[KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T.

PEDZISAI)]

COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI

1|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

INTRODUCTION TO FAMILY AND RELIGIOUS STUDIES

 the Family and religious studies learning area is a two year syllabus that provides learners with skills
that enable them to critically reflect on religious concepts and experiences.

 the learning area helps the learners understand and interpret religious and moral concepts in their
everyday life. it is a multi-faith, non-proselytising approach to the study of religion which makes
learners to be aware of their respective religious identities in the context of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu
and religious plurality.

 it inculcates in the learners the invaluable ability to hold responsible dialogue where they tolerate
each other’s religion in a peaceful environment.

 the learning area enables learners to evaluate and synthesise religious concepts to formulate
theoretical frameworks for sustainable development.

 the syllabus employs a thematic approach that will graduate learners to a mature relationship with
religious and moral thinking and practice. the learning phase will see learners being assessed
through both continuous assessment and summative examination.

Rationale

 the family and religious studies learning area focuses on selected concepts in four religions in
Zimbabwe; Indigenous religion, Judaism,Christianity and Islam.

 the learning area facilitates the respect for human dignity and diversity.

 the family and religious studies learning area is significant in that it enables learners to actively
conceptualise, analyse, evaluate and apply data gathered from their observations of religious
phenomena to develop unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu, social responsibility and ethical principles from
the religions.

 the learning area develops learners into critical, self-driven and responsible citizens who
participate in sustainable development.

2|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

INDIGENOUS RELIGION NOTES

MEANING OF RELIGION

 The exact definition of religion is a matter of debate among scholars

 Tylor definition of religion was belief in spiritual beings.
 Religion is defined as a system of beliefs, practices and humanitys concern about the world and
the sacred.
 Religion is thought to be an interplay between man’s existence and the communication with the
ultimate, cosmic or the supernatural beings.
 Religion is a belief in a supernatural being or God
 Religion is humanity's search for answers and attempt to explain natural phenomenon and how
the world is shaped
 Durkheim held the view that religion is an expression of social cohesion.
 According to Emile Durkheim religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to the
sacred things, that is things set apart and forbidden, for example beliefs which unite people into
one single moral community like the concept of a totem
African Concept
 Scholars say an African is one who is indigenous: born and bred in Africa; one who inhabits the
continent of Africa.
 However, some are not necessarily born and bred in Africa, for example, those who are born in
the Diaspora (UK, USA, etc)
 Samkange: generally, an African is one who is black (munhu)
Tradition
 Tradition is s belief or behaviour passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or
special significance with origins in the past
 The idea covers a lot of things ranging from social norms
 The mode of transmission can be oral or observation
 The word tradition comes from a Latin word "tradar' which means to transmit or to hand over or to
give for safe keeping

Indigenous Religion

3|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 According to Spring (1976) African Traditional Religion refers to indigenous beliefs and
practiceof the Africans .
 Dennis L. Thompson says African Religion can be seen as a system of rites , practices and rules
that aim at preserving and strengthen the fellowship of the people , the tribe and the family
 In Zim indigenous Religion can be classified into Ndebele and Shona religion
 However , it is important to note that they are minority tribes who have diverse set of beliefs e.g
Tonga people of Binga , Suthu, the Venda , the Kalanga etc
 They believe in supreme God called "uNkulunkulu" in Ndebele and "Musikavanhu" in Shona
language

SOURCES OF ATRS (Mbiti, 1991):

 Rituals, Ceremonies, festivals of the people,

 Shrines, Sacred places, religious objects,
 Art and symbols,
 Music and dance,
 Proverbs, riddles and wise sayings,
 Names of people and places,
 Myths and legends,
 Beliefs and customs,
 All aspects of life.

Characteristics of Indigenous Religion

a) does not seek to make converts

 IR does not have preachers who go around preaching so that people are converted to the
Religion
 One is born in to the Religion and remains part of the religion either as practising or non
practising member of the religion
 Being an African is thus a baptism to Indigenous Religion

b) It has a belief in God

4|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Many scholars especially of European disposition have tried to dismiss the Religion as having no
solid belief in God
 They thought God was brought to Africa by the forerunners of colonisation the missionaries
 However , Africans believe in God the Supreme Being reffered by many names
 It is a monotheistic religion , God is one

c) moral code

 The Religion has a strong moral code

 Failure to adhere to the moral code has strong repercussions/consequences in the afterlife
 Killing, injuring others , witchcraft and stealing are forbidden
 The moral code bring concept of respect for elders and honouring parents
 The code is enshrined in taboos , myths and wise sayings

d) existence of spirits

 The Religion emphasise the existence of spirits e.g ancestral spirits , avenging spirits etc
 These spirits can be either good or bad and are very useful to ye existence of the society

e) orally transmitted

 There is no scripture or sacred text

 The religious belief and practices are transmitted by the word of mouth from one generation to
another
 The Religion is transmitted orally and by way of imitation
 The concept of "Ubuntu" is both inherent and acquired

f) belief in life after death

 There is strong belief in life after death as evidence in the existence of spirits of the dead and kurova
guva ceremony/mbuyiso

g) veneration of ancestors

 Believers in I.R. have respect for ancestors and ancestors are seen as active participants in their daily
lives

5|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The veneration of ancestors has been mistakenly viewed by some scholars as ancestor worship
 Africans communicate to God through ancestors

Debate on Indigenous Religion

 The concept of God, religion and worship has been presented in a negative sense by the early
European writers and missionaries. Indigenous beliefs had been characterised as;
 Superstition, witchcraft, primitive, juju, idolatry, fetishism, savage and polytheistic.
 According to Tovagonze, “Many have maintained that God has no place in African Tribal Religions,
or that belief in God is due to the influence of hierarchical society.
 Some have said that God in African tribal is nothing more than a glorified Ancestor, or that belief in
God is the reflection of the worship of nature, that Africans are Animists, that magic is the mother of
African Religions.
 There is a debate whether Africans had a belief in God before the advent of Christian missionaries.
 There are two schools of thought regarding this debate:
 One advocates the non-existence of God in ATR; ancestors are the unrestricted value in themselves.
 Belief in God is a very recent development
 .The Africans did not have this notion before the advent of missionaries/Christianity.
 C, Bullock says, I would be the last one to advocate the translation of our word God by Chishona
word Mwari.
 H. Stacy says ‘Shona people are uncivilised and need to be introduced and taught of the living God
and the name Jesus
 They believe ancestors were an end in themselves; the Supreme Being of unrestricted value.’
 However, all the above writers simply misinterpreted the known facts, or misrepresented theAfrican
Traditional Beliefs, or misunderstood African Concept of God.
 African scholars maintain that the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Creator of Heaven and
Earth, Lord of History, has been dealing with Mankind at all times and in all parts of the World.
African ancestors have a rich that they knew God and worshipped him before the coming of the
missionaries.
 Africans had a belief in God from antiquity/time immemorial.

6|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The Shona and the Ndebele had a belief in God that has been passed from one generation to
another even before the advent of missionaries. Knowledge of God preceded the coming of the
missionaries.
 According to Mbiti:“Missionaries did not bring God to Africa, but it was God who brought them to
Africa. One for real is that they brought Christ. Africans do not worship their ancestors- they are not
the supreme Beings; the end in themselves, but God is the final authority above and beyond the
ancestors. Ancestors are just the intermediaries between people and the Supreme-Being.

The Concept of God in Indigenous Religion

 Concept – the most important basic idea, thought, belief, view, principle or understanding of
something.
 The concept of God to the basic ideas held by a particular community in how they understand or
perceive about the nature of their deity.
 Two factors to note about the concept of God are:
 Africans were familiar with God and had formulated certain ideas about God.
 Belief in God was part and parcel of African thinking and life.

1. Belief in God

 Belief in the existence of God is part and parcel of the concept of God in IR.
 God is known and worshipped all over Africa. Indigenous societies acknowledge Him as Father,
Creator, Eternal, completely Beneficent (helpful), ethically Holy, and creatively Omnipotent.
 John S. Mbiti notes that, ″All over Africa people have a notion of God as the Supreme Being the
origin and sustenance of all things. ″
 Indigenous peoples strongly believe in the supreme Being (God).
 They consider Him ″older″ than the zamani period (long past).
 He is outside and beyond His creation.
 On the other hand, He is personally involved in His creation, so that it is not outside of Him or His
reach. He is thus simultaneously Transcendent(supreme) and Immanent (present in His creation).
 African knowledge of God is expressed in proverbs, short statements, songs, prayers, names, myths,
stories and religious ceremonies.
 All these are easy to remember and pass on to other people.

7|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 There are no sacred writings in Traditional Societies

 . But God is no stranger to the African peoples and everybody knows God ′s existence almost by
instinct and even children know Him.
 Generally, indigenous concepts of God are strongly coloured and influenced by the historical,
geographical, social and cultural background or environment of each people.
 This explains the similarities and differences which we find when we consider the beliefs about God
from all over African Continent.

2. The Eternal Nature of God

 Indigenous Religion accepts the concept of God as Eternal.

 A number local communities in Africa considers the of the Eternal Nature of God.
 Indigenous communities considerGod to be: Omniscient (Knowing all things), Omnipresent (being
everywhere), and Omnipotent (being almighty or all-powerful).
 These are essential aspects of his Being.
 Indigenous African peoples consider God to be Transcendent and Immanent.
 Local people admit that man′s wisdom is limited, incomplete, and acquired.
 On the other hand, God′s Omniscience is absolute, unlimited and part of His eternal
 God is visualized as the ″great Eye″ or the ″sun″ which beams its light everywhere. African peoples
regard Him as the omniscient from whom nothing is hidden since nothing can escape His vision,
hearing and knowledge. God knows everything, observes everything and hears everything without
limitation and without exception.
 God controls nature that is the wind, sun and rain. God is transcendental, so far that man cannot
reach Him, yet, He is immanent, so ‘near’ that He comes close to man. In this way, God is thought of
as dwelling far away in the sky, or″ above″ beyond the reach of men.
 God is immanent, being manifested in natural objects and phenomena and they can turn to Him in
acts of worship, at any place and time. It is through many acts of worship that men acknowledge
God to be near and approachable. Such acts include sacrifices, offerings and prayers.
 Concerning the origin of God, a number of African peoples think of Him as self existent and pre-
eminent. God is the first, who had always been in existence, and would never die.
 God is great and supreme. Many societies like the Tonga, and others, speak of Him as ″the Great
one″, or ″Great God″, or ″the Great King″, or ″the surpassingly Great Spirit.

8|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Names of God

 Mwari /Mwami- when Europeans vane in the 1890s they found Shona speaking people worshipping
God known as Mwari
 Musikavanhu/Sikabumba- the Creator
 Chikara /The Beast-coined after the attribute of God as the all powerful Almighty
 Mutangakugara -means the first to exist
 Samasimba /Somandla -all powerful being
 Nyadenga - God who dwells in Heaven and is the owner of heavens
 Ishe /Nkosi- arbitrator and the one who presided over matters
 Dzivaguru- perennial pool that sustain his creation eg provides rains , fertility (land and people) and
other necessities

ATTRIBUTES OF GOD IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

 The attributes of God in IR can be derived from the names of God
 There are however some attributes of God that are generally acceptable

1. Omniscience
 God is all knowing and nothing can be hidden from God
 This attribute God works hand in hand with the moral code of African people
 There is nothing that God does not know
 God has earned respect of the Africans
2. Omnipotence
 God is all powerful and from this attribute a name of God was coined , Samasimba
 God makes the rain fall , makes the dew to appear in the morning and he makes kings to rise
and when he is angry it can be felt by a natural phenomenon
 He holds the key to success and death
3. Omnipresent
 God through the spirits is ever present
 Among the Tonga the flow of the river symbolizes the presence of God e.g Kasambezi (Zambezi)
which is the centre of their existence
 There are sacred trees that are filled with the spirit of God e.g Muhacha tree

9|Page
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 God is everywhere e.g shrines , natural phenomena

 There is a long process through the ancestors to reach God
 NB: This does not necessarily mean he is faraway from the universe but the universe respects
him just like the father
 E.g children get to the father through mothers , aunts , uncles in serious matters -the father is
present but there is a channel to reach him
4. God is the rainmaker -rain is the product of God as evidenced by rainmaking ceremonies Bira
5. God is the healer

EXISTENCE AND FUNCTIONS OF SPIRITS

Objectives :

a) Explore the existence of spirits

b) Discuss the challenges involved in establishing the existence of spirits
c) Discuss the types of spirits
d) Explain the functions of spirits in IR

African Religious Worldview /Cosmology

Dualistic and Tripartite Worldviews

 Dualistic- Africans believe there is a spiritual realm (the abode of the spirits).
 The exact location of this realm is not clear.
 They are regarded as “ Varikumhepo .” The Shona and Ndebele believe in the existence of the
physical realm, that is, the earth with trees ,animals etc.
 When one dies, they got other spirit world

The Tripartite worldview

 It comprises belief in human world, the natural world and the spiritual world.
 These three worlds are linked.
 The natural world provides the habitat for the spirits and sends message from the spiritual world to
the human world (as hierophanies).

10 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The spirit world provides guidance, punishment and blessing to the human world (Haverkort, et al).
 For the African every plant, animal and natural phenomena are a carrier of the divine.
 In order to appease the spirit world, people have to perform rituals and make sacrifices. The human
world has to relate to both the natural and the spirit world.

The existence of spirits in IR

 The word spirit has been defined differently by many authorities form different perspectives
 Dr. Kelly (2000) defines spirits as intelligent beings of the creation
 They constitute the population of the invisible world in contrast with the physical world
 In IR spirits govern all social and spiritual phenomena
 Professor Emeka (1992) alleges that it is beyond denial that African Indigenous Religions
acknowledges the existence and influence pf spirits
 In Zim spirits are called Vadzimu or Amadlozi
 Spirits exists in invisible form -one cannot see them with a naked eye
 Even spirits are not visible , they dwell in visible geographical location
 Mbiti (1965)says that majority of people in Indigenous Religion hold that spirits dwell in woods ,
bushes , forests , rivers , mountains , graveyards , deserted homes or around the village

Functions of spirits
 They communicate with the living and they are appeased. Mbiti says that they are “the living dead”
 They are guardians or custodians of their families -eg safeguard against evils that may want to derail
the individual from achieving his or her ultimate in life
 Communicate to God on behalf of the people -eg Africans consult vadzimu for the rains during the
times of drought
 They bestows blessings , comfort and good living for their descendants
 Some ancestors protect people from avenging spirits known as Ngozi
 However , the functions of spirits in IR is not only positive

Types of spirits
 It is important that we dispel the misconception that spirits in IR esp ancestral spirits take the
position of God

11 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 People in IR communicate with the Supreme Being or Mwari through Vadzimu or Amadlozi
 Therefore spirits are not gods or God

 Possession by spirits is one aspect that makes communication with the spiritual world among the IR
believers for e.g through Bira
 Sometimes communication with the spirits is done through a spirit medium

Ancestral Spirits (Midzimu)

 These are the spirits of the deceased members of the family who were decently buried and now
exist in spiritual form.
 Death marks a transformation of the African person from the physical to the spiritual form.
 Mbiti (1969) calls them the living-dead; whilst they are dead physically, they are alive spiritually.
 The dead are still part of the family and the living still have memories of them.
 However, not everyone who dies can achieve ancestor-hood status.
 There are certain prerequisites/requirements for one to become an ancestral spirit.
 These are:
a) One should be a married person with children. This is done for purposes of continuity; such people
had parental responsibility so they have to look after the living using the experience of parental
responsibility they gathered in the previous life
b) Necessary rituals should be conducted for a person to become an ancestral spirit (kurova
guva/umbuyiso). Before these rituals are conducted the spirit is believed to be dangerous to the
living. The ritual inaugurates the dead into the spiritual realm,
c) Moral uprightness. Anti-social behaviour, for example, witchcraft, sorcery, stealing, social outcasts,
mentally deranged, lepers etc cannot become ancestral spirits. In some cases even the immoral
become ancestral spirits, but the spirit is believed to have less impact because of the failure to be
exemplary in the previous life.
Hierarchy of spirits
 National Spirits-Debatable. It is a political construct.
 Territorial/Tribal/Clan Spirits-spirits of departed rulers/chiefs
 Family /Ancestral Spirits.
Functions of Ancestral spirits

12 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 They are intermediators /mediators between the people and the Supreme Being. M.F.C,Bourdillon
argues that ancestors are bilingual
 They speak the language that God hears and the language the living can understand. --They know
what the people are after since they had been there, and since they are now in the spiritual world,
they know best how to approach God,
 Africans feel small to approach God directly so the need to use the ancestral spirits as a way to show
respect and courtesy towards God who must be approached with humility and reverence
 An African person does not approach an elder directly, but does so through his junior.
 Ancestral Spirits are always appeased with some ceremonies so as to perform their intermediary
role satisfactorily.
 They are protectors and guardians of the people. Africans believe the world has mysterious forces
which beyond humanity conception, for example, evil spirits, natural disasters, sorcerers etc.
 Humanity can only cope with these forces only with the guardianship and security proffered by the
ancestral spirits that can wade off these forces that threaten the well being of the living
 They do not cause harm, but misfortunes happen when they withdraw their protection in protest or
as a sign of their anger and the family becomes vulnerable to these forces
 Rituals are conducted to placate them so that they won’t withdraw their protection.
 They also maintain peace and harmony in the family.
 They fight evil spirits and drive them away from their family descendants where they once belonged.
People are united through ceremonies held in their honour. People gather in friendly, peaceful and
happy ceremonies to venerate ancestors.
 They influence proper moral behaviour on people; they shape the morality of the people. This is
done through the issue of reward and punishment. Those who abide by the restrictions are
rewarded and those who break taboos are punished.
 They meet the expectations of people in their everyday life. They ensure fertility both of the land
and of the people. When a woman begets child,the ancestors are thanked.
 They protect people at dangerous working places, academic endeavours, good yields/bumper
harvests, and marriages (etc) in various enterprises.
 Some are guardians and protectors of the land, for example, territorial spirits.
 They are believed to guard against foreign invasion/enemies.
Qn Compare and contrast ancestral spirits and alien spirits

13 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Alien Spirits
 These are spirits of strangers/aliens who died away from home and usually are the spirits of the
young and the unmarried.
 The spirits of these people would not have received proper funeral ceremonies; hence they seek to
express themselves through taking possession of unrelated people.
 They are unknown to the communities from which they choose hosts.
 Some of these spirits are spirits of social outcasts/deviances, for example, witches, sorcerers, suicide
victims, the mentally deranged etc.
 They cannot be adopted into the world of ancestral spirits and so end up possessing unrelated
people.
 They can also be spirits of animals, for example, baboons, snakes etc.
 The hosts behave in the way the animal does.
 It is a struggle against oblivion caused by death. Since they cannot be ancestral spirits, they have to
be somewhere.
Example:
Mazungu spirit
 these are spirits African people from Portuguese east Africa.
 They came many years ago in search of some minerals and game and many died in these strange
lands and their spirits wandered until they settled on some alien hosts.
 The spirit is associated with cleanliness and hygiene. Many reflect a bias picture of white people.
 The host behaves in the way the whites do. A woman host washes her body and clothes regularly.
 The person is always spotlessly clean.
 The spirit demands western food staff such as eggs, rice spaghetti etc. The possessed speaks English
and any other European languages even if the person has never been to School
The significance
They confer particular talents/skills to their hosts either negative or positive.
Positive Skills / Talent s
 They can confer hunting talents to their host. One can become an expert in hunting. The host is
known as “ Mudzimba ”. Such type of spirits possesses “men” for example,Khumalo Shavi.

14 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 They bestow healing talents, for example, Sivinda Shavi. This type is popular with women. The host
is able to treat various diseases, convulsions, difficult labour etc.They impart this expertise to their
host.
 Madzukwa Shavi expert in treating many diseases some of the western medicine cannot treat,for
example ,leprosy, epilepsy etc.
 Chipunha favours young and unmarried women as its host. It confers curative skills on its host. It
cures diseases that attack small children.
 Nyamande Shavi- Confers divinatory talents. The host can foresee into the future and may warn a
person of an impending disaster and advises the person of the diviner to consult to avert the
disaster. The Baboon spirit can divine illness. It can also help find lost property, something hidden
(Seership).
 Masangano Spirit specializes in dancing. It can confer dancing skills on the host and the person can
entertain people at ceremonies (for example, Chakandiwana in Garandichauya ).
 Zvipenzi Shavi -enables host to perform duties regarded arduous to perform under normal
circumstances. The person is industrious / hardworking.
 Shavi remhondoro- is known to possess lions. The lion guards the chiefdom by moving around at
night.
 Sangoma- produces warriors strong and brave in battles. It confers the ability to kill in battle and
protects the whole territory from invaders or enemies.
 Possession by alien spirits enhances the social status of the host in the society.
 I.M Lewis posits that the favourite victims of possession cults are women who are deprived of
power in male dominated societies (patriarchy) or down-trodden categories of men.
 These two groups are subject to strong discrimination in rigidly stratified societies.
 Possession avails the chance for them to express the inclination they may not under normal
circumstances.

Negative Qualities/Attributes
 Shavi rouroyi -Witchcraft
 Shavi rechipfambi -Prostitution
 Shavi rokuba -stealing
 Shavi reusimbe – laziness

15 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Shavi reurombe -poverty/vagrance

Avenging Spirit
 This is a spirit of someone who dies with a grievance and comes back to seek revenge against those
who wronged it.
 It is the most feared type of spirit among the Shona/Ndebele because it causes illness, misfortunes,
suffering and even death to the offender’s family.
 The etymology of the word “ngozi” is a Karanga term “ njodzi” which means accidents, sorrows,
danger to human life, misfortune etc.
 The term is characteristic of the actions of the spirit.
 It attacks the members of the family of the offender because in the African society in general sin is
seen as a collective social error and the whole family is susceptible to punishment
Various types of avenging spirits

 Murdered persons, especially a foreigner/mutorwa. The spirit comes back to seek revenge,

 Parental spirit against its offspring. This could be due to ill treatment during life-time. If a child
beats up or scolds one of her parents and takes no steps to remedy the situation through striking
reconciliation, the spirit of the parent comes back as an avenging spirit. It is not necessarily
angozi,but “kupfuka”.The misfortunes are directed to the specific child who wronged the parent.
She may come back as result of tampering with her cooking utensils. These should be replaced
while she is still alive otherwise she may die with a grievance. Non-payment of “mombe youmai” by
the son-in-law can court the spirit of the deceased mother. The mother’s spirit is more dangerous
than that of the father because the mother is not of one’s relations; not of the same totem.
Children can perform rituals to placate her. The victim goes through a humiliating life that includes
withdrawing into the outside world (Kutandabotso). May cause fertility problems in the girl
children.

 The most dreaded one is the avenging spirit of a deceased pregnant woman or a woman who dies
soon after giving birth as a result of the in-law or husband. It has a tendency of quantifying itself by
causing or calling other “ngozi” into the family of the offender.

16 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Spirit of a servant (Mushandi) / slave (Nhapwa) can also come back to seek compensation,
especially when they died without being paid their dues. If the person was ill-treated, they may
come seeking revenge. It demands a wife/virgin girl as a form of compensation.

 A spirit of a spouse/ partner who died through negligence of or ill-treatment or unfaithfulness of

the other partner.

o An avenging spirit can be self-generative.

o This means that it can come without being provoked.

o But it can also be initiated.

o The relatives of the deceased can invoke the deceased’s spirit.

o They can use herbs at the deceased’s grave to make the person wreak havoc in the family of the
offender.

o Some people take medicine while still alive to be able to take revenge if their death is caused by
people.

People take steps to get rid of the avenging spirit, for example,

 Kurasira-. A black animal or fowl dedicated to an avenging spirit (ngozi) is left to wander in the
bush. One who takes away the animal automatically takes the Ngozi,

 Kutsipika-This is a ritual that is meant to drive away the spirit with the help of a n’anga without
propitiatory rites being done. The step may threaten even the life of the n’anga because it incurs
the anger of the spirit. This is not a permanent solution to counter ngozi. The only solution is
reparation/compensation. This is aptly described in the Shona adage that

 Mushonga wengozi kuripa- The victim family consult a n’anga for appropriate measures to take to
appease the avenging spirit. The spirit may require beer, wife, cattle etc.

 Some scholars, for example, M. Gelfand, noted that these spirits are significant because it acts as an
ethical code of conduct.
 It is a strong deterrent to crime.
17 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 A person should desist from engaging in life threatening action. The fear compels people to respect
human value.
 Stern punishment for taking one’s life: there is justice even beyond the grave. The avenging spirits
are agents of social justice.
 Even ancestral spirits cannot protect their own; they turn their backs because they are keen to see
justice done. However, these avenging spirits also militate against the rights of other people. For
example, the use of a girl as a wife for the spirit as compensation/propitiatory fine to placate the
spirit infringes on the rights of the girl child. The individual is denied the right to choose their
partner.
 Marriage rights are violated. This causes animosity, disunity etc.

Ghost Spirits
 The Africans believe that if the dead is not properly buried with the necessary rite, the spirit may
not be admitted to the abode of the departed ones
 The spirit will become a wanderer having an aimless haunting experience
 Some believe they are people who did not die naturally e.g hanging , drowning , or of incurable
diseases or during pregnancy
 Ghosts manifest themselves in different forms
 E.g Dzimudzangara which appear in the form of tall person and suddenly disappears
 The abode of ghosts are forests , graveyards , deserted homes (matongo) and any place that is
scary
Witchcraft Spirits
 The most dreaded spirit in Zim is the spirit of witchcraft or Shavi reouroyi
 Witches inflicts harm on people

CONCEPT OF ANCESTORS
Objective

I. explain the concept of ancestors

18 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Relationship between God and ancestors

 intermediaries between God and the living
 they play an intercessory role between God and the people
 Due to their moral lives they can access God
 They are closer to God than the living hence they are a channel for adherents of ATR to present
their issues to Musikavanhu
Qn Discuss the relationship between ancestors and God

BELIEF IN LIFE AFTER DEATH IN IR

OBJECTIVES :
1) Analyze and explain the concept of life after death in IR
2) Examine the rituals associated with life after death
3) Discuss the evidence of life after death in IR
The concept of life After death in IR
 The concept of death is one that is filled with emotions
 Death stands between the world of human beings and the world of the spirits ,between the visible
and the invisible world
 In IR death is the separation of the spirit or soul from the body Mbiti (1965) asserts that birth is
the first rhythm of a new generation , rites of birth are performed inorder to make the child a
corporate and social being
 Death comes ass the reverse process
 In IR death is associated with birth to spiritual life
 When a person dies he continues to exist in spiritual world Nyikadzimu
Death among the Ndebele
 Death among the Ndebele is a sorrowful and painful event especially to the living members of the
community
 Among the Ndebele and Shona people death does not happen naturally , there is a cause
 Major causes of death are magic , witchcraft , sorcery
 When a person is ill they employ various healing methods
 When a person dies an ox or a goat is killed and is known as the beast of ancestors

19 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The beast is a sign of linking the departed and the living members of the family
 A grave is dug in an uncultivated ground , it is dug by the brothers with the help of other men
 The corpse is wrapped with an animal skin or blanket , in modern times it is placed in a coffin
 At the grave the eldest son strikes the grave with a spear -the spear symbolizes defense and
protection
 The spear is used to neutralize danger
 Another ritual is placing personal belongings of the dead in the grave -this indicates that ancestors
must not find themselves poor and they need wealth in the hereafter
 There are some cases when they demand their belongings from the living through dreams
 An animal is killed after or before the burial

 There is brewing of beer and all tools used for burial are washed (the rite to wash hoes)
 There is a washing ritual in the river to cleanse people from pollution caused by death
 After a year or later there is Mbyiso which means calling back the soul of the deceased to his people
 Done to women and men who were married before dying
 Widows and widowers are free to remarry
 It is a ritual that celebrates man’s conquest over death
 A living dead can be invited back into human circles

Death among the Shona

 Death has a cause -natural and unnatural causes

 When a person dies women wail (kuridza mhere) to notify others that there is a funeral
 There is shrouding (kupeta munhu) and news is spread after the elders have made sure that the
person is completely dead
 The wife is expected to wash the body and a token known as Chema is brought
 A beast is slaughtered
 During the period of mourning a family friend ‘Sahwira “ lightens the moment by imitating the
deceased’s behavior or divulging some secrets in a lighter way
 During funeral the departed relatives are informed to receive the new comer and the grave is called
imbayemushakabvu

20 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 When a married person dies his spirit must be properly settled and there are procedures to be
followed e.g Kurova gata and Kurova Guva
The Ritual of Kurova Gata
 This is a shona death ritual which is done in an attempt to find the cause of death
 This is ritual whereby the Shona are interested in knowing the causes of death of their relative
 Close relatives visit a distant traditional healer or n’anga of high repute
 According to Mandaza (1970) gata is held to determine the cause of death of a person
 The purpose of Gata is to find the cause of death and also to find corrective measures to safeguard
the living
The Kurova Guva ceremony
 After a year or so , Shona people hold a ceremony of kurova guva (Zezuru) or Chenura (Manyika)
 The purpose is to bring the spirit of the death
 Spears (1926) describes this ceremony as sweeping of the grave
 Dancing and singing is done for a week while traditional beer is brewed
 The Nephew or Muzukuru officiates the ceremony
 Drumming and dancing is done throughout the night
 There is a procession to the grave led by eldest men in the village followed by close relatives and
Muzukuru
 Mbira instruments are played and songs like “Kuenda Mbire” and “Yave nyama yokugocha” are sung
 At the grave are prayers made by men as they clap hands whilst informing ancestors that they have
brought their child , he shall not stay alone in the forest again but will be in home guarding and
protecting his family
 Celebrations continues home as the ceremony reaches its conclusion
 The significance of kurova guva is that it ensures that the spirit of the dead does not bother the
living but protects them
Significance of Kurova guva ceremony
 It brings hope and confidence into the family – considering the spirit of the deceased
 It marks the end of mourning –
 It resolves tensions caused by death
 It allows important rituals like Nhaka /inheritance ceremony to take place

21 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The ceremony celebrates Shona religious practices and reunites people to the fundamental tradition
of their culture
 It strengthens relationships -as both close and distant relatives converge at one place for a common
purpose -so it affirms cohesion

UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Ubuntu
 Ramose (2003) defines ubuntu as a collection of values and practices that people of Africa or of
African origin view as making people authentic human beings.
 While the nuances of these values and practices vary across different ethnic groups, they all point to
one thing – an authentic individual human being is part of a larger and more significant relational,
communal, societal, environmental and spiritual world .
 Ubuntu simply means "I am, because you are". In fact, the word ubuntu is just part of the Zulu
phrase "Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu", which literally means that a person is a person through
other people.
 Ubuntu has its roots in humanist African philosophy, where the idea of community is one of the
building blocks of society.
 Ubuntu is that nebulous concept of common humanity, oneness: humanity, you and me both (Chasi;
2021).
 Hence , Ubuntu or Hunhu emphasizes the importance of a group or community.
 The word Ubuntu is derived from a Nguni (isiZulu) aphorism: Umuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu, which
can be translated as “a person is a person because of or through others”
 (Moloketi, 2009).
 Ubuntu can be described as the capacity in an African culture to express compassion, reciprocity,
dignity, humanity and mutuality in the interests of building and maintaining communities with
justice and mutual caring (Tutu, 1999).
 The Ubuntu application is pervasive in almost all parts of the African continent.
 Hence, the Ubuntu philosophy is integrated into all aspects of day-to-day life throughout Africa and
is a concept shared by all tribes in Southern, Central, West and East Africa amongst people of Bantu
origin (Rwelamila, Talukhaba and Ngowi, 1999).

22 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Although the Bantu languages have evolved since the concept was first formulated, the meanings
and principles of Ubuntu are the same in all these languages.
 Samkange and Samkange (1980) highlight the three maxims of hunhuism or ubuntuism.
 The first maxim asserts that to be human is to affirm one´s humanity by recognizing the humanity of
others and, on that basis, establish respectful human relations with them.
 And the second maxim means that if and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth
and the preservation of the life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of
life´.
 The third maxim as a principle deeply embedded in traditional African political philosophy says that
the king owed his status, including all the powers associated with it, to the will of the people under
him´.
Definition of terms
 Family- The family is an intimate domestic group made up of people related to one another by
bonds of blood, sexual mating, or legal ties.
 Family is “a socially recognized unit of people related to each other by kinship, martial and legal
ties.” Anderson and Parker
 George P. Murdock ‘A social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved
sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults’
(Murdock, 1949).
 Socialisation - Socialization is predominately an unconscious process by which a new born child
learns the values, beliefs, rules and regulations of society or internalizes the culture in which it is
born.
 Values - Values are the collective conception of what a societal group thinks is morally right and
good.
 Norms - Social norms are rules developed by a group of people that specify how people must,
should, may, should not, and must not behave in various situations. Norms are the means through
which values are expressed in behaviour. Some norms are defined by individual and societies as
crucial to the society. For example, all members of the group are required to wear clothing and to
bury their dead Ubuntu

23 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

NATURE OF FAMILY RELATIONS IN IR

 Mudock (1994) defines a family as a social group charaterised by common residence , economic
cooperation
 There is a stress on the fact that a family include male and female adults , children , maintain socially
approved sexual relationship
 There is emergence of single parent families in this modern era
 The African concept of traditional family is grounded on kinship network that is so expansive
Nuclear and extended family
 In Western concept nuclear family is very important and is described as the immediate family
 The traditional family bases family on the concept of kinship
 Family is central unit of organization
 In patriarchal societies men can marry multiple wives
 Gombe (1998) observes the nature of relations in a Shona family is tied on kinship with each
member having a specific role eg aunt , father , uncle , mother in law etc
Nature of family relations among the Ndebele
 The Ndebe value much life based on kinship relations
 The concept of a nuclear family of mother , father and their biological children does not exist
 The real emphasis is on extended family
 The Ndebele are a patriarchal society where the father is the head of the family
 The father is respected but no feared
 The father figure provides solutions not in autocratic way but in a facilitator method
 The father does not deal with the problems alone but involve other members of family who are
senior
 The position of the wife is valued and polygamy is widely practiced
 However , polygamy is now dying due to economic constraints and infiltration by other religions in
the institution of marriage
 Polygamy is now replaced by the phenomenon of “small house” “indlu enciyame”

 Within the house the mother dominates e.g she decides food for the family and she relates closer to
the children
Family Members relations

24 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Among the Ndebele the socialization of children has a lot training on how to relate with their
parents at the beginning
 Children respect their father and are known by his surname
 If a child is called by father he squats if he is a boy and kneels down if it’s a girl
 The wife is not called by her name but addresses her by the name of the child or her totem
 Siblings also are expected to respect each other to show mutual love
 Respect for each other grows with age
 Older people have a greater say in matters
 Elder siblings exert a measure of control over their younger siblings
 They can send them around and can reprimand or correct then if they are going wrong
 They can teach them some preliminary skills
 An important feature of family life is the presentation of family spirits , the togetherness that
prevaild even above any internal disagreement
Ethics and family
 The family is important in shaping a person
 It is an intimate room where core values and culture as well as ethical climate of the family and the
broader environment are shaped and where first social relationships are are formed
 The family forms principles and core values which can be seen as the guidelines in setting the
vision,mission and goals of family enterprise
 Family is the foundation of the society
 The Beliefs and ethics that were brought down by grandparents and great grandparents are
important
 There is a code of ethics
Ethical conduct
 There is a wide range of values which regulate conduct and mould "hunhu" or commendable
character
 These values are linked to religious beliefs
 The ethical conduct promotes social cohesion based on a system of valued
 Valued and virtues include , humanity , truthfulness , love , compassion , forgiveness, self-control,
trustworthiness, courage , industriousness etc

25 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The ethical conduct discouraged some vices such as detraction, lying , pride , covetousness,
revenge , hatred , ingratitude, negligence , aggressiveness, selfishness etc
 In the Shona traditional society , upholding virtues means a well cultured person "munhu ane unhu"
 A well cultured person is conceived as endowed with disposition to act virtuously
 He or she should exhibit "Tsika dzakanaka " or virtuous behaviour
 Ubuntu is fundamental in community life as it promotes mutual understanding, peaceful existence,
fellowship, hospitality , cooperation etc
 The community needs to be buttressed through values such as kuwadzana that appear in the Shona
proverb "kugara kunzwanana"
Threats to Ubuntu
 The world has been reduced into a global village and this has impacted negatively Ubuntu and family
relationships
 This has brought some socialising agents into play displacing the role of family in nurturing family
relationships and peaceful existence in the society
a) Corruption
 This vice had become cancerous in Zim society and is now found in every level of the society
 Because of corruption , deserving people are no longer rewarded but those who can pay e.g bribes
 Corruption is found in every sphere of life eg education, industry , justice , labour market etc
 This has completely eroded Ubuntu as corruption brings about the spirit of individualism at the
expense of deserving and meritorious
b) Globalisation
 This has brought the phenomenon of broken families
 This has destroyed the African Concept of keeping family together and the value of extended family
 The role of aunties and uncles are no longer visible
 There is infiltration by foreign culture into domestic life of Africans thus eroding the ethical fibre
previously held dear by Africans
 Such cultures and practices eg Gangsterism, Homosexuality, Hip Hop Culture , Pop Culture ,
Capitalism , Lesbianism and other religoius movements do no acknowledge the IR's concept of
Ubuntu
Negative effect of globalisation
 Resulted in abandonment of traditional values and practices

26 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Resulted in Zimbabwean preference of foreign goods , services , and cultural values that are foreign
 Those who practice traditional culture are viewed as inferior
 Changed economic bases of Zim people e.g agro-pastoral activities to industrial communities
 Diminishing of respect for sacred practitioners e.g rain makers , traditional healers , hunters , elders
due to the rise of new professions e.g teachers , doctors , soldiers
 Globalisation has resulted in imposition of Western values in Zimbabwe e.g dress code
 Language - Western languages are viewed as superior for e.g English along with Maths and Science
are considered must subjects when seeking employment while our mother tongue is neglected
b) ICT
 This include Information Communication Technology gargets like cellphones, computers, media both
print or electronic
 These has exposed people and led to the erosion of Ubuntu
 Through ICT tools people are exposed to dirty music , pornography,violent movies , drugs and other
vices that threatens the very existence of ubuntu
c) urbanization
 This has brought the mass Exodus of people from rural areas into urban areas
 The fabric that tie people together is broken as family ties are ignored
d) no written code on Ubuntu
 The fact that there is no written ethical code on Ubuntu make it difficult to transmit
e) Generational
 This has created the view that some of the things are old fashioned , primitive and cannot be
appreciated by youth generations
 The concept of ubuntu is viewed as coming from old generations and is not applicable to today's
generation
f) Westernization
 Infiltration of the western culture in terms of dressing , talking , interaction and nature of family
relations has caused erosion of Indigenous values and ethics
 Western culture promotes individualism and gives attention to Nuclear family which disregards
extended family relations

Qn Assess the nature and significance of ubuntu among youths in Zimbabwe

27 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Qn: To what extent are parents responsible for the loss of ubuntu in children.
TABOOS /ZVIERA

 People who break code ethics and disturb the well-being of the society are subjected to different
treatments
 Taboos were introduced to regulate moral order of the society
 They took their origins from the fact that people discerned that there were certain things which
were morally approved or disapproved by the deity
 Taboos were found in the men's effort to explain nature and invite fortune , to avoid evil and to pry
for the future
 Etymologically speaking, ‘taboo’ is a derivation of the Polynesian term ‘tabu’ which means
forbidden.
 The term is also applicable to any sort of social prohibition imposed by the leadership of a
community regarding certain times, places, actions, events, and people etc. especially, but not
exclusively, for religious reasons for the well-being
 There are taboos that are thought to be universal e.g cannibalism, incest , murder , cursing
 Taboos are important in as much as to maintain harmony between God , spirits and human beings
 Taboos (zviera) form an integral part and parcel of the Shona morality
Shona taboos
 Taboos are quite rich because of their epimestic , paternalistic and moral dimension
 They are sanctions that are employed in order to ensure proper behaviour in the society
 According to Tarira (2000) Zviera or taboos are strong sanctions that discourage certain forms of
human behaviour
 Chigidi (2000) say taboos among the Shona are restrictive and not directive in the sense that they
only tell the individual what not to do and not what to do
 Acting contrary to the dictates of taboos invites danger and punishment or even bad luck and
sometimes death
 Taboos instill a sense of both discipline and fear among children
 The enforcement of Shona moral code has a spiritual dimension
Taboos that promotes social well-being

28 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Taboos which prohibit social vices or ills such as incest (makunakuna). These are sexual relations
with animals or close relatives. Therefore, the violation of such taboos can be seen as a direct
provocation of ancestral spirits who are the custodian of the moral code.
 For the Shona, ukagara paduri, vakadzi vose vaunoroora vanofa (if you sit on the mortar in which
grain ispounded, all the wives that you marry would die). Such a taboo discourages both young and
old males from doing such abad act because it threatens very serious consequences to the one who
may be tempted to violate it. The bad habit of sitting on the mortar is avoided because of the fear of
ngozi.
 The Shona people are discouraged from sitting on hearthstones(pfihwa)on
thecommon understanding that doing so would lead one to murder his wife or one’s wife will
die. Through fear of losing awife as a result of such an undesirable habit of sitting on
hearthstones, one would avoid doing so. However, the real reason why people are discouraged
from sitting on hearthstones has nothing to do with causing death to one’s partner butis a
sanction meant to inculcate virtues of cleanliness in individuals.
 Ukaitira tsvina munzira, unoita mamota kumagaro(If you excrete on the road, you develop boils on
the buttocks). Excretion on pathways shows lack of Ubuntu and It can lead to diseaes
 Ukauraya datya matenga, anotadza kunaisa mvura(If you kill a frog, heavens will
fail to bring down rain).
 Ukatasva imbwa, unozoitamuroyi(If you ride a dog, you will become a witch).- riding a dog is simply
being cruel
 Ukadongorera munhu achigeza unoita showera ( If you peep on a person who is bathing you will
develop pimples on your eyelids" -Shona treasure the natural beauty of a person -in traditional
Shona males and females have designated bathing palces in rivers and streams .Men who crave to
see women they desire may end up into vices such as rape and adulterous relationships
Environmental taboos
Qn Discuss the effectiveness of taboos in the conservation of nature (25)
 The Shona environmental taboos foster a sustainable use of the environment.
 Among the Shona people, an unconscious appreciation of certain ‘environmental taboos’ informs an
esoteric environmentally based knowledge that is meant at sustainable use of nature’s resources.
 Although the Shona society, just like any other African society, has felt the impact of

29 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

cultural globalization, some of their values, such as taboos, have defied such a tide of change
and continue to shape human conduct as it relates to the environment (Chemhuru and
Masaka ;2010)
 Shona taboos highlight their moral import, are crucial in preserving the environment,and protect
water sources, the natural vegetation and wildlife, and endangered nonhuman species.
 Among Shona people, environmental taboos have a
pivotal moral role toward the ontological wellbeing of both the individual person and the
environment at large.
 Taboos are ‘avoidance rules’ that forbid members of the human community from performing certain
actions, such as eating some kinds of food, walking on or visiting some sites that are regarded as
sacred, cruelty to nonhuman animals, and using nature’s resources in an unsustainable manner.
 Tarira (2000) notes that the Shona people realize the importance of preserving the environment
taboos as a factor of development
a) Taboos protecting water sources
 Human civilization values water as one of the most important resources for their sustenance.
 It is a resource within the ecosphere that is found in abundance but requires sustainable use for the
sake of posterity
 At one level, water fosters the well-being of human and non-human life.
 Water can also be used for domestic purposes, such as drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, and
irrigation.
 It also contributes significantly towards sustaining the lives of other living things such as nonhuman
animals and plants.
 Shon people are conscious of a moral code that promotes the well-being of not only human beings,
but also the environment.
 For instance, the Shona have some taboos that prohibit abuse of water sources, such as wetlands,
rivers, and wells.
 Through these taboos, the Shona have managed, throughout history, to ensure sustainable use of
water resources.
 Duri and Mapara (2007) concur with this idea when they argue that, “environmental management
and conservation are not new [to the Shona], but they have always been part of their tradition.”

30 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 They dispute colonial environmentalists’ contention that precolonial Africans were not conscious of
the need to sustainably use the resources of nature
 One environmental taboo that falls within this category is Ukachera mvura nechirongo chitema,
tsime rinopwa, which means “if you fetch water with a sooty black pot, the well will dry up”.
 This taboo is simply an attempt to promote high hygienic standards in the light of water sources and
at the same time, safeguarding the welfare of the natural environment
 Another taboo that discourages the abuse of the water sources is ukawetera mumvura, unozorwara
nechirwere chehozhwe, which means “if you urinate in a water source, you will suffer from
bilharzias”.
 Besides being the habitat for the various aquatic creatures that also need clean water, rivers, and
other water points are important sources of water for drinking, washing, bathing, and agricultural
and industrial purposes in any human society.
 Shona people are simply worried with the extent to which urine can contaminate
water and also how it affects other aquatic creatures, like fish, given the fact that urine contains
some component of nitrates that causes the accumulation of algae, which is dangerous to
aquatic life.
 Otherwise, there is no causal relation between urinating in water sources and contracting bilharzia.
 Hence, Shona environmental taboos are simply instruments that are
aimed at protecting nature
b) Taboos protecting natural vegetation
 Apart from protecting water sources and ensuring hygienic standards some Shona taboos are meant
to protect the natural vegetation and the wildlife.
 According to Duri & Mapara (2007), “institutional prohibitions, such as taboos, were designed to
develop positive societal attitudes towards the environment
 This also involved restricting the cutting and using of certain types of vegetation
 they also have a significant value because of their spiritual significance.
 Certain natural vegetation and wildlife are revered because they are believed to be hosts of some
spiritual forces.
 it is believed that the one who visits or defiles a sacred site risks getting temporarily lost or
disappearing forever, and, in some cases, becoming insane.

31 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 For instance, in the Shurugwi area of the Midlands Province in Zimbabwe, there is a of members of
the apostolic church who disappeared after they had visited and tried to conduct a church service at
the summit of Guruguru Mountain, which is believed to be sacred among the Shurugwi community
 Although the actuality of the sacredness of certain sites, natural vegetation, and wildlife is
debatable, it is apparent that such myths help in ensuring a harmonious relationship between
human societies and the whole of nature.
 More importantly, there is some ethical import in the taboos that discourages misuse of the
nature’s resource
 Shona environmental taboos have an ethical import that is unconsciously passed from generation to
generation.
 For example, the Shona people believe ukatema muhacha, mvura haizonayo, which means “if you
cut down the muhacha tree, it will not rain”.
 This taboo is based on the understanding that the muhacha tree (parinari curatellifolia) is an
important fruit tree that produces fruits that are very nutritional to both human beings and animals,
especially in times of drought where there would be a shortage of food
 According to Duri & Mapara (2007), taboos, like that of the cutting down of muhacha tree, is still
effective up until contemporary times because the Shona people believe that life should be
respected, especially that of little nonhuman creatures that depend on wild fruits for nourishment.
 The Shona people also perform some rituals on the muhacha tree, such as rain-inducing
ceremonies.
 As a result of the important place of the muhacha trees in the Shona religious worldview, people
feel discouraged from unnecessarily cutting them down for human uses because they would be
afraid of disturbing the rainfall pattern.
 For Duri & Mapara (2007), indigenous fruit trees, like the Muzhanje (vapaka kirkiana), the Mutamba
(strychnos species), the Mutohwe (azanza garkaena) and the Munhengeni (ximena), are not used as
firewood
 Hence, taboos associated with natural vegetation are simply an attempt to sustainably protect
nature’s resources for the benefit of present and future generations.
c) Taboos protecting wild life
 Wildlife management, too, is an indispensable aspect of the Shona environmental management.

32 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Shona environmental ethics as captured in their taboos, which differs from the western traditional
anthropocentric view of ethics that is inspired by Aristotle (Singer, 1985),
 it can be argued that the concept of totem (mutupo) is a wildlife conservation
strategy.
 According to the Shona people, they say ukadya mutupo wako, unozobva mazino, which means if
you eat your totem animal, you will lose your teeth.
 It is taboo, among the Shona, for one to eat one’s totem animal (Bourdillon, 1976).
 Otherwise, one risks losing one’s teeth forviolating this taboo.
 Although fear of losing one’s teeth is cited as the reason for not eating one’s totem nonhuman
animal, itcan be argued that such a strategy fosters wildlife conservation.
 Such a strategy helps to regulate the use of various nonhuman animal species and ensure that
communities have adequate natural resources for the benefit of both present and future
generations.
 Duri & Mapara (2007) noted that taboos concerning totems “…were institutional wildlife
conservation measures meant to preserve various animal species so that they could be saved from
extinction due to unchecked hunting.”
d) Taboos protecting endangered non human species
 Within the ecosystem, there are certain rare nonhuman animal species that are facing extinction,
such as pythons, pangolins, fish, and rhinoceros.
 In this regard, the Shona people have devised strategies of curbing unsustainable use of such
nonhuman animal species by way of taboos.
 These taboos do not only prohibit unsustainable use of nonhuman animals, but also prohibits
cruelty to creatures, especially those that are defenseless and harmless.
 Through such taboos, the Shona teach people to take nonhuman animals as beings that deserve
some form of moral consideration.
 Endangered species deserve to be respected because they also contribute to human well-beings and
development through the provision of meat, medicines, and objects of trade.
 In this light, Tatira (2000) argues that “zviera help to uphold societal , such as the sanctity of human
life, importance of fertility and respect of the small, powerless but harmless creatures in the
environment; all of which are important to development.”
 The Shona also have a taboo which says ukauraya shato,

33 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

mvura haizonayi and it means “if you kill a python, rain will not fall.”
 Being a rare, innocent, symbolic reptile (though, at times, very dangerous if provoked), the python is
one snake, among other creatures, that are protected by the Shona society.

SACRED PHENOMENA IN THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND SACRED PRACTITIONERS

 Sacred phenomena – these are holy places where the rites and rituals of African religion are carried
out are African sacred space.
 Some of these places are constructed specifically for religious purposes, but others are natural
places in the environment where people come together for ritual purposes.
 They are defined by Eliade as places that are sanctified and are believed to
be of religious and historical importance. A sacred place is defined as the
opposite of the profane.
 The word sacred comes from the Latin word ‘sacer’ which means holy.
 They are regarded as holy because they are places where manifestation of the divine takes place
which Eliade calls the ‘hierophany.’
 The object ceases to be ordinary.
 They are places where miracles take place.
 According to Manyonganise et. al, Sacred places are places set aside that are either in the human
world or beyond the reach of this human world.
 They are dwelling places of ancestors: Nyakadzimu or Malindidzimu.
 They are like that because they offer residence to spirits that are holy. Any sacred place is as holy
place.
 Sacred places can be understood as the meeting place between the Sky god and the indigenous
religious communities.
 Thus both man-made and natural phenomena like a tree, valley, mountain, forest, cave is a meeting
point with the Creator.
 In the indigenous context ancestors are believed to interact with human beings since they will be
using some specific places in individual homes, perennial pools, stones and big trees as their
residential areas.

34 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Zimbabwe has a number of sacred places. These include the following:Choto , chikuva , hozi ,
Matonjeni- Matopo hills, Nevana cult in Gokwe, Mhandara hills in Chipinge, Mutiusinazita etc
Significance of Sacred Phenomena
 Sacred places play a vital role in the life and history of the indigenous communities in Zimbabwe.
 These places play a central
role in the;
1. socio-political and religious lives of the indigenes.
2. in natural conservation, cultural preservation and
perpetuation.
3. are respected places that provide tranquillity and unity of purpose to the communities that revere
them.

 The functions include the following:

1. The religious functions of sacred places
 Such places are used as rain inducing centers where rain inducing specialists: jukwa usually reside.
 Sacred practitioners occasion these places to get inspiration, encourage and professional renewal
from these places.
 Rituals that usually embrace the region of the place's location are performed within the confines of
sacred places.
 They are pilgrim centers where the local community frequent to get spirit and human inspiration.
 They are burial places: ninga for the most atoned medical and spiritual practitioners.
 Of old, these places used to be used as hiding places for retreating forces in the face of an advancing
enemy force.
 Those that were killed in these places were glorified as heroes of the struggle therein turning the
place into a Heroes' acre.
 Peculiar rites for land preservation were enacted in such places.
 Any talk about the community's union with the spirit world achieved its apex when activities related
ancestral veneration were done in these places.
2. The social functions of sacred places
 Such places were designated for celebrations in the community.

35 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The installation of Chiefs, Kraal heads and other opinion leaders in the community was usually
punctuated by celebrations performed in the sacred places as a way of dedicating the elected to the
spirit world.
 Celebrations such as requests for rain from ancestors: mukwerera, thanksgiving rituals: matatenda.
 Chiefs' coronations were done or finalised in the sacred places.
 The decision making assembly(Zumwe)for most Chiefs was located in sacred
places.
 This way, the elected members of the Chief's ruling class used sacred places as a meeting place to
adjudicate over socio-political issues and religious considerations related to their communities.
3. The political functions of sacred places
 Since sacred places are the burial place for the forbearers of the land, inspiration related to land
revolutions and spiritual reforms were many timesarranged from sacred places.
 Most of the political decisions that were taken by the Chiefs were usually born out of the directions
presented to the Chiefs by the voice they used to get from the sacred places.
 Instructions related to wars and initiation were always directed from the sacred places.
 Thus, sacred places play important political roles to the lives and experiences of
the communities around them.
4. The economic functions of sacred places
 Sacred places used to be the economic meeting place or centre of traditional societies.
 Most of the gold mined, salt collected, ivory etc. that communities had at their
disposal used to be traded within the confines (boundaries) of sacred places.
 Trading was centred and confined to the Dzimbabwe during the Mutapa dynasty.
 Barter trade needed the blessing and direction of the spirits of the land that
resided in the sacred places so all trading was policed by the Chief who used to
live close to the sacred places where he got his inspiration.
 Community granaries: matura were situated in sacred places. Seed to fill the
granaries were sourced from the community fields: zunde raMambo that were
presided over by the Chief.
 Orphans, widows and widowers could get food support from such granaries
(zunde raMambo) as a show of the community's commitment to the needs of the
vulnerable (socially disadvantaged) groups.

36 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

5. The ecological functions of sacred places

 Sacred places used to be places set aside for natural conservancies.
 No person was allowed to embark on any environmentally unfriendly activity in sacred
places.
 Some sacred forests and mountains are reserved for certain Shona traditional ceremonies and
relevant taboos help in preserving them.
 Such taboos discourage people from visiting these sites thereby aiding the cause for a harmonious
living between human beings and the whole of nature
 Hence, these sites cannot be visited, especially with the intention of hunting, collecting firewood,
fruits, and other natural resources for fear of ancestral reprisals.
 These sacred sites function somewhat as nature conservation areas or as nature buffer zones
 Medical plants and indigenous fruit tree could be successfully preserved within sacred places.
 It was a taboo for any person to cut downtrees in sacred places.
 No medical practitioner or assistant to the practitioner was allowed to source any herbal medicine
from this place.
 When the people were allowed to enter the sacred place, they were instructed to
observe the etiquettes of the place or face mysterious disappearance.
 No vulgar language was allowed in sacred places.
 Bad behaviours and environmentally unfriendly activities were discouraged in sacred places. This
way, sacred places worked as ecological conservancies.
 Sacred places as cultural preservation centers: Sacred places were the places where cultural
competitions and cultural observances were conducted.
 Sacred places as pilgrimage centers: Sacred places used to place where community leaders, the sick
and ordinary people seeking guidance visited annually to get inspiration, healing and direction as to
the developmental needs of the people.
 Some sacred places were totemic centers where members of a totem longed to visit once in their
lifetime to be one with their totemic originators buried in the
sacred places.
Sacred practitioners
 Sacred practitioners refer to people that are experts in religoius matters
 Cox defines a sacred practitioner as one who holds for the religious community

37 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 They play a major role in ritual ceremonies

 They include medicine men and women, rainmakers , spirit mediums , diviners
Rituals
 Mbiti (1992) defines a ritual as a set form of carrying out a religious ceremony
 They are actions that are repeatable and are found effective and appropriate responses to the
sacred
 Examples of rites are birth rites , puberty rites , marriage rites ,death rites and burial rites
INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MARRIAGE
Objectives :
1. identify the types of marriage in Indigenous Religion
2. explain pre and post marital rite
3. explain the nature of divorce in Indigenous Religion
4. highlight the procedures of facilitating divorce
MARRIAGE INSTITUTION
 Marriage is known as matrimony
 It is a socially and ritually recognized union or a legal marriage contract between two individuals
 There are various forms of marriage e.g polygamy and monogamy
Qn: Discuss how marital rites are key in preserving marriages.
Qn :Analyze the process of divorce and its effects in IR.
Qn: Explore ways of minimizing divorce in IR.
Types of marriage
 In Zim societies , marriage is essentially a contract between families and not a contract between two
people
 According to Bourdillion (1987) people marry into families and thus marriage becomes a family affair
not an individual affair
 If a son in law marries he becomes a mukwasha for the whole family
 The family of the bride and groom are deeply influential in traditional Shona marriages and are
involved through the life cycle of a union.
 In modern times, the influence of the family over marriage has eroded as a result of Western
influence, but many institutions of Shona marriage customs endure.
 Central to these customs is the institution of roora, the payment of bridewealth.

38 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The following presentation is going to explore several Shona marriage customs.

Kuganha

 Kuganha (imposing one’s self in marriage), is a method of marriage when a woman identifies a man
in which she desires to marry.
 This is an opportunity for a woman to choose a man who could marry her.
 It is different from the formal way of a man initially picking a wife. In this case, the man can be a
bachelor or married person.
 Traditionally this would be acceptable to a polygamous union, where a woman was getting older
and needed to marry.
 Usually, men would not refuse the offer and would take in the women.
 Upon taking in the women, they would then make their payments to the women’s family to finalize
the marriage.

Kutema ugariri

 Kutema ugariri (working for a wife), is a form of marriage that is adopted when a man is unable to
pay the roora through the traditional cattle payments.
 This method is mostly used by poorer households or orphans.
 Kutema ugariri as a system allows a man to get married by serving an in-law in exchange for a wife,
by offering informal or formal labour services.
 By the end of his services, he will then be able to claim his wife.
 The option of kutema ugariri affords disadvantaged members an alternative route to marriage if
they cannot pay through the traditional use of cattle.

Kuzvarira

 Kuzvarira (child pledging), is a process in which parents give their daughter away for marriage to a
rich person, or a person who is wealthier than they are in exchange for cattle, food or any other
valuables.
 This form of marriage is instituted by a family when under economic deprivation.
 When giving away their daughter to a wealthier family, it is a way of sacrificing an individual for
better opportunities and relieving financial stress within the home.
39 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 In many cases, kuzvarira is seen as a last resort.

 This form of roora was not done arbitrarily.
 It was often met and negotiated upon the family before a child was pledged to the in- law family.

Kugara nhaka

 Kugara nhaka (wife inheritance) is the practice where a widowed woman may marry the younger
brother of her deceased husband.
 This process is meant to allow the younger brother or any kinsman from the late husband’s side to
produce progeny
 Producing progeny helps to ensure that the family lineage continues.
 The wife of then deceased husband normally has to choose a husband from a wide range of her
deceased husband’s kinsmen, which allows her to choose who she wants- albeit from a restricted
pool.
 Although, in some circumstances, women do not have a wide selection or are limited to the
immediate family.

Chimutsamapfihwa

 Very similar to the process of kugara nhaka, chimutsamapfihwa (widow inheritance) is the practice
of a widowed man marrying the younger sister of his deceased wife or even a niece of his late wife.
 For example, the younger sister of the deceased wife is given to her husband to help him look after
the family.
 The chimutsamapfihwa’s other role is to ensure that she continues the duties and responsibilities of
her sister (or relative) in the family.

Kutizisa/swa

 Kutizisa/swa (elopement), is a common form of marriage which is still practised amongst the
contemporary Shona society.
 This form of marriage occurs when a woman gets pregnant before roora is paid to her family.
 Amongst the traditional Shona society, an unmarried pregnant girl is not expected to live at her
father’s home.

40 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The Shona would regard a pregnant, unmarried woman with contempt and she will be told to live
with her child’s father.
 As a result, in contemporary society, a pregnant woman must force herself on the man responsible
or even find another man who is willing to be responsible for the pregnancy, if the family does not
accept the women as being unmarried and pregnant

Kukumbira

 Kukumbira (marriage by negotiation) ,is the opposite of kutizira (elopement)

 .Through this system, a couple may initiate the union.
 Once they decide to be married, both families are informed and begin negotiations with the help of
a mediator.
 This is a formal system that allows the agency of the woman, and the permission of her parents.
 This method ensures the groom’s parents make their payments on behalf to the bride’s family
before a marriage is considered legal.
 This is a form of marriage that is still practised amongstbthe contemporary Shona culture. It is
viewed as an acceptable way of marrying.

Task: find out about Musengabere , kubatira

Pre- marital rites

Role play /Mahumbwe

 Among the Shona , preparation for marriage is a long process

 Girls and boys learn through the role play in "Mahumbwe" the roles and duties of mother and father
respectively
 Both boys and girls copy parental roles of a father and a mother
 Unconsciously , the small boys and girls prepare for marriage
 Indeed the role play has a bigger role in the preparation for marriage
 As they grow older , aunt or Vatete plays a vital role in moulding of a good behaved girl among the
Shona
 Girls are educated by the aunt in Marital affairs : they are given preparation in matters of sex ,
procreation and family life

41 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Chinamwari

 I some communities Chinamwari rite is associated with preparation for marriage

 For other communities , initiation to adulthood takes place at this organized initiation ceremony.
 Once elders or aunt is satisfied that the or the boy is satisfied that the girl or the boy is satisfied that
the girl or the boy has learnt enough on responsibilities of parenthood , they are declared grown ups
and ready for marriage
 Boys are taught to behave week towards their inmates and how to acquire wealth to pay bride price
or roora
 Boys are taught how to be responsible father or head of the family
 Chinamwari rites are no longer common these days due to Westernization, influence of Christianity

Kupana Nduma /Nhumbi

 In indigenous communities , the young people make choice of a partner they want to begin
courtship with
 Usually the boy proposes love to a girl , if the girl accepts the two become lovers
 In some cases , the parents of the boy approach the parents of the girl and start marriage
negotiations
 Once the young man and the girl have agreed on a relationship the girl takes the young man to her
aunt
 She introduced the man to her aunt and indicates that they are in a relationship
 After sometime of knowing each other , the two lovers exchange tokens in a process known as
Nduma
 This is done in the presence of aunt , who sometimes keeps the tokens
 Tokens can be the short of a young man and a dress from a girl
 This rite can be equated to engagement in modern world
Makumbura
 This a process of testing for virginity
 It is usually down before marriage by aunt and grandmothers of the girl to be married
 The girl is taken to the river to test virginity
 The relatives of the boy are invited to the ceremony
 There is assurance on the boy's side that the girl did not tamper with her virginity
42 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 This process or rite helps to restore confidence and respect for the girl by her in laws where she is to
be married
 It is vital and crucial part in the preparation for marriage

The marriage process

 Marriage ceremony is done differently from one region to another in Zim

 In the patrilineal societies such as the Shona and the Ndebele , it is the boy's side that pays the bride
price
 Once all the pre-marital rites have been done the day of lobola payment is set
 A man known as Dombo /representative of the bridegroom will be present
 The payments are split into portions each with specific meaning
 Rusambo is money pains for marrying
 Other charges include Mombe yechimanda (where the girl is a virgin) , mombe yeumai to honour
ancestors of the girl's mother
 Once payments are made the remaining are reorded down
 The newly married girl is taken to the home of her husband
 The payment do not mean that the girl has been bought
 It is meant to show seriousness of the process and to strengthen relationships
 During her first night the husband must engage in sex with him and the aunt will come to ask the
husband if the girl was a virgin
 If the response is positive , the proof of stained white cloth is produced
 It is at this point that the beast or a cow known as "Mombe yechimanda" has to be paid

Masungiro

 This is a very important post marital rite

 This is done for the first pregnancy of the newly married woman
 When the marriage is about to deliver , the newly married woman is taken back to her mother's
home
 A goat is slaughtered by the son in law or his representatives
 The woman may stay at her village until she delivers and after that a ritual known as "Kutara mwana
is performed"

43 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Kutara mwana ritual

 In the ritual of "Kutara" the husband goes with sisters or aunties or parents and they carry with
them symbolical items such as baskets , white cloths and some food
 The process of making is also done and usually done by the grandparents of the newly born
 At this point , the wife may return to her husband's home and begin to take of her new family and
life begins to return to normalcy
 It is important to note that these rites vary from community to community and practices differ

Divorce and it nature

 Mbiti (1965) described divorce as a delicate accident in marital relationship

 Divorce–Davis (1993) defines divorce as “a legal or customary decree that amarriage is dissolved.”
 Divorce is the legal process of dissolving a marriage that allows former spouses to remarry if they so
choose.
 Most divorces are based on irreconcilable differences.
 There has been a breakdown of the marital relationship for which neither partner is specifically
blamed.
 Marriage is one of the most important social institutions, however, there are some challenges
which eventually lead to divorce if they are allowed to go unchecked

Causes and impacts of Divorce

 At the macro-level (national level or societal level), societal factors contributing to higher rates of
divorce include changes in social institutions such as religion and law (e.g. women empowerment).
 At the micro-level (local level), characteristics that appear to contribute to divorce are:
1. Marriage at an early age.
2. A short period of courtship and dating before marriage.
3. Disapproval of the marriage by relatives and friends.
4. Limited economic resources.
5. Level of education
6. Domestic abuse
7. Infertility -
8. Sexual immorality
44 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

9. Poor communication
10. Presence of children at the beginning of marriage
11. Disrespect of each other
Task: Examine the procedures of facilitating divorce in the Indigenous Religion.

Divorce Procedure

 Divorce does not just happen there is a procedure that must be carried out
 Divorce is discouraged and steps are taken to mend the quake breaking families and avoid divorce
 It is only when the society has realized that marriage has gone beyond sustaining it that divorce
procedures are taken
 It is the role of of the aunt and uncle's to resolve disputes leading to divorce
 Sometimes separation is caused by jealous between the co-wivee .
 Once the close relatives have have failed address the indicators of divorce a village head is involved
 If the village head fails , it graduates to the chief
 Once this is done , there is a token of divorce known "Shereni" , "gupuro'

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND GENDER RELATIONS

Objectives :

1. examine the status of women in Indigenous Religion

2. evaluate factors which may promote or hinderexamine the status of women in Indigenous
Religion
3. evaluate factors which may promote or hinder
4. evaluate the involvement of women in politics in Indigenous Religion
5. identify factors which may promote or hinder women’s participation in politics

STATUS OF WOMEN

 The study on the status of women in I.R is determined by various factors including patriarchy,
matriarchy, age, society, marital status, ownership of the means of production, property and what
they are capable of doing and why they cannot do among many
45 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 - traditional myths, proverbs, folktales also define the status of women in I.R
 - in some indigenous society the gender relations, roles and status of women are socially defined
 - the study on the status of women should be taken in the context of historical time frames; pre-
colonial, colonial period and post-colonial or independence period.
 Beach (1980) asserts that in terms of the relations of production , women in pre-colonial indigenous
communities were. excluded from access to land in their own right
 Even if women did not have access to own land in their own right they were economically active in
Agricultural and craft production.It was the role of women to monitor stores or granaries
 The disadvantage of not owning land was denied due to the practice of paying lobola
 Women were officially excluded from leadership roles. According to Bourdillon (1976) few women
partook of the jury and leadership roles in Manicaland , Binga , Makonde and other isolated areas
were they became headwoman or chiefs
 They have degree of power on their roles of motherhood . Women as mothers saw the socialisation
and welfare of their children
 Women were important in their role as Vatete (aunt)
 They became ancestors- female ancestors are tasked of ensuring fertility continuity in their female
descendants
 They have special status as producers or service labourers possessing special skills in pottery or
healing skills
 Holleman (1952) assert that female authority grew over time . The newly married has no authority,
by the time she has acquired children her sphere of influence is widened as a mother , mother in law
, grand mother , aunt etc
 They perform important religious functions e.g as spirit mediums for example Mbuya Nehanda who
was executed in 1898
 Education , religoius conversion , urbanization all affected women's roles in their families and
societies

Factors hindering the participation of women in politics

Abid (1991) asserts that there are several factors that hinder women from participating in politics

a) cultural barriers

46 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Culturally women have not been seen as mainstream political players

 Many African communities regard women as home makers
 There is stereotype beliefs about the belief and capacity of women across communities
 The dominant patriarchal ideology had provided a context where women perform subsidiary roles
 There were limited women who formed part of dare or council in indigenous rural communities

b) Religion

 The Religion does not promote participation of women in politics

 With the exception of few powerful mediums , there seems to be a limited number of women that
are promoted

c) gender stereotypes

 Gender stereotypes are formed over a long period of time as a result of cultural beliefs , practices
and traditions
 People internalize them and make them appear inherent within the people and society at large
 IR mainly defined and ascribed separate roles of males and females
 The gender roles and societal expectations hinder the participation of women in politics

d) economic barriers

 Women in rural communities have difficulties to participate in elective politics that their fellow
colleagues in urban areas

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND HEALTH

Objectives :
1. analyse the concept of health in Indigenous Religion

2. delineate the relationship between the spiritual world and healing

3. examine methods healing in Indigenous Religion

Qn : Distinguish between indigenous and modern ways of dealing with illness(25)

Qn: Discuss any five methods of healing in IR. (25)
THE CONCEPT OF HEALTH IN IR

47 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Health in IR and methods of healing

 Good health is usually understood in terms of the relationship with one’s ancestors.Health amongst
Africans is not based merely on how it affects the living, because it is of paramount importance that
the ancestors stay healthy so that they can protect the living (Iroegbu 2005:81).
 Good health is also believed to be the result of appropriate behaviour; that is, living in accordance
with the values and norms of the traditions of society (Iroegbu ;2005:82)
 Health in IR is the total well-being of an individual- it really has a strong emphasis on the absence of
diseaes
 Being healthy means a person is without diseases and is in good relationship with the spiritual world
and in harmony with fellow human beings in the community
 Sickness does not come naturally
 When someone is ill , the first thing nis to consult the diviner to establish the cause of the illness
 If it was ancestors , the diviner would then give instructions on how ancestors were to be appeased
 Consulting the diviner ws the beginning of the healing process and restoration of health in an
individual
 At this point sacred practitioners such as diviners and n'angas become very important
 Other cause of illness might be revealed as caused by witches
 N'angas use certain types of medicines to heal the sick person

Causes of diseases

 There are several ways traditional Africans explain or understand the causes of disease.
 The Shona distinguish between four different categories of causes of illness and diseases.
 These are spirits, witchcraft and sorcery, socio-moral and natural causes.

1. Disease is often caused by attacks from evil or bad spirits.

2. Bourdillon points to the natural cause of illness - These include coughs, colds, influenza and slight
fevers. It would seem that when people are suffering from such illness, they are regarded as healthy
and may go about their day-to-day activities.
Aschwanden calls natural illness as the diseases sent by God (zvirwerezvaMwari).

48 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

3. Some also believe that when the ancestors are not treated well, they could punish
with disease (Magesa).
- Nyamiti (1984) argue that, when ancestors are neglected or forgotten by their relatives theyare said to
be angry with them and to send them misfortunes aspunishment.
- Their anger is usually appeased through prayers and spiritual in the form of food and drinks.

4. Aschwanden identifies some type of illnesses which may result in mistakes in sexual
behaviour, for example, a man may become ill if he has sexual intercourse with his wife while she
breasts feeds.
5. Some diseases, however, come from alien spirits seeking a home (Aschwanden).
6. Sorcery - Sorcery is the application of bad magic on people.Sorcery can be used to
people, destroy life or property, disrupt the well-being of an individual and to change a happy destiny
to an unhappy one.
 Sorcery stands for anti-social employment of physical powers. A person who uses bad
magic is called a sorcerer and they are usually feared by all because of their
mischievousness.
 It is believed that sorcerers are capable of employing all sorts of ways to attack other
people and their belongings.
 They can call upon lightning to attack their victims; send flies, snakes, etc. to attack their target.
 They can spit on the ground and command their spittle to go and harm another person.

7.According to Aschwanden, other diseases are attributed to dirty spirits (mweyayetsvina). These are
held responsible for three diseases: leprosy, epilepsy and
tuberculosis.
8. An act of witchcraft–The witches cause illness by planting poison or poisonous objects on a path or
any place and contact results in people becoming sick.
 Spell-casting and witchcraft are also other ways one could become sick.
 There is the view that people with evil powers could cause other people they see as their enemies or
are disrespectful to them to become sick as a way of punishment.

49 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

9. Violation of Taboos - Many traditional healers and practitioners are of the opinion that disobeying
taboos is one of the ways people could become sick. Taboos form an important part of indigenous
religion. Taboos exist to make sure that the moral structures of the universe remain undisturbed for the
good of humanity.

Healing Methods in Indigenous Religion

a) Spiritual methods
 In the indigenous religion the healing process is considered holisticIt means that the healer deals
with the complete person and provides treatment for physical, psychological, spiritual and social
symptoms.It is thus holistic, that is it addresses issues of body, soul and spirit.
 Traditional healers do not separate the natural from the spiritual, or the physical from the
supernatural.
 This will cause them to address health issues from two major perspectives – spiritual and physical.
Spiritual protection:
 If the diviner or the traditional healer perceives the cause of the disease to be an attack from evil
spirits, the person would be protected by the use of a charms, and a spiritual bath to drive the evil
spirits away.
 These are rites aimed at driving off evil and dangerous powers, spirits or elements.
 Their function is to eliminate the evils or dangers that may have already taken root in a family or
community
Sacrifices:
 Among some indigenous community’s sacrifices are sometimes offered at the request of the spirits,
gods, and ancestors.
 Sometimes animals are slaughtered for appeasement.
Spiritual cleansing:
 In some cases, herbs are prepared for the person to bathe with at specific times for a number of
days.
 Sometimes an animal can be slaughtered and the bloodwould be sprinkled on the head and foot of
the sick person.
 Such blood poured on the sick person serves as a way of cleansing
Exorcism:

50 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 ‘It is a practice of expelling demons or evil spirits from people that are possessed, or are in danger
of possession by them.
 Exorcism is usually performed by a person with special religious authority, such as a traditional
healer. This practice is also performed for those who are mentally challenged.
 Many of the traditional communities in Zimbabwe are of the view that mental illness is mostly
caused by evil spirits.
Pouring of libation:
 Libation is a rite by which some liquid (beer, water or blood) is poured on the ground or sometimes
on objects followed by the chanting or reciting of words.
 According to the practitioners, it is a form of prayer.
 The liquid could be water.
Appeasing the spirits and gods
 In the case of diseasesthat are caused by a curse or violation oftaboos, the diviner appeases the
ancestors, spirits or thegods.
 This is done according to the severity (seriousness) of the case, byeither sacrificing an animal (goat,
fowl, cow) or by pouring of libation.
 The sick person would be told to buy the ritual articles forthe process as mentioned by the gods or
the spirits.
b) Physical Healing Methods
Prescription of herbs

 Depending on the kind of disease the of the person, the diviner or the traditional healer, would
prescribe herbs to the sick person.
 These prescriptions come with some specific instructions on how to prepare the herb, the dose and
timeframe.
Counselling:
 Sometimes, the sick person is advised on how to live his or her life, especially the kind of food the
person should or should not eat.
 This is mostly done when it is an issue of a violation of a taboo.
 They are also advised to be of good behaviour should it be that it was discovered that the disease
occurred as a result of impolite behaviour

51 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Good behaviour
 According to African traditional belief, include following and practicing values and behaviour
established by society and culture, participation in religious rituals and practices, and proper respect
for family, neighbours and [the] community.
 Failure to follow these behavioural guidelines often results in the good spiritswithdrawing their
blessing and protection [and, therefore, opening doors for illness, death, drought and other
misfortunes
INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND POLITICS

NATURE OF MEDIUMSHIP
Qn To what extent do traditional leaders uphold good governance?
 Chinjanja Muroro (2014) described a spirit medium as a person who is possesed by the spirit of
those who died long ago
 One becomes a medium of the deceased person who is either their maternal or paternal ancestor
 A woman can become a medium of both male or female ancestor
 National spirits such as Mhondoro and Makombwe possess mediums of people that are not related
to them
 The same is true to spirits of non-ancestors called Mashave or Alien Spirits
 A spirit chooses the medium before the person is born
Signs of medium possession
 In IR there are many signs of medium possession, signs that show that a person is being called to the
functions and roles of a medium .
 The signs vary from region to region
 It is the job of a n'anga or a diviner to detect whether a person has been called to Mediumship
 Spirits can manifest themselves in sickness to their mediums
 The duty of a diviner is to ascertain whether a person is called to Mediumship- once the diviner
ascertained that he then advises them on the right course of action to take
 In some cases , the person who is being possesed by spirits begins to dream and through dreams is
called to mediumship
 At other times , the person who is being called to mediumship may fall into a very serious
misfortune and has to be helped to interpret the misfortune inorder to find out whether he is called

52 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 At other times the person possesed begin to speak in the way the spirit of the deceay used to do -
people may ask the spirit what it wants then to do - they act on instruction of the spirit.
 NB: it is difficult to tell who is a true medium or who is not
Observances and Ethical principles of a medium

 A spirit medium is a normal human being who exhibit certain moral codes and behaviu befitting
their status
 Some are demanded to wear zvuma/beads all the time and some wear black all the time
 They are prohibited from wearing shoes at other times
 Other do sniffing traditional stuff known as Bute - the snuff is strongly associated bwith mediumship
 They follow a strict diet- prohibited to eat certain foods or types of meant and they are forbidden to
eat modern foods
 Some are forbidden to have sexual relationships or marry
 In some cases the mediums are under solemn promise or oath (mhiko) - if they break then they
become sick or misfortunes befalls them

The role of Mediums in Chimurenga and politics

 In IR,there arose great make and female leaders across the continent .
 These exercise the office of governing the people.
 Leaders in IR are the mythic beings and cultural heroes who were responsible for founding empires.
 Egs.include Nyatsimba Mutota (the founder of Mutapa state) ,Changamire Dombo who founded the
rozvi state.
 Governance in IR did not lie only in the hands of the founding fathers who became political and
religious leaders.
 In Zimbabwe, Africans Religious leaders include Kings and Chiefs , who often serve as both spiritual
and community leaders.
 Spirit mediums install chiefs and kings
 The centre of governance were spirit mediums.
 Popular among the spirit mediums are Chaminuka ,Murenga ,Nehanda,Kaguvi etc...
 They had a very effective role in the modern times.
 They designated which forest to hunt ,graze ,where to bury the dead and a day to rest ( chisi).

53 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 There advise chiefs on the course of action to take during war and prophesy eg Chaminuka
prophesied the coming of the White whom he referred as vasina mabvi (Mutsvairo ;1983).
 Nehanda and Kaguvi commanded the first chimurenga.
 The spirit of Nehanda is believed to have been to connected to Nyamhita Nehanda daughter of
Mutota.
 It is believed that Nyanhehwe Matooe committed incest with Nyamhita to increase his power ,she
to was given a portion of the kingdom and become powerful
 Her spirit serve and it is the spirit that possessed Charwe Nyakasikana who became mbuya Nehanda
 Kaguvi spirit possessed a man called Gumboreshumba who became sekuru Kaguvi.
 These two mediums spearheaded the first war of liberation.
Summary of the roles of spirit medium during the first Chimurenga
 Contributing to the outbreak of the war by giving religious approval to war to the risings e.g spirit
mediums like Mkwati and Thobela operated from their shrines in Matopo supported the liberation
struggle and rallied people into resistance
 They gave courage , morale and confidence- they assured people that Mwari was behind them and
they would defeat whites
 They helped connect fighters in Matebeleland and Mashonaland to form a formidable force against
whites e.g Mkwati abandoned Matobo shrine to operate in Chief Mashayamombe Kraal in
Mhondoro
 The shrines and centres of the Spirit Mediums were used as intelligence and information centres
during the war - in some cases they attacked whites
 The spirit mediums directed and blessed Chimurenga and many were murdered during the First
Umvukela

The role of the chief and headman

 The chief and headman were very Central in religious , political and social arena of the Shona society
before the coming of the whites
 Among the Karanga the chief was known as Vashe or Mambo
 He worked very closely with the headman who was popularly known as Sadunhu
 Right at the bottom was the Kraal/village head know as Sabhuku
 Chiefs are very important person in traditional Karanga society

54 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Bourdillon (1990) argues that Karanga Chiefs are often nominated by descendants of senior
branches of the chiefly family.
 Chief was traditionally guardian of the fundamental values of upenyu (life) and simba (strength)
 Life comes from the land of which the chief is the owner
 The chief was responsible for providing advise on economical,marital ,religious ,and political welfare
of his territory
 Other Marital disputes such as quarrells and fights were solved at Family level by family members.
 If they fail to resolve the dispute they approached the Kraal head and latter on to the headman and
lastly to the chief .
 They provide the link between people and ansestars
Role of individuals in conflict management
a) Father
 Solve conflicts between children ,eg. Siblings rivalry
 Mother and children
 Children and neighbours
 Wife and relatives
b) Aunt
 Deals with marital conflicts between her brother and their wives ,their children and their spouses
 Go between in a conflict between parents and their children ,eg ,a girl child expelled from the
family is represented by the aunt
c) grandfather
 Is considered the elder in the family ,he has all the powers of the father as he is the family
overseer
 He solved various conflict in the family ranging from marital ,social , economic and leadership
 As living ancestor he has the final say in all disputes ,his word within the family is final
 He settles inheritance and land disputes
d) Muzukuru/Nephew
 Solving inheritance conflicts
 Is a facilitator in discussions
 Represents the family in interfamily disputes

55 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Conver of meeting to resolve conflict are as the nephew bus respected by all members of the
family.
e) family friend
 Is a neutral arbitrator
 Go between in a family and interfamily disputes
 Marital conflict between husband and wife
 Religious conflint in ritual and issues to do with witchcraft ,chieftainship
 Facilitates dialogue between conflicting parties.
TOTEMS AND INDIGENOUS IDENTITIES
Objectives:
1) Identify lineages of totems and founding ancestors
2) explain the importance of totems in Indigenous Religion
Totemism
 It is the belief that people are discerned from animals , plants and other nature objects , these
natural objects are symbolised as totems which are associated with clans/group of families with
common ancestry
 A totem can be defined as an object of awe and reverence for example an animal which a particular
group identifies itself with.
 In this case, sacred objects are merely symbolic representations of something other than
themselves.
 In this case the totemic symbol is regarded as sacred.
 A totem is a natural object, an animal or plant regarded as a symbol by a given tribe or family.
 A totem is a living thing such as a bird, animal, or a plant that people regard with special awe,
reverence, and respect
 It is a class of material objects regarded with superstitious respect, believing that an intimate
obligatory and altogether special relationship exists between individual members of the society.
 Certain animals and birds like mvuu (hippo), hove (fish), mheta (waterpython),garwe (crocodile),
hungwe (fish-eagle), mbiti (otter), soko (monkey),shava (antelope), beta (termites), humba (wild-
pig/warthog), nzou (elephant),shumba (lion), and nyati (buffalo) are considered totems.
 It binds people who believe themselves to be of one blood, descended from one ancestor and
bound together by a common responsibility to each other.

56 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 According to the French Anthropologist Emile Durklein totemism is the simplest and most basic form
of religion.
 Durkheim viewed religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to the sacred things,
that is things set apart and forbidden, for example beliefs which unite people into one single moral
community like the concept of a totem (Jones 1986:115).
 Rhere are at least 25 identifiable totems in Shona society with at least 65 praise names. The totems
include: shoko, moyo, shava, ngara, gumbo, tsivo-gushungo, gwayi, mbizi. Nzou, Shumba, bonga,
nyati, dziva, nheta, beta, garwe, mbeva, mbano, mhembwe, nguruve/humba, shiri, mhara, mhari,
mvuu e.tc
 Shoko/soko has 6 praise names, mukanya, bvudzijena, wachemuka, murehwa, mutadza,
Why adopting totems
 The background as to why the indigenous people embraced totems is not clear. It is difficult to
explain why the Shona people adopted totems, however, the clue lies in studying the functions of
totems.
 The increase in population and identity shaping - there was need to have social identity. It is clear
that the animal kingdom is made up of distinct species of animals, others very aggressive and others
friendly and others simply shy
 Animal attributes and identity shaping - particular animals were chosen as totems because of
certain attributes which they possessed. These attributes/qualities were found to be very useful if
imitated by human beings.These attributes made human society more stable and organized to
achieve their daily needs e.g. monkeys live as a group which translate into a clan/family.
1. They are the basis of social identity. They don’t only identify people socially but also historically and
culturally. e.g. the study of Shona totems is an avenue in knowing and approximating Shona history and
culture.

2. Totems are important in a society because they are the basis for solidarity and unity. People of the
same totem are basically relatives who share a common ancestry. As a result, they always see each
other as one.

57 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

3. Totems serve a religious function. The belief in totemism emphasis some of the central traits of
religion e.g. amongst the Shona totemism is one of the fundamental pillars of their religion. The Shona
use totems and praise names to communicate to Mwari and the departed ones (family spirits).
4. Totemism is an important basis for socialization not only among man but also between man and
women. Totemism regulates gender relations. Each and every individual through totemic identity is
given a particular social position which is respected by members of his / her clan as well as members of
other clans.
5. Totems also regulate marriage. A woman can only marry into a different clan where she will be
considered Mutorwa.
6. Totemism plays an important role in the solving of conflict. In Shona society when people of the same
totem wrong each other they are persuaded to forgive each other because they are children of the same
clan. Similarly, people of different totems are persuaded to solve their differences because of fear of
ngozi.
7. Totems also serve as the basis for dividing roles and responsibilities to members of different clans.
People negotiate their roles through totems.

Totemism and contemporary society

 Totemism is fast losing its significance
 Some important rituals and beliefs associated with totems have been abandoned
 Totemism today has been emptied of it's contents due to western influence
 Christian missionaries labelled totemism as paganist practices
 With many Africans converting to Christianity the significance of totemism began to decline
 There is a common song among Johane Masowe YeChishanu "Handina mutupo ndakaramba mutupo
wangu ndiJohanne"
 Cases of marriages between people of the same totem are on the rise
 Elite Africans and their children have totally lost knowledge about totemism
 Prostitution has negatively impacted on totems,-. Men who indulge in prostitution do not bother to
ask about prostitute's totem
 However , totemism is to some extent being celebrated despite the impact of Western culture
INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND LAND
Topic Objectives;

58 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

1. Explain the concept of land in Indigenous

2. Religion Assess the land ownership system in Indigenous religion

Concept of Land
 Note that the concept of land and its ownership can be better understood in relation to; Ancestors,
Chiefs and Mediums.
 According to Taringa, the Shona share with most Africans the belief thatland is sacred among. It is
ancestral land.
 The reason is that land is believed to be the back (musana) of the ancestors on which nature and
humanity are carried. Land (nyika)with its natural resources is owned by the ancestral guardians of
the land (varidzi venyika).
 Prof G. Chavhunduka argue that, ‘’ancestors occupy a central position in our African religion largely
because of their ownership of land and their relationship to God.
 Ownership of land forms the main link between politics, religion, and spirituality in Zimbabwe.’’
 It is thought that each geographical area or territory belongs to the ancestors, that is, ancestors of
the early settlers or founders of the territory.
 These ancestors are believed to control rainfall and fertility of the land.
 Shona belief in sacredness of the land serves as a common history thatuniteall
generations of the same Shona subgroup.
 The Shona believe that if one does not relate to sacred aspects of nature according to prescribed
taboos and restrictions the ancestors would be angry (kutsamwa) and as result some misfortune,
such as droughtand epidemics, might befall the community. So the fundamental attitude to land is a
religious one and is based on fear of mystical sanction (punishment) by the ancestors.
 Land is sacred because it bears the remains of theancestors particularly in the form
of graves of the chiefs.
 Shona religionis based on the grave. In the central rituals of
‘kumutsa midzimu’ (rituals in honour of ancestors) the point of entry is the grave.
 In other rituals libations are poured on the ground (land). In the land is also buriedthe umbilical cord
(rukuvhute) of people.
 It is the abode (residence or resting
place)of the dead.

59 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 When counting members of the family the Shona always include ‘varipasi’ (those whoin
underworld).
 As result land is personified in sayings such as ‘pasi ratsamwa’, ‘pasi panodya’ (the land is angry, the
land can kill).
 As noted above ancestral spirits and chiefs own the land. At his installationthe chief holds in a
clenched fist soil mixed with the body fluids ofthe late chief/just soil from his grave.
 Primarily it is the chiefdom that stands in special relations to the land. It is the land bequeathed
(handed down) to chief by the ancestors.
 Land belongs to the living, the unborn and the dead.This could hold only at time
when Shona anticipated no change in the future of their communities. The chief acts
as the trustee (guardian or administrator). He allocates land to people.
 Traditional African land ethics - land is communally owned. The land does not have
a marketable value.
 On the question of ownership rights, it is the social group that is considered as the owner of the
land.
 Land rights are vested in cooperative groups
(tribes/clans/chiefdom) that have overriding right over those of individuals. It means that land
cannot be sold transferred to another.
 To have the right of ownership means a great responsibility from both the individual and the
community, because the ultimate owner of the land is the great ancestral spirit, Mwari. So the
Shona believe that ancestors gave the land to them.
 In land management the chief also ensures that people follow certain taboos in relation to land and
the natural environment.
 For example, there is a taboo that forbids commoners to eat the flesh of an antbear because it
burrows the land.
 But the ant bear is a delicacy of the chief.
 Another example is that the chief ’s household reserves the flesh of the side of an elephant on
which it lies when it drops dead for consumption.
 Further the chief also authorizes through ritual the gathering of wild fruits in forests regarded as
sacred. Chiefs also prohibits the cutting of certain trees and the hunting of certain animalsand the
pollution of certain water bodies(relate to the land issue).

60 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 The real owners of the land are however the ancestral spirits of the dead tribal rulers particularly
those of the mythical founder-ancestors of the chiefdom. The chief is the senior descendant of the
ancestralspirits who founded the chiefdom hence controls the land
 This ownership of the land by the chief is a result of his supposed connections with mythological
founder-ancestors of his chiefdom. It is the ancestors who are believed to have chosen him and gave
powerand authority over his subjects
 The chief was also responsible for distributing land to the headmen who latter on allocates small
piece of land to the kraal head who finally distributed it to family
members.
 In a Shona village [musha] the village the headman allocatesland to family heads and other adult
 NB: A ‘child of the soil’ was being invited to be united in order to regain lost land and itsattendant
identity
The Changing Nature of Shona Attitude Towards Land

 Since colonialism there has been the introduction of a cash economy and modernways of farming.
 Administratively there are now district councils running parallel with the traditional role of chiefs
and sometimes taking over from the latter some roles in legal and consultative matters.
 Where people used to fear ancestral spirits because they may withhold rain and diminish the
productivity of land now they can have successful harvests by using fertilizers and irrigations.
 Many mission churches and government departments are providing modern agricultural education
and extension services. As a result, Christians tend to more successful farmers than non-Christians.
 Some in some cases the chiefs are losing their political importance, so too do the spirits
that have traditionally supported them. Christianity provides a religion that stretches beyond
the limiting boundaries of kinship group or chiefdom.
 However, the above information does not however mean that the whole system collapses.
 Many Shona people still maintain traditional religious beliefs.

British Colonial Understanding of Land

 For Cecil John Rhodes and his Pioneer Column there was nothing morally wrong with the idea of
fighting for land, even if it was land already belonging to others

61 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

 Rhodes had promised that each Whiteman whom he had come with would get 5000 hectares of
good land.
 The land Tenure, Act of 1969 was a total denial of human rights.
 It insisted on a policy of national development where land could be seen permanent as European or
African.
 This had various implications on church state relations. Tenants who had been farming on mission
land were to be evicted.
 Natives were dispossessed to reserves in Gwai and Shangani.
 Rhodes did not perceive land as sacred but as an economic commodity, a repository of
mineral rather than ancestral wealth.
Task 1 : Research on the Concept of Land in Independent Zimbabwe
Task 2:

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND WEALTH CREATION

 Entrepreneur – is a group or individual who takes risk and start a business or an enterprise with the
purpose of generating income or creating wealth.

 Enterprise - the activity of creating a business or businesses and managing them.

 a business organisation for wealth creation.
enterprising is associated with a business or participating in buying and selling projects.
 An individual or individuals can make a living out of it.
 Bishau notes that, ‘An enterprise of business is set up to solve some problems encountered in
society of to provide a need
 The starting of any business in a religious sense is enterprising.

Types of Enterprises in Indigenous Religion

1. Manufacturing of religious materials.
2. Marketing and distribution of religious goods.
3. Provision of religious services.

62 | P a g e
 [KINGDOM KNOWLEDGE COLLEGE (COMPILED BY G.T. PEDZISAI)]

Ways of Wealth Creation

 Manufacturing of musical instruments for examples certain types of drums, shakers
(hosho), marimba, mbira etc. on a large scale for sale used for religious rituals.
 Manufacturing and selling of indigenous symbols or property for the married women
like chuma, bangles, hari etc.
 Sourcing and selling of traditional herbs by the medicine men.
 Business ventures involving preparing certain types of food, medicine, beer for traditional ritual
 Men skilled in playing traditional instruments like drums and mbira could be hired
and get paid.
 They are hired to play instruments at special religious occasions.
 Obtaining wealth through institutions like ‘kutamba zvugure’ or ‘nyau dancers’.
 The payment of divination fees was a source of wealth for n’angas and other
traditional diviners.
 Manufacture, designing and trading works of art and symbols like staff, rods, axes,
machira, ngoma etc.
 Craftwork especially those who designed traditional dress, hukwe, baskets, wooden
plates Nhekwe etc.
 Traditional practitioners like midwifery, ‘vananyamukuta’.This is the indigenous birth
attendant. Her role is to ensure safe delivery of a child from the realm of the ancestral
spirits to the world of the living.
 Production of artefacts i.e. items of religious or cultural interest.
 Juju Has an element of spiritual power, especial to kill, to steal (incomprehensible
tactics employed).
 Alien spirits confer talents upon individuals hence may use the talent to gather wealth.
Prohibited Ways of Wealth Creation
 The use of goblins or ‘zvikwambo’.
 Use of ways like ‘divisi’ to obtain high yields in the fields.
 Negative manipulation of supernatural powers.
 Obtaining wealth through social ills like witchcraft.
 Social ills like stealing, robbery, murder, cheating, unfair business practices,
prostitution.

63 | P a g e