the
malting of any grain the production of which was insufficient to
supply the necessary food for the people. The very first beer brewed
in New York by the Dutch colonists, was made of oats, there being
an abundance of that grain on Manhattan Island. The Puritans of
New England, on the other hand, seem to have malted wheat in
great quantities, as appears from an order of the General Court of
Massachusetts Bay, forbidding the use of that grain, but permitting
the malting of oats or other cereals. At the present time the use of
barley is pretty general. The quantity of barley produced throughout
the world eludes exact computation, however, because this grain is
grown in every zone and in many semi-barbarous countries, where
the collection of agricultural statistics is unknown. In regard to hops,
the case is different, for that plant is cultivated exclusively for use in
breweries, and its cultivation moves within clearly defined
geographical limits. Barley serves largely as food; in some countries
bread is made of it, to the almost entire exclusion of other grain, and
its use in cookery prevails in all countries.
In view of these facts, we can only take into consideration the
consumption of barley in the form of malt. The data here offered will
be better understood, if it be borne in mind that all light beers of
that peculiarly vinous taste which has of late become somewhat
popular, are made of malt and rice or corn, as in the case of the
excellent Pilsen brands. The prevailing taste, however, still calls for a
brewage of a deep reddish-brown color, peculiar to heavily malted
beers. This question may as well be dropped, it being one of taste,
about which, according to an old proverb, there can be no conclusive
arguments.
The production of barley in the United States expands
continually, and the repeated increases of the protective duty on the
foreign product—pointedly aimed at the Canadian barley—have
doubtless given additional impetus to this growth. Necessarily, the
business of malting has kept pace with the rapid development of
brewing, and one of the inevitable results of the suddenly enlarged
demands was the establishment of many separate malt-houses,
fitted up with all modern improvements. This progress, in turn, led,
in a very large measure, to the discontinuance of malting by
brewers. At the present time, a comparatively small number of
brewers malt their own barley, it being more profitable and, usually,
more satisfactory to draw on the maltster for the requisite supplies.
 SPECIES OF Concerning the manufacture of malt, we have
BARLEY
already said what might appear to be of interest to
the reader. The successful pursuit of it requires not
only great skill in the handling of the grain while undergoing the
interesting process of artificial germination, but also much
experience and practice in the selection of the material. There are
many species of barley, distinguished from each other by, and
named according to, the number of rows which form the ear; thus
we have two-rowed, four-rowed and six-rowed barley. Of these and
other species a number of varieties exist, and the quality of all varies
very materially, according to the character of the soil. In making his
purchases the maltster must be able, of course, to determine
whether the grain is of the kind that will yield good beer. Sight,
touch and taste aid him in this, and enable him to make sure that
the grain is fully ripe, of the last harvest, not too hard and smooth,
nor excessively husky; but whether it contains the nitrogenous
compounds, starch, salts, etc., in the desirable proportions, he is
unable to determine, unless he knows the soil where the barley grew
and has tested its qualities before. Given good raw material, the
maltster’s success depends upon his care and vigilance in preparing
for, continuing and interrupting germination at the proper time, and
in judiciously handling the grain after these stages. The process
begins with steeping and ends with kiln-drying, and its object, as we
have already said, is the conversion of starch into sugar. Within the
past twenty-five years innumerable inventions have completely
revolutionized the old methods of the maltster and placed this
manufacture among the most advanced industries. From present
indications it appears that the future of malting belongs to the
pneumatic process, which is already employed in some of the largest
establishments.
Statistical exhibits show that the consumption of malt in our
country is proportionately as large as that of most beer-producing
countries; and, necessarily, the cultivation of barley in the United
States is in proportion thereto. We have this advantage over
England, that we need not draw upon foreign countries for any part
of our supply of barley, except when a particularly fine grade of grain
is desired, such, for instance, as our neighbors on the St. Lawrence
raise. In case of necessity, we might do without any foreign barley;
England, on the other hand, imports large quantities from Russia,
Austria, and the States on the North coast of Africa, and is
dependent upon these foreign supplies, added to what they obtain
here.
As in the case of hops, so also in regard to barley, the American
industry might rely entirely upon domestic production, and, in fact,
for all practical purposes it is wholly independent of foreign sources
of supply. It has become so from necessity, not from choice, for
many brewers still consider Canadian barley superior to our own,
and would, without a doubt, were it not for the prohibitive duty,
import considerable quantities of it and of malt. As matters stand,
however, the importation of malt has ceased almost entirely and the
importation of barley, bears to our exports the proportion of about
one to one hundred. The following figures state the case clearly:

Exportation of Importation of
Ten Years.
Barley. Barley.
1899 to 1908 101,226,243 bushels 1,012,941 bushels

The aggregate quantities of malt imported during the same

decade amounted to 34,658 bushels.
About three-fourths of the quantity of barley and an even larger
proportion of hops exported from our country find a ready market in
Great Britain and Ireland.
 THE UNIVERSAL The phenomenal growth of brewing throughout
DRINK OF
THE FUTURE
the world during the past fifty years has given rise
to many speculations as to the future of malt
liquors, and many very able writers do not hesitate to call beer the
universal drink of the future. Formerly confined to about four great
States, the use of malt liquors is now known in every civilized land;
and even in Southern countries, where the grape-vine abounds, beer
is gradually superseding every other beverage. In France, a wine-
country without equal, the most eminent scientists advocate the use
of beer in preference to any other liquor. Spain, Italy, and even
China and Japan, are now being invaded by King Gambrinus, and it
is, indeed, only a question of time when beer shall be, as
prophesied, the universal drink. The literature, in languages other
than English and German, on the subject of beer, proves conclusively
that the best minds regard it as a worthy undertaking to write on a
question which materially affects the welfare of the people. A story
is told of a band of young heathens, whom the Japanese
Government sent to Germany to learn the art of brewing, which has
since been introduced into that country. When the young men
returned, muscular, yet rotund, with a healthy glow upon their
cheeks, and elasticity and strength in all their movements, the
ministers were so strongly impressed with the vitalizing effects of
beer, that they ordered a merchantman to proceed to Germany, load
up with beer, and return poste-haste to Japan. The result of this
expedition is said to have accelerated the establishment of the first
brewery in the Mikado’s realm.
The most remarkable part of this progress of brewing is, that in
many instances, as, for example, in France, it was effected in spite
of the popular clamor against the Teutonic drink; and still more
remarkable is it that those who began by opposing its use most
bitterly, ended by advocating it most fervently.