HS4101 Communicative English Unit II - A ready reference

UNIT II
A Ready Reference
Part A
Prepositions
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that tells you when or where something is in relation to something
else. There are over 100 prepositions in English and using them correctly can be difficult,
especially for learners. Although most prepositions are single words such as ‘at’, ‘on’, ‘to’,
‘from’, some pairs and groups of words operate like single prepositions, for example ‘up to’,
‘out of’ ‘in front of’ etc.
Below is a list of commonly-used propositions with their meaning and a sentence showing
how they are used.
Preposition Meaning Example
About on the subject of; connected Have you heard about the party? We’re all invited.
with
Above higher than, or over The sun is above the clouds.
Across from one side to the other It’s dangerous to run across the road.
After following something; behind The boy ran after the ball.
later than I’ll phone you after lunch.
Against in opposition to Stealing is against the law.
in contact with The sofa is against the wall.
Along from one end to the other They are walking along the street.

Among surrounded by Peter was among the spectators.

Around in a circle He walked around the table.

near, approximately It costs around 50 euros.
At - place Carla will wait for me at the cinema.
age He left home at the age of fourteen.
time Driving is more difficult at night.
away (from) at a distance from The boy ran away from home.
Before earlier than The day before yesterday.
in front of He bowed before the king.
Behind at the back of Passengers sit behind the driver.
Below lower than His shorts are below his knees.
Beneath Under The pen was beneath the books.
Beside next to The bank is beside the cinema.
Between in the space separating two Mary sat between Tom and Jane.
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things
By near, at the side of The restaurant is by the river.
not later than The boss wants the report by Friday.
close to Near The school is close to the church.
Down from higher to lower She pulled down the blind.
For what is intended I bought this book for you.
From where something starts or The wind is blowing from the north.
originates
In - at a point within an area The pen is in the drawer.
- time In the afternoon, in the past/future
- location/place She works in an office in New York.
in front of directly before The child ran out in front of the bus.
Inside on the inner part of The bird is inside the cage.
Into enter a closed space He went into the shop.
Near close to The school is near the church.
next to Beside The bank is next to the cinema.
Off down or away from He fell off the horse.

On position touching a surface The plate is on the table.

time Christmas is on December 25th.
location/place The offices are on 5th Avenue.
Onto move to a position on a surface The cat jumped onto the roof of the car.
Opposite facing, on the other side Eva sat opposite Tom at the table.
out of move from a closed space He got out of the taxi.
without She’s out of work.
Outside opposite of inside The garden is outside the house.
on the outer side
Over above/across The plane flew over the Atlantic.
on the surface of She put a sheet over the furniture.
Past Beyond She drove past the supermarket.
Round in a circular movement The earth moves round the sun.
Through from one side to the other The Seine flows through Paris.
throughout in every part of The virus spread throughout the country.
To in the direct of; towards On the way to the station.
Towards in the direction of The child ran towards her father.
Under beneath, below Water flows under the bridge.
underneath Beneath There was dust underneath the rug.
Up towards or in a higher position She walked up the stairs.
With including Vegetables are served with the fish.
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as a result of The boss was annoyed with Tom for arriving late.
Within Inside They live within the old city.
Without not have or lack something I don’t like coffee without milk.

Prepositions of Time
 To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions “in,” “at,” and “on.”
 Use “in” with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons.
 He reads in the evening.
 The weather is cold in December.
 She was born in 1996.
 We rake leaves in the fall.
 Use “at” with the time of day. Also use “at” with noon, night, and midnight.
 I go to work at 8:00.
 He eats lunch at noon.
 She often goes for a walk at night.
 They go to bed at midnight.
 Use “on” with days.
 I work on Saturdays.
 He does laundry on Wednesdays.
 To refer to extended time, use the prepositions “since,” “for,” “by,” “during,” “from…to,”
“from…until,” “with,” and “within.”
 I have lived in Minneapolis since 2005. (I moved there in 2005 and still live there.)
 He will be in Toronto for 3 weeks. (He will spend 3 weeks in Toronto.)
 She will finish her homework by 6:00. (She will finish her homework sometime between
now and 6:00.)
 He works part time during the summer. (For the period of time throughout the summer.)
 I will collect data from January to June. (Starting in January and ending in June.)
 They are in school from August until May. (Starting in August and ending in May.)
 She will graduate within 2 years. (Not longer than 2 years.)
Prepositions of Place
List of Prepositions of Place with Examples
Learn a prepositions list with pictures, meaning, and example sentences.
In
Meaning: Used with the name of a container, place, or area to
say where someone or something is

Example: There is some milk in the fridge.

On

Meaning: Touching a surface or being supported by a surface

Example: He sat on the chair.
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Under

Meaning: Lower than (or covered by) something else

Example: She was hiding under the table.

Next to

Meaning: Further forward than someone or something else.

Example: There was a little girl sitting next to him.

Between
Meaning: Something in the middle of two objects or things (or
places)
Example: The English Channel is between France and England.

Among

Meaning: In the middle of or surrounded by other people or

things
Example: Mary is popular among the students.

In front of

Meaning: Further forward than someone or something else

Example: I can’t see because of the person in front of me.

Behind

Meaning: At the back (part) of something

Example: He put his hands behind his back.
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Above

Meaning: In a higher position than something else

Example: The helicopter hovered above the house.

Below

Meaning: Lower than something else

Example: A small stream runs below that bridge.

Near

Meaning: Near and close to are similar to next to/beside but

there is more of a distance between the two things
Example: Our house is near the supermarket.

Far from

Meaning: A long distance away

Example: The restaurant is not far from here.

At
Meaning: Used to say exactly where something or someone is
Example: She lost her earrings at the door.
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Prepositions of Movement
List of Prepositions of Movement with Examples
Learn prepositions list with pictures, meaning, and example sentences.
Down

The preposition down indicates movement from a higher to a

lower position.
Example: It came down the stairs.

Up

The preposition up indicates movement from a lower to a higher

position.
Example: It went up the stairs.

Out of

The preposition out of indicates movement from inside a space

to outside a space.
Example: She flounced out of the house.

Into

The preposition into refers to movement from the outside to

the inside of a three dimensional space and it can be used to
express the idea of movement in the direction of something,
often resulting in actually hitting it.
Example: We went into the shop on the corner.

Toward

The preposition toward is used to say that someone or

something moves, looks, faces,… in the direction of someone
or something.
Example: He was standing with his back toward me.
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Away

The preposition away is used to say that someone leaves a

place or person, or stays some distance from a place or person.
Example: She turned away and stared out of the window.

Past

The preposition past describes a movement at the far side of

something or beyond something.
Example: Walk past the theater on the right and the bank is on
the left.

Over

The preposition over is used to talk about movement from one

side of a place to another. It usually refers to movement in
relation to two-dimensional surfaces (a lawn, lake, table etc) or
to show when something is positioned on the opposite side of a
line (a river, bridge, road etc).
Example: The cat jumped over the wall.

Onto

The preposition onto used to show movement into or on a

particular place.
Example: The cat jumped onto the roof.

Off

The preposition off describes a movement away from

something.
Example: We get off the train at the next stop.
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Around

The preposition around refers to going along its edge in a

circular direction.
Example: You must drive around the city center to reach the
cinema.

Under

The preposition under describes a movement below the surface

of something.
Example: The cat is under the table.

Along

The preposition along is used to show movement following a

line, it is also sometimes used to show a specific position in
relation to a line or to show when things are positioned in a
line.
Example: He’s walking along the path.

Across

The preposition across is used for describing a position that is

stretching from a certain place to the other or from one side to
the other.
Example: You must walk across the street at the crosswalk.

Through

The preposition through is used for describing movement

from particular point to the other or from one end to the other.
Example: The car went through the tunnel.

Clauses
Definition of a Clause: A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. It can
function as a complete sentence or part of a sentence. Clauses are essential components of
sentences, allowing for the expression of complete thoughts and complex ideas.
HS4101 Communicative English Unit II - A ready reference

Types of Clauses
Clauses can be broadly categorized into two main types: Independent Clauses and
Dependent Clauses. Each type has specific subcategories that serve different functions
within sentences.
1. Independent Clause (Main Clause)
Definition: An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence. It contains a subject and a predicate.
Example: “She enjoys reading novels.”
Characteristics:
 Can function as a complete sentence.
 Does not rely on any other clause for its meaning.
2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause)
Definition: A dependent clause cannot stand alone as it does not express a complete thought.
It relies on an independent clause to provide context or meaning.
Example: “Because she enjoys reading novels.”
Characteristics:
 Begins with subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, if) or relative
pronouns (e.g., who, which, that).
 Must be connected to an independent clause to form a complete sentence.
Subcategories of Dependent Clauses:
Noun Clause: Functions as a noun within the sentence.
Example: “What you said was surprising.”
Adjective Clause (Relative Clause): Modifies a noun or pronoun.
Example: “The book that I borrowed was fascinating.”
Adverbial Clause: Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb, providing information about time,
place, reason, etc.
Example: “She left early because she had an appointment.”
Conditional Clause: Expresses conditions, often starting with “if” or “unless.”
Example: “If it rains, we will stay indoors.”
Guessing the meanings of words in context
Guessing meaning from context means working out what a word means (or have a good
guess at least) from the words that are around it and from the topic of the paragraph.
Take a look at this example:
 It had been raining hard through the night so the ground was saturated.
What does ‘saturated’ mean? You may already know, but if you don't, you should be able to
have a good guess from the rest of the sentence.
It had been raining which means the ground must be wet. It was raining 'hard' so this means
the ground is probably very wet.
 saturated = completely wet
There are several techniques that learners can use to guess the meaning of words from
context. These techniques are based on the relationships between words, the structure of the
language, and the learner’s own knowledge and experience.
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1. Synonyms and Definitions: Authors often provide synonyms or definitions within the
same sentence or nearby sentences.
Example: Kingfishers are a group of small to medium-sized, brightly colored birds.
Example: When he made insolent remarks towards his teacher, they sent him to the principal
for being disrespectful.
2. Antonyms and Contrast: Contrasting words or phrases can provide clues to the meaning
of an unfamiliar word.
Example: He loved her so much for being so kind to him. By contrast, he abhorred her
mother.
3. Cause and Effect: Understanding the cause-and-effect relationships in a sentence can
help deduce the meaning of a word.
Example: He was disrespectful towards other members. That’s why he was sent off and
penalized.
4. Parts of Speech: Knowing whether a word is a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb, and
understanding its function in the sentence, can help infer its meaning.
Example: The word ‘abhor’ is used as a verb in the sentence: ‘He abhorred her mother.’
Example: Sometimes, a word’s meaning is clarified through examples provided in the text.
Example: A trojan is an example of a computer virus.
5. Word Forms and Morphology: Understanding the prefixes, suffixes, and roots of a word
can offer significant clues.
Example: The prefix dis- often indicates a negative meaning, as in disrespectful, while the
suffix -less means “without,” as in fearless.
6. General Knowledge: Drawing on prior knowledge of the topic or situation can help make
educated guesses about word meanings.
Example: The French constitution establishes laïcité as a system of government where there
is a strict separation of church and state.
Sequence words
Sequence words or linking words help us understand what’s happening i n a story of a
piece of text. They tell us what’s happening in the beginning, middle, or end of the
story. They can also tell us that something is interrupting something else. They are
also known as transition or chronological words.
A sequence word is one that helps us understand the order of events in a story. They
can tell us what happened first, next, and in the end. They are also known as linking
words or connectors and are used in both speaking and writing and you see and hear
them frequently when listening or reading. They are also known as transition,
sequencing, or chronological words.

Beginning Sequence Words

 in the beginning
 to begin with
 to begin
 first of all
 once upon a time
 one day
 first
 firstly
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 to begin with
 to start
 to start with
Middle Sequence Words
 soon
 next
 meanwhile
 then
 after that
 second
 third
 fourth
 secondly
 thirdly
 fourthly
 later
Ending Sequence Words
 finally
 at last
 in conclusion
 to summarize
 at the end
 in the end
 afterwards
 lastly
 finally
 after all
 by the end
 by this point
 eventually
 after all of that
Part B
PARAGRAPH WRITING
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a series of related sentences developing a central idea, called the topic. Try to
think about paragraphs in terms of thematic unity: a paragraph is a sentence or a group of
sentences that supports one central, unified idea. Paragraphs add one idea at a time to your
broader argument.
How do I unify my ideas in a paragraph?
Probably the most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to express the central idea of
the paragraph in a topic sentence.
Topic sentences are similar to mini thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic
sentence has a specific main point. Whereas the thesis is the main point of the essay, the topic
sentence is the main point of the paragraph. Like the thesis statement, a topic sentence has a
unifying function. But a thesis statement or topic sentence alone doesn’t guarantee unity. An
essay is unified if all the paragraphs relate to the thesis, whereas a paragraph is unified if all
the sentences relate to the topic sentence. Note: Not all paragraphs need topic sentences. In
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particular, opening and closing paragraphs, which serve different functions from body
paragraphs, generally don’t have topic sentences.
In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always works best at the beginning of a
paragraph so that the reader knows what to expect:
The embrace of Twitter by politicians and journalists has been one of its most notable
features in recent years: for both groups the use of Twitter is becoming close to a
requirement.
—Paul Bernal, “A Defence of Responsible Tweeting”
This topic sentence forecasts the central idea or main point of the paragraph: “politicians” and
“journalists” rely on Twitter. The rest of the paragraph will focus on these two Twitter-user
groups, thereby fulfilling the promise made by the topic sentence. By avoiding irrelevant
information that does not relate to the topic sentence, you can compose a unified paragraph.
How do I develop my ideas in a paragraph?
Often, the body paragraph demonstrates and develops your topic sentence through an
ordered, logical progression of ideas. There are a number of useful techniques for expanding
on topic sentences and developing your ideas in a paragraph. Illustration in a paragraph
supports a general statement by means of examples, details, or relevant quotations.
Very often, a single paragraph will develop by a combination of methods.
(Definition) A celebrity is “known for being well-known” (Boorstin, 1961, p. 57), regardless
of whether that eminence derives from the entertainment field, medicine, science, politics,
religion, sports, or close association with other celebrities. Therefore, “fame” is a
psychological concept akin to object-relations theory and is multifaceted in scope. (Analysis /
Classification) The psychological study of celebrity and fame has generally followed three
trends. First, there is an interest in characteristics that distinguish eminent people with
significant skills or intelligence from the general population (Albert, 1996; Simonton, 1999).
Other studies have addressed how celebrity affects public attitudes such as consumer
behaviour (Till & Shimp, 1998; Tripp, Jensen, & Carlson, 1994). Lastly, there are
psychological consequences of achieving fame. (Illustration) For instance, Schaller (1997)
found that in some instances fame leads to chronic self-consciousness and perhaps self-
destructive behaviour. This is an important aspect to the study of fame and celebrity given
that other research has linked depressive neurosis to over-identification with social roles and
norms, feeling dependent on others, self-esteem problems, and unfulfilled wishes of love and
acceptance (Frommer et al., 1995). Indeed, Giles (2000) has described several problems faced
by celebrities, including loneliness, making new friendships that are genuine, and the loss of
privacy.
—Lynn E. McCutcheon, et al., “Conceptualization and Measurement of Celebrity Worship”
How do I make my ideas flow in a paragraph?
“Flow” is a word used to describe the way a paragraph moves from idea to idea. This
movement occurs both within the paragraph and between paragraphs. The best overall
strategy to enhance flow within a paragraph is to show connections. A variety of simple
techniques can help you to clarify those connections and thereby communicate your intended
logic. Deliberate repetition of key words helps. Reiterating the focus of your analysis by
repeating key words or synonyms for key words enhances the overall flow of the paragraph.
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In the following example, the repetition of the key words “Canadian,” “nation,” and
“communication” allows for clear flow throughout the paragraph.
It’s perhaps not surprising that Marshall McLuhan, the most influential communications
expert of the twentieth century, was a Canadian. As a nation, we have been preoccupied
with forging communication links among a sparse, widespread population. The old
Canadian one-dollar bill, with its line of telephone poles receding to the distant horizon,
illustrates this preoccupation. Year after year we strive to maintain a national radio and
television broadcasting system in the face of foreign competition. We have been aggressive in
entering the international high technology market with our telecommunications equipment.
—Margot Northey, Impact: A Guide to Business Communication

Specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together. But don’t
just sprinkle them into your sentences—use them to support your logic.
To signal a reinforcement of ideas: also, in other words, in addition, for example, moreover
To signal a change in ideas: but, on the other hand, however, instead, yet, though
To signal a conclusion: therefore, thus, in conclusion, finally, so[informal]

FREE WRITING
Free writing as a pre-writing technique
Free writing is an interesting and important pre-writing technique that can help you overcome
hurdles in writing. It encourages the writer to progress spontaneously for some time without
paying much heed to grammar like punctuation, spelling, unity or the usage of any cohesive
devices. Though, initially it might seem awkward to write down random thoughts without
logical sequence, it is now established facts that free writing develops and encourages the
free flow of expressions. This is an easy pre- writing technique that can be used effectively to
form ideas and, later, collect them together in the form of paragraphs or complete sentences.
Tips for free writing
1. Think of a simple word / complex idea / picture / setting that serve as a prompt.
2. Fix a time limit (start with just 5-10 minutes).
3. Do not stop writing- let the idea flow spontaneously.
4. Do not worry about spellings, grammar or punctuations.
5. Do not be hasty or too slow- be steady.
6. Do not try editing as you write, let it be raw, random, stray thoughts.
7. Do not be self-critical and do not be apprehensive about others judging you.
The next step after free writing is to move on to arranging the key ideas in an organized
manner.