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VARIABLE SPEED
GENERATORS
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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v
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
vi Contents
The first edition of this single-author, two-book set was published in 2006. Since then, electric energy,
“produced” mostly via electric generators, has become one of the foremost activities in our global econ-
omy world. The subject of electric generators (Synchronous Generators and Variable Speed Generators as
two books) attracted special attention worldwide both from industry and academia in the last decade.
Electric generators’ design and control may constitute a new graduate course in universities with electric
power programs.
Also, in the design and control of electric generators for applications ranging from energy conversion
to electric vehicles (transportation) and auxiliary power sources, new knowledge and developments
have been published in the last ten years. In the last ten years, in wind generators alone, the installed
power has increased from some 40,000 MW to 300,000 MW (in 2014).
In view of these developments, we decided to come up with a new edition that
• Keeps the structure of the first edition to avoid confusion for users
• Keeps the style with many numerical worked-out examples of practical interest, together with
more complete case studies
• Includes text and number corrections
• Adds quite a few new paragraphs in both books, totaling around 100 pages, to illustrate syntheti-
cally the progress in the field in the last decade
The new additions in the second edition are
Synchronous Generators
• Chapter 2 (Section 2.9): High Power Wind Generators, with less or no PM—an overview
• Chapter 4 (Section 4.15): PM-Assisted DC-Excited Salient Pole Synchronous Generators
(Section 4.16): Multiphase Synchronous Machine Inductances via Winding Function
Method
• Chapter 6 (Section 6.17): Note on Autonomous Synchronous Generators’ Control
• Chapter 7 (Section 7.21): Optimization Design Issues
(Section 7.21.1): Optimal Design of a Large Wind Generator by Hooke–Jeeves Method
(Section 7.21.2): Magnetic Equivalent Circuit Population-Based Optimal Design of
Synchronous Generators
• Chapter 8 (Section 8.10): Online Identification of SG Parameters
(Section 8.10.1): Small-Signal Injection online Technique
(Section 8.10.2): Line Switching (On or Off) Parameter Identification for Isolated Grids
(Section 8.10.3): Synthetic Back-to-Back Load Testing with Inverter Supply
xiii
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xiv Preface to the Second Edition
Electric energy is a key factor for civilization. Natural (fossil) fuels such as coal, natural gas, and nuclear
fuel are fired to produce heat in a combustor and then the thermal energy is converted into mechanical
energy in a turbine (prime mover). The turbine drives an electric generator to produce electric energy.
Water potential and kinetic and wind energy are also converted to mechanical energy in prime movers
(turbine) to drive an electric generator.
All primary energy resources are limited, and they have a thermal and chemical (pollutant) effect on
the environment.
Currently, much of electric energy is produced in constant-speed-regulated synchronous generators
that deliver electric energy with constant AC voltage and frequency into regional and national electric
power systems, which further transport and distribute it to consumers.
In an effort to reduce environment effects, electric energy markets have been recently made more
open, and more flexible distributed electric power systems have emerged. The introduction of distrib-
uted power systems is leading to an increased diversity and growth of a wider range power/unit electric
energy suppliers. Stability, quick and efficient delivery, and control of electric power in such distributed
systems require some degree of power electronics control to allow lower speed for lower power in electric
generators to tap the primary fuel energy.
This is how variable-speed electric generators have come into play recently [up to 400 (300) MVA/
unit], as for example, pump storage wound-rotor induction generators/motors have been in used since
1996 in Japan and since 2004 in Germany.
This book deals in depth with both constant- and variable-speed generator systems that operate in
stand-alone and power grid modes.
Chapters have been devoted to topologies, steady-state modeling and performance characteristics,
transients modeling, control, design, and testing, and the most representative and recently proposed
standard electric generator systems.
The book contains most parameter expressions and models required for full modeling, design, and
control, with numerous case studies and results from the literature to enforce the understanding of the
art of electric generators by senior undergraduate and graduate students, faculty, and, especially, indus-
trial engineers who investigate, design, control, test, and exploit electric generators for higher energy
conversion ratios and better control. This 20-chapter book represents the author’s unitary view of the
multifacets of electric g enerators with recent developments included.
Chapter 1 introduces energy resources and fundamental solutions for electric energy conversion
problems and their merits and demerits in terms of efficiency and environmental effects. In Chapter 2,
a broad classification and principles of various electric generator topologies with their power ratings
and main applications are presented. Constant-speed-synchronous generators (SGs) and variable-speed
wound-rotor induction generators (WRIGs); cage rotor induction generators (CRIGs); claw pole rotors;
induction; PM-assisted synchronous, switched reluctance generators (SRGs) for vehicular and other
xv
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xvi Preface to the First Edition
applications; PM synchronous generators (PMSGs); transverse flux (TF); and flux reversal (FR) PMSGs,
and, finally, linear motion PM alternators are all included.
Chapter 3 treats the main prime movers for electric generators from topologies to basic performance
equations and practical dynamic models and transfer functions.
Steam, gas, hydraulic, and wind turbines and internal combustion (standard, Stirling, and diesel)
engines are dealt with. Their transfer functions are used in subsequent chapters for speed control in
corroboration with electric generator power flow control.
Chapters 4 through 8 deal with SGs steady state, transients, control, design, and testing with plenty of
numerical examples and sample results that cover the subject comprehensively.
This part of the book is dedicated to electric machines and power systems professionals and industries.
Chapters 9 through 11 deal with WRIGs that have a bidirectional rotor connected AC–AC partial
rating PWM converter for variable-speed operation in stand-alone and power grid modes. Steady-state
transients (Chapter 9), vector and direct power control (Chapter 10), and design and testing (Chapter 11)
are treated in detail with plenty of applications and digital simulation and test results to facilitate in-
depth assessment of WRIG systems currently built from 1 MVA to 400 MVA per unit.
Chapters 12 and 13 discuss cage rotor induction generators (CRIG) in self-excited modes used as
power grid and stand-alone applications with small speed regulation by a prime mover (Chapter 12)
or with full-rating PWM converters connected to a stator and wide-variable speed (Chapter 13) with
± 100% active and reactive power control and constant (or controlled) output frequency and voltage in
both power grid and stand-alone operations.
Chapters 9 through 13 are targeted to wind, hydro, and, in general, to distributed renewable power
system professionals and industries.
Chapters 14 through 17 deal with representative electric generator systems proposed recently for
integrated starter alternators (ISAs) on automobiles and aircraft, all operating at variable speed with
full power ratings electronics control. Standard (and recently improved) claw pole rotor alternators
(Chapter 14), induction (Chapter 15), PM-assisted synchronous (Chapter 16), and switched reluctance
(Chapter 17) ISAs are discussed thoroughly. Again, with numerous applications and results, from topol-
ogies, steady state, and transients performance, from modeling to control design and testing for the very
challenging speed range constant power requirements (up to 12 to 1) typical to ISA. ISAs have reached
the markets, used on a mass-produced (since 2004) hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) for notably higher
mileage and less pollution, especially for urban transport.
This part of the book (Chapters 14 through 17) is targeted at automotive and aircraft professionals and
industries.
Chapter 18 deals extensively with radial and axial air gaps, surfaces, and interior PM rotor permanent
magnet synchronous generators that work at variable speed and make use of full power rating electron-
ics control. This chapter includes basic topologies, thorough field and circuit modeling, losses, perfor-
mance characteristics, dynamic models, and bidirectional AC–AC PWM power electronics control in
power grid and in stand-alone applications with constant DC output voltage at variable speed. Design
and testing issues are included, and case studies are treated using numerical examples and transient
performance illustrations.
This chapter is directed at professionals interested in wind and hydraulic energy conversion, genera-
tor set (stand-alone) with power/unit up to 3–5 MW (from 10 rpm to 15 krpm) and 150 kW at 80 krpm
(or more).
Chapter 19 investigates with numerous case study designs two high-torque density PM synchronous
generators (transverse flux [TFG] and flux reversal [FRG]), introduced in the last two decades that take
advantage of non-overlapping multipole stator coils. They are characterized by lower copper losses/N m
and kg/N m and find applications in very-low-speed (down to 10 rpm or so) wind and hydraulic turbine
direct and transmission drives, and medium-speed automotive starter-alternators.
Chapter 20 investigates linear reciprocating and linear progressive motion alternators. Linear recip-
rocating PMSGs (driven by Stirling free-piston engines) have been introduced (up to 350 W) and are
currently used for NASA’s deep-mission generators that require fail-proof operation for 50,000 h. Linear
reciprocating PMSGs are also pursued aggressively as electric generators for series (full electric propul-
sion) vehicles for power up to 50 kW or more; finally, they are being proposed for combined electric
(1 kW or more) and thermal energy production in residences with gas as the only prime energy provider.
The author thanks the following:
• Illustrious people that have done research, wrote papers, books, patents, and built and tested
electric generators and their control over the last decades for providing the author with “the air
beneath his wings”
• The author’s very able PhD students for electronic editing of the book
• The highly professional, friendly, and patient editors of CRC Press
Professor Ion Boldea
IEEE Life Fellow
University Politehnica Timisoara
Timisoara, Romania
Ion Boldea:
• MS (1967), PhD (1973) in electrical engineering; IEEE member (1977), fellow (1996), and life
fellow (2007)
• Visiting scholar in the United States (15 visits, 5 years in all, over 37 years), the United Kingdom,
Denmark, South Korea
• Over 40 years of work and extensive publications (most in IEEE trans. and conferences and with
IET (former IEE), London, in linear and rotary electric motor/generator modeling, design, their
power electronics robust control, and MAGLEVs; 20 national and 5 international patents
• Eighteen books in the field, published in the United States and the United Kingdom
• Technical consultant for important companies in the United States, Europe, South Korea, and
Brazil for 30 years
• Repeated intensive courses for graduate students and industries in the United States, Europe,
South Korea, and Brazil
• Four IEEE paper prize awards
• Cofounding associate (now consulting) editor from 1977 for EPCS Journal
• Founding (2000) and current chief editor of the Internet-only international Electronic Engineering
Journal : www.jee.ro
• General chair in 10 biannual consecutive events of the International Conference OPTIM (now
IEEE-tech-sponsored, ISI and on IEEExplore)
• Member of the European Academy of Arts and Sciences located in Salzburg, Austria
• Member of the Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences (since 1997)
• Correspondent member of Romania Academy (2011)
• IEEE-IAS Distinguished Lecturer (2008–2009) with continued presence ever since
• IEEE “Nikola Tesla” Award 2015
xix
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
1
Wound-Rotor Induction Generators:
Steady State
1.1 Introduction
Wound-rotor induction generators (WRIGs) are provided with three-phase windings on the rotor and on the
stator. They may be supplied with energy at both rotor and stator terminals. For this reason, such generators
are called “doubly fed induction generators” (DFIGs), or double-output induction generators (DOIGs). WRIGs
can operate in both monitoring and generating modes, provided the power electronics converter that supplies
the rotor circuits, in general, via slip-rings and brushes is capable of handling power in both directions.
WRIGs provide constant or controlled voltage Vs and frequency f1 power through the stator, while the
rotor is supplied through a static power converter at variable voltage Vr and frequency f2, the rotor circuit
may absorb or deliver electric power. As the number of poles of both stator and rotor windings is the
same at steady state. Therefore, according to the frequency theorem, the speed ωm is as follows:
wm = w1 ± w2 ; wm = WR × p1 (1.1)
where
p1 is the number of pole pairs
ΩR is the mechanical rotor speed
The positive (+) sign in Equation 1.1 indicates that the phase sequence in the rotor is the same as in the
stator and ωm < ω1, that is, subsynchronous operation. The negative (–) sign in Equation 1.1 corresponds
to an inverse phase sequence in the rotor when ωm > ω1, that is, supersynchronous operation.
For constant frequency output, the rotor frequency ω2 has to be modified “in step” with the speed
variation. This way, variable speed at constant frequency (and voltage) can be maintained by controlling
the voltage, frequency, and phase sequence in the rotor circuit.
It may be argued that WRIGs work as synchronous generators (SGs) with three-phase alternating
current (AC) excitation at slip (rotor) frequency ω2 = ω1 − ωm. However, as ω1 ≠ ωm, the stator induces
voltages in the rotor circuits even at steady state, which is not the case in conventional SGs. As a result,
additional power components occur.
The main operational modes of the WRIG are depicted in Figure 1.1a through d (See Figure 1.1a for
basic configuration). The first two modes (Figure 1.1b and c) refer to subsynchronous and supersynchro-
nous generations defined earlier. For motoring, the reverse is true for the rotor circuit. In addition, the
stator absorbs active power for motoring. The slip S is defined as follows:
1
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 Variable Speed Generators
Slip-rings
Prime WRIG
mover
ωm Brushes
f2, Vr—variable
Ps
Pm stator
input WRIG electric
Bidirectional ωm = ω1 – ω2 < ω1
AC – AC static ω2 > 0
converter Mechanical Power
power f1 = ct Vs = ct
Pr
Trafo
Rotor electric
power input
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.1 Main operating modes are (a) basic configuration, (b) subsynchronous generating (ωr < ω1), (c) super-
synchronous generating (ωr > ω1), and (d) rotor output WRIG (brushless exciter).
As WRIGs work, in general, for ω2 ≠ 0 (S ≠ 0), they retain the characteristics of an induction machine.
The main output active power is delivered through the stator; however, in supersynchronous operation,
a good part, about slip stator powers (SPs), is delivered through the rotor circuit. With limited speed-
variation range, that is from Smax to –Smax, the rotor-side static converter rating—for zero-reactive
power capability on the rotor side—would be Pconv ≈ |Smax|Ps. With Smax typically equal to ±0.2 to 0.25,
the static power converter ratings and costs would correspond to 20%–25% of the stator-delivered
output power.
At maximum speed, the WRIG will deliver increased electric power, Pmax:
with the WRIG designed at Ps for ωm = ω1 speed. The increased power is delivered at higher than rated
speed:
Consequently, the WRIG is designed electrically for Ps at ωm = ω1, but mechanically at ωmmax and Pmax.
The capability of WRIGs to deliver power at variable speed but at constant voltage and frequency rep-
resents an asset in providing more flexibility in power conversion and also better stability in frequency
and voltage control in the power systems to which such generators are connected.
The reactive power delivery by WRIGs depends heavily on the capacity of the rotor-side converter
to provide it. When the converter works at unity power factor delivered on the source side, the reactive
power in the machine has to come from the rotor-side converter. However, such a capability is paid for
by the increased ratings of the rotor-side converter. As this means increased converter costs, in general,
WRIGs are adequate for working at unity power factor at full load on the stator side.
Large reactive power releases to the power system are still to be provided by existing SGs or from
WRIGs working at synchronism (S = 0, ω2 = 0) with the back-to-back pulse-width-modulated (PWM)
voltage converters connected to the rotor controlled adequately for the scope.
Wind and small hydroenergy conversions in units of 1 megawatt (MW) and more per unit require
variable speed to tap the maximum of energy reserves and to improve efficiency and stability limits.
High-power units in pump-storage hydropower (400 MW [1]) and thermopower plants with WRIGs
provide for extra flexibility for the ever-more stressed distributed power systems of the near future. Even
existing (old) SGs may be retrofitted into WRIGs by changing the rotor and its static power converter
control.
The WRIG can also be used to generate power solely on the rotor side for rectifier loads (Figure 1.1d).
To control the direct voltage (or direct current [DC]) in the load, the stator voltage is controlled, at con-
stant frequency ω1, by a low-cost AC three-phase voltage changer. As the speed increases, the stator volt-
age has to be reduced such that the current in the DC load connected to the rotor (ω2 = ω1 + ωm) is kept
constant. If the machine has a large number of poles (2p1 = 6, 8, 12), then the stator AC excitation input
power becomes rather low, as most of the output electric power comes from the shaft (through motion).
Such a configuration is adequate for brushless exciters needed for SMs or for SGs, where field current
is needed from zero speed, that is, when full-power converters are used in the stator of the respective
SMs or SGs.
With 2p1 = 8, n = 1500 rpm, and f1 = 50 Hz, the frequency of the rotor output f2 = f1 + np1 = 50 +
(1500/60) × 4 = 150 Hz. Such a frequency is practical with standard iron core laminations and reduces
the contents in harmonics of the output-rectified load current.
The following subjects related to WRIG steady state are detailed in this chapter:
• Construction elements
• Basic principles
• Inductances
• Steady-state model (equations, phasor diagram, and equivalent circuits)
• Steady-state characteristics at power grid
• Steady-state characteristics for isolated loads
• Losses and efficiency
Open stator
slot
Semiopen
rotor slot
(a) (b)
Airflow
Airflow Airflow
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.3 Stator and rotor stacks (a) for axial cooling and (b) for radial–axial cooling.
m0Fs ,r (x ,t )
B g (x ,t ) = (1.5)
gK C (1 + K s )
where
Fs,r(x,t) is equal to the mmfs per pole produced by either stator or rotor windings
g is the airgap
KC is the Carter coefficient to account for airgap increase due to slot openings
Ks is the iron core contribution to equivalent magnetic reluctance of the main flux path (see Figure 1.2a)
To produce a traveling airgap field, the stator and the rotor mmfs, seen from the stator and the rotor,
respectively, need to be as follows:
where p1 is the number of electrical periods of the magnetic field wave in the airgap or of pole pairs. The
rotor mmf is produced by currents of frequency ω2.
At constant speed, the rotor and stator geometrical angles are related by
where ωr is the rotor speed in electrical radians per second (rad/s). Consequently, Fr(θs, t) becomes
The average electromagnetic torque and power per electric period is nonzero only if the two mmfs are
stationary with respect to each other. That is,
w2
w1 = wr ± w2 ; S = (1.10)
w1
The positive sign (+) is used when ωr < ω1, and thus the rotor and stator mmf waves rotate in the positive
direction. The negative sign (–), used when ωr > ω1, refers to the case when the rotor mmf wave moves in
the direction opposite to that of the stator. In addition, the torque is nonzero when the angle γ ≠ 0, that
is, when the two mmfs are phase shifted.
To produce a traveling mmf, three phases, space lagged by 120° (electrical), have to be supplied by AC
currents with 120° (electrical) time-lag angles between them (see Chapter 4 in Synchronous Generators,
on the SG).
So, all three-phase windings for, say, maximum value of current, should independently produce a
sinusoidal spatial mmf:
2 æ 2p ö
(FsA ,B ,C (qs ,t ))t =0 = F1s cos ç p1qs - (i - 1) ÷ (1.11)
3 è 3 ø
Each phase mmf has to produce 2p1 semiperiods along a mechanical period. With only one coil per pole
per phase, there would be 2p1 coils per phase and 2p1 slots per phase if each coil occupies half of the slot
(Figure 1.4a).
From the rectangular distribution of phase mmf (Figures 1.4a and b and 1.3b), a fundamental is
extracted:
4
FsA (p1 , qs ) = nc I 2 cos p1qs ; ns —turns/coil (1.12)
p
The harmonics content of the phase mmf in Figure 1.4b is hardly acceptable, but more steps in its distri-
bution (more slots) and chorded coil would drastically reduce these space harmonics (Figure 1.5).
For the 2-pole 24-slot winding with chorded coils (coil span/pole pitch = 10/12), the number of steps
in the phase mmf is larger, and thus, the harmonics are reduced (Figure 1.5). For the fundamental com-
ponent (based on Figure 1.5b), the expression of the mmf per pole and phase is obtained:
2W1kW 1K y 1 × I 2
FsA1 = ; W1 —turns/phase (1.13)
pp1
2W1K dn K yn × I 2
FsAn = (1.14)
np1
N S N S
X . X .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(a) A X
nc I√2 p1qs
nc I√2
(b) FsA(p1qs) 2π 4π
FIGURE 1.4 Elementary three-phase winding with 2p1 = 4 poles and Ns = 12 slots: (a) coils of phase A in series and
(b) phase A mmf for maximum phase current.
Où l’on verra comment Thérèse découvrit que Gaspard était un voleur, mais
que, étant voleur sans l’être, il se montrait sévère envers ceux qui
méritent ce nom méprisable ; et comment cette découverte impressionna
l’intéressante fiancée de Bernard.