RAILWAY ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
FACTS
General facts  Inventor of train: Richard Trevithick in 1804 with Train name: Peny darren, used to carry Iron in
wales
 Inventor of Railways/Inventor of steam Engine train, that are commercially viable is George
Stephenson, who invented modern steam engine in 1814
 Father of Railways: George Stephenson
 Country having No railway line: ICELAND and BHUTAN
 Country started 1st full scale train service: UK
 Longest railway Bridge in the works: DANYANG KUNSHAN GRAN BRIDGE
 Longest railway tunnel in the world: GOTTHARD BASE TUNNEL
 Longest railway route in the world: Trans SIBERIAN railway, THE MASCOW-VLADIVOSTOK Line,
9,289 km
First train of world  1825, b/w Stockton and Darlington in Durham
History of Indian Railways  1844: 1st proposal for construction by RM Stephenson
 1849: EIC undertakes a construction from Calcutta to Mirzapur
 1853: 1st Railway line from Thane to Mumbai, 32 km - 34 km long in 4 hours, with 14 carriages and 3
locomotives namely sahib, sultan and sindhu on Broad gauge
 1854: 1st train b/w Howra and Hoogly, 39 km
 1855-60: 8 Railway companies were established
 1862: FEEDER line in North India were constructed
 1866: Completion of Railway line from Calcutta to Delhi (Including Son Bridge and Rail cum road
bridge over yamuna river)
 1880: Famine commission recommended 800o km railway line for protection from famine
 1881: LORD HARDINGTON, divided rail into 3 categories,
a) Productive
b) Un-productive
c) Protective
 1949-50: India acquired control over railway companies (not all)
Ranking  Railway system of India is 2nd largest in world under single management
 Biggest in Asia under single management
 Under Track length: 4th longest, after, US, China and Russia
Tractive force: Is EQUAL to the resistance of train (actually tractive forces are opposite to frictional force, its the force
Power with which engine pulls required to overcome the resistance)

Tractive resistance of a track should be

minimum

In USA and Germany rails used are 11.89 m long and 30 m long
In India how many number of gauges 4
Indian Railway 1. Father of Indian Railway = Lord Dalhousie, laid 1st rail line in India
2. In 1844, Lord Hardinge introdued railway system in India
3. 1st Rail minister of India = Jogn Mathai
4. As of 31st march 2020, India rail network is 1,26,366 km of track length and 67, 956 km route
length
5. Carries, 3500 million passengers AND 240 million tonn freight every day
6. Operates over, 13000 trains per day and have employees 1.5 million persons, thus largest
employment network in the India
7. Most developed and Most Economical mode of transportation
8. No. of zones = 17 (18 still to be official, Guntakal, Guntur and Vijaywada), Sub zones = 73
zones, Our Railways zone HQ = Delhi. In 1952, we had 6 zones
9. RDSO: research design and standard organization, HQ @ Lucknow
10. Three production units
a) Chitranjan locomotive works, 1950
b) Integral coach factory. 1955
c) Diesel locomotive works, 1964
11. Electrification
1) Route: 28%
2) Running Track: 39%
3) Total track: 41%
12. Name of 1st train in India: Sahib, sultan and sindh
13. Indian state having no Railway station: MEGHALAYA, TRIPURE, NAGALAND etc.
14. State having No train service: SIKKIM
15. Longest Bridge in India: DHOLA SADIYA BRIDGE/ Dr. BHUPENDRA HAZARIKA BRIDGE, 9,15 km
16. Longest rail cum road bridge: BOGIBEEL BRIDGE, 4.94 km
17. Fastest train in India: Gatimaan Express (160 kmph), Vandey bharat on paper is 180 kmph
though it run @ 130 kmph
18. Longest railway route in India: Dibhugarh- Kanyakumari, VIVEK EXPRESS, 4,286 km in a 5 day
journey
19. 2nd longest: Thiruvanathpuram central, SILCHAR EXPRESS, 3,932 km
20. 3rd longest: Jammu Tawi-Kanyakumari, HIMSAGAR EXPRESS, 3,787 km
21. India longest rail tunnel: PIR PANJAL RAILWAY/BANIHAL RAILWAY tunnel, 11.215 km in b/w
Qazigund-Banihal
22. Smallest railway zone in India: North East
23. Largest railway zone in India: Northern Railways in 1952, HQ @ New Delhi for 6,807 km.
24. In 1986, Computerized passenger reservation was launched
25. Holds record (Guiness world records) for the largest “Route rely interlocking”, its a modern day
signalling system
26. First electric and diesel locomotive simulators: STarted by Northern Railways: Kanpur and
Tughlaqabad
27. OWNs 4.77 hectares of land
28. Oldest Railway zone in India: SOuthern Railway Zone, in 1951
29. Indian states having largest railway networks
1) UP: 8726 km
2) Rajasthan: 5780 km
3) Maharashtra: 5602 km
30. Biggest railway junction in India: Mathura junction, 7-routes emerges from this station
31. India’s biggest railway platform: Gorakhpur (UP): 1.36 km, its even world’s largest platform
32. 1st AC train b/w Howra and Delhi, Rajhdhani express
33. 1925 = 1st electric passenger rain ran b/w victoria terminus and kurla
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
Based on importance of route, traffic carried and maximum permissible speed, these are classified as
Trunk Line
Items Broad Gauge Metre Gauge
Ballast cushion 25 cm below sleeper 25 cm below sleeper
Degree curvature 7.5O Suitable Degree
Design speed for new track 160 km/h 100 km/h
Maximum permissible speed 120 km/h 80 km/h
Rail section 52 kg/m 37.2 kg/m

Main Lines
Items Broad Gauge Metre Gauge
GMT per annum ≥ 10 ≥ 2.5
Track relaying period 20 years 30 years
Design speed for new track 120 km/h 75 km/h
Maximum permissible speed 100 km/h 75 km/h
Rail section 52 kg/m 37.2 kg/m

Main Lines
Items Broad Gauge Metre Gauge
GMT per annum ≤ 10 ≤ 2.5
Maximum permissible speed < 100 km/h < 75 km/h

Classification of Railways based upon Speed Criteria

Class A / Group A ≤ 160 km/h
Class B ≤ 130 km/h
Class C 100 km/h - 130 km/h
Class D ≤ 100 km/h
Class E < 100 km/h

GAUGES
 Clear distance between inner faces /running faces of two rails near their top (16 mm below the top). (Initially, was b/w Outer edges, 1st
railway track was laid in England with an outside gauge of 1.54 m)
 Choice of gauge depends upon: Traffic + speed + nature of country
 Speed of train is proportional to Gauge
Broad Gauge  1.676 m Wide
 Adopted for MAIN cities and routes of MAXIMUM intensity
 Speed of locomotive = 96 km/h - 120 km/h
 It was adopted as standard gauge at the time of railway construction in India after a long controversy AND is the most
used railway gauge in India (1,20,00 km of tracks under it)
 Route: 49,820 km ; Running Track: 71,015 km; Total track: 93,386
Meter Gauge  1 m Wide
 Adopted for UNDER-DEVELOPED or UN-DEVELOPED areas
 Speed of locomotive = 80 km/h
 Route: 10,621 km ; Running Track: 11,487 km; Total track: 13,412
Narrow Gauge  0.762 m Wide
 Adopted for HILLY areas and THINLY populated areas
 Route: 2,886 km ; Running Track: 2,888 km; Total track: 3,198
Loading Gauge  The gauge represents MAX. WIDTH and HEIGHT upto which railway vehicle may be built
Broad gauge MAX HT: 4.140 m (4.72) MAX WIDTH: 3.250 m
Meter gauge MAX HT: 3.455 m (3.43) MAX WIDTH: 2.745 m
 [Any thing on rail wheels = Rolling stock]
Feeder track Gauge  0.61 m (also k/a Light gauge) it is a TYPE of NARROW Gauge
Standard Gauge  1.435 m
 Used in Delhi Metro
 Most widely used gauge in world
Indian Railways is a multi-gauge system, covering
Broad Gauge (1676 mm) Meter Gauge (1000 mm) Narrow Gauge (762/610 mm) Total
Track (km) 86,526 18,529 3,651 108,706
 But we use 4th gauge as standard gauge in Delhi metro
 Percentage of Gauges
1. Broad gauge: 94.32 %
2. Mater Gauge: 3.35%
3. Narrow Gauge: 2.33%
 Places where three Gauges meet to each other
1) Banglore city: 1676 mm, 1000 mm, 762 mm
2) New Jal Paiguai:1676 mm, 1000 mm, 610 mm
3) Ujjain: 1676 mm, 1000 mm, 610 mm
PERMANENT WAY
Combination of rails fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade is called Railway tract or permanent way

FACTS
1) Cost of permanent way/Railway track = PER KILOMETER, generally depends upon the GAUGE
2) Alignment should be free from kinks (that wavey thing)
3) Tractive resistance should be minimum
4) Permanent way should provide adequate elasticity
5) Approx cost of Broad and meter gauge track per KM is Rs, 50 Lac to Rs. 1 crore
6) Track capacity: Number of trains that can run safely per hour (can increase it by increasing speed or decreasing distance b/w trains)
LENGTH OF RAIL
Broad Gauge 12.80 m ~ 13 m
Meter Gauge 11.89 m ~ 12 m (same for meter gauge as well)
 Length of rail is governed by
a. Manufacture can produce
b. Ease in transporting the manufactured rails
c. Facilities like stacking, handling and lifting
 RAIL CLOSURE: A piece of rail less than standard length used in rail for closing a gap.
a. It shall remain permanently, if longer than 5.5 m
b. Not be located near junction of different type of rails, sleepers, bridges, level crossing and ash pits
RAIL SECTION
 More like continuous Girders to carry axle load and bears stress due to heavy vertical load, lateral and breaking forces and thermal stresses
 Rail convey return traction current and carry electric current for signaling purpose in track circuited areas
 C.G of Rail section should coincide with C.G. of rail height, so max. Tensile and compressive stresses are nearly equal
 Rail section is divided on the basis of Gauge of the track

 These are continuous STEEL sections over sleepers

 Ordinary rails are made of HIGH CARBON STEEL or HOT ROLLED STEEL, Earlier they used to be CAST IRON
 Two important constituents in the composition of steel in rails are CARBON and MANGANESE
 Tensile strength of steel used in rail >/= 700 Mpa
 Ideal conditions (strong to bear stresses, lateral forces, temperatures etc.)
 B/w two Rails a gap of 1.5 mm to 3 mm is provided for free expansion due to rise in temperature
 It is designed for MASS OR WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH
 52 Kg/m and 60 Kg/m Rails are used in Broad Gauge
 90 lbs/yard and 50 lbs/yard are used in Meter Gauge and Narrow Gauge
 Heavier the rail, bigger is the section, greater is the carrying capacity
 The rails having 52 kg mass, have 67 mm head width (see which one is this)
 Factors to consider in deciding the weight of the rail are
1. Speed of train
2. Gauge on the track
3. Axle load and nature of traffic
4. Type of Rails (DH/BH/FF)
5. Spacing of the sleepers (Sleeper density)
6. Max. Permissible wear on top of rails [Wear of Rail is flow of rail material due to heavy loads, Max. Permissible limit is 5 % of the
WEIGHT of Rail]
 Less the DEPTH of Ballast Cushion, BIGGER is the rail section
 A rule is applied to find a constant value b/w WEIGHT of the rail and LOCOMOTIVE AXLE LOAD, selection of rail is done on this basis

Look for MCQ options, it can be 560

TYPES OF RAILS
DOUBLE HEADED RAIL BULL HEADED RAIL FLAT FOOTED RAIL
 Both heads and foot of Rail section are  Top head is made  Top head is slightly less than Bull head and bottom is FLAT
kept equal, k/a Dumb bell Rails heavier and lower head  Indian Railways: 45 RBS
 It has 3 parts, Upper table (head), web is provided with only  Mostly used in INDIAN railways because of rigidity, stiffness
and lower table (foot) required quantity to resist lateral and vertical forces (esp. Lateral rigidity and
 1st designed in Indian railways  Provided @ points and more lateral strength), thus are stronger in every direction
 Have better alignment than flat ones crossings ONLY (even more than bull headed)
 It doubles rail life as they can be  Costly and requires  Simply fixed with Sleepers NEITHER Chair NOR key is
reversed high maintenance cost required, so thus are cheaper than bull headed
 Due to long contact with chairs, surface  CHAIRS are required  Charles Vignole invented it, so k/a Vignoles Rails
gets rough  90% of the world rails are these
 Made of WROUGHT IRON  Removal is difficult
 BEARING PLATES are required to fix the rails
 This has performed much better than other rails
 Mostly used in world as well

NOTE: A fillet, curve below head, is provided to avoid stress concentration

COMPOSITION OF RAIL STEEL

We use open hearth process and duplex process for manufacturing of steel rail.
Ordinary rails (High Carbon steel) Rails on Points and Crossing (Medium Carbon steel)
Carbon 0.45 - 0.60 0.50 - 0.60
Manganese 0.95 - 1.25 0.95 - 1.25
Silicon 0.05 - 0.35 0.05 - 0.20
Sulphur < 0.04 < 0.06
Phosphorus < 0.04 < 0.06
 Phosphorus and sulphur are impurities, as combines with Fe to form FeS and gets deposited
 KILLING OF STEEL: Adding silicon at controlled level to liquid steel prior making it to Ingot, to remove excess oxygen. Al can be used but Si is
preferred
 Mangnese is used for Hardness, thus improving strength and toughness and to prevent formation of FeS
 For crossing, extremly tough and shock resistent rails. Large dose (12.5%) of Mangnese INTO High carboon steel (1.2% carbon) = Austenitic
Mangnese steel (AMS)
DEFECTS IN RAILS
1. Corrugations: Formation of waves or depression on rail surface
2. Kinking in rails: Movement of end point out of position
3. Hogging: Downward movement of rails at joints
4. Buckling: Bulging of rail
HOGGING AND BUCKLING OF RAILS
Hogging Buckling
 Loose packing and loose fish plates causes rail  When rails get out of their position LATERALLY, due to insufficient expansion joint gap.
ends to bent down and deflect under load  It is for this purpose, joints are provided and contact surface b/w fish plates and rails
 This can be rectified with welding are lubricated

CREEP OF RAIL
 Longitudinal movement of rail, along the length of rail in a permanent track due to speedy rolling stock
 It is greater on curves and In new rails than in old rails
 Adjustment of Rails is required when Creep > 150 mm (6 Inches), checked every 3 months
 There shall be no creep on points and crossings. Creep Indicators used for creep measurement
 More the load on goods train, more will be amount of creep in the rails
 Defective packing of ballast may also cause creep
 Generally 0 - 16 cm
Following are the major causes, including temperature (Minor: fixing of rails, drainage, gauge fixation etc.)
PERCUSSION WAVE THEORY
DRAG THEORY: Locomotive tends to push rails backwards, whereas rail cars pushes it forwards. Due to wave action. Thus, Wave action of rail cars >
Locomotive drag effect and then the Rails move forward/ in direction of traffic
Correction/Adjustments of creep
1) Pulling back method: For small creep
2) Use of Creep Anchors/Anti-Creepers: For large creep
i. 4 creep anchors: 75 - 150 mm/month/rail
ii. 6 creep anchors: 225 - 250 mm/month/rail
3) Remedial measures:
a) Increase number of sleepers per rail length
b) Provide sufficient ballast and pack them properly
c) For good grip use steel sleepers are used

 WHEEL BURNS: Slipping of driving wheels of locomotives on the rail surface

 Slipping wheel, forms rails, CRUSHED HEAD
TILTING/CANTING OF RAILS
 INWARD slope of 1 in 20
 To reduce wear on inside edges of the rail in a track
 This tilt is done in sleepers called ADZING.

 Flow of Rail metals due to abnormally heavy loads is called WEAR OF RAILS. Its permissible limit is 5%
a) Conning of wheels + Tilting of wheels + Welding be used to prevent it
b) Lubrication of inner face of rails + minimize corrosion + looking after joints
c) Replacement of rail if weight loss > 5% the weight of the rail
 When train moves on rail, it causes constant REVERSAL OF STRESSES (Compressive and Tensile)
FISH PLATES
 Pair of plates of designated section, used in rail joints to
1. Maintain continuity
2. Provide expansion and contraction of rails due to temperature variation
3. Bear vertical as well as lateral stresses without distortion
4. Resist wear
 There are 4 fish bolts per plate

RAILWAY FASTENING (Rail connected to each other) AND FIXTURES (to put Rails with sleepers)
FISH PLATES  The length of Each fish plate is 45.72 cm
 The fish bolts are 31.75 mm diameter
 Thickness = 20 mm
 Plates are made of Mild steel + 4 fish bolts of high carbon steel
 Use to connect flat footed rails
 Should not come in contact with web of rail
 Strength = Rail strength
NOTE: To connect Bull and double headed rails, rail chairs are used. That
are made of cast iron. Consist of two joints and a rail seat. They provide tilt.
Fixed with sleepers by 3 spikes
BEARING PLATES  Used to fix flat footed rails on wooden sleepers
 Main purpose is to distribute the pressure over wider area and to
eliminate the adzing of wooden sleepers (Canted brearing plates and
the other are flat ones)
 Also prevents widening of gauge on curves
NOTE: The Bull and double headed rails do not require Bearing plates for
fixing
SPIKES  Commonly used spikes are dog spikes, round spikes and screw spikes to fix wooden sleeper.
 Depth of dog spike = 12 cm
 Dog spikes used/sleeper = 4, 2 on either side
 Round spikes are not used for fixing flat footed rails on wooden sleepers
 Screw spikes have more lateral rigidity than Dog spikes (2X), but costly, not used in India
 Round spikes for Cast iron chairs
 Elastic spike: Britain + 3 spikes per plate
 Fang bolts as alternative to round spikes
 Hook bolts: for wooden sleepers
Various types of spikes:
WHEEL BASE DISTANCE: Distance b/w adjoining axles fixed in rigid frame (agle-pichley tire ke centre to centre).
Max wheel base distance for BG: 6.096 m
WHEEL DIAMETER = 0.75 X Gauge used
CONING OF WHEELS
 Conned at angle 1 in 20 OUTWARDS
 It is for the purpose that wheel can move at the
centre of rail (remember 2(Pie)R is distance covered
by wheel), shifting sideways causes one wheel to
cover more and other to cover less distance (due to
conning). This results in diverting back to wheel’s
centre
 It also helps similarly when train moves along any
curve (a support to super elevation)  The distance b/w Inside edges of Flanges of wheels and gauge face is 19 mm.
 Purpose: Alignment of wheels and axle + Prevent Thus the distance b/w inside of flanges < the gauge
damage to inside edges of rails  Due to conning, pressure of wheels is always near the INSIDE edge of rail

JOINTS IN RAILWAYS
Some key points:
 Enough gap b/w two rails, to provide for expansion
 Ends of joint should not get battered
Square Joints  Joint in one rail is directly opposite to the joint in parallel rail
 Provided in st length track
 Obslete now a days
Staggered joints  Joints Not directly opposite
 Generally provided on curves, so reduces effect of centrifugal force
 No of sleepers gets increased by 1
Suspended joints  A welded rail joint is generally suspended
 Cantilevered
 Worldwide accepted, so as to keep packingunder sleepers
Supported joints  Adjoining rails rest on a single sleeper
 Not used now a days, as it doesn’t support heavy axle loads by not providing
flexibility
Bridge joints  In India these types of joints are generally NOT used in Indian Railways
 Metal plates act as bridge

Base joints
SLEEPERS
 Members that are laid in TRANSVERSE direction to the rails, to
1. Support Rails firmly and evenly
2. Transfer loads from rails to ballast
3. To keep rails at correct gauge
4. To act as an elastic medium
5. To provide stability to permanent way
6. Provide tilting of rails (Adzing)
 Sleepers should be strong enough to withstand bending stresses
 Wooden sleepers are preferred on Joints
 The sleeper that satisfy the requirements of an ideal sleeper is Wooden Sleeper
TYPES OF SLEEPERS
1) Longitudinal: Earlier used by just filling slabs of stones OR pieces of wood placed parallel to rails. It had high cost and track was not stable
2) Transverse: Introduced in Britain in 1835, also k/a Cross sleepers (90O). There are 4 types of it
Timber/Wooden Sleepers Steel Sleepers
 Universally accepted  Cover about 30% of Total Indian Railway tracks
 Made of TEAK, Sal, Pine, Deodar, Fir etc.  To prevent change in gauge and creep, these sleepers
 TEAK is the best material are fastened and fixed by clips, bolts and FOUR keys
 Rails are fixed directly OR using Bearing plates or Chairs - Dog spikes, Screw  These consist of steel troughs made out of 6 mm thick
spikes steel sheets with both ends bent DOWN
 Life span: 12 years (10 - 20 years)  A CANT of 1 in 20 is provided towards the CENTRE
 Must be seasoned before use and later on preservatives are required  Corroded, Not good for track circuiting, damaged due
 In India to de-railment
1) Rectangular sleepers: Main lines  Not suitable for all type of ballast
2) Half rounded sleepers: Branch line  Good scrap value
 Are only suitable for track circuiting (an electric circuit through the tracks of  Good resistance against creep, provides good lateral
rails) and longitudinal resistance
 Provides best elasticity  Life: 30 - 40 years
 Less scrap value, Difficult to maintain gauge, Easily disturbed, High
maintenance and low life span
 De-railement is less, and useful for heavy loads at high speeds
 Standard size for MG: 1.83X20X11 cm
 Standard size for BG: 2.74X25X13
 Standard size for NG: 1.52X15X10
Cast Iron Sleepers Concrete Sleepers
 Cover about 50% of Total Indian Railway tracks, so most popular. Extensively  Either Reinforced or Pre-Stressed
used since 1870 (60% BG are Cast Iron)  First used in “Monier” in France in 1884
 Liable to crack and break  Became popular after WW2, but is still an experiment
 Classified as in India
POT/BOWL Sleepers: 2 oval shaped pots/bowls under each rail + connected  Used due to their heavier mass which improves track
through tie bar by gibs and cotter made of Wrought iron modulus
BOX Sleepers: Similar to Plate sleepers + box is provided on top of each plate  Has capacity to maintain gauge properly and suitability
PLATE Sleepers: 2 rectangular plates laid parallel to the rails + stiffners are for track circuiting
provided at the top  It has long life and free from fire hazard
CST-9 Sleepers: Combination of Pot, plate and box sleeper  NOT used in points and crossings
(CST: Central standard trial)  Life span: 30 - 40 years
DUPLEX Sleepers:used as rail joints + prevent cantilever action b/w 2 supported  Weight: 150 kg - 300 kg
joints  Suitable for Welded track rail, suitable for each and
 High Scrap value every condition, free from attack and less fittings
 Life Span: 35-50 years  Ordinary fastenings can not be used, removal is
 Difficult to maintain correct gauge and requires large number of fittings, difficult, No scrap value, de-railment is excessive
difficult for track circuiting
 Good longitudinal and lateral resistance
 Suitable for all types of ballast
 Low maintenance and dismantle cost, easily assembled as well
 Take about 6 months for complete consolidation
 De-railment is there

SLEEPER DENSITY

 Number of sleeper used per rail length

 Given as: N + x, where n is length of the rail and X may vary from 2 to 7 OR
(at times N+3 to N+6)
 In India sleeper density provided is 18 sleepers per rail length
 Minimum packing space b/w two sleepers = 300 to 350 mm
 The spacing is kept closer at the middle of the rails
 It can be increased due to fast moving rails on main line
COMPOSITE SLEEPER INDEX is the Index of Hardness and Strength @ 12% moisture content, which determines suitability of wooden sleepers. The
minimum index for wooden sleepers used over bridge girders is 1455, over cross over 1352 and track sleeper is 783
CSI = (S + 10H)/2

PLATE LAYING: Operation of laying out SLEEPERS, rails and fastenings on the compacted formation
There are three methods of it,
1. Tram-line method
2. Telescopic method: Extensively used in Indian Railways
3. American method
BALLAST
 Layer of Broken stones (best, k/a stone ballast), gravel(2nd), morrum (soft, laterite, red-yellow, unimportant), Ash/Cinder (residue), Sand
(unimportant lines), kankar, Brick bats, selected earth or any other gritty material, packed below sleepers. (Cubic/Angular)
 BOXING: The process of filling the ballast around the sleepers
 Its functions are,
1. Uniformly distribute load from sleepers to subgrade
2. Holds sleepers in position
3. Provides elasticity and resilience
4. Provides drainage and keeps sleepers dry
5. Prevents lateral, longitudinal and vertical movement of the track
6. Provides super elevation to the outer rail on curves
Main consideration for Blast in Indian Railways
Size of ballast for Wooden sleepers 50 mm
Size of ballast for Steel sleepers 38 mm
Size of ballast under Points and crossings 25 mm`
Standard width of Ballast for Broad Gauge 3.35 m
Standard width of Ballast for Metre Gauge 2.30 m
Min. Depth of Ballast for Broad Gauge 250 mm
Min. Depth of Ballast for Metre Gauge 200 mm

Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion (Db) Facts

1) Generally Ballast size is b/w 2 cm to 5 cm
2) Boxing of ballast is done at the rails
3) Wooden sleepers used on the girders of bridges are made of TEAK
4) Best wood for wooden sleeper is TEAK
5) Slope of Ballast 1.5: 1
 BALLAST WIDTH FORMATION WIDTH OF TRACK

Width of Ballast section for BG 3.35 m

Cutting: when ground has to be cut,

For shallow cutting: Depth = 3 m
For deep cutting: Depth > 3 m

SUB BALLAST SUB-GRADE/FORMATION

1. Prepared formation may be either in cutting or in 1. Prepared or finished surface - compacted earth
embankment, to distribute pressure uniformly 2. Maybe in cutting or filling (Embankment)
2. It’s either a layer of hard mooram, gravel or small sized 3. Must be compacted at OMC - settlement within desirable limits
black trap metal (kapchi) is laid on soil sub-grade to remove
any entrapped water percolating to the soil.

QUANTITY OF BALLAST
Gauge Types of Sleepers Approximate quantity of ballast in m3 per m-run
Board gauge Wooden 1.12
Steel or C.I. 1.02
Metre gauge Wooden 0.75
Steel 0.70
Narrow gauge Wooden 0.46

LONG WELDED RAIL (LWR)

 Number of rails connected with the help of welding are called Long
welded Rail
 In this, Expansion joints are provided and rail is welded to some kms and
then an expansion joint is provided

The main purpose of welding rails is

1) To reduce the number of joints, thereby saving construction and maintenance
2) Build up worn out parts of points and crossing
3) Build up the battered or worn heads of rail ends
4) To rebuild portions of rails, which are burnt due to slipping of wheels at the time of applying brakes

LENGTH OF BREATHING SECTION

 Generally, at the end of long welded rails, there is a movement observed in
the rail due to temperature variation
 This movement is observed because sufficient quantity of sleepers are not
provided at the end and the section at which the movement is observed is
called length of breathing section
If s is space b/w two sleepers
DESIGN OF RAILWAYS
MAXIMUM SPEED IN RAILWAYS
Maximum speed will be MINIMUM of the following: MARTIN FORMULA
1) Safe speed on Curve (MARTIN FORMULA) If Speed < 100 km/h and Transition curve is present
2) Max. Speed calculate on the basis of CANT Broad and Meter Gauge
3) Max. Speed on the basis of TRANSITION Curve Narrow Gauge
4) Sanctioned Speed as per RAILWAY BOARD
If Speed < 100 km/h and Transition curve is Absent
(80% of when Transition curve is present)
Broad and Meter Gauge
Narrow Gauge

For high speed > 100 km/h

Broad Gauge
For > 100 km/h we don’t use meter and narrow gauge

RELATION B/W DEGREE OF CURVE AND RADIUS OF CURVE

If we use 20 m CHAIN/CHORD If we use 30 m CHAIN/CHORD

 If in a question it is not given to take 20 m chain, take 30 m chain as default

 CURVES on tracks are LIMITED to the following Max. Radii:
Types of gauge Max. Degree of Curvature Minimum Radius
Broad Gauge 10O 175 m
Meter Gauge 16O 109 m
Narrow gauge 40O 44 m

RELATION B/W VERSINE OF CURVE AND RADIUS OF CURVE

GRADIENT
The Rise and Fall provided to the formation of the Rail track
Types of Gradient:
Ruling Gradient  Its the MAXIMUM gradient for which track can be laid
 Depends On: LOAD of the Train + Additional POWER of Locomotive
In Plains 1 in 150 TO 1 in 200
In Hilly Tracks 1 in 100 TO 1 in 150

Pusher Gradient  It is the Gradient where EXTRA ENGINE is required to push the train
 These are steeper than ruling gradients, and are provided in mountains to avoid heavy cutting or to reduce the
length of the track
Momentum Gradient  It is FALLING gradient FOLLOWED by a RISING gradient, along which train easily climb due to momentum gained.
 In such gradient, no signals are provided to stop the train
Station Yard Gradient  Minimum Gradient provided in Station yard for easy DRAINING of RAINWATER
 MAX: 1 in 400
 MIN: 1 in 1000
Grade Compensation of Curves
 It is the REDUCTION in gradient, to avoid resistance beyond allowable limits which reduces the speed of the train, on a curved portion of a
track.
 Expressed as PERCENTAGE PER DEGREE of curve
 Grade Compensation
Broad Gauge Curves 0.04% PER Degree 70/R
Meter Gauge Curves 0.03% PER Degree 52.5/R
Narrow Gauge Curves 0.02% PER Degree 35/R
SUPER-ELEVATION/CANT
Elevation provided to the Outer Rail w.r.t Inner rail at the circular curve to counteract the effect of Centrifugal force
Gauge Permissible CANT Permissible CANT
(V < 120 km/h) (V > 120 km/h)
BG 165 mm 185 mm
MG 100 mm -
NG 75 mm -

 Limiting value of CANT gradient for all GAUGES = 1 in 720

 Normally limiting value of CANT is G/10
Equilibrium speed
 Different trains move with different velocities, so equilibrium speed is the average speed for which CANT is provided, at this point it is said
that when resultant of weight and centrifugal force is perpendicular to the plain of rails
 It can be calculated as
If Designed speed < 50 km/h Minimum of  VMAX
 Safe speed as per Martin’s Formula
If designed speed > 50 km/h Minimum of  3/4 of VMAX
 Safe speed as per Martin’s Formula
On the basis of frequency

CANT Deficiency
 Generally CANT is provided for EQUILIBRIUM SPEED, which is ACTUAL CANT PROVIDED, but if high speed train moving on a curve, then there
is deficiency of CANT for its movement, as it requires higher CANT than the actual provided one. This deficiency is k/a CANT deficiency
 Limits for CANT deficiencies
Gauge Max. CANT deficiency (</= 100 km/h) Max. CANT deficiency (> 100 km/h)
Broad Gauge 75 mm 100 mm
Mater Gauge 50 mm We don’t go for Meter gauge for V > 100 km/h
Narrow Gauge 40 mm We don’t go for Meter gauge for V > 100 km/h
CANT Excess
 Generally CANT is provided for EQUILIBRIUM SPEED, which is ACTUAL CANT PROVIDED, but if low speed train moving on a curve, then there is
excess of CANT for its movement, as it requires lower CANT than the actual provided one. This deficiency is k/a CANT excess.
 This may lead to overturn towards inner side of the rail
 Limits for CANT Excess
Gauge Max. CANT excess
Broad Gauge 75 mm
Mater Gauge 65 mm
Negative CANT
 If the Positive CANT is provided for the main line, then this value of CANT will be negative for Branch line and the Negative
CANT is called negative super elevation
CURVES
Transition Curve/Easement curve
 It is curve used to connect a STRAIGHT track to CIRCULAR track
 Used to gradually INTRODUCE centrifugal force
 Used for INTRODUCTION of CANT
 The transition curve have Radius = INFINITY at one end and R at the other end
 There are 3 types of Transition curves provided
1. Spiral
2. Bernoulli’s lemniscate
3. Cubic parabola: In Railways generally these are used
Safe speed on a Curve (As per MARTIN’s formula)
For V < 100 km/h, when Transition curve is present For V < 100 km/h, when Transition curve is Absent
For Broad gauge and Meter gauge Broad and Meter Gauge
For Narrow gauge Narrow Gauge
Length of Transition Curve Its 80% of what we have in Transition curve
Where R is in meters
Min. Length of Transition Curve

S = Super-ele in mm
V = Max permiss V in km/h

For high speed > 100 km/h (Doesnt matter if transition curve is there or not)
Broad Gauge
For > 100 km/h we don’t use meter and narrow gauge

Extra widening in circular curve

 Widening of gauge is provided if Degree of curve is > 4O (or maybe 4.5)
 Why to provide?:
 When curves arrive the flange of the wheel will rub the rail, as wheel tends to travel straight. In fact wear of flanges eases the passage
of vehicle round curves, as the axle is rigid one and not the flexible one.
 So Extra widening is provided to decrease the wear and tear due to wheel and flange BINDING
 Due to conning of wheels the outside wheel tends to cover more distance than inside. BUT as the wheel base is rigid, so this is impossible,
thus in effort to make up the difference, the
1. Inner wheel Slip backwards
2. Out wheel Skid forward

Bending of Rails
If Curvature is < 3O Curves are considered as FLAT CURVES and rails are kept in curved position by sleepers positioned in ballast
If Curvature is > 3O Curves are considered as SHARP Curves and bending of rail is provided
Shift in transition curve Length of transition curve
It is Maximum of these three
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

Rate of introduction of Super-elevation 1) When pavement is rotated about inner

edge
Ls = eN (W + We)
2) When pavement is rotated about centre
line
Ls = [eN (W + We)]/2
N = 150 for plain and rolling terrain
N = 100 for built up area
N = 60 for hilly terrain
Empirical formula/IRC formula a) For Plain and rolling terrain
Ls = 2.7 X [V2/R]
b) For Hilly and steep terrain
Ls = [V2/R]
V = Design speed in km/h
E = Rate of super elevation
W = Normal pavement width
We = Extra widening
1/N = Rate of change of super elevation
Ls = Length of transition curve
POINTS AND CROSSINGS

 The arrangements which are made for directing the trains from the MAIN LINES to BRANCH LINES or to CROSS OVER from
one track to another without any obstruction are called Points and crossings
 POINTS: Operated for directing trains from one track to another
 CROSSINGS: Provide required gap b/w the rails to be crossed, to enable wheel flanges to pass through the gaps
 Combination of Points and Crossings that enables the trains to be diverted from one track to another: TURN OUT
 The Track from which Main line diverts is called a MAIN LINE
 Simplest arrangement of points and crossing is k/a SPLIT SWITCH
 Type of Turn out in which both turn out rails are movable is k/a WARTON SAFETY SWITCH

Term Description Visuals

Stock Rail  They are fixed rails of the track against which a tongue rails fit.
Tongue rail  They are the tapered rails which moves and fit snugly against
their respective stock rails.
 They are also called Switch rails or Point rails
Switch angle  The angle subtended b/w the Gauge faces of the stock rail and
the tongue rail

Throw of switch  The distance b/w the Running face of stock rail and the toe of
the tongue rail.
 For Indian Railways, it is specified as 95 mm for BG and 89 mm
for MG tracks
Heel block  It is a CAST IRON block to which the tongue
rails and lead rails both are bolted to their
respective stock rail

Heel clearance/  It is the distance b/w the running edge of the

Heel divergence stock rail and the switch rail at the switch
heel.
 It is always measured perpendicular to the
stock rail.
 For Indian Railways, it is specified as 137-133
mm for BG tracks and 117-121 mm

Flange way  It is the distance b/w the adjacent faces of the stock rail and check rail.
clearance  Its MIN value is 60 mm
Check rail  These are the rails which are provided to guide the wheel
flanges, while the opposite wheel is jumping over the gap in
front of the nose and thus prevents sideways movement.

Lead rail  Lead rail: They lead the train from the heels of the
tongue rail to the toe of crossing
Point rail
 Point rail: The rail of the main track which forms
Splice rail the one side of the nose of crossing

 Splice rail: The rail of the branch line which meets

the point rail at the nose of crossing

Nose of  Nose of crossing: It is the point of intersection of the running

crossing faces of the splice rail and point rail

Angle of  Angle of crossing: It is the angle between the point rail and
Crossing splice rail of a crossing

Wing rail  It is the bent up length of the rails in front of the nose of crossing,
which are provided for channelizing the wheel flanges to their
proper routes

Facing points  These are such points, the train pass over the switches and then over crossings
Trailing points  These are such points the train pass over the crossings and then over switches
Flare  It is the gradual widening of flange way formed by bending the
ends of check rails or wing rail away from the running faces of
the adjacent rails
CROSSINGS/FROG
 A crossing is a device introduced at the junction where
two rails cross each other to permit the wheel flange of a
railway vehicle to pass from one track to another
 The crossing is designated by the number which is the
ratio of the spread at the leg of the crossing to the length
of the crossings from its theoretical nose
 In Indian Railways, the crossing number used for good is
8.5 and for passenger turnouts is 12.
 ANC: Actual Nose of Crossing is the toe of the blunt face
nose
 TNC: Theoretical Nose of the crossing is the theoretical
point where the gauge faces from both the sides intersect
Types of Crossing
Acute OR V-Crossing  The crossing in which the right hand rail of one track
crosses the left hand rail of another track at an acute angle
 Consists of point and splice rails or two point rails, a pair of
wing rails and a pair of check rails

Obtuse Angle Or Diamond Crossing  The crossing in which a track crosses another track of same
or different gauge at an obtuse angle
 Consists of bent running rail partly used for both tracks, a
pair of point rails and a bent wing rail fixed opposite the
throat
Square Crossing  The Crossing in which one track crosses another track of
same or different gauge at an right angle
 The crossing on main line should be avoided as it causes
heavy wear due to impact of moving loads

Methods to calculate crossing angles and number of Crossing, N

Centre line method

N=
Cole’s method
N=
Isosceles triangle
method
N=

TRACK JUNCTIONS
It is formed by the combination of points and crossings for diverting trains from one track to another
Turnouts  It enables the train to be diverted from one track to another
Double turnout or Tandem  The arrangement of two turnouts taking off from the main track for different directions
 Consists of two pairs of switches, four check rails and three acute angle crossings
Diamond crossing  When a track crosses another track of same or different gauge at any angle
Symmetrical split  When a straight track splits up in two different directions at equal radii.
Three throw switch  When two turnouts take off from the same point of the main straight track
 It requires two sets of switches and three crossings
Double junction  The arrangement made for two parallel tracks to
diverge from two parallel tracks.

Single slip and Double slip  A slip in which the track can be changed from one
direction only is Single slip
 A slip in which track can be changed in two
directions in Double slip

Cross over  The arrangement made to divert a train from one

track to another parallel track.
 It requires two sets of switches and two crossings
Scissor cross over or  When two cross overs are laid between two tracks
Double cross over  It enables the trains from opposite directions to
change the track

Gauntlet track  When one track is superimposed on the another

track such as on rivers, bridges
STATION
Station: Defacto HQ of running train, without the authority of which train can not move
A railway station is provided for one or more of the following purposes.
1) To entrain or detrain
2) To load or unload goods or parcels
3) To control the movements of trains
4) To enable trains to cross each other in the case of a single line section
5) To enable faster trains to overtake slower ones
6) To enable locomotive to refuel, whether it is diesel, water or coal
7) To attach or detach coaches or wagons to trains
8) To collect food and water for passengers
9) To enable sorting out of wagons and bogies to form new trains
10) To provide facilities and give shelter to passengers in the case of emergencies such as floods and accidents, which disrupt
traffic.
Selection of SITE FOR STATION
The following factors are considered when selecting a site for a railway station
1. Adequate land
2. Level area with good drainage
 In India, the Max. Permissible gradient adopted is 1 in 400, but a gradient of 1 in 1000 is desirable
3. Alignment
4. Easy accessibility
5. Water supply management
Classification of railway station
Broadly classified on the basis of two main considerations:

1) Operational consideration
1. Block station: Here driver has to obtain an authority to proceed in order to enter the next block section. The entire
railway line is divided into convenient block sections of 5 to 10 km and a block station is provided at the end of each
block .
a) A Class
A. Provided on double line section
B. Suitable for section where traffic passes rapidly
C. Outer signal is provided @ 540 m for BG and @ 400 m for MG
D. Home signal located at door of the station
E. Starter signal controls the movement of train which is to start
F. Warner signal placed to indicate vicinity of home signal
b) B Class
A. This is the most common type of station and is provided on single line as well as double line sections
B. Here track is to be cleared upto a specific distance beyond the outer signal before the train is permitted to
approach the station.
C. The station have an outer and home signal
c) C Class
A. For controlling movements of the train
B. It is only a block hut where no booking of passengers is done
C. Provided to split a long block section so that interval b/w successive train is reduced
D. No train normally stops at these station
E. It only has home and warner signal
2. Non block station or D Class or Flag station
a) Located b/w two block stations and do not form the boundary of any block section
b) No signals are provided in here

2) Functional characteristics
1. Halt station
a) Usually has only a rail level platform with a name board at either end
b) Sometimes a small waiting shed is also provided, which also serves as a booking office
c) There is no yard or station building or staff provided for such types of stations
2. Flag station
a) It is more important as a stop-over for trains than a HALT and is provided with a station building and staff
b) A flag station is usually provided with a small waiting hall and book office, platforms and benches, and
arrangements for drinking water
3. Crossing station/Wayside station
a) A crossing station has arrangements for controlling the movement of trains on block sections, even for
overtaking slow trains.
b) Can be on single or double line
4. Junction station
a) A junction station is the meeting point of three or more lines emerging fro different directions.
b) Normally at junctions, trains arrive on branch lines and return to the same station from where they started or
proceed to other stations from where they again return to their originating stations
c) For crossing of trains, overtaking by fast trains
d) Facility of booking for passengers and goods
5. Terminal station
a) The station at which a railway line or one of its branches terminates is k/a terminal station.
b) Here engine reversal, sliding and examination pits are provided
PLATFORMS
There are two types of platforms
1) Passenger platforms
2) Goods platforms
Passenger platforms
1. Height of passenger platform above the rail surface should be
a) Broad gauge: 76.2 cm to 83.8 cm
b) Meter Gauge: 30.5 cm to 40 cm
c) Narrow Gauge: 22.9 cm to 40.6 cm
2. Distance between centre line of track and the platform should not be less than
a) 1.676 m for BG
b) 1.343 m for MG
c) 1.219 m for NG
3. Width of platform, under no circumstances should be less than 4 m.
4. Length of the platform
a) Should be more than the longest train which is moving on that section
b) It should not be less than 300 m for BG
c) Gorakhpur railway station, UP, India: 1,366.33 m (4,483 ft) (longest in the world)
Goods Platform
1. Used for Loading/Unloading of goods from the wagons
2. The heights of goods platform above the rail surface should be
a) BG: 107 cm
b) MG: 69 cm
c) NG: 61 cm
Minimum Horizontal distance b/w the centre line of the track and any structure or building (in m) for passenger and goods
platform are:
Platform Broad Gauge Mater gauge Narrow gauge
Passenger 5.33 5.0 4.88
Goods 4.72 3.18 3.05

YARDS
 A yard is a system of tracks laid out to deal with the passenger as well as goods traffic being handheld by the railways
 This includes receipt and dispatch of trains apart from stabling, sorting, marshalling etc.
 Classification of yards:
Coaching yard  The main function of a coaching yard is to deal with the reception and dispatch of passenger trains
 Also k/a Passenger yard
Goods yard  A goods yard provides facilities for the reception, stabling, loading, unloading, and dispatch of goods
wagon
 Most goods yards deal with a full train load of wagons
Marshalling yard  The marshalling yard is a yard where goods trains are received and sorted out, and new trains are
formed and finally dispatched to various destinations
 A marshalling yard serves the following functions at the specified locations within the yard itself.
a) Reception of trains
b) Sorting of trains
c) Departure of trains
 It can be Flat, hump or gravity yard
Locomotive yard  This is the yard which houses the locomotive
 Facilities for watering, fuelling, examining locomotives, repairing etc., are provided in this yard
Sick line yard  Whenever a wagon or coach becomes defective, it is marked ‘sick’ and taken to sick lines. This yard
deals with such sick wagons.

TRACK MAINTENANCE
 Railway tracks can be maintained either conventionally by manual labour or by the application of modern methods of track
maintenance such as mechanical tamping or measured shovel packing.
 Need of track maintenance:
a) Due to the constant movement of heavy and high speed trains, the packing under the sleepers becomes loose and the
track geometry gets disturbed. The gauge, alignment, and longitudinal as well as cross levels of the track thus get
affected adversely and the safety of the track is jeopardized
b) Due to the vibrations and impact of high-speed trains, the fittings of the track come undone and there is heavy wear
and tear of the track and its components.
c) The track and its components get worn out as a result of the weathering affect of rain, sun and sand.
 Advantages of track maintenance
a) If the track is suitably maintained, the life of the track as well as that of the rolling stock increases since there is lesser
wear and tear of their components
b) Regular track maintenance helps in reducing operating costs and fuel consumption
c) Small maintenance jobs done at the appropriate time such as tightening a bolt or key, hammering the dog spike etc.,
helps in avoiding loss of the concerned fitting and thus saving on the associated expenditure
d) When track maintenance is neglected for a long time, it may render the track beyond repair, calling for heavy track
renewals that entail huge expenses
 In India, maintaining tracks has traditionally been a manual activity and the “calender system of maintenance” has been
taken. In this system, a timetable that outlines the track maintenance work to be done by the gangs in the course of a year
is drawn out and generally followed
 As per the timetable or calendar, the 12 month cycle of maintenance consists of the following operations
Through packing 1. Opening of road
a) The ballast is dug out on either side of the rail seat for a depth of 50 mm (2”) below the
bottom of the sleeper.
b) On the outside, the width of the opening should extend up to the end of the sleeper
c) On the inside, it should extend from the ril seat to a distance of
 450 mm (18”) in the case of BG
 350 mm (14”) in the case of MG
 250 mm (10”) in the case of NG
2. Examination of rails, sleepers and fastenings
a) The rails, sleepers and fastenings to be used are thoroughly examined
b) Defective sleepers are removed and loose fastenings are tightened
c) Any kinks in rails are removed
3. Squaring of sleepers
a) The sleepers get out of square quite frequently resulting in gauge variations and kinks. To
avoid this, one of the rails is taken as the sighting rail and the correct sleeper spacing is
marked on it.
4. Aligning the track
a) The alignment of the track is normally checked visually, wherein the rail is visually
assessed from a distance of about four rail lengths or so.
b) It is checked for a distance of 25-30 meters
5. Gauging
a) The gauge should be checked and an attempt should be made to provide a uniform gauge
within permissible tolerance limits
 For BG: 1676 mm
 For MG: 1000 mm
 For NG: 762 mm
6. Packing of sleepers
a) The sleepers are then packed by applying the scissors packing method
b) It is done with respect of one fixed sleeper to others
c) Each sleeper should be acked at a time by 4 members
d) After packing they will be blown, and a hollow sound will indicate defective packing.
Systematic overhauling 1) The track should be overhauled periodically with the object of ensuring that the best possible
standards of track conditions are met and maintained
2) The systematic overhauling of the track should normally commence after the completion of one
cycle of through packing. It involves the following operations in sequence.
a) Shallow screening and making up of ballast section
b) Replacement of damaged or broken fittings
c) All items included in through packing
d) Making up the cess
3) The frequency of overhauling depends upon a number of factors such as
a) The type and age of track structure
b) The maximum permissible speed and volume of traffic
c) The mode of traffic
d) The mode of traction
e) The rate of track deterioration
f) The amount of rainfall in the region
Picking up slacks 1. Slacks are those points in the track where the running of train is faulty or substandard
2. Slacks generally occur in the following eases:
a) Stretches of yielding formation
b) Poorly maintained sections that have loose packing, bad alignment, and improper
longitudinal and cross levels
c) Improper aligned curves
d) Approaches to level crossings, girder bridges, etc., particularly in sags
e) Portions of track with poor drainage
f) Sections with an inadequate or unclean ballast cushion
g) Other miscellaneous reasons

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

Triangle A device used for changing direction of engine
Turn Table Used for changing the direction of engine
Traverser Used to shift the position of wagons, coaches and locomotives sideways from one track to a
parallel track
Buffer Stop It is provided to prevent the vehicles from moving beyond the end of rails at terminal or sliding
Scotch Block and Sand Hump These are used for preventing the movement of vehicles beyond dead end sidings
SIGNALLING
 To control and regulate the movement of trains safely and efficiently
 Are provided to achieve, regulation of departure and arrival, ensure safety b/w trains which cross or approach each other,
safety at rail crossing, ensure safety when branch or siding meets the main, to guide trains during maintenance and repair.
 The Signals are classified as
1) According to function
Stop or semaphore signal  In its normal or horizontal position it shows STOP or DANGER position
 When lowered by pulling wire, it is said to be in off position
Warner signal  Similar to semaphore, except a V-notch is provided at the free end.
 It warns driver of the corresponding position of semaphore signal
Disc or shunting signal  Used for shunting operations for low speed
 Circular disc with red band on white background
Coloured light signal  Automatically operated
 Indications by electric lightening
2) According to location
Outer signal  1st stop signal, which regulates the entry of trains from a block to the station yard
 Outer signal is kept from the station limit @ 540 meters for BG and @ 400 m for
MG.
 In danger the driver should stop at a distance of 90 m before outer signal
Home signal  Located at the entry of station
 Indicates line to be used by train
 Generally located not more than 180 m from the start of switches
Starter signal  At a place where trains are stopping at a station
 For each line separate starting signal is provided
 It controls the movement of train when it starts from the station
Advanced starter signal  Provided 180 m beyond the trailing switches.
 This signal is last stop signal at the station

SIGNALLING SYSTEM
Absolute block system  Railway line is developed in block sections
 Only one train can move at a time in one block.
 All the block stations are linked in series both telegraphically and telephonically for verbal
exchange of information for the movement of trains
Space interval system  Used on single line working
Time interval system  Used in emergency when block system fails
Pilot guard system  Used when message can not be conveyed to the next station by telephone or telegraph

INTERLOCKING
 It is relationship b/w various levers operating the signals and points. It is facilitated by grouping levers at on point.
 In order to identify, levers are painted as
1. For stop: RED
2. For locks: Blue
3. For Warner: Green
4. For Crossing gate: Yellow
5. For points: Black
6. For square use: WHITE
 Three standard methods of interlocking are
1) Key system: k/a Indirect locking. Used in small stations, it works on
1. Single lock and key system
2. Double lock and key system
2) Route relay system: The points and signals are electrically operated. Most modern and sophisticated method
3) Tappet and locks system: Very useful when levers are required to be interlocked to prevent conflicting movements.
Tappets are attached to levers.