Introduction

The earth consists of a bewildering variety of elements

and compounds. In addition, we have been synthesizing
new alloys, compounds and even elements. One would
like to classify the magnetic properties of these
substances. All materials are magnetic, in the sense that
they are magnetic properties. The fact that atoms
consist of moving electrons, which make up a current
loop. every atomic electron thus has a dipole moment.
The magnitude of dipole moment would be given by I A .
Here we must keep in mind that the electronic orbital
radius as well as the speed of electrons in each orbit
differs. This results in a range of magnetic dipole
moments.
The net effect or the collective effect determines the gross magnetic property of the material.

In this module, we define and explain certain terms which will help us to classify materials on
the basis of magnetic properties. This new classification is in addition to those we have
considered on the basis of say mass density, elastic property or optical density etc.

Classification of Materials
The discussion in the previous modules helps us to classify materials on the basis of their
behaviour in a magnetic field.
They are divided intothreecategories
● Diamagnetic materials
● Paramagnetic materials
● Ferromagnetic materials

Diamagnetic Substances
Diamagnetic substances are those substances which get feebly magnetized in the opposite
direction of the magnetizing field. Such substances are feebly repelled by magnets and tend to
move from stronger to weaker parts of the magnetic field. Examples of diamagnetic
substances areBismuth, copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold,silicon, nitrogen and silver.

Cause of Diamagnetism
The simplest explanation for diamagnetism is as follows. Electrons in an atom orbiting around a
nucleus possess orbital angular momentum. These orbiting electrons are equivalent to current-
carrying loop and thus possess orbital magnetic
Diamagnetic substances are the ones in which the resultant magnetic moment in an
atom is zero.
All substances are diamagnetic: the strong external magnetic field speeds up or slows down the
electrons orbiting in atoms in such a way as to oppose the action of the external field. When an
external magnetic field is applied, across a diamagnetic material, those electrons having orbital
magnetic moment in the same direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up.
This happens due to induced current in accordance with Lenz’s law.
Thediamagnetismofsomematerials,Diamagnetismis observable insubstanceswith symmetric
electronic structure (as ionic crystals and rare gases) and no permanent magnetic moment.
As above, diamagnetism is scarcely affected by changes in temperature.
For diamagnetic materials the value of the susceptibility (a measure of the relative amount of
induced magnetism) is always negative
Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic moment in direction opposite to that of the
applied field and hence repulsion.
Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water and
sodium chloride.

Diamagnetism is present in all the substances.

However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it gets shifted by other effects like
paramagnetism, ferromagnetism etc.

Properties of Diamagnetic Substances

● Diamagnetic substances are feebly magnetized in the opposite direction of the
magnetizing field.
● They are feebly repelled by magnets.
● They tend to move from stronger to weaker parts of the magnetic field.
● The field lines are repelled or expelled and the
field inside the material is reduced.

● When a thin and long rod of a diamagnetic

substance is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself
perpendicular to the magnetizing field.

● Their magnetic susceptibility is negative and small.

 ● The relative permeability is positive but less than one
● The magnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
● The magnetization of a diamagnetic substance lasts so long as the magnetizing
field is applied.

Example: Answer Why is diamagnetism almost independent oftemperature?

Inasampleof diamagneticsubstance,eachmoleculeis not amagneticdipoleitself,even
thougheachelectrondoesSo,therandomthermalmotionofthemoleculesdoes not affect
themagnetismofthesample.Thus,the diamagnetism isalmostindependentof
temperature.

Paramagnetic Substances
Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetized when placed in an external
magnetic field. They have a tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong
magnetic field. They get weakly attracted to a magnet.
Some examples of paramagnetic substances are manganese aluminium, chromium,
platinum, sodium, copper chloride and oxygen at STP.

Cause of Paramagnetism
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent
magnetic dipole moment of their own. On account of the ceaseless random thermal motion of
the atoms, no net magnetization is seen. In the presence of an external field, which is strong
enough, and at low temperatures, the individual atomic dipole moment can be made to align
and point in the same direction as the applied field.

Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium, oxygen (at STP) and copper
chloride.
Curie’s Law
Experimentally, it was found that the magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, T
M= C B0/ T
equivalently, χm= C µ0/ T
This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pierre Curie (1859- 1906).
The constant C is called Curie’s constant. Thus, for a paramagnetic material both χ and µr
depend not only on the material, but also (in a simple way) on the sample temperature.

As the field is increased or the temperature is lowered, the

magnetisation increases until it reaches the saturation
value, at which point all the dipoles are perfectly aligned
with the field. Beyond this, Curie’s law is no longer valid.

Properties of Paramagnetic Substances

● Paramagnetic substances are feebly magnetized in the
direction of the magnetizing field.
● They are feebly attracted by magnets.
● They tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of
the magnetic field.

● The field lines get concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.

● When a thin and long rod of a diamagnetic substance is suspended freely in a uniform
magnetic field, it aligns itself parallel to the magnetizing field.
● Their magnetic susceptibility is positive and small.
● The relative permeability is positive but slightly more than one.
● The magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.
● The intensity of magnetization is directly proportional to the strength of the
magnetizing field.

● The magnetization of a paramagnetic substance lasts so long as the magnetizing field

is applied.
Note
A miniscule difference in the value of χ the magnetic susceptibility, yields radically
different behavior: diamagnetic versus paramagnetic.
For diamagnetic materials χ = –10–5
whereas χ = +10–5for paramagnetic materials.

Example
Why does a paramagnetic substance show greater magnetization for the same magnetizing
field at low temperatures?
Answer
The tendency to disrupt the alignment of dipoles with the magnetizing field arising from
random thermal motion decreases with decrease in temperature.

Example
How does the magnetic field due to a current in a toroid change if the core is a bismuth rod?

Answer
As bismuth is diamagnetic and it gets magnetized in a direction opposite to the magnetizing
field, so the field in the toroid will be slightly less than when the core is empty.

Ferromagnetic Substances
Ferromagnetic substances are those which get strongly magnetized when placed in an external
magnetic field. They have a tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong
magnetic field. They get strongly attracted to a magnet.
Some examples of ferromagnetic substances are iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys like
alnico

Cause of Ferromagnetism
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material possess a dipole moment
as in a paramagnetic material. However, they interact with one another in such a way that they
spontaneously align themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called
domain. The explanation of this cooperative effect requires quantum mechanics and is beyond
the scope of this textbook.
Magnetic Field Absent Magnetic Field Present

Each domain has a net magnetisation. Typical domain size is 1mm and the domain contains
about 1011 atoms. In the first instant, the magnetisation varies randomly from domain to
domain and there is no bulk magnetisation. This is shown in Fig. . When we apply an external
magnetic field B0, the domains orient themselves in the direction of B0 and simultaneously
the domain oriented in the direction of B0grows insize.

Temperature Dependence of Ferromagnetism

The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At high enough temperature, a
ferrimagnet becomes a paramagnet. The domain structure disintegrates with temperature. This
disappearance of magnetisation with temperature is gradual. It is a phase transition reminding
us of the melting of a solid crystal. The temperature of transition from
ferromagnetic to paramagnetic is called the Curie Temperature Tc. The susceptibility above
the Curie temperature, i.e., in the paramagnetic phase is described by,

(t >tc)
𝐶
χ= 𝑇−𝑇𝑐

Curie temperature for some ferromagnetic materials

Properties of Ferromagnetic Substances
● Ferromagnetic substances are strongly magnetized in the direction of the magnetizing
field.
● They Are strongly attracted to magnets.
● They tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of the magnetic field.
● The field lines get strongly concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is
greatly enhanced.

● When a thin and long rod of a ferromagnetic substance is suspended freely in a

uniform magnetic field, it quickly aligns itself parallel to the magnetizing field.

● Their magnetic susceptibility is positive and large. It is of the order of several

thousand.
The relative permeability is positive and large.
●
The magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic substance decreases with temperature
●
according to Curie-Weiss law, χm= C/(T-Tc) whereTcis Curie temperature.
At a certain temperature called Curie point the susceptibility suddenly decreases and
●
the substance becomes paramagnetic.
The intensity of magnetization depends on the strength of the magnetizing field and
●
also on the past magnetic and mechanical history of the material.
A ferromagnetic substance retains magnetism even after the magnetizing field is
●
removed.

Example
A domain in ferromagnetic iron is in the form of a cube of side length 1μm. Estimate the number
of iron atoms in the domain and the maximum possible dipole moment and magnetisation of the
domain. The molecular mass of iron is 55 g/mole and its density is 7.9 g/cm3. Assume that each
iron atom has a dipole moment of 9.27×10-24 A m2.

Solution
The volume of the cubic domain is
V= (10–6m)3= 10–18m3= 10–12cm3
Its mass is volume × density = 7.9 g cm-3× 10-12cm3=7.9 × 10-12g
It is given that Avogadro number (6.023 × 1023) of iron atoms have amass of 55 g. Hence, the
number of atoms in the domain is
N = 7.9 10-12 6.023 1023/55
×

× ×
= 8.65 × 1010atoms
The maximum possible dipole momentmmaixs achieved for the (unrealistic) case when all the
atomic moments are perfectly aligned.
Thus,
mmax = (8.65 × 1010
) × (9.27 × 10 )
-24

= 8.0 × 10-13A m2
The consequent magnetisation is
Mmax=mmax/Domain volume
= 8.0 × 10-13Am2/10-18m3
= 8.0 × 105Am-1

Example
Is the permeability of a ferromagnetic substance independent of temperature?
Answer: No

Example
Would the maximum possible magnetization of a paramagnetic substance be of the same order
as magnetization of a ferromagnetic substance?
Answer
Yes, the individual atomic dipole of two different materials, a paramagnetic with saturated
magnetization will have the same order of magnetization, but the saturation requires an
impractically high magnetizing field.

Example
A certain region of space is to be shielded from magnetic fields, suggest a method.
Answer
Surround the region with soft iron rings. Magnetic field lines will be drawn into the rings and
the enclosed space will be free of magnetic field.
This shielding is not perfect shielding like the one in electrostatics.
Magnetic physical quantities their symbols, nature dimensions units and inter relation

Magnetic Hysteresis
The relation between B and H in ferromagnetic materials is complex. It is often not linear and it
depends on the magnetic history of the sample. Figure below depicts the behaviour of the
material as we take it through one cycle of magnetisation.

Let the material be unmagnetised initially.We place it in a solenoid and increase the current
through the solenoid. The magnetic field B in the material rises and saturates as depicted in
the curve Oa. This behaviour represents the alignment and merger of domains until no
further
 Itis pointless to increase the current (and hence the magnetic

enhancement is possible. intensity H) beyond this.

N e x t , w e d e c r e a s e H a n d r e d u c e i t t o z e r o . A t H = 0 , B ≠ 0 . Th is is
r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c u r v e a b . T h e v a l u e o f B a t H = 0 i s c a lle d
retentivity or remanence. The domains are not completely randomized even though the external
driving field has been removed. Next, the current in the solenoid is reversed and slowly
increased. Certain domains are flipped until the net field inside stands nullified. This is
represented by the curve bc. The value of H at c is calledcoercivity. As the reversed current is
increased in magnitude, we once again obtain saturation. The curve cd depicts this. Next, the
current is reduced (curve de) and reversed (curve ea). The cycle repeats itself. Note that the
curve Oa does not retrace itself as H is reduced. For a given value of H, B is not unique but
depends on the previous history of the sample. This phenomenon is called hysteresis. The word
hysteresis means lagging behind (and not ‘history the hysteresis curve allows us to select
suitable materials for permanent magnets.

Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets Permanent Magnets

Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property for a long
period
. of time are called permanent magnets
One can also hold a steel rod and stroke it with one end of a bar magnet a large number of
times, always in the same sense to make a permanent magnet. An efficient way to make a
permanent magnet is to place a ferromagnetic rod in a solenoid and pass a current. The
magnetic field of the solenoid magnetises the rod. The hysteresis curve allows us to select
suitable materials for permanent magnets.The materialshould have:
● High retentivity so that the magnet is strong.
● High coercivity so that the magnetisation is not erased by stray magnetic fields,
temperature fluctuations or minor mechanical damage.
● Further, the material should have a high permeability.
Steel is a one-favoured choice. It has a slightly smaller retentivity than soft iron but this is
outweighed by the much smaller coercivity of soft iron. Other suitable materials for
permanent magnets are alnico, cobalt steel and ticonal.

Electromagnets
Core of electromagnets are made of ferromagnetic materials which have
 ● high permeability
● low retentivity
● Less B-H area curve

Soft iron is a suitable material for electromagnets.

A soft iron core in solenoid acts as an electromagnet

A soft iron core in solenoid acts as an electromagnet. In certain applications, the material goes
through an ac cycle of magnetization for a long period. This is the case in transformer cores and
telephone diaphragms. The hysteresis curve of such materials must be narrow. The energy
dissipated and the heating will consequently be small. Electromagnets are used in electric bells,
loudspeakers and telephone diaphragms.
 Conclusion

Consider a material placed in an external magnetic field B0. The magnetic intensity is defined as, µ0=
B0/H.
The magnetization M of the material is its dipole moment per unit volume.
The magnetic field B in the material is, B = µ0(H+ M). For a linear material
M = χ H. So that B = µ H and χ is called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
The three quantities, χ, the relative magnetic permeability µr , and the magnetic
permeability µ are related as follows: µ = µ0µrandµr= 1+ χ
Magnetic materials are broadly classified as: diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and
ferromagnetic.
For diamagnetic materials χ is negative and small and for paramagnetic materials it is
positive and small.