i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Analysis of fuel cell integration with hybrid

microgrid systems for clean energy: A comparative
review

Abdul Haseeb Tariq a, Syed Ali Abbas Kazmi a, Muhammad Hassan a,

S.A. Muhammed Ali b, Mustafa Anwar a,*
a
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
b
Fuel Cell Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia

highlights graphical abstract

A literature study of the most

effective fuel cell types for hybrid
microgrids.

Technicalities and complexities of
fuel cells in hybrid microgrids are
reviewed.

Combined heat and power system
for highly efficient performance.

Fuel cells comparison with energy
resources in economic and envi-
ronmental aspects.

Fuel cell-based microgrids are best
alternative for long-term energy
production.

article info abstract

Article history: Microgrids have received a lot of attention in the past few decades and researchers are
Received 25 January 2023 evaluating the integration of renewable resources especially fuel cells to overcome the
Received in revised form energy crisis. This review article aims to provide an in-depth analysis of fuel cells,
12 June 2023 including the technical complexities and challenges encountered in integration with
Accepted 22 July 2023 microgrid systems. Additionally, it explores combined heat and power systems that
Available online 9 August 2023 leverage waste heat recovery. The findings indicated that the solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
have extensive applicability in various microgrid systems, including grid-connected,
Keywords: backup, and stand-alone setups. These systems can achieve an efficiency of 95% when
Fuel cells combined with the heat and power technique. Electricity generation capacity can be
Microgrid attained up to 100 MW using SOFC-based microgrid systems and generates an average of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Anwar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.07.238
0360-3199/© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1006 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Combined heat and power 33.6 kWh utilizing 1-kg hydrogen. In conclusion, this article provides valuable insights for
Renewable energy researchers related to the challenges and future directions in fuel cell integrated
microgrids.
© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Nomenclature LV Lower voltage

MW Megawatts
Abbreviation Acronyms MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell
AFC Alkaline fuel cell NieYSZ Nickel-yttria-stabilized zirconia
AC Alternating current Ni Nickel
AEM Anionic exchange membrane NOX Nitrogen oxides
CO32 Carbonate ions NRES Non-renewable energy sources
CO2 Carbon dioxide OCC One-cycle control
CO Carbon monoxide O&M Operations and maintenance
CE Clean energy O2 Oxygen
CHP Combined heat and power H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
DC Direct current PAFC Phosphoric acid fuel cell
DMFC Direct methanol fuel cell Pt Platinum
DG Distributed generation PtRu Platinum-ruthenium
e- Electron PGM Platinum group metals
ELF Electrical load follow PV Photovoltaic
EV Electric vehicle PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
eV Electron volts Hþ Protons
FC Fuel cell H2O Pure water
FCPPs Fuel cell power plants RE Renewable energy
FCVs Fuel cell vehicles RES Renewable energy sources
GHG Greenhouse gases Ag Silver
HT High temperature SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell
HV Higher voltage SO2 Sulfur dioxide
H2 Hydrogen UPS Uninterruptible power supply
ICT Information and communications technology WT Wind turbine
KOH Potassium hydroxide YSZ Yttria-stabilized zirconia
LSM Lanthanum strontium manganite ZrP Zirconium phosphate
LT Low temperature

renewable energy needs distribution generation (DG) tech-

1. Introduction nology in the utilization process. It usually refers to opti-
mizing the utilization of all types of distributed sources and
1.1. Background and motivation freely accessible energy sources, including RES (wind, PV,
tidal, biomass, hydro, geothermal, and so on) and NRES (nat-
In this modern world, energy is the basic need for the survival ural gas, coal, oil, nuclear energy, and so on). Nowadays,
of humanity and the evolution of technology. Initially, this electrical power systems are shifted from centralized to
was connected to energy production from different easily distributed systems globally [7]. Moreover, hybrid microgrids
available resources [1]. In recent years, a sharp increase in are a solution technology for renewable and clean energy.
global energy demand has happened, and non-renewable This is efficient because it is based on renewable energy
energy sources (NRES) are consumed at a large scale [2]. Due sources (RES) like solar photovoltaics (PV), wind turbines (WT),
to that, the depletion of fossil fuels (like coal, gas, and oil) fuel cells (FCs), etc. [8]. These implementations will be
happens, which causes environmental pollution [3]. It in- required according to the demand and ensure energy savings
creases the need for other energy resources, such as renew- in an economical way.
able energy resources (RES) that must be cost-effective, Recently, fuel cell (FC) has risen in popularity. Imple-
pollution-free, and produce clean energy (CE) [4]. Renewable menting FCs in hybrid microgrids will be the better solution
energy (RE) technology is becoming exceptionally popular and for pollution-free and cost-effective energy production. It
fulfilling load demand and supply [5]. However, its generation involves a chemical reaction to transform chemical energy
capacity has arisen in grid-connected and stand-alone sys- from fuel (hydrogen 2H2 and oxygen O2) into electricity plus
tems [6]. Renewable and clean energy are evolving to produce by-product heat and pure water (H2O) [9]. Fuel cells inte-
sustainable energy for the development of society. Normally grated into hybrid microgrids are a good solution since they
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1007

can provide efficient, reliable, feasible, and clean energy [10]. 1.3. Contributions
This review article aims at the recent improvements and
implementations of fuel cell technology in hybrid micro- In the literature, most of the review papers discuss hydrogen
grids. Brief overviews of each system and comparative production and a specified type of fuel cell integration in
assessment have been discussed with findings of fuel cell renewable energy systems. Some potential research gaps and
technology. novelties in light of the paper's contributions to knowledge are
determined as follows:
1.2. Literature review
1. The suitable type of fuel cell integration in microgrid ap-
Several studies can be found in the literature on fuel cell plications with technicalities and complexities was
integration in energy systems. Razi and Dincer reviewed the discussed.
developments in hydrogen technology and hydrogen pro- 2. A combined heat and power system with a heating flow
duction for the near and long-term future. Despite a country's structure was reviewed for efficient self-sustainable heat
economic advancement, fossil fuels still dominate the trans- recovery and utilization in fuel cell-based microgrids.
portation and power sector. The authors emphasize that 3. A comparative analysis of hydrogen-based fuel cell tech-
hydrogen is a potential non-carbonaceous fuel and energy nology with other energy sources is discussed in techno-
carrier. Moreover, the review paper explores opportunities, economic and socio-environmental aspects.
current scenarios and future directions in hydrogen technol-
ogy development and the necessary steps to establish a This paper presents a comprehensive study of current
hydrogen economy with a roadmap for achieving a net-zero trends and future directions in fuel cell technology and
economy by 2050 [11]. Van et al. discuss the growing interest implementation with hybrid microgrid systems.
in hydrogen systems and energy storage systems within RE-
microgrids. Hydrogen systems use electrolyzers to produce 1.4. Paper organization
and store hydrogen during excess energy and to provide it to
microgrids using fuel cells at energy scarcity. This review This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the
paper presents a thorough overview and analysis of various methodology, and Section 3 emphasizes a brief overview of
energy management systems for hydrogen-powered micro- fuel cell technology, types, comparative study and applica-
grids, including optimization approaches, and simulation tions. Section 4 focuses on fuel cells integration in a hybrid
tools [12]. Fonseca et al. reviewed the current transformation microgrid, applications of FC-based hybrid microgrid systems
of energy systems to a framework of multi-energy source and fuel cell-based hybrid microgrid CHP; Section 5 provides a
systems. The authors discuss a systematic literature review techno-economic overview of fuel cell comparison with other
on distributed microgrid systems to provide valuable infor- energy resources; and Section 6 concludes the review article
mation about hydrogen-based fuel cell technology and high- with current trends and future perspectives.
light the need for more multi-dimensional approaches
considering social aspects, uncertainties and safety concerns
[13]. Viteri et al. discuss the increasing installed capacity of 2. Methodology
renewable energy sources, particularly, solar PV, wind and
fuel cell-based power plants and the development of green The methodology behind the review was a motivation for
hydrogen production for off-grid communities. The authors problem formulation, current challenges, and potential ben-
present an in-depth review of hydrogen production, hydrogen efits of integrating FCs in microgrids. By reviewing book
storage, and fuel cell technology with consideration of system chapters, and articles from experienced scholars, this study
safety and emission reduction for large-scale renewable en- analyzed, compared, and contrasted the fuel cell integration
ergy systems [14]. in microgrid technology. The selection of the fuel cell was
Several fuel cell companies like Ballard Power Systems, based on their common usage in microgrid applications like
Plug Power, Bloom Energy Corporation, Linde Engineering, grid-connected, grid-parallel, stand-alone, backup or emer-
Fuel cell Energy, SOFCMAN, Stellantis, etc. are at the forefront gency, and CHP systems. Several factors were considered,
of promoting fuel cell technology [15]. One of the famous including electricity generation, hydrogen production, system
companies is “Ballard Power Systems”, which focuses on fuel capital cost, operational cost, component replacement cost,
cell technology solutions for power generation, including net present cost, levelized cost of energy, and reduced emis-
stationary and backup power systems [16]. Another promi- sions. After that, the technicalities and complexities of
nent player is “Plug Power”, which specializes in hydrogen fuel microgrid applications and comparative analysis of fuel cell
cell systems for electric vehicles, particularly in the material systems with other energy generation sources are analyzed.
handling and transportation sectors. They provide fuel cell
solutions for fleet vehicles, delivery vans, and even autono-
mous robots [17]. “SOFCMAN” is another well-known com- 3. Brief overview of FC technology
pany in the fuel cell market, providing solid oxide fuel cell
systems for power production [18]. Among others, these firms 3.1. FC system description
are actively promoting fuel cell technology as a sustainable
and efficient alternative for energy generation, transportation, The fuel cells are “electrochemical” devices that can provide a
and other applications. continuous conversion reaction of chemical energy into
1008 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

electrical energy, with by-products of thermal energy gener-

ated and water produced [19]. Fuel cell requires a continuous O2 þ 4Hþ þ 4e / 2H2O (2)
source of fuel (Hydrogen) and air (oxygen) for continuous en-
ergy generation. Fig. 1 indicates fuel cell types and their basic 2H2 þ O2 / 2H2O þ Energy (3)
functioning with electronic path flow. Fuel cell devices are
composed of three primary components: cathode, anode, and One of the difficulties is that a short “contact” area between
electrolyte [20]. While oxygen is reduced to oxides at the the electrodes, electrolytes, and reactants reduces the direct
cathode, it reacts with hydrogen ions to form water. At the current. The distance between the fuel cell's cathode and
anode, hydrogen (H2) is oxidized into 2 protons (Hþ) and 2 anode is low. So, reducing the contact area will enhance effi-
electrons (e). Furthermore, protons (Hþ) move through the ciency. A cell generates a very low output voltage of around
electrolyte, and electrons travel through the external circuit to 1 V. However, connecting multiple cells in series allows the
form a direct current. The exothermic process causes a reac- fuel cell stack to develop a larger output voltage [22]. Different
tion with oxygen at the cathode's surface, resulting in water types of fuel cell technologies are discussed in the next section
formation and heat production. The excess hydrogen is to see which is best for the hybrid microgrid.
returned to the fuel tank via an outlet, where the fuel cell can
re-use it. Here Eqs. (1) and (2) explains the general procedure 3.2. Types of FC
of a reaction at anode and cathode respectively, while Eq. (3)
explains the overall reaction [21]. 3.2.1. Alkaline fuel cell
Hydrogen as the fuel with oxygen as an oxidant and potas-
2H2 / 4Hþ þ 4e (1) sium hydroxide (KOH) as an electrolyte diluted in water is

Fig. 1 e Fuel cell types and functioning with electronic path flow.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1009

Fig. 2 e Electronic pathway and structure of an alkaline fuel cell with anion exchange membrane. Modified from Ref. [23]
with permission from Elsevier copyright.

used in the alkaline fuel cell (AFC). It works by supplying AFCs can be integrated into microgrids but overall best
hydrogen fuel to the anode and oxygen to the cathode. The suitable for space and undersea applications and are catego-
exchange of ions in liquid KOH is allowed between the cath- rized into the static electrolyte, mobile electrolyte, and dis-
ode and anode, resulting the direct current formation. Alka- solved fuel types. One of the technology's weaknesses is that
line fuel cells have used potassium asbestos, ceria, titanate, the KOH electrolyte can become corrosive. It performs in the
and zirconium phosphate (ZrP) gel as microporous separators. liquid electrolyte; separating gases becomes a much more
Although, asbestos is no longer used due to its toxicity and difficult process than in the solid electrolyte. One of the other
health risks. However, anionic exchange membrane (AEM) weaknesses is that KOH adsorbs the carbon dioxide,
can be used for better performance. It is generally obtained decreasing the electrolyte's power of conduction and causes
from the deployment of platinum group metals (PGM). So, the poisoning [7].
realm of alkaline fuel cell has taken a great step with the
arrival of the AEM, as exhibited in Fig. 2. Whereas early alka- 3.2.2. Direct methanol fuel cell
line fuel cells are operated at a temperature of 100  C, current Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) uses methanol as a fuel and
devices operate at around 70  C. That's why these are classi- low-temperature device with working temperatures ranging
fied as low-temperature devices, and because of their low- from 50  C to 120  C. In DMFCs, an electrolyte is a “polymer”
temperature property, nickel is widely utilized as a catalyst membrane and the catalyst at the anode removes hydrogen
rather than typical platinum. Anode and cathode materials from liquid methanol. The pure methanol is supplied at the
are nickel (Ni) and silver (Ag). Reactions at anode and cathode anode along with steam and the methanol is changed into
are described by Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively. carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions. Now electrons flow via an
external circuit to produce a direct current [26]. The reaction of
H2 þ 2OH / 2H2O þ 2e (4) protons and electrons with oxygen at the cathode produces
water. Eqs. (6) and (7) represent the anode and cathode re-
0.5O2 þ H2O þ 2e / 2OH (5) actions as follows:

A deeper analysis needs to see whether alkaline fuel cells CH3OH þ H2O / CO2 þ 6Hþ þ 6e (6)
are fit for integration in the hybrid microgrid. Yu el al. elab-
orate that AFCs can be used for stationary power systems 1.5O2 þ 6Hþ þ 6e / 3H2O (7)
and have the benefit of relatively high efficiency ~60%, but
this depends on the design of the system. It generates elec- DMFC in-depth analysis describes it can achieve an effi-
tric output in a range of 3.75 kW and 8100 kW at high tem- ciency of about 40% at a normal operating temperature of
peratures. Due to its low weight, volume and quick startup around 120  C. In this process, “methanol crossover” is caused
time, it can be good for backup or emergency in microgrids by unproductive methanol consumption for low operational
and can operate continuously for a lifespan of up to 8000 h efficiency. That's why conversion occurs at a low temperature.
[24]. But it is a costly device, runs only on the pure form of Therefore, noble metal catalysts are used in operational
input fuels, and is sensitive to carbon dioxide, as complex frameworks; platinum (Pt) or platinum-ruthenium (PtRu)
analysis exhibits in Table 1. Shen et al. takes into consider- materials are required at the anode, and cathode materials are
ation that the AFC technology generates 70.4 W of electricity. platinum (Pt) [27]. The electrolyte perfluoro-sulfonic acid (Cn-
Also, the mean production was 1.91 kW and the efficiency of F(2nþ1)SO3H) from the family of PFAS can be used. Methanol is
the wind turbine was 19.1%. The system's storage efficiency cost-effective, easy to produce, and stored fuel that can be
was 70.8%. The system will keep up to 1.35 kW of electricity used directly to operate DMFCs. The stack of DMFC technology
on average [25]. can be used for portable and transport applications, as
 1010
Table 1 e Fuel cell comparison.
Fuel Cell Mobile Energy Energy Power Cell Life Specific Specific Working Energy Power Common CHP Operating Typical
ion conversion Density Density Voltage Span Power Energy Temp ( C) Cost Cost Electrolyte Efficiency Temperature Stack
h (%) (KWh/m3) (KWh/m3) (V) (h) (W/kg) (Wh/kg) ($/kWh) ($/kW) ( C) Size
Alkaline OH [22] 40-55 [61], e 1.0 [63] 1.0 [63] 8000 [64] e e 60-120 [61] e >200 [65], KOH (liquid) [66] >80% <100  C 1e100 kW [67]
(AFC) up to 65 [62] projected, Aqueous potassium ((low-grade [67]
~1800 [63] hydroxide soaked in waste
a porous matrix, or heat) [68]

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4
alkaline polymer
membrane [67]
Direct Hþ [7] 40 [7], 40e 29.9e274 [7] 0.6 [27] 0.2e0.4 1000 [7] 25.00 [27] 140.3e 70-100 [7] e 15000- Proton Exchange 65e80% [7] 50 1e100 kW [7]
Methanol 45 [27] [27] 960 [7] 125000 [7] Membrane (solid) -120  C [7]
(DMFC) [69]
Perfluoro-sulfonic
acid (CnF (2nþ1)
SO3H) [7]
Molten 3 [22] >50 [61], up to
CO2 25.00e40.00 1.05e1.67 [70], 0.7e1.0 7000- 12.00e 369- 600-800 [71] 146- 3500- Molten Carbonates >80% [68] 600 300 kWe
carbonate 45 [62], 60e70 [70] 1.5e2.6 [63] [63] 8000 [62] 36.70 [64] 607 [64] 175 [64] 4200 [64], (liquids) [69] 3 MW,
e700  C
(MCFC) (utilized waste 2000e Molten lithium, 300 kW
[67]
heat) [62] 4000 [65], potassium module [67]
2000- carbonates, sodium,
3000 [63] and potassium,
potassium
carbonates [67]
Phosphoric Hþ [22] 37-42 [62], e 08e1.9 [63] 1.1 [63] >50,000 [62] e e 180-200 e 1350 [62], H3PO4 (liquid) [69] >85% [68] 150 5e410 kW,
acid (PAFC) 40 [61] [72], 220 [61] 3000 [65], Phosphoric acid 100 kW
e200  C
2100 [63] imbibed in a (PAFC
[67]
polymer membrane liquid)
[67] <10 kW
(polymer
membrane)
[67]
Polymer Hþ [22] 35-45 [61] 112.20e 4.20e 1.1 [63] 2000-3000 4.00e150.00 100- 80 [32,34], 70- Up to Proton Exchange 70e90% <120  C <1 kWe100
electrolyte 770.00 [70] 35.00 [70], [62], >4000 [64], 450 [64] 50e100 [61] 13000 [64] 10,200 [64], Membrane (solid) (low-grade [67] kW [67]
membrane 3.8e6.5 [63] [73] >1000 [65] 3373e5621 [74] waste
(PEMFC) [62], Perfluorosulfonic heat) [68]
<1500 [63] acid [67]
Solid O2 [22] 70 [45], 50e65 172.00e 0.1e1.5 [70] 0.8e1.0 [63] 1000 [62], 1.05e 410- 800-1000 [76] 180- 481-8000 [64], Ceramic (solid) [69] <90% [68] 500 1 kWe2 MW [67]
oxide [70], 50e60 [65] 462.09 [70] >10,000 [75] 1.67 [64] 1520 [64] 333 [64] 1500 [65], YSZ [67]
e1000  C
(SOFC) 3000 [63]
[67]
Microbial Hþ [52] 21-35 [77] e 4.30 [77] 0.5 [78] 10e15 yrs [52] e e 49-53 [54] e 1300 [79] Liquid solutions e 49 -53  C [54] 300  200
Fuel Cell contain ions [52]  118 mm
for total
capacity
of 5 L [80]

Note: h: efficiency, KWh/m3: Kilowatt-hour per meter cube, V: Volt, h: Hour, yrs: Years, W/kg: Watt per Kg, Temp: Temperature,  C: Degree centigrade, $/kWh: Dollar per kilowatt-hour, $/kW: Dollar per
kilowatt, KOH: Potassium hydroxide, H3PO4: Phosphoric acid, kW: Kilowatt, YSZ: Yttria stabilized zirconia, MW: Megawatt, L: Liter.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1011

Table 2 e Comparison of fuel cells in applications, advantages, disadvantages, and challenges [67,81].
FUEL CELL TYPE APPLICATIONS ADVANTAGES Disadvantages CHALLENGES
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
Space
Quick start-up
Requires pure oxygen
Sensitive to CO2

Military
Low temperature
Requires pure hydrogen
Electrolyte conductivity

Transportation
Easy to operate
Intolerant to CO2 and CO
Management

Backup power
Minimal corrosion
Short lifetime

Low weight and volume
Liquid electrolyte
Direct Methanol Fuel
Military
Lower component cost
CO2 emission
Low efficiency
Cell (DMFC)
Transportation
Easy to operate
Complex corrosion
Corrosion problems

Laptop
Low temperature problems

Electric utility
Quick start-up

Backup power
Fuel flexibility
Molten Carbonate Fuel
Electric utility
Fuel flexibility
Intolerance to sulfur (1
High start-up time
Cell (MCFC)
Distributed generation
Generate high-grade e5 ppm)
Cell components
waste heat and suitable
Long start-up time breakdown
for CHP
The electrolyte in liquid
High-temperature

High efficiency form corrosion

No need of catalyst and
High-temperature
Low-density power
fast reaction kinetics corrosion
Phosphoric Acid Fuel
Distributed generation
Generate high-grade
Long start-up time
High start-up time
cell (PAFC) waste heat
Large and heavy
Expensive catalysts

Medium temperature FCs
Complex corrosion
Sulfur sensitivity

Stable electrolyte problems
characteristics
Partially intolerant to sul-

Tolerant to CO2 furs and CO

Minor air impurities
Polymer Electrolyte
Space
Low temperature
Fragile and expensive
Sensitive to fuel
Membrane Fuel Cell
Military
Solid electrolyte reduces PEM impurities
(PEMFC)
Backup power corrosion
Reactant gas needs pre-
Expensive catalysts

Distributed generation
Low pressure and start up humidification

Transportation time
Mid-tolerance to CO and

Portable power
Quick start-up and load sulfurs
following
Requires platinum

Tolerant to carbon diox- catalyst
ide CO2 in the air

Solid, dry, non-corrosive
electrolyte
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Electric utility
Generate high-grade
Lack of practical fabrica-
High-temperature
(SOFC)
Auxiliary power waste heat and suitable tion process corrosion

Distributed generation for CHP
Moderate intolerance to
A limited number of shut-

Flexibility of fuel sulfur, at 50 ppm downs

Solid electrolyte
Technology is not mature
Long start-up time

Efficiency very high yet

Catalyst not needed

Fast reaction kinetics
Microbial fuel cell (MFC)
Waste water treatment
No need of aeration
Low energy production
Catalyzed cathodic

Very low distributed
Direct electricity rates reaction
generation generation
Inconvenience to
Reduction of molecular

Bioenergy production
Adaptable and decentral- maintenance oxygen by the cathode

Biosensors ized treatment
Membrane fouling
Biological catalysts

Bio-electrochemical
Self-regeneration of
High cost
Low electricity generation
devices microorganism
Short life span
Bio film material and

Water reclamation thickness

Low carbon footprint &
low sludge disposal

Note: ppm: parts per million, CO2: Carbon dioxide, CO: Carbon monoxide, PEM: Polymer electrolyte membrane.

comparative details are exhibited in Table 2. That's why it can The perturbation and observation (P&O) algorithm was
be used in the military and other applications as a very low- employed to extract the maximum power. The analyzed en-
weight technology alternative to batteries. This technology ergy conversion efficiency was about 40% and the application
is suitable for mobile and laptop appliances that require range of capacity was 16 kW [28]. It has several obstacles like
portable power and suitable for small plants of about high cost and quick degradation due to that less suitable for
5e100 kW. The study by Pasandi describes a DMFC technology integration with micro power systems. However, the main
with a solar PV system integrated into an islanding microgrid. weakness of DMFCs has the lowest efficiency among all fuel
1012 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Fig. 3 e Electronic pathway and complete system of a direct methanol fuel cell. Modified from Ref. [29] with permission from
Elsevier copyright.

cells. This enables DMFC cell design and structure with a low and NiO(Li) and the reactions are represented at these two
weight, as shown in Fig. 3. electrodes, at the anode by Eq. (8) and the cathode by Eq. (9). In
contrast, the reaction is defined by Eq. (10) and shown in Fig. 4:
3.2.3. Molten carbonate fuel cell
A molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) is a high-temperature H2 þ CO2e3 / CO2 þ H2O þ 2e (8)
device that uses electrolytes as molten carbonate salt. It
uses liquid carbonate salts such as potassium, lithium, and CO2 þ 0.5O2 þ 2e / CO32 (9)
sodium carbonate. The electrical efficiency is roughly about
60%. If waste thermal energy is used for co-generation, then it H2 þ 0.5O2 / H2O (10)
can attain an efficiency of around 80%. It operates at tem-
peratures ranging from 650  C to 700  C [30]. The salts in Because of the high temperature, MCFCs can increase their
MCFCs melt at 650  C, forming carbonate ions (CO23 ). All those “reaction kinetics” and produce a high rate of electrode re-
ion moves from the cathode side to the anode side, where they actions without using a catalyst (platinum). One of the ad-
react with hydrogen to produce water, carbon dioxide, and vantages of low-temperature technologies is that they are less
electrons. The anode collects and sends these electrons to the vulnerable to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, and heat can
cathode through an external circuit, resulting in direct current be efficiently harnessed for further power generation [32].
and heat. Carbonate ions are formed when oxygen and carbon MCFCs need to be reviewed more deeply to see if they are
dioxide mix with electrons to replace or restore the electro- suitable for hybrid microgrids. Bornapour et al. elaborate a 33-
lyte. The anode and cathode electrode materials are Nie5Cr bus distribution system with total power loss dropped to

Fig. 4 e Electronic pathway and basic structure of a molten carbonate fuel cell. Reproduced and modified from Ref. [31].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1013

358.5 kW, and the cumulative operational costs decreased to 0.5O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e / H2O (12)
$31,350 resulting in an 18% decrease compared to the proposed
Mixed Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP) method and a PAFC deep analysis describes it can be used in small or
25% decrease compared to the genetic algorithm modelled in medium-sized hybrid microgrids ranging from 50 kW to
PSCAD (GA-PSCAD) method. The findings also revealed that 11 MW. Cheng et al. present case studies in Shiraz, Iran, and
CHPs are used to meet thermal loads. Thus, MCFCs can be used Abu Dhabi, UAE describing the working of solar PV and
in decentralized energy systems for co-generation and provide PAFC systems and promoting fuel cell technology. The re-
power from 0.1 MW to 2 MW [33]. Discepoli et al. promote FCs sults showed that the considered pump run by the PV sys-
technology and implement two small-scale power plants tem consumed 2.65 MJ/m3 for isentropic processes and
located in Norcia for 68 users and prepo for 25 users, in Italy. 2.86 MJ/m3 for isothermal processes. In addition, the effi-
Each has synchronous generators, internal combustion en- ciency of the whole system is improved up to 76.5%. PAFC is
gines, a heat recovery system, an additional three boilers for connected to the storage system instead of the solar PV
heat provision, a pumping unit for hot water, and a control system and generates electricity [38]. Akinyele et al. elabo-
system for emission monitoring with thermal and electrical rate that platinum-ruthenium/platinum is used for the
meters analyzed [34]. Discepoli et al. develop a fuel cell-based anode and platinum for the cathode. With this technology,
power plant work in Norcia generates electricity with by- electrical conversion efficiency could be obtained from
product carbon dioxide. Authors performed the experiment about 35% to 40%. When PAFC is used for CHP applications
work which acquires an active area of about 400 m2. The MCFC in micropower systems, it is possible to achieve an effi-
system for Norcia's 1 MWe with CHP of 380 kWe produces about ciency of around 85% [7]. PAFCs are less susceptible to
26% of the total power production. Moreover, it can operate in carbon monoxide poisoning and have electrolyte volatility.
two modes. One is no internal reforming like syngas enters One of the weaknesses is that their electricity conversion
directly at the anode, and the second is with internal reforming efficiency is low, and there is very little utilization in hybrid
(Methanator as a pre-reformer is used to produce methane microgrids.
from syngas at low temperatures) [35].
3.2.5. Polymeric electrolyte membrane fuel cell
3.2.4. Phosphoric acid fuel cell A polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a low-
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is a medium-temperature temperature device that uses a solid electrolyte as a poly-
technology with temperatures ranging from 80  C to 250  C. metric, permeable and thin membrane. Platinum materials
In PAFC, liquid phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is utilized as an elec- are used on one or both sides of the membrane with an
trolyte. The electrolyte delivers the positively charged operating temperature of roughly 80 Ce120 C for LT-PEMFC
hydrogen ions to the cathode and electrons are generated at and 120 Ce200 C for HT-PEMFC [39]. At the anode, hydrogen
the anode that flows through an external circuit, producing a ions are delivered and broken down into electrons and pro-
direct current. At the cathode, water is generated by inter- tons. Protons flow through an electrolyte towards the cathode,
acting electrons and hydrogen ions with oxygen [36]. Eqs. (11) although electrons move through an external circuit to
and (12) describe the reaction at the anode and cathode and an generate a direct current [40]. Water is generated when oxy-
aqueous phosphoric acid electrolysis cell is shown in Fig. 5. gen air combines with hydrogen ions at the cathode, as shown
in Fig. 6. Eqs. (13) and (14) represent the internal reactions at
H2 / 2Hþ þ 2e (11) the anode and cathode, respectively:

H2 / 2Hþ þ 2e (13)

0.5O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e / H2O þ heat (14)

To determine whether or not PEMFCs are suitable for

integration in microgrids, it is important to carry out a more
in-depth analysis. Tribioli et al. focused on an energy system
integrated into eight different climate zones. A photovoltaic
panel array of 300 kW power rating with a 100 kW fuel cell and
electrical load for the mall has been taken from the HOMER
database. The load profiles for each city are analyzed, with an
estimated 65% efficient [42]. Ijaodola et al. discuss PEMFCs
have an efficiency ranging from 40% to 60% and the capacity
can vary the system output to the balance load demand. It can
produce electrical power with a tremendous power density
range of 5e250 kW, with a reported value of more than
1000 W/kg. Furthermore, this device uses solid electrolytes
and operates at a low temperature of 80e85  C [43]. Thus,
according to Ref. [44], PEMFC technology could be integrated
Fig. 5 e Electronic pathway and structure of phosphoric into microgrids, but it is an appropriate technology for vehi-
acid fuel cell. Reproduced and modified from Ref. [37]. cles, space, and military applications, and a comparative
1014 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Fig. 6 e Electronic pathway and schematic of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Reproduced and modified from
Ref. [41].

analysis is exhibited in Table 2. Those vehicles can mitigate 0.5O2 þ 2e / O2 (16)
the load demand at peak hours and fulfills the small-level
buildings' heat demands. One of the weaknesses of this H2 þ 0.5O2 / H2O (17)
technology is that platinum is used as a catalyst, and its price
rises. More deep analysis is needed to determine whether solid
oxide fuel cells are feasible for hybrid microgrids. Jaimes et al.
3.2.6. Solid oxide fuel cell analyzed PV/WT/SOFC/Batteries system and SOFC with co-
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is a type of high-temperature fuel generation in distributed generation with power capacity
cell device that uses a nonporous “solid ceramic” as an elec- ranging from 100 to 250 kW. A stack of SOFCs can generate
trolyte, such as zirconium oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide. 10e100 MW in a large centralized and 1-1000 KW in a small
Thus, yttria-stabilized zirconia operates at a temperature be- decentralized power generation system [47]. Jiang et al.
tween 700  C to 1000  C [45]. In this technology, oxygen is describe a case study in which a microgrid with wind, solar PV,
delivered to the cathode side, and hydrogen is delivered to the battery energy storage system (BESS), and SOFC are studied by
anode side of an electrode. The nonporous solid ceramic ini- minimizing the system levelized cost of energy (LCOE) based
tiates the mobility of oxygen ions from the positive to the on system multi-constraints. Authors promote the perfor-
negative side of an electrode. Then electrons flow through an mance of a SOFC-based microgrid in both off-grid and grid-
external circuit to generate a direct current. The reaction be- connected modes, as well as the impact of energy and fuel
tween oxygen ions and hydrogen produces water at the prices are investigated. When the fuel price to grid supply
negative electrode. Eqs. (15) and (16) represent the anode and price ratio is less than 2.54, SOFC electricity will be preferred.
cathode, respectively. Moreover, Eq. (17) explains the overall When the ratio of fuel price to grid-supply price is more than
reaction. It can attain electrical efficiency of about >60%, but it 6.6, grid electricity will be used first [48]. Baudoin et al.
can achieve 95% efficiency if waste heat is used for co- describe an efficient hybrid microgrid system includes SOFC,
generation with the CHP technique [46]. The high- gas microturbine, solar PV, storage, and wind turbine [49].
temperature process in SOFC permits direct internal reform- Califano et al. designed a SOFC-based microgrid to meet the
ing and allows them to use hydrogen-containing fuels such as thermal and electrical needs of a 20-block housing complex.
biogas, natural gas, and propane, and there is no demand in The optimal microgrid design utilizes 100% of rSOFC's work
their operational arrangements for any noble catalyst. Hence, time (handled by 60% electrolyzer and 40% fuel cell). Users can
the cost is reduced and the structure of SOFC is exhibited in get maximum power of 30 kW with a simple payback period of
Fig. 7. 5.97 years [50]. Thus after the analysis of properties and
multiple experimental examples, SOFC could be the best
H2 þ O2 / H2O þ 2e (15) alternative for running power systems.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1015

Fig. 7 e Electronic pathway and structure of solid oxide fuel cell. Modified from Ref. [51].

Fig. 8 e Electronic pathway and the basic structure of MFC. Modified from Ref. [53].

3.2.7. Microbial fuel cell 0.132 eV and 0.146 eV [54]. Bio-electrochemical systems can be
Scientists have been interested in microbial fuel cell (MFC) used to power small electronic devices in suitable ecosystems
technology over the past decade due to its ability to convert with sediment [55]. After that, MFC technology can't become a
organic waste directly into electricity. Electroactive microor- real practical system for generating power on a larger scale
ganisms (also defined as electricigens, anode-respiring bac- due to multiple important problems. First, the MFC's power
teria, electrochemically active bacteria, and exoelectrogens) output (only a few thousand mW m2) is too low to be used in
could be the new renewable energy source due to their ability microgrid systems but can power low-power sensors or de-
to transfer electrons extracellularly from organic matter to vices [52]. To improve power performance, a lot of research
external electrodes via microbially catalyzed anodic and mi- has been done on operating conditions, materials, architec-
crobial/abiotic/enzymatic cathodic electrochemical reactions tures, and electroactive bacteria. However, the results are not
[52,53]. The structure of MFC is illustrated in Fig. 8. The comparable to other energy generation sources like PV, wind,
experiment by Ren et al. proves that MFC works best at a generators, and other FC types [56]. Second, MFCs don't have
temperature between 322K and 326K (49  Ce53  C). Whenever the same amount of power based on their size. Even if it can be
the temperature rises from 294 K to 322 K, the current density made large, their power output and ability to clean waste-
goes from 2.2 Am2 to 6.2 Am2 and also, a comprehensive water do not increase in the same way [57]. However, Walter
analysis shows how temperature affects the activation energy et al. describe the treatment efficiency and power density of
for the MFC's current limiting procedure, which is between MFC stacks decreasing, whereas the cost of materials,
1016 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Fig. 9 e Fuel utilization and applications of fuel cells.

maintenance and operation increases [58]. Lastly, living bac- disadvantages, and challenges are described in Table 2. There
teria's long-term continuous operation needs multilevel and are three fuel cell applications: stationary, transport, and
complex feedback controls to optimize temperature, pH, gas, portable. These are used in residential, commercial, and in-
and substrate loading rate, which costs more than MFC op- dustrial areas with different types of fuels and multiple ap-
erations [53]. plications as depicted in Fig. 9.
The study by Yildiz et al. designed an independent micro-
grid with a biodiesel generator, bio electroechemical cell, and
solar panel is presented using an electrolyzer and reformer. 4. Brief overview of FC-based hybrid
Excess energy and biogas would be converted to hydrogen microgrid system technology
[59]. Niknejad et al. implement a standalone AC-to-DC
microgrid configuration with an emphasis on the electricity- 4.1. Fuel cells in hybrid microgrid
water interlinkages. In which, a microbial electrolysis cell
produces pure water along with cheap hydrogen fuel with an Hybrid Microgrid applications in the electrical power system
electrical output [60]. Thus, researchers work on microbial can be classified into grid-dependent and grid-independent
fuel cells to improve electrical power capacity, frequency systems [1]. A classical research study by Valverde et al.
control, non-linear load, catalyst reactions, and biofilm deals with a fuel cell-based microgrid for sustainable energy
materials. output and hydrogen production. Authors describe fuel cell
on-off switching depends on battery storage charge level and
3.3. FC comparison and applications fuel cells supply power to household applications by pre-
venting excessive battery discharge. Conversely, it exports
Fuel cells are highly efficient and environmentally friendly surplus power to the grid for economic benefits and efficient
and are the best alternative source. More detailed information system performance [82]. Babaei et al. describe an optimized
is given in Table 1 and the applications, advantages, fuel cell-based sustainable island microgrid. It produces
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1017

Fig. 10 e FC-based hybrid microgrid schematic.

hydrogen at 7.5 $/kg with a storage capacity of 700 kg. A The fuel cell system has two types of fuel: primary and
450 kW fuel cell system operates for 132 h/yr and the system secondary. Biomass, coal, heavy oil, natural gas, ethanol,
provides electricity at 0.374 $/kWh [83]. A basic fuel cell sys- solid waste, extracted low-sulfur, and naptha are primary
tem processing for power production is depicted in Fig. 10. fuels. Hydrogen, heat, electricity, carbon monoxide, gasoline,
The fuel cell stack generates DC, as AC power is required biofuels, etc., are secondary fuels. Secondary fuels like
for home, commercial and industrial appliances. A DC-AC hydrogen or carbon monoxide are more electrochemically
converter is used to convert the fuel cell stack's DC to an active than primary fuels. Fuel cells used in stationary ap-
AC output and a DC-DC converter is used for DC loads [84]. plications are expected to have an operating lifespan of be-
The fuel cell unit produces electricity with heat and water as tween 40 thousand and 80 thousand hours, or roughly 5e9
a by-product. Fuel cell technology utilizes waste heat as years [86]. These are the reasons that fuel cells are used in
input for CHP applications or bottoming cycles for excess stationary applications and a complete microgrid structure is
energy production [85]. The utilization of thermal energy in defined in Fig. 11. A microgrid operates in conjunction with a
these different ways includes water refining, food making, grid or independently and serves AC and DC loads. A diverse
cleaning and drying clothes, swimming pool water heaters, range of RES sources are used to harness power and heat. A
preservation, etc. for domestic areas, and utilization of heat microgrid system equipped with energy storage to store
in industrial areas for pasteurization of dairy products, oil surplus energy and EVs can operate dual-function charging
refinery/olive oil refinery, sugar plants, bioethanol producing and discharging. The power conversion system caters to both
process from sweet sorghum, brick kiln, cement plant, etc. AC-DC and DC-AC conversion. Furthermore, the control and

Fig. 11 e AC/DC hybrid microgrid structure.

1018 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

monitoring system ensures the optimal performance of the
More efficient converters are required to regulate the
microgrid. voltage to control power in a system. The primary purpose
of these converters is to regulate the actual and reactive
4.2. Applications of FC-based hybrid microgrid power between the fuel cell and the power grid.

In grid-connection, converters are used for low-power ap-
There are some applications of hybrid microgrid systems, plications that cannot work for medium and high-level
grid-connected, grid-parallel, stand-alone, and backup or voltages because switching devices will be blocked. Thus,
emergency are discussed below. the solution is a multi-level inverter.

Different kinds of inverters are also utilized in fuel cell
4.2.1. Grid-connected interfacing. However, its inefficiency under nonlinear
Power can flow in three ways in this system: from the FC- loads and short circuit faults are the weaknesses.
based hybrid microgrid to the electrical power grid, from the
In hybrid microgrid-integrated fuel cell systems, current
electrical power grid to the customer loads, and from the FC- harmonics and unbalanced problems due to nonlinear
based hybrid microgrid to the consumer loads. The hybrid loads lead to component overheating and switching
microgrid systems can be designed as a constant energy component malfunction for the steady-state duration.
supply to fulfill the customers' maximum power consumed by
For 0.5e1 min cycle duration of sag and swell could be a
applying a load demand technique [87]. Therefore in this power quality issue in FC-based grid-connected system
scenario, Rami et al. develop a case study about PV-FC-based caused by load start-up, grid faults, and alteration of loads
grid-connected system to provide electricity to El-Mostakbal respectively and causes data loss, system shutting down,
city in Egypt. This system generates electricity comprising and hardware damage.
64.3% from PV, 0.021% from FC and 38.6 GWh (35.68%) from
In fuel cell-based hybrid microgrid systems, over current,
the grid and 57.7 GWh sold to the grid. A 250 kW fuel cell under and over voltage are caused by grid faults and load
system operates with 50 kg hydrogen storage. This system alterations.
provides energy at a cost of 0.0515 $/kWh and the period of
Power flow control is difficult for excess generation and
cost recovery is 6 years [88]. A schematic shows a grid- loading, which is caused by under frequency (47e49.9 Hz)
connected application of fuel cells in Fig. 12. The electrical and over frequency (50.1e53 Hz) for a short time.
supply runs heavy-current loads like electric stoves, boiling
Fuel cell stack by-product heating problem is also a big
rings, water heaters, and ovens. The other load involves issue, for now, which is utilized for thermal applications in
inductive loads, televisions, lighting, DVD players, etc. For different systems.
economic benefits, the meter calculates the energy bought
and sold back to the grid [89,90].
The technicalities and complexities of this system struc- 4.2.2. Grid-parallel
ture are dependent on many different factors [69,89,91]. This structure means that consumers have access to two en-
ergy sources: the fuel cell system and the presented hybrid

Fuel cell integration with a DC grid is less complicated than electrical microgrid. In this case, electrical energy can be ob-
fuel cell integration with an AC grid. Moreover, AC systems tained from the power grid to fulfill the load demand when
are classified into two types: single-phase (less complex) needed. However, the fuel cell-based hybrid microgrid is not
and three-phase (more complex and high power ratings). permitted to transfer any surplus energy to the power grid. As

In a grid-connected system, when grid is off, operation a result, energy travels in two ways. The hybrid microgrid
control is more challenging because of voltage and fre- could be constructed to balance the customer needs with
quency regulations. energy import from the existing grid, where demand

Fig. 12 e Grid-integrated with fuel cell.

 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1019

Fig. 13 e Grid-parallel with fuel cell.

surpasses the microgrid's capacity [92,93]. The fuel cell-based a lot of oxygen to be used up and much liquid water to be
grid-parallel system is depicted in Fig. 13. For this type of made. Thus, the performance of the cell depends heavily
system Okundamiya develop a PV-FC-based grid-parallel on how the non-linear load behaves and the parallel energy
system to provide electricity to the University laboratory. The flow to meet the load demand.
annual total energy generation is 84,660 kWh, comprising
97.34% from PV, 1.78% from FC and 0.88% from the grid. The
optimized system configuration sells no electricity to the grid 4.2.3. Standalone
due to legislature. The fuel cell operates 479 h annually with a In this application, unlike the grid-tied and grid-parallel
hydrogen fuel consumption of 65.8 kg to generate 3.15 kW of modes, there is no electrical connection between the fuel
electricity. This system provides energy at 0.0418 $/kWh. The cell-based microgrid system and the existing power grid [95].
simple payback and discounted payback of the system are In the scenario of a standalone system, Barhoumi et al. pre-
2.34 yr and 2.19 yr, respectively [94]. As users increase, de- sent a case study about the optimal sizing of PV-FC-based
mand will be expected to increase but interconnection green hydrogen production for a refuelling station in Oman.
guidelines are unnecessary as no energy transfer from the FC- The system includes 4 MW of PV and 1 MW of FC with 300 kg of
based microgrid to the existing grid. hydrogen storage operates and provides hydrogen and elec-
The recent research work focused on technical things and tricity at 7.38 V/kg and 9.84 V/kWh, respectively [96]. Fuel cell-
complexities of FC-based grid parallel systems. These chal- based hybrid systems can be integrated with other technolo-
lenges are dependent on multiple factors [92,93]. gies such as diesel generators, wind, PV, batteries, micro-
turbines, biomass, and so on [97]. In this framework, a single-

Grid-parallel fuel cell integration is less simple, but when source FC-based power system is proposed in Fig. 14, whereas
one of the sources is off, the system cannot meet the load Figs. 15 and 16 depict FC plus PV and FC plus diesel generator
demand, and operation control is more challenging. systems. In Fig. 16, a micro-turbine may replace the diesel

This system is a bit economical regarding thermal energy generator, indicating that power sources 1 and 2 can be
recovery, utilization and selling, operational cost, and powered by a single primary fuel, like natural gas. Moreover, a
surplus power selling to the local power grid. “load-following” technique is commonly used in stand-alone

Highly non-linear loads impact the operation of fuel cell power systems. That's why storage is linked with the system
stacks and may increase the by-product thermal energy at some points during the system's operation to respond to
which affects the life of the fuel cell. quick variations on consumers' load demand side [98].

To get maximum power for grid trade may degrade the The complexities of FC-based standalone systems depend
performance of the fuel cell. So, the solution is to utilize a on multiple factors [95,98,99].
power converter with MPPT controller.

The control system of the inverter enables current injec-
A computer program and applied algorithms have been
tion when the frequency, phase, and amplitude of the grid made to find the most cost-effective way to match the size
and output voltages of the inverter match with the fuel cell of system components to the site load.
grid-parallel system.
Continuous hydrogen production must be required for fuel

As fuel cell needs energy for start-up which must be pro- cells, and highly efficient batteries must be required for
vided from batteries. So, the system becomes costly. energy storage. Both of them are expensive.

The parallel energy flows have little effect on cell perfor-
The actual energy generated from fuel cell-based stand-
mance. When the electrochemical reaction slowly rises as alone system is less pricey than the energy obtained from
the operating voltage goes down which is 0.7 V. This causes distribution companies and has fewer system losses.
1020 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Fig. 14 e Fuel cell integration with the stand-alone application of hybrid microgrid.

Fig. 15 e Fuel cell and PV sources are integrated into a stand-alone hybrid microgrid system.

Energy consumption can be reduced by adopting energy
To avoid contingencies, energy storage uses high energy
monitoring, control, and management systems and effi- density to supply and absorb/supply both steady-state and
cient equipment upgrading to the HVAC system. transient power components. Thus, the combination of PV,

In FC-based stand-alone power generation using fuel cells FCs, batteries, and supercapacitors is suitable for
help to increase electricity generation but capital cost, heat standalone.
recovery and utilization, start-up support (batteries), elec-
trolyte availability, catalyst cost, and efficient converter
must be considered. 4.2.4. Emergency or backup power

Supercapacitor and battery storage systems can help the In an emergency or backup scenario, the hybrid microgrid
performance of hybrid energy systems based on green- must be connected to a battery bank or any other energy
house gas emissions and levelized cost of energy. source having the technical capabilities to meet a quick

The FC-based stand-alone system has the lowest emis- start-up time of the fuel cell. Furthermore, distributed load
sions. After some years, carbon contamination and gas techniques can be applied only at a short start-up time. The
impurities settle on the electrodes, which is a critical battery bank can deliver very low backup power (typically
challenge. 30e60 min). However, the fuel cell technology can also

A stand-alone system fulfills the demand of a small area, provide higher backup power for more than 30 min in the
and highly non-linear loads cause current harmonics, range of < kW to several MWs [95,100]. A case study by
overheating of the components, and hardware damage. Barhoumi et al. describes a WT/FC-backup system that
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1021

Fig. 16 e Fuel cell stack and fossil-fuel sources are integrated into the stand-alone system.

generates 16.3 GWh/yr with no grid purchases. The system
If there's enough gas in the tank, but the fuel cell won't start
includes 6.6 MW of WT, 250 kW of FC-backup, 900 kW of the or sputters, it may have blocked up the pipes with debris or
electrolyzer and 1200 kg of hydrogen tank. This system sludge, which means they need to be cleaned. This can
produces 88 thousand kg/yr of hydrogen at 14.2 V/kg and cause a blackout or equipment damage in an emergency.
generated electricity at 14.26 V/kWh [101]. The technical
Snow, rain, wind, and other environmental elements can
things and complexities of the fuel cell-based back-up or harm the outside fuel cell backup system. Frequent backup
emergency system depend on the following multiple factors power servicing can prevent these typical issues.
[95].
4.3. Fuel cell-based hybrid microgrid CHP system

In a back-up power system, more than one energy sources
are available. The owner can import energy but cannot Mainly hydrogen is the primary fuel source in fuel cells and
export to the grid and have multiple power flow paths. the fuel processor controls the flow of hydrogen and oxygen. A

Complete losses of power “blackout” common conse- FC-CHP system generates both electricity and heat (co-gen-
quences are damage hardware and data loss. A potential eration). In actual working, heat is discharged from FCs
back-up system can tackle this situation. cathode side and a heat recovery system is utilized to capture

Emergency back-up is required for a power sag situation, a the waste heat [102]. It consists of three basic structural
sharp drop in the normal voltage that can cause equipment components. First, the heat exchanger which is directly
malfunctions due to network faults and heavy loads. extracting waste heat in the form of a stream generated by

Power surges are sudden voltage changes caused by light- fuel cells and second, the heat transfer fluid system circulates
ning, switching capacitors, or disconnecting heavy loads. the fluid-absorbed heat to the utilization unit [103]. Lastly, the
When this happens, back-up system gets ready for these heat utilization system delivers the waste-recovered heat to
situations to protect the electronic components of the the heating applications [102,104]. A complete schematic of
system. FC-technology with a CHP system is depicted in Fig. 17.

The back-up system runs efficiently in undervoltage Moreover, it can be used in a loop control system to heat fuel
(voltage drop) and overvoltage (voltage increase) scenarios, in a fuel processor and hydrogen production in electrolysis (by
which occurs due to overuse and stopping/starting heavy converting heat to electricity) for a self-sustainable hybrid
loads, but the problem is FC-backup system needs battery energy system. It results in more than 90% total energy effi-
setup for start-up time. ciency, which is significantly higher than conventional sys-

Electromagnetic interference, poor grounding, and coolant tems' 40% efficiency [105]. Because of their high efficiency,
temperature need backup system and alarm sound. Thus they require less fuel, lowering operating costs and reducing
this scenario must be solved in a short duration. GHG emissions. CHP in fuel cells has various advantages: (1)

It's possible to misfuel the fuel cell backup system and little noise, (2) excellent electrical efficiency, (3) low heat-to-
unexpected usage affects FC fuel performance. Thus, the power ratio, and (4) minimal emissions. A CHP system pro-
reformer or electrolyzer shut down may both. An extra vides several benefits, including high power reliability, less
hydrogen tank also helps if an increase in capacity hap- GHG emissions, lower costs, and enhance efficiency and
pens. If fuel remains for a long time and the tank gets dry, it power quality. FCs are classified into six major categories
leads to a crucial scenario. based on the electrolyte and operating temperature.
1022 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Fig. 17 e A complete schematic of FC with mCHP systems. Reproduced from Ref. [109].

4.3.1. AFC-based mCHP system compared to a baseline HVAC system [106]. Furthermore, a
When comparing an AFC-based mCHP system to other mCHP techno-economic analysis of a SOFC and PEMFC-based CHP
technologies, it was discovered that for buildings with system for a residential with or without a heat pump indicates
increasing electricity demand and decreasing heating de- that the SOFCeCHP system has a higher energy efficiency of
mand, AFC-mCHP system performs better [104]. up to 95% and operating temperature between 600 and 1000  C
[104].
4.3.2. DMFC-based mCHP system
DMFCs have relatively low efficiency among all fuel cells, 4.3.5. MCFC-based CHP system
which is around 40% at a normal operating temperature of The electrical efficiency of the MCFC has roughly about 60%
around 120  C [27]. When comparing DMFC mCHP system to [102]. If waste thermal energy is used for CHP, it can attain an
other mCHP systems, it was discovered that DMFC has low efficiency of around 80% [104]. It operates at a temperature of
CHP performance and is commonly not used for CHP systems around 650  C. MCFCs are best for CHP applications because
[102]. they are around 600  C to 800  C [107].

4.3.3. PEMFC-based CHP system 4.3.6. PAFC-based CHP system

PEMFC has significant importance in transportation because When PAFC is compared to other types of fuel cell technology,
of its potential environmental impacts, such as low green- it offers a low operating temperature, good durability, and low
house gas emissions and clean energy production. PEMFC has electrolyte cost. Because of its low working temperature, it
low emissions and high efficiency compared to typical cannot be used as successfully as the SOFC or MCFC. On the
combustion-based power-producing technologies. PEMFC is other hand, PAFC-based CHP system efficiencies reach up to
also considered a potential alternative power source for CHP 80% and are cost-effective compared to internal combustion
technology [102e104]. engines [104,108].
One of the benefits of the CHP system is that its waste heat
4.3.4. SOFC-based CHP system can be used in domestic and industrial areas. Table 3 shows
SOFC has many advantages, including high heat supply, high which type of FCs are available in the market for CHP. High-
electrical efficiency, usage of cost-effective materials, and fuel temperature SOFCs are widely available in the market and
flexibility. Especially for commercial CHP systems [102], sta- used for power, energy, and exergy demand. Table 4 describes
tionary long-term energy generation up to the megawatt (MW) the classification of fuel cells with the CHP system. SOFC has
scale has been successful. The annual utility costs for the good power efficiency and CHP performance for micro-CHP
175 kW SOFC CHP system were saved up to 20,182 $/yr and sub-mega classes.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1023

Table 3 e Fuel cells are available in market for mCHP [110,111].

Manufacturer Cell's category Power production (W)
Aisin Seiki Solid oxide FC (higher temperatures) 200e750
Ceramic FCs Solid oxide FC (higher temperatures) 1500
EneosCellTech Proton-exchange membrane FC (lower temperatures) 250e750
JxEneos Solid oxide FC (higher temperatures) 250e750
Kyocera Solid oxide FC (higher temperatures) 200e750
Panasonic Proton-exchange membrane FC (lower temperatures) 250e800
Toshiba Proton-exchange membrane FC (lower temperatures) 250e750

lubrication system and fuel system. However, operations and

5. Fuel cell comparison with other energy maintenance costs are very low for fuel cells. Fuel is required
resources for both fuel cells and diesel generators to function. Hydrogen
is commonly available and may be refuelled in a variety of
A comprehensive analysis of hybrid microgrid systems con- ways. A fueling network in a diesel generator is similar to a
nected with fuel cell stack is discussed in this review. Solar PV dump truck design and continual refuelling can opt for a long-
and fuel cell integration in hybrid microgrids have received term output [128,129]. These advancements have increased
much attention recently. Research is going on to identify the the market for fuel cells, enabling higher-capacity de-
optimal hybrid microgrid (wind/PV/batteries/FC) design [113]. ployments and sites that require multiple days of operation. A
The economic assessment of an optimal hybrid PV, wind, second method is to replace empty hydrogen cylinders with
battery, and fuel cell structure for electric load is discussed. filled ones. For more remote areas, this is still the best alter-
Hybrid PV-FC technology is already implemented in an native [130]. A fuel reformer is the third option, and an elec-
optimal techno-economic way in Brest city, France [114]. The trolyzer is the fourth option for fuel cell supply. The reformer
results demonstrate that the given system would be an separates H2 from a hydrogen-rich fuel (methanol, bio-
effective solution to a traditional diesel generator, emissions, methanol, natural gas, etc.) to deliver hydrogen to the fuel
and reliable with low maintenance costs. According to cell [131]. Although the pollutants emitted by fuel cells pow-
research by Staffell et al. describe hydrogen for hydrogen fuel ered by pure hydrogen are considerably less than the pollut-
cells produced from RES costs three times more than ants emitted by diesel generators.
hydrogen obtained from natural gas [115]. Pure hydrogen will The fact is that fuel cell reliability performs better than
become cheaper in the future as the cost of solar and wind diesel generator reliability. GenSure fuel cell reliability is
technology continues to fall [116]. It was recommended that rated at up to 99.63%, whereas diesel generator reliability is
the electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen is cheaper rated at up to 88.4%. This is the major reason power engi-
for fuel sources. The cost of the fuel cell is currently the most neers integrate fuel cells as backup power in project designs
significant issue. It is still in its initial stages in terms of eco- is to improve the project's reliability [132]. Diesel generators
nomic viability. Furthermore, Staffell et al. [117] are concerned of this capacity are commonly used at communications
about the cost of hydrogen systems, and required changes are outside plants. Fuel cells win on socio-environmental prob-
necessary to compete. A comparison of fuel used in fuel cells lems: Fuel cells are a good solution for many places,
is illustrated in Table 5. Most research in this area is focused including homes and national parks, because they emit no
on hybrid microgrid system optimization, sizing, operations hazardous pollutants and have low noise, vibration, and heat
techniques, environmental analysis, and techno-economic characteristics [133]. A 5-kW diesel generator is commonly
performance. Hybrid microgrid sources are PV, wind, FC, H2 used at telecom sites for tower electrification. It satisfies the
tank, and electrolyzer. Thus, their capital, operation, Environmental Protection Agency's EPA's Tier 4 emissions
replacement, maintenance cost, and the system's salvage criteria for one week of back-up power each year. This gen-
value are depicted in Fig. 18. erates a tremendous amount of pollution, the equivalent of
1.35 vehicles travelling to and from work, activities, and
5.1. FC comparison with diesel generator holidays for an entire year. Moreover, a comparison of a 5 kW
fuel cell system with a 5 kW diesel generator is performed
A fuel cell is a costly device. But diesel generators have lower
below, and it results that diesel generators have better effi-
starting costs than fuel cells. In addition, operators are
ciency and cost-effectiveness for two years. If it goes further
familiar with diesel generator technology [126]. However,
for a long time, then the whole economic analysis turns side
some types of fuel cells are lower in cost; like GenSure fuel
to the fuel cell system. One bigger picture is that fuel cell
cells are advanced and lower in price. As a result, new studies
prices are decreasing, and now fuel cells are not easily
ensure fuel cells are cheaper than internal combustion gen-
available in local markets, but when readily commercially
erators in many cases. When compared to combustion gen-
available prices get more decline. Thus, the fuel cell system
erators, fuel cells offer up to 30% cost savings over their
technology is better for a longer time. Fuel cell comparison
lifetime [127]. Quarterly operations and maintenance service
with a diesel generator is given in Table 6. Diesel generator
is required for generator maintenance, including seven sys-
with ATS installation plus delivery charges a lot and
tem checklists: DC electrical system, cooling system, power
0.75 gallons (1 gallon ¼ 2.889$) required per hour for frequent
unit, air induction and exhaust system, AC electrical system,
operations. It requires 18 gallons for 24 h, costing $52 daily
 1024
Table 4 e Classification of fuel cells with combined heat and power system [110,112].
Rating Fuel Electrical Working Electrolyte Application Hydrogen Types of fuel Oxygen Advantages Power CHP CHP Waste

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4
cell range tempe- source compatibility source efficiency perfor- applications pollutants
types rature (%) mance
( C) (%)
Megawatt MCFC 300 kW-2.8 600e700 Li2CO3/K2CO3 Residential CH4, biomass Hydrogen (H2), Pure oxygen Higher 42e47 85 Chilling, Sulfur
class MW and industrial and others methanol (CH4) (O2) gas and performance bottoming
air cycles, steam,
and heating
water
Sub- PAFC 400 kW 160e220 H3PO4 Industrial CH4 Hydrogen (H2) Pure oxygen co-generation 40e45 85e90 heating water CO is less than
megawatt (O2) gas and performance and chilling 1%
class air is high
SOFC Up to 700e1000 ZrO2 Industrial CH4 Hydrogen (H2), Pure oxygen Cell 50e65 90 technology- Sulfur
200 kW methanol (CH4), (O2) gas and performance dependent
and carbon air is high
monoxide (CO)
mCHP AFC 1e100 kW <100 KOH (liquid) Space, CH4 or Hydrogen (H2), Pure oxygen Good 45e60 >80 Electricity CO2
Military and Hydrogen methanol (CH4) (O2) gas and performance production
transporation tank air
PEMFC Less than 60e80 Nafion Poly- Residential CH4 Hydrogen (H2), Pure oxygen Higher or 24e35 85e90 Facility when
10 kW 100e200 benzimidazole and industrial methanol (CH4), (O2) gas and good heating CO < 10 ppm
electrolytes or ethanol air performance (low-
(C2H5OH) temperature
PEMFC), when
CO < 5%, then
only ammonia
and sulfur are
detected (PEMFC
of High-
temperature).
SOFC 700e e ZrO2 e e Hydrogen gas, e e 45e60 90 e Sulfur
1000 kW methane
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1025

Table 5 e Fuel cells fuel comparison [118].

Fuel Hydrogen Methanol Ethanol NH3 (liquid) Gasoline Diesel
Power system PEMFC IM-PEMFC IM-PEMFC IA-PEMFC ICE ICE
LHV (MJ/kg) 120 [118] 10.8 [118] 29.7 [119] 18.6 [120] 44.34 [118] 43.9 [118]
Density (kg/m3) 39.69 [118] 907 [121] 0.789 kg/L [119] 603 [122] 736 [122] 846 [122]
hpower system 60% [123] 52.2% [124] 49% [118] 58.1% [118] 40% [125] 46% [125]
Car tank range for 500 km (L) 118 66 33 52 22 18
Cfelec (near future) ($/kWh) 0.50 0.12 0.98 0.13 0.24 0.18

Fig. 18 e The economic analysis of NPC with optimal broken down. Modified from Ref. [113].

Table 6 e Fuel cell comparison with diesel generator [135].

Item 5 kW FC integrated fuel storage system 5 kW diesel generator with ATS and fuel storage
Capital Cost ($)
Hardware $25,500 $4800
Permitting Installation $4500 $1500
Income Federal Tax Credit $14,676 $0
Total First cost $15,324 $6300
Operational Costs ($)
Annual maintenance/materials $300 $500
Annual fuel $22.5 $325
Total Annual Operational Costs $322.5 $825
Costs Savings ($)
Cost comparison in 2 year $14,679 $7950
Cost comparison in 5 year $13,711 $10,425
Cost comparison in 10 year $12,099 $14,250

Federal tax is $3/W or 30% of the installed cost of fuel cell, which is less.

and 112.5 gallons for 150 h annually costing around 325$. 5.1.1. Exhaust
Fuel cell requires 1 kg (1 kg ¼ 5$) of hydrogen gas equals Diesel generators are recognized for polluting the environ-
1 gallon of gasoline. A fuel cell consumes 0.030 kg of ment, whereas Fuel cells do not. Tier 4 standards allow 5.5 g of
hydrogen in 1 h costs 0.15$, and 4.5 kg of hydrogen in 150 h CO per kWh, 4.7 g of nitrogen oxides per kWh, and 0.03 g of
costs around 22.5$ [134]. Fuel cells can operate on biogas with particular matter per kWh. The situation becomes clear when
low costs; the energy density of hydrogen is also a benefit. the environmental impact is increased by running one thou-
Diesel has a slightly lower energy density than gasoline, sand generators, each producing pollutants for 150 h per year
which has 45.8 MJ/kg of energy. On the other hand, hydrogen for five years of runtime [135]. On the other hand, fuel cell that
has about 120 MJ/kg of energy, which is almost three times runs on hydrogen does not emit any pollutants. That makes
more than diesel or gasoline. In terms of electricity, hydrogen them an excellent choice for areas where air quality is con-
has an energy density of 33.6 kWh of useful energy per ki- cerned. Fuel cell emissions consist primarily of heat with a
logram, while diesel only has 12e14 kWh per kilogram. small amount of water as a by-product [136].
1026 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

distance between wind turbines is an essential factor for

Table 7 e Fuel cell comparison with a wind turbine.
building wind farms. A minimum distance is required for
Fuel Cell Wind Turbine wind recovery; otherwise, the wind power will be lost. The
Rated Power 3 kW Rated Power 3 kW appropriate spacing between towers is 3e5 times the rotor
Electrical Efficiency 60% Electrical Efficiency 59% diameter, while the ideal spacing between rows is 5e9 times
Life Span 5 years Life Span 20 years [144]. The spacing considerations are essential in sizing the
CFC 20,000 $ Cwind turbine 8690 $
wind farm (number of wind turbines in each row and col-
CFC
Maintenance
1400 $ Cwind 100 $
Maintenance umn) based on a limited area. When the wind speed sur-
CHydrogen tank (20 gallons) 179 $ Cut-in voltage 2.5 m/s
passes the cut-in value, turbine system generates electricity.
CBlue hydrogen (1 Kg) 5$ Cut-out voltage 13 m/s
CElectrolysis hydrogen (1 Kg) 15 $ Velocity 11 m/s Whenever the wind turbine's rated speed is reached, it pro-
1 Kg H2 Produces 33.6 kWh duces consistent output power; when the wind turbine's cut-
out value is exceeded, the wind turbine generator shuts
down to protect the system [145].
5.1.2. Noise The fuel cell could recommend sustaining the load
Noise sensitivity is dependent on location. Locations in requirement as a backup energy source than the wind turbine
populated areas will have a lower noise threshold than remote power system. This is due to the significant variability of the
or open land areas. At the same time, remote locations may wind turbine power system. The fuel cell produces waste heat
also be sensitive to noise due to wildlife and security concerns. used to provide heat for hydrogen production, and it can be
Depending on the product and its setup, both diesel genera- used for several applications. An economic analysis of wind
tors have a little more range of noise than fuel cells [137]. A and fuel cell systems shows that fuel cells are smooth in
comparison of diesel generator and fuel cell specifications renewable energy sources. On the other side, wind turbine
shows that fuel cells are 19% quieter than diesel generators. energy production may suffer several times a year due to
It's quiet enough for residential areas and national forests weather [146]. As a result, a fuel cell is a feasible option but in
[137e139]. terms of initial cost, fuel cells are costly and have less lifespan
than a wind turbine. However, fuel cells can generate high-
5.1.3. Toxicity rated power and be used for peak time as a backup energy
To avoid fuel toxicity, an expensive cleaning system is source without degradation [147]. A comparison is mentioned
required in the case of a leak or corrosion. Because diesel fuel in Table 7 [148]. Fuel cells are highly efficient with cooling
is heavier than air, it spills directly onto the ground. If this combined heat and power systems with an electrical conver-
problem is not resolved quickly, it can cause considerable soil sion efficiency of about 95%. Fuel cells have a bit higher
contamination. A soil sample must be tested for safe levels of operational and maintenance costs than wind turbine sys-
pollutants, as must the surrounding environment. If tems. Moreover, hydrogen as fuel costs separately.
contamination reaches groundwater and public water sys-
tems, then more drastic actions will be required [140]. These 5.2.1. Exhaust
problems do not exist with hydrogen. Hydrogen is non-toxic Wind power plants do not produce any pollutants because
because it is lighter than air and disperses fast if accidently they run at wind speed. As a result, wind power plants are
released. good and dependent on the area wind speed structure [149].
However, fuel cell emissions are very low, and it produces
5.2. FC comparison with wind turbine heat and a small amount of water as a by-product. So, the fuel
cell is more efficient in terms of long-term high-rated power
Size of a wind turbine (WT) based on the height of maximum
production, efficiency, and environmental concerns [150].
wind speed. Wind turbine power fluctuates throughout the
year [141,142]. It depends on the weather, wind speed, di-
5.2.2. Noise
rection, angle, wind turbine spacing, shaft diameter, and
Sensitivity to noise is dependent on the size and operating
wind power plant height. The size is calculated using the
system. Wind systems have high ranges of noise levels and
diameter of the rotor and the available land area [143]. The
fuel cells have no such kind of issues [151].

Table 8 e Fuel cell comparison with solar PV.

Fuel Cell Solar PV
Rated Power 3 kW Rated Power 3 kW
Electrical Efficiency 60% Electrical Efficiency 15%e20%
Life Span 5 years Life Span 25 years
CFC 20,000 $ CPV 2550 $
CFC
Maintenance
1400 $ CPV
Maintenance
0$
Chydrogen tank (20 gallons) 179 $ Area 180 ft2 or 16.72 m2
Cblue hydrogen (1 Kg) 5$
Celectrolysis hydrogen (1 Kg) 15 $
1 Kg H2 Produces 33.6 kWh
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1027

5.2.3. Toxicity

Relatively slow at start-up

If more critical contamination occurs at turbine shafts, prime
mover, or turbine generators, more maintenance must be

Wind Turbine
performed [152]. It costs a lot. On the other hand, hydrogen
does not have similar problems because hydrogen is non-

Relatively flat

Medium level
toxic. If contamination becomes at anode or cathode, it cau-

2e3 MW
ses serious issues and complexities in operation and main-
tenance. So, highly expensive materials can avoid this kind of

Zero
25
issue. Due to that, its economic cost rating touches the sky
[153].

<50 very poor at high loads

5.3. FC comparison with PV

Solar PV
The photovoltaic (PV) converts solar energy into electrical

150e370 W per
energy. A PV panel consists of an array of pen junctions of
semiconductors connected in series and parallel to provide
the required voltage and current. It depends on solar radia-

Zero
Fast
tion. A PV system can save even more money and improve

No
25
performance by increasing efficiency, net metering, and
lower equipment and installation costs [154]. The system will

Gas Turbine

Medium level
Best at > 80%

Immediately
profit by selling the electricity to the grid (excess power) [155].

Very low
This PV system technology is a solid alternative for feasible

50 MW
technology and economics. This study will optimize the

25
performance of a grid-connected solar photovoltaic and fuel
cell hybrid power system to meet the required electric de-

Diesel Generator

50 MW and above
mand [156]. PV system requires more area and low opera-
tional and maintenance cost. Although the initial capital cost

Best at > 75%

of a PV system is very low than fuel cell technology, the

Very High

Medium
lifespan of a PV system is quite higher than that of a fuel cell

Good
system. One of the advantages of fuel cell technology over PV

20
systems is the electrical efficiency [157,158]. A comparison of
a Fuel cell system with a PV system is mentioned in Table 8
[148] and the comparison of alternative power generation Relatively slow at
sources is exhibited in Table 9 [159]. Fuel cell efficiency is
Relatively flat
SOFC

1 kW - 2 MW
about 60% and has a good performance of about 95% with the
Table 9 e Overall comparison of alternative power generation sources.

beginning

CHP system. A 20-gallon hydrogen fuel tank is sufficient for 20þ years

Very low
the required fuel cell-rated power of 3 kW. Blue hydrogen is
produced from natural gas with no carbon dioxide emission.
5

The cost of blue hydrogen is lower than hydrogen produced

from electrolysis. But overall, the fuel cell system plus
hydrogen fuel production cost is higher with much high
PEMFC

Fuel/reformer

electrical conversion efficiency.

20e2500 kW
dominated

Very Low

Very low
Smooth

5.3.1. Exhaust
Fuel cells and PV emit none of the pollutants. Although Fuel
5

cell emissions comprise heat and little water as a by-product.

Relatively smooth

Slow at start-up

5.3.2. Noise
500e2500 kW

The fuel cells and PV both have none of the noise. However,
MCFC

Very Low

the inverter sounds very low if it is implemented in the

Very low

system.
5

5.3.3. Toxicity
Fuel cells and PV do not have these issues. PV panels have a
protective layer on them. Fuel cell technology takes hydrogen
Noise, vibrations
Efficiency across
wide range of

as non-toxic and widely available in nature as input fuel.

Load changes

Power range
Response
Life (years)

Moreover, after a lifespan, a dead fuel cell contains toxic

Criterion

Emissions
loads

materials. Similarly, PV panel contains toxic materials like

lead [160]. Its decomposition is a challenge, and researchers
work on it.
1028 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4

Temperature-sensitivity and performance analysis: Dis-

6. Conclusions tribution profiles of FCs are temperature-sensitive when
cell temperature increases via counter or cross-flow. Cat-
6.1. Review summary alytic activity and mass diffusion coefficient increase with
cell temperature, reducing activation polarization for oxy-
This review article presented a detailed overview of the fuel gen reduction and hydrogen oxidation. Temperature af-
cell system, fuel cell types (including AFC, DMFC, MCFC, PAFC, fects both current density and cell performance.
PEMFC, SOFC, and MFC) and used for different applications
Cold starting time and operation model: A multiphase,
(like energy systems, energy storage systems, hydrogen-based transient FCs cold start model was recently developed. A
vehicles, spacecraft, marine, and backup or emergency sys- cold start takes longer to complete due to a lower current
tems). It describes a detailed comparison of fuel cell technol- density during starting time. A higher temperature at
ogies and results in some key technical parameters which commencement indicates a longer time of operation from
help in the selection of fuel cells for specified applications. cold.
AFC, DMFC, PAFC, PEMFC, and MFC are low-temperature
Fuel cells integration with DSM strategies: Evaluate the
technologies of about 100  C, 50e120  C, 80e250  C, effects of different operating parameters on the FCs per-
120e200  C, and 49e53  C, respectively. PEMFC has a high formance and the dispersion of gas under the variation of
power density (112.20e770 kWh/m3) and energy density loads via DSM strategies for the best combinations of
(4.20e35 kWh/m3) with high power and energy cost. MCFC and operating parameters.
SOFC are classified as high-temperature technologies of about
Fuel cells heat recovery and utilization: Transitions in the
650e700  C and 700e1,000  C and are highly efficient for membrane electrode assembly can recover and use heat
combined heat and power systems. MCFC and SOFC have a structures for micro-current operations. Micro-current on-
maximum electrical efficiency of about 60e70%. SOFC has the line performance recovery of fuel cells shows that water
highest CHP efficiency of 95%, a good electrolyte (solid ceramic content and proton conductivity are better performance
YSZ) and a good lifespan of 10,000 h for large power systems. indicators.
However, MFC has a long lifespan of 15 years for small power
FCs fuel-based analysis: Syngas/biogas/bio-methanol
systems. directed fuel cells are optimally determined on various
This study also focused on FC-based microgrid system system configurations and compared with hydrogen-based
benefits, technical barriers, and complexities related to each mediums. Exergoeconomic analyses and multi-objective
system based on recent advancements. FC technologies algorithms are applied to get the most cost-effective and
deployed in both on-grid, off-grid and FC-based CHP systems. energy-efficient system with the least GHG emissions.
The grid-connected system provides a consistent energy
supply, excess is sold to the grid and is beneficial for resi- This review reveals that there are still some gaps in fuel cell
dential, commercial, and industrial areas. It can meet load technology and the way fuel cells are implemented in power
demand and better option to facilitate the base or/and peak plants. Some instructions could be considered to come up
load up to several MWs without any cascading failure. Other with viable solutions. From a future perspective:
renewable energy sources must be required to generate
hydrogen. Hydrogen production is cost-efficient at 5 $/kg and
The role of hydrogen production and storage for FC
1 kg of hydrogen has energy potential of 120 MJ with electricity microgrids, current policy initiatives and long-term
generation of 33.6 kWh. decarbonization plans become a viable option till 2030.
To compete with traditional electrical power generation
Second, some researchers are working on it with little ad-
systems, FC-based hybrid microgrid systems are cost- ditions like reforming, catalytic reforming, electrolyzing, e-
effective. Fuel cell compared to diesel generator, wind tur- Bio fuel cell systems, biomass fuel cell systems, etc., for
bine and solar PV is described as clean energy zero-emission fuel cell technology development in microgrids.
source. The optimized FC system ensures the energy supply
Fuel cell with CHP increases efficiency by about 95%.
at a minimal cost by serving load economically and environ- Waste-recovered heat can be used for multiple applica-
mentally friendly. Thus, a reliable and economical operation tions like cement plants, brick kilns, dairy farms, oil re-
of fuel cells in a hybrid microgrid can be ensured. fineries, food industries, compressed energy storage
systems etc., in the future.
6.2. Current trends and future directions
The future research could also look into how to design and
control multi-type fuel cells (like SOFC in microgrids and
This current research focused on how fuel cell technologies
PEMFC in vehicles) that work together for a building as a
are evolving. There is a great possibility that fuel cells will be
self-reforming/electrolyzing for hydrogen production and
used more widely in hybrid power systems in the next five to
self-heat recovering and dissipation system.
ten years since they have the technological features and

Cars are only driven 5% of the time, a fleet of FCEVs might
benefits to compete with other energy sources. It can depend
replace peak power facilities or reduce the need to
on market trends and R&D developments. The high capital
construct new power plants. FCEVs connected directly to a
cost is one of the reasons why they are not locally available in
building's heat network can utilize fuel cell heat locally.
the market. As fuel cells are critically focused on recent trends

Fuel cell technology seems to become popular, can help to
in most of the research work as follows:
strengthen the power grids and is feasible for energy
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 5 2 ( 2 0 2 4 ) 1 0 0 5 e1 0 3 4 1029

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