C Z PATEL COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

(A Constituent College of The CVM University)

CLASS : S Y BBA & S Y B.COM (SEMESTER - IV)

SUBJECT : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
FACULTY : HIMANSHU SANGHAVI
UNIT NO. : 1
TOPIC : INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
_______________________________________________________________

Main Points………..

1. Meaning and Definition of Research

2. Objectives of Research
3. Types of Research
4. Research Process

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH ................................................................. 1

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ............................................................................................. 2
1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 RESEARCH PROCESS.......................................................................................................... 6
 1.1 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of
Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”

Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of
inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness
makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This
inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for
obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define

research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning
generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’
refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

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 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies

with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are

known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

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 1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or
what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in
which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use
facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.

2. Applied vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning
some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental
research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view
to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete
social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social,
economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research
(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

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 3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable

to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the
other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research
aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the
purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude
or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors
which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or
dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in
practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should
seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On
the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also
call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts
firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to
get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental
designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to
bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought
that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
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 5. Some Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or
longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research
can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending
upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood
as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or indepth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized.
The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their
testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources
like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the
philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be
classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion- oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds
and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for
the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a
quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

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 1.4 RESEARCH PROCESS
Following are the main steps in research process.

1. Formulating the Research Problem:

These are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher
must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of
interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the
problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating
to the problem be resolved.

The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the
research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same
into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or
with those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher
can seek the help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several
research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and
it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms.

In private business units or in governmental organisations, the problem is usually

remarked by the administrative agencies with which the researcher can discuss how the
problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in it, possible
solutions.

2. Extensive Literature Survey:

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is

compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of
the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.

For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier
studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied. A good
library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
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 3. Development of Working Hypotheses:

After literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis- is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and
test its logical or empirical sequences. As such the manner which research hypotheses are
developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research.

It also affect the manner in which contest must be conducted in the analysis of data and
indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research,
the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very
specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.

The role of the hypothesis is to guide the research by delimiting the area of research and
to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem. It also-indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.

How does one go about Developing Working Hypotheses?

The answer is by using the following approach:

I. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives
in seeking a solution;

II. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;

III. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and

IV. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject,
examination of the available data and’ material including related studies and the counsel
of experts and interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in
precise and clearly defined terms.

It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we

do not need working hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory or formulative
researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification
of working hypotheses in another basic step of the research process in most research
problems.
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 4. Preparing the Research Design:

The research problem have been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.

In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.

Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.:

(i) Exploration,

(ii) Description,

(iii) Diagnosis, and

(iv) Experimentation.

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that
of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation
or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias
and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-
and-after without control, after- only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal
designs (such as completely randomized- design, randomized block design, Latin square
design, simple and complex factorial designs,) out of which the researcher must select
one’ for his own project.

5. Determining Sample Design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered
no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained: But in practice this may not
be true.

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Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as ‘the
number of observations increases, Moreover, there is no any of checking the element of
bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.

Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only
this; the census inquiry is not possible to practice under many circumstances. For
instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a
few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what
is technically called a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as
the sample design. In other words, it sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.

Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample
design. Samples can be either, probability samples or non-probability samples. With
probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample
but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.

Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non- probability samples are those
based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.

Following are important types of sample design.

(i) Deliberate Sampling

(ii) Simple Random Sampling
(iii) Systematic Sampling
(iv) Stratified Sampling
(v) Quota Sampling
(vi) Cluster Sampling and Area Sampling
(vii) Multi-Stage Sampling
(viii) Sequential Sampling

6. Collecting the Data:

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate,
and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

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Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the
data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.

But in the case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By Observation

(ii) Through Personal Interviews

(iii) Through Telephone Interviews

(iv) By Mailing of Questionnaires

(v) Through Schedules

7. Execution of the Project:

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution
of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.

If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be

readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers
may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should
be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the
job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure
that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.

8. Analysis of Data:

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment
of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation
and then drawing statistical inferences.

The unwidely data-should necessarily be, condensed into a few manageable groups and
tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through
which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and
counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.

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With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical
procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical
devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large
inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it
possible study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

9. Hypothesis-Testing:

After analysing the data as sated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypotheses, various tests, such as Chi square test, test F-test have
been developed by statisticians for the purpose.

The hypotheses may be tested through these of one or more of such tests, depending
upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start
with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and Interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive generalisation i.e., build a theory, As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies
in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may
quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.

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DISCLAIMER
This study material is prepared by Himanshu Sanghavi.
The basic objective is to supplement teaching and discussion in the classroom in the subject.
This study material is not the extensive material for the topic.
Students are required to go for extra reading in the subject through library work.

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