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 COMPUTER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
SEARCH ALGORITHMS

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rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.
COMPUTER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY
AND APPLICATIONS

Additional books and e-books in this series can be found

on Nova’s website under the Series tab.
COMPUTER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
SEARCH ALGORITHMS

ROBERT A. BOHM
EDITOR
Copyright © 2021 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Chapter 1 The Fundamentals of Heuristic Local Search
Algorithms for the Traveling Salesman Problem 1
Weiqi Li
Chapter 2 Biometric Data Search Algorithm 45
Stella Metodieva Vetova
Chapter 3 Differential Evolution for Solving Continuous
Search Space Problems 75
Omar Andres Carmona Cortes
and Hélder Pereira Borges
Index 99
 PREFACE

Heuristic local search algorithms are used to find “good” solutions to

the NP-hard combinatorial optimization problems that cannot be solved
using analytical methods. Chapter one discusses the characterization and
computation of heuristic local search algorithm for the Traveling Salesman
Problem (TSP) from the perspective of dynamical systems. The purpose of
chapter 2 is to show the practical application of CBIR technology in the
security and protection of personal data, access to classified documents and
objects, identification of illegal attacks that are part of the social life of the
present and future of mankind. Continuous search space problems are
difficult problems to solve because the number of solutions is infinite.
Moreover, the search space gets more complex as we add constraints to the
problem. In this context, chapter 3 aims to show the usage of the differential
evolution algorithm for solving continuous search space problems using
unconstrained functions and a constrained real-world problem.
Chapter 1 - Heuristic local search algorithms are used to find “good”
solutions to the NP-hard combinatorial optimization problems that cannot
be solved using analytical methods. This chapter discusses the
characterization and computation of heuristic local search algorithm for the
Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) from the perspective of dynamical
systems. A heuristic local search system is essentially in the domain of
dynamical systems. Like many other dynamical systems, a local search
viii Robert A. Bohm

system has an attracting property that drives the search trajectories to

converge to a small region, called a solution attractor, in the solution space.
The study of the solution attractor in the solution space can provide the
answer to the question: “Where do the search trajectories go in a heuristic
local search system?” The solution attractor collects all locally optimal
solutions around the globally optimal solutions. This chapter, using the TSP
as the study problem, describes the behavior of search trajectories and
properties of the solution attractor in a local search system. Based on these
properties of the solution attractor, a novel global optimization algorithm –
Attractor-Based Search System (ABSS) – is introduced. This algorithm
provides the answer to the question: “How can we use efficient heuristic
local search for global optimization?” The ABSS combines a local search
process and an exhaustive search procedure. The local search process
constructs the solution attractor of the local search system, and the
exhaustive search procedure identifies the best solutions in the solution
attractor. This chapter describes how the ABSS meets the requirements of
global optimization system. The computational complexity of the ABSS for
the TSP is also discussed.
Chapter 2 - The purpose of the outlined content is to show the practical
application of CBIR technology in the security and protection of personal
data, access to classified documents and objects, identification of illegal
attacks that are part of the social life of the present and future of mankind. It
involves comparison of the disadvantages and advantages of content-based
image retrieval techniques with the use of local and global features in
biometric data. The main idea is to offer the optimal application for security
and protection. In pursuit of this goal, the following tasks are envisaged:
1. Design of algorithms with the use of local characteristics and
2. different similarity distance measures;
3. Design of algorithms with the use of global characteristics using
4. different similarity distance measures;
5. Conducting experimental studies on the algorithms of items 1
and 2;
6. Comparative analysis of the data obtained in item 3.
 Preface ix

Considering this, two algorithms with different similarity distance

measures were developed using the two techniques, and in this case
Hausdorff distance and Euclidean distance were chosen as distance metrics.
For the representation of a two-dimensional signal through its feature
vectors, the decomposition of the signal to approximate and detailed
coefficients by the 2D Dual - Tree Complex Wavelet Transform was used.
The concept of this process is described visually by graphic illustrations,
diagrams, images and analyzes. Also, a description of the research
methodology, test databases and used software is included. To evaluate the
effectiveness of the designed algorithms according to both techniques, test
studies were conducted to evaluate the accuracy of the extracted result, the
retrieval time, the number of retrieved images. The results are presented
graphically, in tables and by image. At the end of the chapter, a comparative
analysis between the algorithms is made on the base of the results obtained,
which shows the advantages and disadvantages of both techniques and their
application in the recognition of biometric data.
Chapter 3 - Continuous search space problems are difficult problems to
solve because the number of solutions is infinite. Moreover, the search space
gets more complex as we add constraints to the problem. In this context, this
chapter aims to show the usage of the differential evolution algorithm for
solving continuous search space problems using unconstrained functions
and a constrained real-world problem. Six different mutation strategies were
implemented: /DE/Rand/01, /DE/Best/01, /DE/Rand/02, /DE/Best/02,
/DE/Rand-to-Best/01, and /DE/Rand-to-Best/02. These strategies were
tested in five unconstrained continuous benchmark functions with different
features and complexity of search space: Rosenbrock, Sphere, Schwefel,
Rastrigin, and Griewank. Also, a problem called the economic dispatch
problem, whose system comprises 40 generators, was optimized. To
compare the strategies, we used a Kruskal-Wallis H-Test. Then we used the
pairwise Wilcox test to discover where the differences are. Results have
shown that strategies /DE/Best/01 and /DE/Rand-to-Best/01 tend to present
the best outcomes. While in the economic dispatch problem, the winner
strategy varies as we increase the number of iterations, probably because
eventually all strategies can reach a good solution.
In: The Fundamentals of Search Algorithms ISBN: 978-1-53619-007-6
Editor: Robert A. Bohm © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF HEURISTIC

LOCAL SEARCH ALGORITHMS FOR
THE TRAVELING SALESMAN PROBLEM

Weiqi Li*
School of Management, University of Michigan-Flint,
Michigan, Flint, US

ABSTRACT

Heuristic local search algorithms are used to find “good” solutions to

the NP-hard combinatorial optimization problems that cannot be solved
using analytical methods. This chapter discusses the characterization and
computation of heuristic local search algorithm for the Traveling Salesman
Problem (TSP) from the perspective of dynamical systems. A heuristic
local search system is essentially in the domain of dynamical systems. Like
many other dynamical systems, a local search system has an attracting
property that drives the search trajectories to converge to a small region,
called a solution attractor, in the solution space. The study of the solution
attractor in the solution space can provide the answer to the question:
“Where do the search trajectories go in a heuristic local search system?”

*
Corresponding Author’s Email:[email protected].
2 Weiqi Li

The solution attractor collects all locally optimal solutions around the
globally optimal solutions. This chapter, using the TSP as the study
problem, describes the behavior of search trajectories and properties of the
solution attractor in a local search system. Based on these properties of the
solution attractor, a novel global optimization algorithm – Attractor-Based
Search System (ABSS) – is introduced. This algorithm provides the answer
to the question: “How can we use efficient heuristic local search for global
optimization?” The ABSS combines a local search process and an
exhaustive search procedure. The local search process constructs the
solution attractor of the local search system, and the exhaustive search
procedure identifies the best solutions in the solution attractor. This chapter
describes how the ABSS meets the requirements of global optimization
system. The computational complexity of the ABSS for the TSP is also
discussed.

Keywords: traveling salesman problem, combinatorial optimization,

heuristic local search, global optimization, computational complexity,
multimodal optimization, dynamical systems, solution attractor

1. INTRODUCTION

Optimization has been a fundamental tool in all scientific and

engineering areas. The goal of optimization is to find the absolutely best set
of admissible conditions to achieve our objective in our decision-making
process. Researchers have developed many optimization algorithms to solve
hard optimization problems. Deterministic approaches such as exhaustive
enumeration and branch-and-bound can find exact optimal solutions, but
they are very expensive from the computational point of view. The NP-
hardness and intractability of many combinatorial optimization problems
have led people to employ heuristic local search algorithms and other
stochastic optimization algorithms, such as Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs),
Particle swarm Optimization (PSO), simulated annealing, and other
metaheuristics, to find hopefully good solutions to these problems (Gomey,
2019; Horst and Pardalos, 1995; Korte and Vygen, 2007; Paradimitriou and
Steiglitz, 1998; Pardalos et al., 2000; Zhigliavsky and Žillinakas, 2008). The
stochastic search algorithms trade in guaranteed correctness of the optimal
 The Fundamentals of Heuristic Local Search Algorithms … 3

solution for a shorter computing time. In practice, most stochastic search

algorithms have been based on or derived from heuristic local search
algorithms (Aart and Lenstra, 2003). Heuristics used in stochastic
optimization are functions that help us decide which one of a set of possible
solutions is to be selected next (Michalewicz and Fogel, 2002; Rayward-
Smith et al., 1996). A local search algorithm iteratively explores the
neighborhoods of solutions trying to improve the current solution by a local
change. However, the scope of local search is limited by the neighborhood
definition. Therefore, local search algorithms are locally convergent. The
final solution may deviate from the optimal solution. Such a final solution is
called a locally optimal solution, denoted as 𝑠 ′ . To distinguish from locally
optimal solutions, the optimal solution in the solution space is usually called
the globally optimal solution, denoted as 𝑠 ∗ .
The TSP is one of the most intensely investigated problems and often
treated as the prototypical combinatorial optimization problem that has
provided much motivation for design of new algorithms, development of
complexity theory, and analysis of solution space or search space (Applegate
et al., 2006; Paradimitriou and Steiglitz, 1998). This chapter uses the TSP as
a study problem to describe search behavior of heuristic local search
systems. The same concepts and formulation can be used for any
combinatorial optimization problem requiring the search of a node
permutation in a graph.
Both heuristic local search algorithms and the TSP have been hot
research areas for decades, and many aspects of them have been studied.
However, there is still a variety of open questions and unsolved issues in
these areas. In fact, local search algorithms on the TSP is still a very
interesting research problem. The study of local search for the TSP continues
to be a vibrant, exciting and fruitful endeavor in computational mathematics,
computer science, engineering and artificial intelligence.
One of the fundamental concepts presented in this chapter is that a
heuristic local search system has a solution attractor, which drives the
search trajectories to converge to a small region in the solution space that
consists of the most promising solutions to the problem at hand. The goal of
studying solution attractor in heuristic local search system is to understand
Other documents randomly have
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Madam Mantalini.
 Twenty-fourth Day.

here’s the good of putting

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Strike while the iron’s hot.

Barnaby Rudge.

Money ... some people find their gratification

in storing it up,
and others in parting with it.

Martin Chuzzlewit.

Only the wisdom that holds the clue to

all hearts and all mysteries
can surely know to what extent a man can
impose upon himself.

Little Dorrit.

Every man came into this world for something.

Gabriel Varden.
 Twenty-fifth Day.

Perfect coolness and self-possession

... are indispensable
accomplishments of a great mind.

Pickwick Papers.

The hill has not lifted its face to Heaven yet,

that perseverance will not
gain the summit of at last.

Nicholas Nickleby.

If you can’t get to be uncommon

through going straight, you’ll never get to do it
through being crooked.
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 Twenty-sixth Day.

heerful of spirit and guiltless

of affectation true practical
Christianity ever is.

The Uncommercial Traveller.

Live at least, in peace, and trust in God

to help.

Nicholas Nickleby.

Reflect upon your present blessings—

of which every man has many—not on your
past misfortunes,
of which all men have some.

Sketches by Boz.

All other swindlers upon earth are nothing

to the self-swindlers.

Great Expectations.
 Twenty-seventh Day.

here’s a moral in everything, if

we would
only avail ourselves of it.

Dombey and Son.

It is the highest part of the highest creed

to forgive before
memory sleeps, and ever to remember how the
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It does not follow that the more talkative a

person becomes
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to admit them even dispassionately.

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speeches about
bread, but earn it.

Ralph Nickleby.

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do no more than all the rest.

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have no idea how hard a paving-stone
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Memory, however sad, is the

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link between this world and a better.

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and not to interfere with other people’s.

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without our knowing it, are unfair,
that it is necessary to keep a guard upon them.

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There are chords in the human heart—

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which are only struck by accident.

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 Transcriber’s note
Minor punctuation errors have been changed
without notice. The following printer errors have
been changed.
CHANGED FROM TO
“always some thing “always something
Page 12:
to be” to be”
Page 19: “Go in an win” “Go in and win”
“An Uncommercial “The Uncommercial
Page 26:
Traveller.” Traveller.”
Page 31: “what ever it is” “whatever it is”
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