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i

Security and Privacy-​Preserving

Techniques in Wireless Robotics
ii
iii

Security and Privacy-​Preserving

Techniques in Wireless Robotics

Edited by
Amit Kumar Tyagi, Ajith Abraham, A. Kaklauskas,
N. Sreenath, Gillala Rekha and Shaveta Malik
iv

First edition published 2022

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-​2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Amit Kumar Tyagi, Ajith Abraham, A. Kaklauskas, N. Sreenath,
Gillala Rekha and Shaveta Malik; individual chapters, the contributors
First edition published by CRC Press 2022
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kumar, Tyagi Amit, editor.
Title: Security and privacy-preserving techniques in wireless robotics / edited by Amit Kumar Tyagi,
Ajith Abraham, A. Kaklauskas, N. Sreenath, Gillala Rekha, Shaveta Malik.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “The wide gap between the existing security solutions and the actual practical deployment in
smart manufacturing, smart home, and remote environments (with respect to wireless robotics) is one of
the major reasons why we require novel strategies, mechanisms, architectures and frameworks. Even more,
it is also important to access and understand the different level of vulnerabilities and attack vectors in
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and Wireless Robotics. For these reasons, our proposed book provides a
platform for the academicians, researchers and industry technocrats to present their security solutions and
proof of concepts in wireless robotics”– Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021031747 (print) | LCCN 2021031748 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367741730 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367741747 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003156406 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Autonomous robots–Security measures. | Radio control–Security measures.
Classification: LCC TJ211.495 .S43 2022 (print) | LCC TJ211.495 (ebook) | DDC 629.8/92–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031747
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031748
ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​74173-​0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​74174-​7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​003-​15640-​6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/​9781003156406
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
v

Contents
Preface........................................................................................................................ix
Editors........................................................................................................................xi
List of Contributors..................................................................................................xiii

PART 1 Introduction and Background

Chapter 1 Software Robotics Driven Goods and Services Tax

Reconciliation and Matching................................................................3
Akshay Raghavan, Kathiravan Srinivasan,
Ganapathy Pattukandan Ganapathy, and
Aswani Kumar Cherukuri

Chapter 2 Enhanced Intrusion Detection Response and Mitigating

Attacks Using Umpiring Security Models
for Wireless Sensor Networks............................................................. 41
A. Kathirvel, D. Sudha, S. Navaneethan, and M. Subramaniam

PART 2 Internal Structure of Wireless Robotics

Chapter 3 Cache Memory Design for Single Bit Architecture for Core ITM
Processors............................................................................................ 57
Reeya Agrawal, Neetu Faujdar, and Mohommad Zubair Khan

Chapter 4 A Simulation: Hardware-​Based Study of Electric

Vehicle Charging Station Using Solar-​PhotoVoltaic
Energy in Gujarat................................................................................ 81
Jeet Dhoriyani, Renison Macwan, and Dr. Chetan Upadhyay

Chapter 5 Comparison of Spiral and Metamaterial Inspired Patch

Antenna for 4G LTE Applications....................................................... 91
Tushar P. Dave, Nita T. Dave, and Jagdish M. Rathod

v
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vi Contents

Chapter 6 Comparative Analysis for Moving Object Detection in

Vibrant Background Using SVM, LS SVM and Random
Forest Classifier................................................................................. 103
Hiren Patel and Mehul C. Parikh

PART 3 Threat Analysis in Wireless Robotics with

Recommended Solutions

Chapter 7 A Survey on Distributed Denial of Service Attack Detection........... 117

Rajathi C. and Rukmani P.

Chapter 8 Emerging Trends in Power Plants with Digital Solutions................. 133

Rajarsi Ray and Rupal Desai

PART 4 Challenges and Opportunities towards

Security and Privacy Concerns in
Wireless Robotics

Chapter 9 Recent Trends in Internet of Things, Challenges and

Opportunities..................................................................................... 149
S. Kannadhasan and Dr. R. Nagarajan

Chapter 10 Privacy Breaches through Cyber Vulnerabilities:

Critical Issues, Open Challenges, and Possible
Countermeasures for the Future........................................................ 163
Dr. Aswathy S.U. and Amit Kumar Tyagi

Chapter 11 Machine Learning Algorithms for Bitcoin Price Prediction............. 211

Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri

Chapter 12 Blockchain Enabled Product Tracking for Supply

Chain Management...........................................................................225
Kaushal Shah

Chapter 13 Role of Robots in Health Care Monitoring System.......................... 235

Dr. G. Revathy and N. S. Kavitha
vii

Contents vii

PART 5 Future Possible Uses

Chapter 14 Remote User Authentication Using Camellia Encryption

for Network-​Based Applications....................................................... 255
Nithishma A., Aayush Vijayan, Diya Nanda, Ch. Aswani Kumar,
Sumaiya Thaseen, and Amir Ahmad

Chapter 15 An Efficient Node Localization in Wireless Sensor

Networks Using a Hybrid Metaheuristics Optimization Model........ 281
Panimalar Kathiroli and Kanmani, S.

Chapter 16 Machine Learning Based IoT Models and Analysis......................... 325

L. Jani Anbarasi, Modigari Narendra, and
S. Sathiya Narayanan

Index....................................................................................................................... 335
viii
ix

Preface
Wireless Robotics (WRs) have found widespread applications in modern critical infra-
structure, such as smart grids, smart gas and smart water supply distribution systems,
intelligent transportation systems and so on. Nevertheless, analysis and synthesis of
DNSs are generally difficult and traditional information processing technologies may
fail or be impractical to tackle several security and privacy related issues of DNSs
due to their large scale, increased interconnectivity, real-​time and sensitive infor-
mation exchange, intimate interaction of cyber and physical components, open and
unprotected network connection and communication. For example, because of the
tight interplay between cyber and physical spaces, the negative impacts of malicious
attacks on DNSs can be imposed on not only the cyber space but also the physical
systems. A sophisticated adversary can learn sensitive local information or local oper-
ation status of spatially deployed nodes/​agents in the physical space by eavesdropping
transmitted and exchanged data packets over certain wireless transmission links. As a
result, there is an urgent need for innovative secure and privacy-​preserving techniques
to adequately explore the independence and interaction of physical and communi-
cation infrastructure of DNSs such that performance analysis and control design
of DNSs can be achieved with unprecedented performance and resource utilization
efficiency, high reliability and resilience, desired security and privacy requirements,
overcoming the limitations of traditional information processing tools.
This book aims to advance security, privacy technologies and methodologies
at a large-​scale Wireless Robotics and further promote research activities (i.e., in
distributed intelligent sensing, estimation, detection, optimization and control for pre-
serving desired security and privacy requirements). This proposed book seeks ori-
ginal theory-​and application-​driven studies to address some emerging issues and
challenges from the perspective of distributed secure and privacy-​preserving infor-
mation processing and their applications to areas, such as wireless robotics, wireless
sensor networks, smart grids, manufacturing, intelligent transportation systems,
healthcare, and so on.
In last, researchers will be able to select their research problems (to do their
research) from future research directions section from our included section in this
book. In conclusion, we want to thank our God, family members, teachers, friends
and last but not least, all the contributing authors from the bottom of our hearts for
helping us complete this book before the deadline.
Really, kudos to all.
Amit Kumar Tyagi
Ajit Abraham
A. Kaklauskas
N. Sreenath
Gillala Rekha
Shaveta Malik

ix
x
xi

Editors
Amit Kumar Tyagi is Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), and Senior Researcher
at Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Chennai Campus, India. He received his
Ph.D. Degree in 2018 from Pondicherry Central University, India. He joined the Lord
Krishna College of Engineering, Ghaziabad (LKCE) for the periods of 2009–​2010,
and 2012–​2013. He was an Assistant Professor and Head (Research), Lingaya’s
Vidyapeeth (formerly known as Lingaya’s University), Faridabad, Haryana, India
in 2018–​2019. His current research focuses on Machine Learning with Big Data,
Blockchain Technology, Data Science, Cyber Physical Systems, Smart and Secure
Computing and Privacy. He has contributed to several projects such as “AARIN”
and “P3-​Block” to address some of the open issues related to the privacy breaches
in Vehicular Applications (such as Parking) and Medical Cyber Physical Systems
(MCPS). Also, he has published more than 15 patents in the area of Deep Learning,
Internet of Things, Cyber Physical Systems and Computer Vision. Recently, he was
awarded best paper award for the title “A Novel Feature Extractor Based on the
Modified Approach of Histogram of oriented Gradient”, ICCSA 2020, Italy (Europe).
He is a regular member of the ACM, IEEE, MIRLabs, Ramanujan Mathematical
Society, Cryptology Research Society, and Universal Scientific Education and
Research Network, CSI and ISTE.

Ajith Abraham is the Director of Machine Intelligence Research Labs (MIR Labs), a
Not-​for-​Profit Scientific Network for Innovation and Research Excellence connecting
Industry and Academia. As an Investigator and Co-​Investigator, he has won research
grants worth over 100+​Million US$ from Australia, USA, EU, Italy, Czech Republic,
France, Malaysia and China. His research focuses on real world problems in the
fields of machine intelligence, cyber-​physical systems, Internet of Things, network
security, sensor networks, Web intelligence, Web services, and data mining. He is
the Chair of the IEEE Systems Man and Cybernetics Society Technical Committee
on Soft Computing. He is the editor-​in-​chief of the journal Engineering Applications
of Artificial Intelligence (EAAI) and serves/​served on the editorial board of several
International Journals. He received his Ph.D. Degree in Computer Science from
Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.

Arturas Kaklauskas is Professor at Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, in

Lithuania. His areas of interest include affective computing, neuro-​marketing, intel-
ligent tutoring systems, affective intelligent tutoring systems, massive open online
courses (MOOCS), affective Internet of Things, smart built environment, intelligent
event prediction, opinion mining, intelligent decision support systems, life cycle ana-
lyses of built environments, energy, climate change, resilience management, healthy
houses, sustainable built environments, big data and text analytics, intelligent library,
and Internet of Things. He is Editor in Chief of the Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management, Editor of Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, and
Associate Editor of the Ecological Indicators Journal. His publications include nine

xi
xii

xii Editors

books. The Belarusian State Technological University (Minsk, Belarus) has awarded
him an Honorary Doctorate.

Niladhuri Sreenath is Professor in Computer Science and Information Technology

at Puducherry Technological University (formerly known as Pondicherry Engineering
College), Pondicherry, 605014, India. His primary research interests lie in WDM
Optical Networks, and Privacy and Trust. He obtained his Ph.D. in Computer Science
from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India.

Gillala Rekha is Associate Professor, CSE Department, KL University, Hyderabad,

Telangana India. She has more than 15+​years of teaching and research experi-
ence. She has contributed to many publications (including patents) in National and
International conferences and journals and also served as a reviewer for the same
publications. She is a member for ACM, and IEEE. Her areas of interest are Deep
Learning, Internet of Things, Cyber Physical Systems and Computer Vision.

Shaveta Malik is Associate Professor in Computer Engineering Department (NBA

accredited), Terna Engineering College, Nerul., Mumbai. She has more than nine
years of teaching and research experience. She has completed her PhD from Lingaya’s
University, Faridabad. She had been editor of many international conferences and
journals. She has contributed to many publications (including patents) in National
and International conferences and journals and also served as a reviewer for the same
publications. She is a member for ACM, and IEEE.
xiii

Contributors
Nithishma A. Neetu Faujdar
Vellore Institute of Technology GLA University
Vellore, India Mathura, India
Reeya Agrawal Ganapathy Pattukandan Ganapathy
GLA University Centre for Disaster Mitigation and
Mathura, India Management
Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT)
Amir Ahmad
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
United Arab Emirates University
UAE S. Kannadhasan
Cheran College of Engineering
L. Jani Anbarasi
School of Computer Science and Panimalar Kathiroli
Engineering Department of Computer Science and
Vellore Institute of Technology Engineering
Chennai, India Puducherry Technological University
Puducherry, India
Rajathi C.
Vellore Institute of Technology A. Kathirvel
Chennai, India Department of CSE
Karunya Institute of Technology and
Aswani Kumar Cherukuri Sciences
School of Information Technology and Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) N.S. Kavitha
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Erode Senguthar Engineering College
(Autonomous)
Tushar P. Dave Erode, India
Electronics and Communication
Department Mohommad Zubair Khan
Dr. Ghandhy Government Engineering Taibah University
College Madinah, Saudi Arabia
Surat, India Ch. Aswani Kumar
Nita T. Dave Vellore Institute of Technology
Electronics and Communication Dept. Vellore, India
Dr. Ghandhy Government Engineering Renison Macwan
College L.D. College of Engineering
Surat, India
Dr. R. Nagarajan
Rupal Desai Gnanamani College of Technology
L&T-​Sargent & Lundy Limited
Diya Nanda
Jeet Dhoriyani Vellore Institute of Technology
L.D. College of Engineering Vellore, India

xiii
newgenprepdf

xiv

xiv List of Contributors

S. Sathiya Narayanan Kanmani S.

School of Electronics Engineering Department of Information Technology
Vellore Institute of Technology Puducherry Technological University
Chennai, India Puducherry, India
Modigari Narendra Dr. Aswathy S.U.
Department of Computer Science and Department of Computer Science and
Engineering Engineering
VFSTR deemed to be University Jyothi Engineering College
Guntur, India Thrissur, India
S. Navaneethan Kaushal Shah
Department of CSE Department of Computer Science and
SRM Institute of Science and Engineering
Technology School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal
Chennai, India Energy University
Gandhinagar, India
Rukmani P.
Vellore Institute of Technology Kathiravan Srinivasan
Chennai, India School of Information Technology and
Engineering
Mehul C. Parikh
Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT)
Information Technology Department
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
L.D. College of Engineering
Ahmedabad, India M. Subramaniam
Department of IT
Hiren Patel
Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College
Script All DNA Technologies
Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
Ahmedabad, India
Sumaiya Thaseen
Akshay Raghavan
Vellore Institute of Technology
School of Information Technology and
Vellore, India
Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
Jagdish M. Rathod
GITAM School of Technology, GITAM
Electronics Department
University
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalay
Bengaluru, India
Vallabh Vidhyanagar, Anand, India
Dr. Chetan Upadhyay
Rajarsi Ray
L.D. College of Engineering
L&T-​Sargent & Lundy Limited
Aayush Vijayan
Dr. G. Revathy
Vellore Institute of Technology
Sastra Deemed University
Vellore, India
Tamil Nadu, India
Other documents randomly have
different content
Fig. 16.—a, Regalia of otter-skin used in the Otter Rite; b, Regalia as
worn. (Length of a, 56.5 in.)

The Ceremony
 The exact details and order of the ceremony were not
remembered by our informant, but it was certain that the family in
question “fed the otter” every two years in the spring, that being the
time of year when the little girl had been taken ill. Everyone was
invited, men and women, and a man was selected to cook the hog,
and another to supply wood and to cut the poles for swinging the
kettle, both of whom were paid with a yard of wampum. The fire
was kindled with a special flint-and-steel always kept with the outfit
(fig. 17).

Fig. 17.—Flint and steel used in the Otter Rite. (Length of

a, 3 in.)

It will be observed that the otter-skin has a slit down the middle of
the neck, through which the owner thrust his head in such manner
that the otter’s nose lay under the wearer’s chin, while its body and
tail hung down his back. Wearing the skin in this manner (fig. 16, b),
himself impersonating the original otter, the owner would open the
ceremony by walking about the fire, chanting and shaking the turtle
rattle (fig. 18), which resembles those used in the Big House, while
the audience kept time to his song by uttering “Hu-hu-hu-hu!” The
nature of the song the writer was unable to learn, but, like the
chants of the Bear Ceremony, it probably was concerned with the
singer’s “dream helper.” When he had finished, another man put on
the skin and took up the chant, and so on until noon the next day,
when the ceremony was brought to a close and all joined in the
feast. At this time the skin is told, “We will feed you again in two
years.”

Fig. 18.—Rattle of land-tortoise shell used in the Otter Rite. (Length, 3.9 in.)

BUFFALO DANCE
 Such was the list of native Lenape ceremonies furnished by our
informants; but Adams[58] mentions several more, for which the
writer was unable to procure much in the way of data. One of these
was the Buffalo dance, which the writer feels should be included
with the Otter and Bear ceremonies, although Adams calls it a
“pleasure dance.” He admits, it will be observed, that it usually took
place before hunters started on the chase. His account follows:

“The Buffalo dance is a pleasure dance and always begins

in the morning and lasts all day. The ground is made clean in
a circle large enough to dance on, and in the center a fire is
built and a fork driven into the ground on each side, and a
pole placed across the fire east and west. On each side of the
fire is a large brass kettle hanging across the pole with
hominy in it, and when the dance is nearly over, the dancers
eat the hominy, dipping their hands in the kettle. The singers
are outside of the ring and beat on a dried deer hide
stretched over poles. They do not use the same step in the
dance, but gallop like buffaloes and bellow like them, also
have horns on their heads and occasionally hook at each
other. The dance is usually given before starting on a chase.”

IMPORTED CEREMONIES
Skeleton Dance

The preceding ceremonies have all been, ostensibly at least, of

native Lenape origin, but we now come to several whose outside
origin is admitted by the Indians themselves. The most ancient of
these is the “Human Skeleton Dance,” mentioned by Adams.[59] He
calls it a rite belonging to the Wolf clan or phratry of the Delawares,
but the writer’s informants say that it is not true Lenape at all, but a
Nanticoke (On'ʹtko) ceremony introduced among the Lenape by the
survivors of that tribe who had joined forces with them. Adams’
account, which is better than any the writer was able to obtain, is as
follows:
“Human Skeleton Dance.—Given only by the Wolf clan of the
Delawares. A certain dance given as a memorial to the dead was
supposed to clear a way for the spirit of the deceased to the spirit
land. When a member of the Wolf clan died, the flesh was stripped
from the bones and buried, and the bones were dried at some
private place. At the end of 12 days the skeleton would be wrapped
in white buckskin and taken to a place prepared for the dance and
there held up by some one. As the singers would sing the men who
held the skeleton would shake it and the bones would rattle as the
dancers would proceed around it. After the dance the skeleton was
buried. Traditions say that in ancient times some of the head men in
the Wolf clan had a dream that they must treat their dead in that
way, and the custom has been handed down to them for many
centuries. The other clans say the custom does not belong to them.
The custom has been long dropped. There has not been a skeleton
dance since 1860.”

Peyote Rite
 Fig. 19.—Peyote “Button.” (Diameter, 1.9 in.)

One of the latest of introduced ceremonies, which was still much

in favor with the Oklahoma Lenape when last visited by the writer, is
the Peyote Rite, a cult now widespread among the tribes of the
Central West, introduced among this people by an Indian named
John Wilson, who obtained it, they say, from the Caddo on Washita
river about the year 1890 or 1892. During this ceremony remarkable
visions are produced by eating the dried top of a small cactus, the
peyote (fig. 19), for which the cult is named, and these visions,
coupled with the moral teachings embodied in the ritual, make it
very attractive to the Indian, who, on joining the cult, is often
persuaded to discard entirely the ancient beliefs of his own people.
The writer is acquainted with two principal forms of the rite, one
involving native deities only, the other, almost entirely Christian in
teaching and symbolism. It is this latter form which has been
adopted by the Lenape, to whom the tipi, in which the ceremony is
held, is as foreign an institution as the little cactus itself, brought in
from southern Texas and Mexico.

PL. IX

THE PEYOTE RITE AMONG THE LENAPE

Native Painting by Earnest Spybuck, a Shawnee

Paraphernalia.—For this ceremony the tipi is erected with the door

to the east, and a complex series of symbols arranged inside, as
shown in the smaller drawing, pl. ix. On the western side of the
lodge is built a crescent-shaped mound, or “moon,” of earth, packed
hard, its horns turned toward the east, which they say represents
the tomb where Christ was buried, and on the center of this is
placed a large peyote, dampened and flattened (fig. 19), resting
either on a bed of feathers or on the bare earth; and to the west of
this again, sometimes a crucifix, as shown in the illustration.
Between the points of the crescent is built the fire in a certain
prescribed manner with overlapping sticks forming an angle pointing
westward. Near the door lies another mound—a round one
representing the sun. From the peyote resting on the embankment
to the sun mound, directly through the middle of the fire, a line is
drawn in the earth of the floor. This represents the “peyote road”
along which the Peyote Spirit takes the devotee on a journey toward
the sun, and also symbolizes the road to Heaven that Jesus made for
the souls of men when He returned thither. West of the crescent-
shaped mound stands, when not in use, the highly decorated arrow
or staff, frequently made in the form of a long cross, with a groove
extending from end to end, representing the spirit road. A small
water-drum made of a piece of deerskin stretched over a crock, as
seen in pl. ix, a nicely carved drumstick, an eagle-feather fan for
brushing all evil influence away from each devotee as he enters or
leaves the ceremony, and a supply of dried peyote, dampened and
crushed in a mortar, are all necessary for the ceremony. Each
devotee, moreover, must be supplied with a decorated gourd rattle
of his own.
Officers.—The only officers needed for this rite are a “Road-man”
or speaker, who sits in the west, just opposite the door, and a fire
guard stationed at the door, whose duty it is to keep the fire
burning, and to brush with the feather fan the devotees as they
enter. This is illustrated in the colored plate (pl. ix), which represents
also the “Road-man” guiding a newcomer to a seat.
Conduct of the Ceremony.—When all are gathered in the tipi, the
leader first passes around a fragment herb which the people chew
and rub over hands and body. Then the macerated peyote is passed,
and each takes enough to make eight pellets about half an inch in
diameter, of which some eat all, some only part, reserving some
pellets to be eaten later. About this time the leader addresses the
peyote and the fire, prays, and often delivers a regular sermon or
moral lecture. He then takes the staff in his left hand, and sitting, or
kneeling on one knee, he sings a certain number of peyote songs,
which are a class to themselves, while the man to the left beats the
drum, then passes the staff to the person on his right, himself taking
the drum while this person sings, and so the staff travels round and
round the lodge, each taking his turn at singing, while the devotees,
men and women alike, keep their eyes fixed upon the fire or upon
the peyote lying on the mound. As the night wears on the
“medicine” begins to take effect, and the devotees see many strange
visions, pictures, and brilliant-colored patterns. Often one may see
the Peyote Spirit, in the form of an old man, who takes his spirit on
a wonderful journey along the “peyote road,” eastward toward the
sun. At daybreak they all file out of the tipi bearing their
paraphernalia, as seen in pl. ix, b, and when the sun appears they
raise their hands in salutation, and then those who are left standing
(for some fall as if dead at the sight of the sun) “give thanks to the
Great Father in Heaven.” Those who fall at sunrise, they say, are the
ones who visited the sun in their visions. All sleep, or at least rest,
until about noon, when a feast is served, after which everyone tells
what he or she saw while “on the peyote road.”
The Lenape variant of this ceremony, as related above, differs
somewhat from that of other tribes practising the Christian form of
the Peyote rite, but in all essentials it is almost identical.

Ghost Dance

The Ghost dance was also introduced among the Lenape by an

Indian named Wilson, about the same time, our informants thought,
as the Peyote rite, and, like it, probably from the Washita River
region.
Wilson would call a dance every now and then during his lifetime,
at which the people appeared in their everyday dress, without such
special costumes as were seen, for instance, at such functions
among the Kiowa and the Arapaho. At these meetings the
participants would dance round and round for a long time, with a
sidewise step, to the sound of song and water-drum, sometimes for
a considerable period without stopping. Occasionally one would fall
and appear to faint, and when revived would claim to have visited
Heaven in spirit while his body lay as if dead. When Wilson died, the
cult, so far as the Delawares were concerned, perished with him.
Such were the ceremonies surviving until recent times among the
Lenape, from which have been omitted only the observances
connected with the dead, shamanism, witchcraft, and war, all of
which will be discussed in later papers.
 CHAPTER IX
Summary
RELIGION
A study of the material presented shows that the Lenape believed in
a Great Spirit, or Creator, whose goodness is acknowledged, who is
thanked for past blessings and petitioned for their continuance, but
who is not their only god. He is, however, the great chief of all, and
dwells in the twelfth, or highest heaven. He created everything,
either with his own hands or through agents sent by him, and all the
powers of nature were assigned to their duties by his word. That
these concepts are not new among the Lenape may be seen from
the fact that most of the early writers who treat of this people have
noticed such beliefs among them, which can be traced back as far as
1679.
This Great Spirit gave the four quarters of the earth and the winds
that come from them to four powerful beings, or manĭʹtowŭk,
namely, Our Grandfather where daylight begins, Our Grandmother
where it is warm, Our Grandfather where the sun goes down, and
Our Grandfather where it is winter. To the Sun and the Moon,
regarded as persons and addressed as Elder Brothers by the Indians,
he gave the duty of providing light, and to our Elder Brothers the
Thunders, man-like beings with wings, the task of watering the
crops, and of protecting the people against the Great Horned
Serpents and other water monsters. To the Living Solid Face, or
Mask Being, was given charge of all the wild animals; to the Corn
Spirit, control over all vegetation, while Our Mother, the Earth,
received the task of carrying and feeding the people.
 Besides these powerful personages were many lesser ones, such
as the Small People, the Doll Being, the Snow Boy, and the Great
Bear. Certain localities, moreover, were the abode of supernatural
beings, while animals and plants were thought to have spirits of
their own. Besides these there were, of course, the countless spirits
of the human dead who were still supposed to retain some influence
in earthly affairs.
This, then, was the supernatural world which, to the mind of the
Lenape, controlled all things—on which they must depend for health,
for success in all their undertakings, even the daily task of deer-
hunting or corn-raising. Benevolent beings must be pleased, and bad
spirits combated and overcome, or at least placated.
There was, however, until very lately, no conception of a “devil” in
the modern sense of the word.
The main channel of communication between the supernatural
world and man was the dream or vision, obtained, as before
described, by fasting and consequent purification in youth. Through
the vision the young man obtained his guardian spirit or
supernatural helper, who gave him some power or blessing that was
his main dependence through life, his aid in time of trouble, the
secret of his success. No wonder, then, that visions and helpers form
the basis of Lenape belief and worship. Among the guardian spirits
figured not only such great powers as the Sun and the Thunder
Beings, the personified powers of nature, but the spirits representing
various species of animals and birds, such as the Wolf or the Owl, of
plants, as “Mother Corn,” as well as the Mask Being, and even the
spirits of the dead which some Lenape claimed as helpers.
Those favored by such visions were considered the leading people
of their community. They usually composed rythmic chants referring
to their visions, and appropriate dance songs to go with them, to
recite at the Annual Ceremony.
Belief in a soul or spirit surviving the death of the body formed an
integral part of Lenape philosophy. The soul is supposed to linger for
eleven days after death, and is addressed and offered food by the
surviving relatives, sometimes in a formal “Feast of the Dead;” but
on the twelfth day, they say, it leaves the earth and finally makes its
way to the twelfth or highest heaven, the home of the Great Spirit,
where it leads a happy life in a land where work and worry are
unknown. Some persons are thought to have the power of
communicating with the departed.

CEREMONIES
Most of the beliefs summarized above were found among the
descendants of both Unami and Minsi; but when we consider their
great religious ceremonies, we begin to note differences. While it is
true that (1) in both cases these rites are based on the recital of the
visions seen by the participants, combined with thanksgiving to the
Great Spirit and his helpers for past blessings and prayers for their
renewal, that (2) the New Fire ceremony figures in both, and that
(3) they take place in a building of special form and decoration
erected for the purpose, we note that among the Unami the
ceremony is conducted only once a year, and is combined to a
certain extent with the cult of the Mĭsiʹngʷ', or Mask Being, a
magnified guardian spirit or personal helper; while the Minsi have in
addition to that held in the fall, a spring ceremony also, cognate with
the Iroquois “Thanks for the First Fruits,” or Strawberry Dance, and
masked impersonators do not appear in the Minsi ceremonial house.
In the ceremonies of both Unami and Minsi, however, we note
other similarities besides those first mentioned, such as the manner
of prayer, the use of a drum made of a dried deerhide beaten with
flat forked drumsticks each bearing a carved face, the fumigation
and sweeping of the Big House, the restriction against women in
their menses, and the use of twelve as a sacred number.
It therefore seems likely that the rites, in spite of the differences
noted, probably have a common origin, and hence date back to a
period before the separation of the Unami and the Minsi. Indeed we
have an historical account which seems to refer to this kind of
ceremony as early as 1683, while under date of 1779 there is a
description of the rites practically as enacted as late as 1920.

MINOR CEREMONIES
Analyzing the minor ceremonies of Lenape origin we find the cults
of two types: one founded on a beneficent spirit, a personal helper
such as the Mask Being, whose relations are friendly with mankind;
the other based on a discarded toy or pet, which makes trouble for
its former owner unless propitiated by the ceremony in question.
A good example, in fact the only one we recorded, of the first type
is the ceremony in honor of the Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn, or Mask Being,
among the Unami, which, however, does not find its counterpart
among the Minsi, who had a Society of Masks whose rites and
functions were similar to those of the Iroquois “False Face Company.”
The second class embraces the cults of the Doll, Bear, and Otter,
all of which must be propitiated periodically, under pain of sickness
or death.
It will be observed that recitals of visions form a part of the Bear
rites, and probably also of the Otter ceremony, all of which, taken
into consideration with the preceding, gives rise to speculations
concerning the basic form of Lenape ceremonies. Perhaps originally,
everyone who had been blessed with a vision, held a periodic
ceremony at which rites appropriate to his own guardian spirit were
emphasized, but at which others so blessed could recite their own
visions.
Of course ceremonies of extraneous origin, such as the Peyote
rite, can not be classified with those of true Lenape origin; and there
are others of which our accounts are so fragmentary that we can not
place them, and still others, doubtless, that have disappeared
entirely.
 That such may have been the case is not remarkable—not nearly
so extraordinary as the fact that the Lenape have retained so much
of their ancient beliefs and practices after three centuries of contact
with civilization.
 NOTES
[1] Handbook of American Indians, Bulletin 30, Bureau of
American Ethnology, part i, p. 386, Washington, 1907. Indian
Population in the United States and Alaska, 1910, p. 73,
Washington, 1915. Annual Report of the Department of Indian
Affairs for 1913, Ottawa, 1913.
[2] Dankers, Jaspar, and Sluyter, Peter. Journal of a Voyage to
New York in 1679-80. Translated from the original manuscript in
Dutch for the Long Island Historical Society, pp. 266-267,
Brooklyn, 1869.
[3] Penn, William. A Letter from William Penn, Proprietary and
Governour of Pennsylvania in America to the Committee of the
Free Society of Traders of that Province, Residing in London, p. 6,
London, 1683.
[4] Holm, Thomas Campanius. Short description of the Province
of New Sweden, now called Pennsylvania. Mem. Hist. Soc. Pa.,
vol. iii, p. 139, Phila., 1834.
[5] David Zeisberger’s History of the Northern American
Indians. Edited by Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel
Schwarze. Ohio Archæological and Historical Quarterly, vol. xix,
nos. 1 and 2, p. 128, Columbus, 1910.
[6] Heckewelder, John. An Account of the History, Manners and
Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania
and the neighboring States. Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, vol. i, p. 205, Phila., 1819.
[7] Waubuno, Chief (John Wampum). The Traditions of the
Delawares, as told by Chief Waubuno. London [n.d.]. This little
pamphlet contains some original material on the Minsi and some
purporting to apply to the Minsi, but copied from Peter Jones’
“History of the Ojebway Indians.”
[8] Brainerd, David. Memoirs of the Rev. David Brainerd,
Missionary to the Indians ... chiefly taken from his own diary, by
Rev. Jonathan Edwards, including his Journal, now ... incorporated
with the rest of his diary ... by Sereno Edwards Dwight, pp. 344,
349, New Haven, 1822.
[9] Brinton, Daniel G. The Lenape and their Legends, p. 65 et
seq., Phila., 1885.
[10] Loskiel, George Henry. History of the Mission of the United
Brethren among the Indians in North America, p. 34, London,
1794. Zeisberger, op. cit., pp. 128-129. Heckewelder, op. cit., p.
205.
[11] Loskiel, op. cit.
[12] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 130.
[13] Brainerd, op. cit., p. 238.
[14] Holm, op. cit., p. 139.
[15] Strachey, Wm. The Historie of Travaile into Virginia.
Hakluyt Soc. Pub., vol. vi, p. 98, London, 1849.
[16] Brainerd, op. cit., p. 344.
[17] Loskiel, op. cit., p. 43.
[18] Brainerd, op. cit.
[19] Loskiel, op. cit.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 147.
[23] Heckewelder, op. cit., p. 205.
[24] Loskiel, op. cit., p. 43.
[25] Jones, Rev. Peter. History of the Ojebway Indians, p. 83,
London, 1861.
[26] Skinner, Alanson, and Schrabisch, Max. A Preliminary
Report of the Archæological Survey of the State of New Jersey,
Bulletin 9 of the Geological Survey of New Jersey, p. 32, Trenton,
1913.
[27] Skinner, Alanson. The Lenape Indians of Staten Island,
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural
History, vol. iii, p. 21, New York, 1909. Idem. Two Lenape Stone
Masks from Pennsylvania and New Jersey, Indian Notes and
Monographs, 1920.
 [28] Brainerd, op. cit., p. 237.
[29] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 141.
[30] Ibid., op. cit., p. 139.
[31] Brainerd, John, quoted by Abbott in Idols of the Delaware
Indians, American Naturalist, Oct. 1882.
[32] Jones, op. cit., pp. 87, 95.
[33] Brainerd, David, op. cit., p. 344.
[34] Penn, William, op. cit.
[35] Brainerd, David, op. cit., p. 238.
[36] Ibid., p. 346.
[37] Zeisberger, op. cit., pp. 133-134.
[38] Ibid., p. 131.
[39] A similar vision of a black and white duck was reported by
the Lenape at the Grand River reserve in Ontario. See Harrington,
M. R., Vestiges of Material Culture among the Canadian
Delawares, American Anthropologist, n.s., vol. x, no. 3, p. 414,
July-Sept., 1908.
[40] Brainerd, David, op. cit., p. 347.
[41] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 132.
[42] Loskiel, op. cit., p. 40.
[43] Heckewelder, op. cit., p. 238 et seq.
[44] Adams, R. C. Notes on Delaware Indians, in Report on
Indians Taxed and Indians not Taxed, U. S. Census 1890, p. 299.
[45] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 138.
[46] Ibid. pp. 136, 137.
[47] Harrington, M. R. A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture,
American Anthropologist, vol. xv, no. 2, April-June, 1913.
[48] Adams, loc. cit.
[49] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 138.
[50] Harrington, Canadian Delawares, pp. 414, 415. See note
39.
[51] Waubuno, op. cit., p. 27.
[52] Brainerd, David, op. cit., p. 237.
 [53] Adams, loc. cit.
[54] Harrington, Canadian Delawares, p. 416.
[55] Ibid. p. 417.
[56] Marsh, Rev. Cutting. Documents Relating to the
Stockbridge Mission, 1825-48, Wisconsin Historical Collections,
vol. xv, pp. 164-165.
[57] Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 138.
[58] Adams, loc. cit.
[59] Ibid.
 INDEX

Aʹckas or attendants of Annual ceremony, duties of, 84-85, 87-

88, 96-97, 103, 105, 107.
See Attendants.
Adams, R. C., on Annual ceremony, 118-122;
on Buffalo dance, 182-183;
on dreams or visions, 80;
on Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 154-156;
on Skeleton dance, 183-184.
Air, mannitto of, 30.
See Thunder Beings
Alder, dye from bark of, 141
Alphabet used for Lenape words, 15-16
Altar at Annual ceremony, 115
America, prophecy of whites’ coming to, 121
American Anthropologist, account of Minsi ceremony in, 138-143
American Museum of Natural History, Doll in collection of, 46,
168-169;
Tefft collection in, 15, 38
American tribes, concept of Great Spirit among, 19-20
Animals, as guardian spirits, 49-50, 65, 70, 77, 80, 121, 195;
ceremonies of, 171-183;
spirits of, 118, 125, 194;
thanks to, 134.
See Wild animals
Anima mundi compared with Great Spirit, 22
Annual ceremony, authorities on:
Adams, 118-122;
Indian comments, 111-115;
Penn, 115-116;
Zeisberger, 116-118;
Bear ceremony resembling, 171;
carved faces in, 31;
chant of Pokiteʹhemun at, 67-69;
chants of visions at, 66, 73-76, 195;
compared with Minsi ceremony, 127-145;
Four winds in ritual of, 26;
native name for, 109;
penalties of omitting, 113-116;
rites of Mask in, 36, 146, 151;
thanks given to Earth in, 29;
Unami rites of, 81-111;
variants of, 122-126;
worship of Great Spirit in, 19;
worship of Mask Being in, 35.
See Minsi
Anthony, Michael, acknowledgment to, 14, 139
Ants as guardian spirits, 78
Arapaho, Ghost dance of, 191
Arrow, ceremonial use of, at Peyote rite, 187-188;
arrows of Thunder Beings, 29
Ashes, ceremonial removal of, 101, 131-132;
prevention of disease by, 160
Aⁿsiptaʹgŭn or paint-dish of bark, 105
A'ʹtcigamuʹltiⁿ, native name for Otter ceremony, 176.
See Otter ceremony
Attendants, at Annual ceremony, 84-85, 87-88, 96-97, 103, 105-
111, 117-118, 120;
 at Bear ceremony, 172-173;
at Feast of first fruits, 144;
at Minsi ceremony, 132-133, 137;
at Otter ceremony, 179;
at Peyote rite, 188.
See Aʹckas
Axe, Tornado threatened with, 47

Bad luck, caused by neglect of rites, 113-116

Bag, full of snakes, 35, 153;
mask worn in, 42;
of Mask impersonator, 34;
of tobacco offered: to bear, 172;
to otter, 177
Bark, boiled for making dyes, 141;
ceremonial bowls and spoons of, 131, 137;
ceremonial paint-dish of, 105-106;
first Big House of, 148;
roof of Big House of, 83
Beads of wampum, as invitation to dance, 142-143;
payment in, 110-111, 135;
used in Minsi ceremony, 141-143.
See Wampum
Beans, offering of, 144;
thanks to, 134;
wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Bear, abundance of, in Happy Hunting Ground, 58;
ceremony of, 171-176, 199;
fat of, burned, 117-118, 134;
flesh of, offered to Corn Goddess, 44;
hair of Mask Being like, 33;
head of, fastened to mask of Mask impersonator, 34;
 provision of, for feast, 117
Bearskin, bag of Mask impersonator, 34, 155;
cap of Mask impersonator, 42;
coat of Mask impersonator, 41;
dress of Mask impersonator, 56, 152-153;
leggings of Mask impersonator, 34, 41;
worn by members of Mask society, 159
“Beautiful town” or Heaven, 56-57.
See Happy Hunting Ground
Belief: in Doll Being, 162-171;
in dream or vision, 61-80;
in Great Spirit, 18-24, 88-92, 192-193;
in immortality, 52-60, 195-196;
in supernatural beings, 17-51
Bergen, New Jersey, information from Indians at, 20
Big-Deer, Naniʹtis given up by, 170-171
Big House or Xiʹngwikan, Annual ceremonies in, 35, 82-122;
common to both tribes, 129-133, 196-197;
construction of, 82-83, 119, 148-150;
Elkhair on significance of, 113-115;
Mask impersonator present in, 98-99;
Muxhatolʹzing in, 123;
of Bear cult, 173;
of Minsi, 127-145;
origin of, 147-152;
prayer in, 112-113;
preparation of, for Ceremony, 85-87, 117;
return of hunters to, 100-101;
rites of Mask in, 151-152;
seating of congregation in, 93;
serving of meals in, 110;
turtle rattles of, 181;
visions recited in, 75-76.
 See Annual ceremony, Meeting-house
Bilberries, at Annual feast, 118;
in Happy Hunting Ground, 58
Birds as guardian spirits, 78, 80, 121, 195
Black, and red: carved faces painted with, 83, 119;
Mask painted with, 33, 41, 150, 155;
and white duck, as guardian spirit, 67, 140;
hog, offering of, 173;
symbolizing men, 140-141
Blanket, ceremonial waving of, 145;
blankets spread over sweating-oven, 125
Blessing granted by guardian spirits, 65-67, 77, 194-195
Blood, luminous ball of, 53-54
Body, luminous form of, 53-54
Bones, burning of, at Annual ceremony, 118
Bowl, and dice game of manĭʹtowŭk, 25-26;
ceremonial, in Bear cult, 173-174;
bowls, bark, in Minsi ceremony, 131, 137
Bows and arrows of Thunder Beings, 29
Box-tortoise rattle in Annual ceremony, 94-96, 118, 120.
See Rattles
Box-turtle rattle of Planting dance, 143.
See Rattles
Boys, dreaming of, for power, 54;
initiation of, 63-64, 78-80;
pet of, 172;
vision of Mask Being by, 147-152;
visions of, 62-63, 72-75, 92, 140, 194-195
Brainerd, David, on animal spirits, 50;
on Annual ceremony, 151-152;
 on carved faces in Big House, 42;
on concept of soul, 56;
on dream or vision, 77;
on Evil Spirit, 25;
on Four Directions, 27;
on Great Spirit, 22-23;
on impersonator of Mask Being, 41-42;
on sun, 28
Brainerd, John, on idol image or Doll, 46-47
Brass eyes of Miziʹnk, 158
“Bringing in” the meeting, 81, 92-94, 104, 122, 135, 174
Brown, William, acknowledgment to, 14
Brush house of Bear cult, 173-174
Buck, chant referring to, 69;
prayer to, 126;
ridden by Mask Being, 33, 148;
women’s share in, 106
Buckskin, skeleton wrapped in, 184
Buffalo, as guardian spirit, 78;
dance of, 182-183
Bunches of wampum, symbolism of, 141-143
Burial, Wolf clan rites of, 183-184
Burning, of bones, 118;
of cedar leaves, 105;
of fat, 117-118, 134, 173-175;
of hemlock-boughs, 133, 144-145;
of hog’s head, 175;
of moccasins, 47;
of tobacco, 29, 98, 126, 151.
See Offering
Cactus called peyote, 186.
See Peyote rite
Caddo, Peyote cult originating among, 185
Canada, Lenape now resident in, 13-14, 170.
See Ontario
Canoe, coming of white men in, 121;
over river to Spirit land, 54
Cantico, Penn’s term for ceremony, 115-116
Cap, bearskin, of Mask impersonator, 42
Carved drumsticks, in Annual ceremony, 101-103, 150;
in Minsi ceremony, 130-131, 139-140, 197
Carved faces, on drumsticks, 101, 130-131, 197;
on posts of Big House, 42-43, 83, 88, 106, 119, 148, 150;
on posts of Minsi Big House, 129-130, 151;
representing Keepers of the Heavens, 31.
See Mask, Masks, Mĭsiʹngʷ'
Catfish, James Wolf’s dream of, 72-73
Cattle, Mask Being guardian of, 35, 157
Cayuga, False Face company of, 161;
long-house, thanksgiving of Lenape in, 139;
Planting dance of, 143
Cedar-leaves, burning of, at Annual ceremony, 105
Central post, carved faces on, 83, 119, 151;
ceremonial of: in Annual ceremony, 94, 106, 119-120;
in Feast of first fruits, 144;
in Minsi Big House, 129-130, 135;
in Muxhatolʹzing, 123
Central West, Peyote cult in, 185
Ceremonies, directed by guardian spirit, 65;
extinction of, 63;
 in honor of dead, 55, 191, 195-196;
minor, 198-199;
of Big House, 75-76, 82;
of Lenape, paintings of, 14;
of Minsi Big House, 127-145;
of Minsi to Mother Corn, 43;
of Unami and Minsi, compared, 196-200;
thanks given to Great Spirit in, 18, 145, 196.
See Annual ceremony, Ceremony
Ceremony, of Bear, 171-176;
of Buffalo, 182-183;
of Doll Being, 46, 162-171;
of First fruits, 144-145;
of Mask Being, 35, 198-199;
of Mask society, 37, 159-161;
of Otter, 176-183;
of Peyote, 185-191;
of Skeleton dance, 183-184;
of Thanksgiving, 139-143.
See Annual ceremony, Ceremonies
Chant, at Otter ceremony, 180-181;
of Pokiteʹhemun, 67-68;
referring to Mask Being, 69;
referring to visions, 66-74, 136, 174-175, 195;
Unami examples of, 67-72.
See Singers, Singing, Visions
Charm, opiʹna or blessing as, 65-66;
charms: from Great Horned Serpents, 49;
miniature masks as, 36, 42.
See Fetishes
Charts of Heaven drawn on deerskin, 57
Chastity of boys, 62-63
Chief, of the gods, Great Spirit as, 19;
 hunter of Annual ceremony, 85, 97.
See Leader
Chief Waubuno, description of Minsi ceremony by, 143-145;
on Great Spirit, 21-22
Children, cared for by Mask Being, 34-35, 153, 155-156;
Doll Being revealed to, 162-163;
Little People hunted by, 49, 193;
meeting of, with parents in Heaven, 53, 91;
no longer piʹlsŭⁿ, 63, 112-114;
part of, in Annual ceremony, 108-109;
prayers for, 115.
See Boys, Girls
Cholera checked by False Face company, 161
Christ, tomb of, at Peyote rite, 186-187.
See Jesus Christ
Christianity, concepts of, in Peyote rite, 186-190;
idols given up for, 38;
Naniʹtis given up for, 169;
visions given up for, 72.
See Devil, Missionary, Whites
Clans, see Phratries
Clothing of Naniʹtis, 167.
See Costume
Coat of bearskins of Mask impersonator, 34, 41
Colors, dyes for, 141.
See Black, Red
Comet, attributes of, 48-49
Cones, copper, adorning Miziʹnk, 158
Confederacy of the Lenape, 13
Conjurer, information of, in regard to Great Spirit, 22-23
Copper adorning Miziʹnk, 158
Corn, beans and vegetables, wampum string symbolizing, 141-
142;
called Lenape food, 70;
in rattle of Mask impersonator, 42;
offering of, 144;
soul likened to, 59;
spirit, duties of, 193;
thanks for, 145;
thanks to, 134.
See Mother Corn
Corn-bread at Minsi ceremony, 137
Corn Goddess, see Mother Corn
Corn-mush, see Hominy, Säʹpan
Costume, of impersonator: of Mask Being, 33-34, 41-42, 56,
152-153, 155, 158;
of Otter, 177-182;
of members of Mask society, 159;
of Naniʹtis, 169-170;
of Sun, 27;
worn at Annual ceremony, 93;
worn at Ghost dance, 191
Cranes or singers of Annual ceremony, 85.
See Singers
Crayfish, James Wolf’s dream of, 72-73
Creator, see Great Spirit
Cripples, injunction to help, 91-92
Crooked nose of Miziʹnk, 158
Crops, prayer for, 44, 134;
ruin of, 113;
supernatural control of, 194;
 watered by Thunder Beings, 193
Cross, drumsticks marked with, 101;
spirit road represented by line on, 187-188.
See Crucifix
Crow as guardian spirit, 69-70
Crucifix at Peyote rite, 187
Cult, see Ceremony, Ceremonies

Dance, at Thanksgiving ceremony, 142-143;

in honor of Great Spirit, 88;
native terms for, 115-116;
of Buffalo, 182-183;
of Doll Being, 164-165;
of First fruits, 128;
of guardian spirits, 73;
of Ghost, 190-191;
of Mask impersonator in Big House, 42, 99;
of Mĭsiʹngʷ', 152-156;
of Skeleton, 183-184;
of Weopĕʹlakis, 36;
Planting, 143;
Strawberry, 128, 197;
dances connected with Mask society, 160.
See Dancing
Dance songs accompanying chants, 66.
See Chant, Singers, Singing
Dancing, at Annual ceremony, 42, 95, 99, 103, 106, 115-116,
118-122;
at Feast of first fruits, 145;
at Minsi ceremony, 135-136, 140;
in ceremonies of Naniʹtis, 168, 171;
in Happy Hunting Ground, 56, 58.