ASSIGNMENT No.

2
COURSE CODE - 8604

CODE NAME - RESEARCH METHODS IN

EDUCATION
NAME - MUHAMMAD AFZAL

STUDENT ID - 0000758015

ADMISSION - SPRING 2024

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QUESTION NO. 1
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Discuss in detail the validity and reliability of tools for qualitative research. Develop and
interview for curriculum developer to explore the “existing curriculum of secondary level
in public school as the tool for socio-economic development”.
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ANSWER
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive research can be divided into two categories. According to our question, the qualitative
research can describe events, persons, and so forth scientifically without the use of numerical data.
An example of qualitative research is a study of the lives and beliefs of mothers of handicapped
infants. A study would carefully and logically analyze the responses of the mothers and report
those that are consistent as well as areas of disagreement. There are advantages and disadvantages
to each of these types of research. The experimenter carefully planned the study to include the tests
and other data collection instruments. Each subject is studied in the same way and there is no room
for bias in the data. It is also planned for qualitative research. Qualitative studies give the
possibility to change, to ask different questions, and to go in the direction that the observation
leads the experimenter. Quantitative research results are more readily analyzed and interpreted
because they are based more directly on the original plans. Qualitative research is responsive to its
subject. Both types of research are useful and valid. They are not exclusive. One investigation can
use both methods. A study of mothers of handicapped infants might include interviews, as well as
measures of religiosity and knowledge of their child's handicap. The measures of religiosity and
knowledge would be deduced from the interview data. The benefits can outweigh the difficulties
in studies combining these approaches. The first three, document analysis, case studies, and
ethnographic studies are types of qualitative research.
VALIDITY

In most experimental research conducted outside the laboratory, a number of extraneous

variables tend to confound the outcome in such a way that it is difficult to evaluate their
effect on the outcome. When such extraneous variables influence the results, it is difficult
to infer that changes observed in the dependent variable are due to the independent
variable. In effect, extraneous variables introduce competing hypotheses that could
explain observed changes that cannot be attributed to the experimental variable under
consideration. Although these extraneous variables cannot be completely eliminated, the
researcher should be able to identify and anticipate them and take possible measures to
minimize their influence through appropriate research design and careful execution. For
the conclusions of experimental research to be accepted as true, the experiment must
have both internal and external validity.

1. Internal Validity Internal validity is the basic minimum limit necessary for the results
of the experiment to be interpretable. Internal validity questions whether the experimental
treatment actually causes a difference in the dependent variable. An adequate answer to
this question requires adequate internal validity. Before an answer can be given, the
researcher must be sure that extraneous variables have not produced an effect that is
mistaken for the effect of the experimental treatment. According to Best, an experiment
has internal validity to the extent that the factors that have been manipulated
(independent variables) actually have a real effect on the observed consequences
(dependent variables) in the experimental setting.

2. External Validity The value of experimental research lies in its ability to provide a basis
for generalization from a sample to the entire population. Conclusion of a research study
that spaced practice improved spelling in ten IV students. classes in Pir Sohawa faster
than regular exercise, has very little practical value unless the research allows us to
generalize to all primary school children. External validity refers to the ability of an
experiment to generalize the relationship of the variable Lu to the wider population of
interest and to the non-experimental setting. Achieving external validity is difficult, but
proper experimental design, appropriate statistical analysis, and many replications with
different population samples in different settings can minimize this problem. (Best: 153)
Experimental validity is an ideal to strive for, as it is unlikely to ever be fully achieved.
Internal validity is very difficult. to achieve in the non-laboratory setting of a behavioral
experiment where there are so many extraneous variables to try to control. When
experimental controls are tightened to achieve internal validity, a more artificial, less
realistic situation may prevail, reducing the external validity or generalizability of the
experiment. 172 Some comparison is inevitable to achieve a reasonable balance between
control and generalizability between internal and external validity. In order to achieve
maximum experimental validity, some effort is made to improve experimental designs,
which are rarely, if ever, prefect. According to William Wersma, both internal and external
validity are important and through experimental design we try to adopt adequate validity.
Because enhancing one type of validity may tend to undermine the other, we often try to
ensure an adequate trade-off. The trade-off is essentially to achieve enough control to
make the result interpretable while maintaining enough realism to adequately generalize
the results to the intended situations.

RELIABILITY A test is said to be reliable if it gives the same result on different occasions.
Test reliability refers to the consistency of subjects' scores when they are retested. There
are three ways in which the reliability of a test can be measured. (1) A large number of
people can be tested and then retested, and the correlation coefficient between test and
retest scores can be calculated. (2) A test that consists of a large number of items may
be given once, but two scores may be obtained for each item; one for even numbered
items and one for odd numbered items. The correlation coefficient between the two
scores would provide a measure of the reliability of the test. Different forms of the test
may be constructed because experience with one form may make repeating the test
unfair. Subjects' scores on the two forms can be correlated to obtain a reliability
coefficient.

THE EXISTING PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOL AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SOCIO-

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The study examines how socioeconomic background affects academic performance. This
study can help explain how SES affects academic achievement and can guide
educational policy and action to address achievement inequities. 300 different high school
students were selected for the sample. Parental income, education, and occupation were
used to calculate socioeconomic status. Standardized tests and GPA measured
academic performance. Data analysis used correlation and regression analysis. A
regression study examined how SES predicts academic achievement while adjusting for
other factors such as family involvement and school resources. Correlational analysis
examined the relationship between SES and academic achievement. Socioeconomic
position appears to affect academic performance. Higher socio-economic students
achieve better academic results. However, parental involvement and school resources
may moderate the SES-academic achievement association. This study proposes a
targeted treatment for low-income students. Policymakers and educators can reduce the
achievement gap and promote equitable education by understanding how socioeconomic
status affects academic performance.

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QUESTION NO. 2
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Differentiate between sample and sampling. Discuss the importance of probable and non-probable
sampling techniques in qualitative and quantitative research.
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ANSWER
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Differentiate Between Sample And Sampling

Sample and sampling are related concepts in statistics:

• Sample: A sample is a subset of a population, comprising some members selected
for study.
• Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting the sample from the population
Type of Samples
Samples can be divided into basic types: non-probability and probability. The basic
difference between the two is that in the former there is no way to estimate the probability
that each individual has an equal chance of being part of the sample. The following
example would explain the difference. Suppose an investigator conducting a study of
class V students from Sheikhupura city approaches primary school principals and collects
data from schools where the principals make their 257 students available. He goes from
school to school collecting data until he reaches his goal. This is an example of a non-
probability sample. g on the other hand gets the complete list of all the students enrolled
in Class V in all the schools of Sheikhupura city, writes their names on separate slips,
places all the slips in a drum/container and then draws 250 slips, one at a time. time, after
repeated rotation or shaking of the can has a probability sample. This is known as a
probability sample because each student has an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
Non-probability sampling Non-probability samples are commonly used in most social
science research. The researcher generally uses subjects where they are readily
available. For example, an investigator interested in studying two different teaching
methods may take two different classes. Such samples are called random or random
samples. An investigator can examine the prices of basic consumer goods by walking
into a large department store and recording the prices of all the goods available there. A
drug tester sampling drugs available at a large drug store uses random or random
samples. Another type of non-probability sampling is supply sampling. In this method, the
proportion of different subgroups in the population is first determined/found and the
sample is selected (usually not randomly) to have equal percentages. For example, in a
study of the mathematical abilities of high school students, a researcher includes boys
and girls in his sample in the ratio in which boys and girls are known to study in high
schools. banning student unions, the researcher can include urban and rural teachers in
their share of the population. A third type of non-probability sampling is known as
purposive sampling. A purposive sample is chosen arbitrarily because there is good
evidence that it is highly representative of the overall population. Knowing that in the past
the candidate who won more votes in the rural areas of Islamabad won a seat in the
National Assembly, one interested in predicting the outcome of the next election from this
constituency can only get a taste of the electoral preferences of voters from this area. .
Or, it is possible to re-use the cotton price trend sample of only the Faisalabad wholesale
market and predict cotton price trends for all other markets in the country if we knew that
in the past the Faisalabad market reflected the trend in the country.
Probability sampling

Probability sampling is characterized by the systematic and methodical selection of

samples from the population so that each individual in the population has an equal
probability (chance) of being included in the sample. For example, if there are ten students
in a class (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10) and a sample of two students is to
be drawn, one can create five pairs of students. . so all students are paired only once. A
large number of combinations of five pairs are possible and any pair can be taken. Let's
say these five pairs are: (S1. S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8) and (S9, S10). If one of these
pairs is now selected by lottery, it would be obvious that all these pairs had an equal
chance of being selected. Each pair therefore had a 20% (100 x 5) chance of being drawn,
or a probability of 0.20. It should be noted that there is no bias in the drawing of probability
samples, nor is the drawing of the sample left to chance or convenience.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Sampling in qualitative research can be divided into two main areas: overall sampling
strategies and sample size issues. Sampling strategy refers to the process of sampling
and how to design the sample. Qualitative sampling typically follows a non-probability
approach, such as purposive or purposive sampling, where participants or other units of
analysis are deliberately selected for their ability to provide information to address
research questions. Sample size indicates how many participants or other units are
needed to answer the research questions. The methodological literature on sampling
tends to fall into these two broad categories, although some articles, chapters, and books
cover both terms. Others have linked sampling to the type of qualitative design used. In
addition, researchers could consider discipline-specific sampling issues, as much
research tends to work within disciplinary views and constraints. Scholars from many
disciplines have examined sampling around specific topics, research problems, or
disciplines and provide guidance for sampling decisions such as appropriate strategies
and sample size.

Sampling in Quantitively Research

In quantitative research, collecting data from the entire study population is in many cases
impractical. It wastes resources such as time and money that can be minimized by
choosing appropriate sampling techniques between probability and non-probability
methods. The chapter outlines a brief idea of the different categories of sampling
techniques with examples. A judicious choice of sampling techniques allows the
researcher to generalize findings to the particular context of the study. Although
probability sampling is more attractive for drawing a representative sample, non-
probability sampling techniques also allow the researcher to generalize findings when
implementing the sampling strategy judiciously. Additionally, the use of probability
sampling techniques is not feasible in many situations. This chapter suggests that the
choice of sampling techniques should be guided by the research objectives, the scope of
the study and the availability of the sampling frame rather than by looking at the nature of
the sampling techniques.

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QUESTION NO. 3
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Develop a research proposal on “Higher Education in Pakistan: Issues, Challenges and the Way
forward”
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ANSWER
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Higher Education in Pakistan
Higher education provides opportunities to censor the cultural, moral, socio-economic and
spiritual issues facing the human race. Pakistan's higher education system has many
institutional weaknesses, which include lack of quality management, institutional
structure, and knowledge gaps among cross-cultural education systems to improve the
effectiveness of the current higher education system in Pakistan. To become a hub of
education, Pakistan needs to strengthen its education system by developing modern
technology and higher education. This study focuses on low enrollment and study gaps,
quality and quantity of higher education standards, infrastructure, equipment and poor
teaching methods. This study summarizes these issues with suggestions for improving
the standards and quality of higher education through cross-cultural development,
performance standards, teaching methods and examination reforms in Pakistan's higher
education system.
Higher education becomes an input for the growth and development of industry. It is seen
as an opportunity to participate in the process of individual development through a flexible
educational model (Barnett R., 1992). Higher education is an essential tool for building a
modern, informed and civilized society by providing in-depth knowledge of various areas
of life from a wider perspective of the world. The main task of higher education is to
educate, train, research and serve society. In connection with globalization, opportunities
and demands for higher education are increasing. To meet these demands, we need to
build first-class and high-quality standards for universities. Education is a fundamental
right of every citizen (Ashraf, 2019) and one of the most critical factors for the
development of lower class families in any country. In Pakistan, however, the consumers
of education services—parents and students—have no choice when seeking higher
education. Since its independence, Pakistan's higher education has seen an amazing
boom, bringing high demand for scientists, engineers, technicians, doctors, teachers and
managers. worldwide. Higher education provides society with various opportunities to
think about the social, cultural, moral, economic and spiritual problems of humanity.
Higher education offers expertise and qualified personnel for national development.
Suppose the government of Pakistan has realized the job potential. In that case, the
growth of the young generation will be a huge boon for its economic growth, but at the
same time, if the government of Pakistan is unable to provide formal higher education
and is unable to create more job opportunities, it will be a disaster for its socio-economic
growth. Education is an important tool to achieve sustainability and forms the core of the
economic development of human capital. It also accepts the source of autonomous
development in the economic process of the externality of human capital.
1. Background Analysis Even after seven decades of independence, Pakistan's higher
education development indicators are not performing well due to relatively low access to
higher education in neighboring countries. In Pakistan, the quality of education at the
primary and secondary levels tends to decline. In particular, science education has
reached its lowest level, and people urgently need to improve science education. Since
independence, there has been a severe shortage of teachers, libraries and laboratories
(Ghulam Rasool, 2007). However, the current trend is to concentrate all postgraduate
work in university departments to maximize the benefits of teacher-student interaction,
but often restricts the access of university teachers and prevents them from carrying out
research at a higher level due to a lack of rigid standards. . Universities play an important
role in higher and professional education. However, the actual teaching system is carried
out by the universities. However, most public and private universities also belong to
provincial universities (Jan & Hussain, 2020). These universities administer courses
through research councils in various disciplines, conduct examinations and award
bachelor's degrees. These universities have formulated minimum qualification standards
for teachers, their recruitment and standards for upgrading physical facilities such as
classrooms, laboratories, libraries and regularly send inspection teams to the college. In
most college and university exams, 35% of students must pass. Only 60% of them are
able to continue or gain admission to Masters (Nasir Khan, 2018). Vocational and
technical higher education has produced many doctors and engineers, which is excellent.
These colleges and universities accepted only the most outstanding students. Those who
usually score 85% to 95% marks in Higher Secondary (Class 12th or HSSC)
examinations. According to stateuniversity.com, most of the graduates of these
institutions migrate to the competitive environment of the western world to do well in order
to be compensated or reimbursed for the cost of their education (State University.com).
The successful movement of professional graduates from Pakistan to better pastures
overseas leads to a so-called brain drain, leading to allegations against countries like
Pakistan. As for universities' concerns, critics say local universities can't attract the best
people to join their faculty. Due to the services provided by the Government of Pakistan,
the rich job opportunities in Pakistani MNCs or the lure of working overseas, the actual
talent pool of the university is much smaller. In addition to various disadvantages, such
as a lack of facilities and an environment for conducting quality research, universities are
often unable to fill their teaching posts.
2. Challenges and Opportunities Pakistan's higher education is not ranked anywhere
among the world's best higher education systems in terms of quality. Higher
education quality depends on many factors, such as appropriate education and
learning environment, infrastructure, teachers, courses, information feedback,
research skills, and observation systems (Ahsan Nasir, 2019). Since
independence, the Pakistan education system had faced many challenges. The
central governments of Pakistan's political parties were working hard to formulate
new and effective education policies. These policies were not enough to meet the
standards of education a country needs. However, people are still facing many
problems in Pakistan's higher education system. Pakistan's higher education
commission recognizes the new global situation, which poses unprecedented
challenges to the higher education system. The most common issues faced by
Pakistan higher education are lack of academic space and teachers, deteriorating
research standards, inadequate infrastructure and facilities, low rate of student
enrolment, out-dated teaching methods, lack of enthusiasm for students, poverty,
and gender discrimination (Salik & Zhiyong, 2014). In addition to these problems
related to deteriorating standards and lack of facilities, many private education
providers have reportedly exploited students in rural areas.
a. Low Enrolment rate and Drop-out Gap In the last two decades, student enrolment
in primary school is very low as well as the dropout rate in secondary school is
also very high. In case of majority numbers of students do not complete their
secondary education, future economic opportunities will be reduced for them, and
government investment in public universities will be wasted (Sabates,
Akyeampong, Westbrook, & Hunt, 2010). In rural areas of the country, most
families live in poverty or think that education is not vital for their children (Zulfiqar,
Shabbir, & Ishfaq, 2019). Pakistan's government significantly increased the funds
for primary education in its education plan to control these issues and involve non-
government organizations (NGOs) to manage primary and secondary schools
known as private schools. But most of the private schools are located in urban
areas and attracting the children of the elite-class and usually affiliated with the
world's renowned universities and maintain excellent facilities, including
laboratories, computer labs, and qualified, trained teachers. These private schools'
tuition fees are very high, where low-income families cannot avail of these school
facilities. Due to the low enrolment rate at the primary level and a vast quantity of
dropout students at secondary or higher secondary school education (Anwar,
Tahir, Saeed, & Ghori, 2012). Pakistan's higher education system is affected most.
According to the World Bank, tertiary education enrolment was reported at 9 % in
2018 in Pakistan compared to 26% in India and 48% in China (World Bank, 2018).
By 2020, Pakistan's government aims to achieve a 15% gross enrolment in
Pakistan higher education, which means Pakistan failed to achieve its higher
education sector goals even in 2020. Due to Pakistan's low total enrolment ratio,
unable to compete with other developing countries in the higher education sector
indicates insufficient socio-economic development progress.
b. Deteriorating Research and Quality Standards Deteriorating research and quality
standards The skill level of teachers, the curriculum and standards for student admission
are the main factors leading to the decline in the quality of higher education (Ullah, Ajmal,
& Rahman, 2011). Quality assurance of higher education is one of the significant
challenges facing Pakistan's higher education system. However, while the government
has always emphasized quality education, many universities and colleges still do not
meet the minimum requirements set by the VÚC. These universities cannot stand out
from the top universities in research and quality standards around the world. Pakistan has
a very low enrollment in Masters and Ph.D. degree, which means that Pakistan does not
have enough quality researchers. There is a lack of early research experience, a lack of
creativity and innovation, and low industry participation. Universities and colleges are
more focused and dependent on theoretical knowledge than field work or experimental
research.
c. Inadequate Facilities and Infrastructure According to a research analysis by Younis
Ahmad Sheikh, poor infrastructure is the main reason for the poor higher education
system in the subcontinent (Pakistan, India and Bangladesh), especially institutes run
with inadequate physical facilities and public. sector infrastructure. . Many colleges in
India operate on the second or third floor of a ground floor or first floor building; therapists,
hosiery shops or copiers (Younis Ahmad Sheikh, 2017). The same problems arose in
Pakistan's education system; most of the school infrastructure is there. Yet there are no
students or teachers at these universities or the schools are under the control of
politicians; they use it to their advantage. In Pakistan, many universities do not have
suitable facilities and adequate infrastructure to teach students. Even in the modern era
of educational technology, most colleges and universities in Pakistan are functioning
without computer labs, digital libraries and internet or internet facilities on campus to
assist their students. Poor infrastructure is one of the harsh truths in Pakistan's higher
education system, especially those institutes run by the government sector, which suffer
more than private colleges and universities. Many colleges operate in the same old
traditional teaching methods without immersion in technical devices.
d. Low-Quality Teaching Methods The main reasons for poor academic integrity of
Pakistani students are classroom behavior, teacher evaluation, and the popularity of
recitation among students (Haq, Mahmood, Shabbir, & Batool, 2020). The main reason
for low-quality teaching methods is the interference of political parties in work quotas.
These political parties try to recruit their political workers; therefore most people have no
professional experience. Most teachers lack basic education. According to the global
demands of the academic industry, they still use old teaching methods when most
western teachers help modern educational techniques. Some private universities and
colleges recruit young graduates as poorly paid professors or lecturers who have no
experience or teaching knowledge. Due to the hiring of non-professionals, many
institutions and universities have inferior teaching methods that torture the quality of
standard education. In modern times, traditional teaching methods are outdated and lack
of quality assurance, lack of accountability, separation of research, rigid pedagogy and
curriculum, and poor quality of teaching raise objections to Pakistan's higher education
system. Most professors and governing bodies do not want to be involved in educational
activities and want to stick to their own financial and political growth.
e. Uneven Growth of Opportunities Pakistan is experiencing increasing student mobility,
which is a significant aspect of the higher education scenario. As a result of the uneven
growth of opportunity in South Asian countries, particularly in the subcontinent,
international student mobility has dramatically changed the landscape of general higher
education. The number of Pakistani students going abroad for higher education or job
opportunities is increasing every year, especially in the field of medical and engineering
studies (Javed, Zainab, Zakai, & Malik, 2019). Most of the young generation also accept
excellent jobs with high salaries because they are not interested in serving their country.
Half of young people do not want to stay in Pakistan after university; according to a survey
by a local media network, 48% of young people from Karachi (Pakistan's largest
populated city) do not want to stay in Pakistan due to limited opportunities and financial
problems. Most graduates of medical and technical institutions with excellent results want
to find opportunities in the competitive environment of the Western world that will allow
them to offset or reimburse the cost of education. In this case, the mismanagement of the
education system by the Pakistani government and corruption related to the universities
considered the most valuable (Aly & Taj, 2008), the movement of Pakistani professional
graduates to better pastures abroad has led to up to 70% to 80% of the so-called brain
drain, leading to accusations Pakistan and other developing countries. Majority of
Pakistani medical graduates wish to leave the country for postgraduate qualification
abroad mainly due to low salaries, poor job structure, insecurity (Nazli, N Shah, T Shah,
& Sidra, 2016). Most of the students cannot find a job in the country after completing their
higher education and the government cannot afford them enough opportunities. Due to
the lack of uneven growth opportunities, most engineers, technical professionals and
doctors have no choice but to settle in a developed country.
3. Suggestions for the Improvement of Higher Education
Pakistan cannot move forward until the quality of its higher education system is high
enough. Because poor quality reduces job opportunities, reduces professional
productivity and lacks innovative ideas. These are the key elements of sustained success
and progress. In summary, Pakistan needs to become more responsive to a changing
world and expand the adaptability and quality of higher education systems to meet the
diverse needs of national and global economies.
a. Balanced Teaching Methods The time has come to move from teacher-centered
teaching to dynamic student-centered learning (Sylvain Denat, 2017). Universities must
approach teaching methods according to students' needs to learn, learn to do and
become. With learner-centered education and balanced teaching methods, instructors
must acquire new skills and attitudes. Teaching methods should follow self-study in the
form of lectures, personal counseling between teachers and students, and methods with
an emphasis on live seminars and symposia. In balanced teaching, there is a shared
approach to learning. Students and teachers are equally responsible for student
performance, including behavior, attendance, and academic growth (M Kammer, 2019).
A gradual transition to the reform of annual exams and semester exams should be
introduced with the aim of regularly evaluating the academic results of students.
Internationalization and student exchange programs between Pakistan and world-
renowned universities must be a significant channel to promote higher education and
knowledge dissemination. Every university must invite world-renowned professors and
experts to teach their teaching staff professional and modern methods of pedagogy.
b. Quantity and Quality The quality of higher education depends on many factors,
including the appropriate learning environment, infrastructure, teaching level of teachers,
practical courses with annual feedback, research skills and unbiased institutional
observation systems (Nasir Khan, 2018b). In 2019, 1,200 public colleges and 188
universities were accredited by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan. Due
to the high population, Pakistan needs to build more universities because the population
is huge compared to the current universities. Since the government of Pakistan could not
achieve a total enrollment rate of 15% in the higher education sector by 2020, the
government should recommend the establishment of new universities to reach 20% by
2030. Different models have been developed based on the total quality management
system. and successfully used or implemented in many countries such as the United
States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and China (Soomro, & Ahmad, 2012). Pakistan must
learn from the higher education models of these countries and introduce or develop
quality management standards in its higher education system. The government also
needs to establish an independent administrative body in the Higher Education
Commission and all public-private institutions to oversee the quality of Pakistan's higher
education institutions. Ensure the quality of educational activities. All colleges and
universities must be academically and administratively reviewed by external experts
before the new five-year academic plan is implemented. Self-funded colleges and
universities must move forward, undergo certification and meet certification requirements.
According to global education standards, universities should recognize the need for
quality education and propose action plans to improve the quality of higher education.
c. Development of Cross-Culture Awareness Research shows that international and
domestic students have many advantages in facilitating interaction with teachers in a
supportive learning environment. With the support of faculty and staff, students can
interact frequently to improve their intellectual, effective communication and intercultural
effects. University studies should provide cross-cultural social activities in cooperation
with social or non-governmental organizations to help students understand culture, art,
literature, religion and technological development. The analysis of social and academic
exchanges between local and foreign students is not extensive enough for them to learn
each other's cultures and traditions. Cross-cultural development requires careful
intervention design, feedback and mentoring/coaching. Regardless of whether the
institution is fully prepared and supported, sending people abroad or inviting foreign
students cannot guarantee the development of students' multicultural attitudes or
cognitive framework (Lokkesmoe, Kuchinke, & Ardichvili, 2016). Students with ability and
talent can use it to develop the world towards peace, prosperity and progress. Many
universities in Western countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom,
Germany, Australia, and China, allow foreign students in their home countries to study
higher education through distance learning or by inviting foreign students to local
universities. Similarly, top Pakistani universities can use the process of globalization to
offer courses to international students. To achieve this goal, educational institutions must
adopt uniform international curricula.
d. Libraries Standards The Government of Pakistan does not prioritize the development
of standard libraries in its higher education system and should follow the requirements of
international educational standards. The library must demonstrate its value and record its
contribution to the effectiveness of the organization for the development of higher
education (Patricia A. Iannuzzi et al., 2011). Library standards in higher education should
be designed to encourage and support public and private libraries. These libraries should
play a collective role in the education of students, fulfill the corporate mission and become
leading libraries in the evaluation of the quality of the development of higher education.
Government of Pakistan, administrators and educational policy makers or decision
makers should build more libraries in higher education institutions, universities and
colleges to benefit from quality research data (Khan, A., & Ahmed, S. 2013). The
implementation of multiple libraries will help improve the knowledge and research skills
of students and researchers from the experience of library resources. This experience
can help with future engagements and training and maximize these resources to help
students and researchers conduct research and analyze research. The Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan should provide funds or facilitate their institutions to assist
students in developing standards libraries. We need to produce more and more e-learning
or e-library software. This software should accommodate print and electronic resources
and provide students with a single interface to search multiple resources (Siddique, N., &
Mahmood, K. 2016). The Government of Pakistan needs to build institutional and public
libraries in line with global standards and supported by cutting-edge standards with a wide
range of educational and experimental research facilities. Pakistani universities should
focus more on providing quality education comparable to international standards.4.
Conclusion
To improve the quality of higher education in Pakistan, parents and students expect the
government to introduce transformative and innovative approaches to higher education
in line with globally relevant and competitive requirements. Universities and institutions of
higher learning in Pakistan need to improve their quality standards and reputation and
infrastructure to attract students. The government must reform higher education policy
and promote internationalization through cooperation with world-renowned universities
and building more institutional laboratories and research centers for quality and
coordinated research. Universities must provide such courses in which students gain
quality knowledge and experience. Invite more multinational companies for college
students to reduce recruitment problems to get jobs in their own country instead of
migrating to western countries. To improve enrollment and economic growth, Pakistan
needs to build more institutions with quality standards to meet future requirements. There
is an urgent need to rethink financial resources, educational policies, access, equity,
quality standards, relevance and responsiveness. Human resource development will
continue, in particular by supporting appropriate programs of academic development,
including methods of learning and education. Internal self-evaluation and external
controls must be carried out regularly and publicly by an independent prof

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QUESTION NO. 4
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Write the characteristics of a research report. What is a references in the research report? Read
APA manual 6th edition and enlist the rules of references for research report.
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ANSWER
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Research Report A research report is a written document that presents the results of
a research project or study in a clear and objective manner, including the research
question, methodology, results, and conclusions.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

1. Clarity of thought and language

Clarity of thought and language are among the most basic characteristics of a research

report. It is important to emphasize that research is a thought process that begins even

before choosing a topic of study. The researcher's reasoning ability is an effective tool for

the decisions that must be made throughout the process. This process requires patient,

deep and alert thinking. In this way, clear thinking leads to clear writing. Sentences should

be as simple as possible and important points should be highlighted in small paragraphs.

This clarity will allow the reader to easily understand what the author of the report wants

to say.

2. Conceptual clarity

Another characteristic of a research report is its conceptual clarity. Terms in the study
must be defined and explained. In general, dictionary explanations are almost never
sufficient for research purposes. Therefore, it is important to be very explicit, even with
terminology that seems very simple. It should be taken into account that the same term
can have different definitions in different fields of knowledge.

3. Explicit Expression of The Research Problem

A research report must explicitly and unambiguously state the problem under
investigation. In the case of quantitative research, the problem statement must specify
the variables and the population being studied. This approach can be done in the form of
a statement or a question. When it comes to qualitative research, the approach is much
broader and indicates the general purpose of the study.

4. Organization and Format

Research reports must meet certain standards of format and organization. The details of
the format (including the type and size of the source, margins, form of citation of sources,
introduction of the bibliography) are adjusted by each institution. On the other hand, other
characteristics, such as general organization, reflect the expectations of the scientific
community. In this way, the report is expected to include a general summary, an
introduction (with the background and motivation of the study), materials and methods,
results and an analysis of the results.

5. Use of Citations and Bibliography

It is very common for another author's intellectual property to be used in conducting an
investigation. In research reports, the meeting should be appropriately included when
referencing, summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting from another source. There are
several formats of dating styles and they vary depending on the academic discipline. In
addition, the report must include a list of references. These offer all the necessary
information to find resources.

REFERENCES IN RESEARCH

References in research are a list of sources that the researcher consulted or cited while
conducting his study. They are an essential part of any academic work, including research
papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

APA Manual 6th Edition and Citation Rules for a Research Report These are the
following linking rules for a research report APA style dictates this

• Authors are named by last name followed by initials; the year of publication is given in
parentheses followed by a period.

• The title of the article is written in capital letters, i.e. only the first word and proper names
in the title are capitalized.
• The title of the periodical is written in capital letters, followed by the volume number,
which is also written in italics along with the title.

• If the article you are using has been assigned a DOI, you should include it after the page
numbers of the article.

• If no DOI has been assigned and you are accessing the periodical online, use the URL
of the website from which you are downloading the periodical.

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QUESTION NO. 5
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Discuss questionnaire as a research tool covering the following concepts: its construction,
different forms and administration of a questionnaire.
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ANSWER
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QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a set of carefully selected and arranged questions prepared by an
investigation in order to obtain factual information from respondents or to ascertain their
opinion, attitude or interest. Some authors limit the use of the word questionnaire to a set
of questions seeking factual information, while those seeking opinion are called opinion
scales and those dealing with the respondent's attitude are called attitude scales.
However, there is general agreement that isolating specific questions for respondents to
consider leads to objectification, intensification and standardization of their observations.

Construction of a Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a popular research tool because it makes it easy for you to ask
questions. But asking questions to get accurate and reliable data is not an easy job. You
are often amazed when respondents infer different meanings from questions that you
thought were very clear. You may be annoyed when your colleagues point out bias in the
wording or structure of your questionnaire, which seems perfectly objective to you. Below
are some of the steps you should take when building your questionnaires.
a. Framing of questions: Have you thoroughly researched your hypotheses, experiences,
literature, and other questionnaires to create questions that are crystal clear, simple, and
sharply focused on meaning? Are subordinate questions asked or is an exhaustive list of
alternative options given to explore different aspects of the key answers? Are the
questions framed to elicit specific responses? Here are questions to answer to help you
decide what information you need, which questions to select, and then design and review.

b. Ordering of questions: Are the items placed in a psychologically or logically correct

sequence pattern, with interesting, neutral questions preceding more difficult, crucial, or
personal questions, and those that establish a frame of reference or provide keys to
memory before those , who ask for details. smooth transition from one set of questions to
another? Positive answers to these questions will help you rank the questions on a
technically sound basis.

c. Designing the directions and format: Are clear and complete guidelines provided
regarding the type and extent of information required? Are the categories, format, and
instructions designed to elicit accurate and unambiguous responses to require minimal
respondent time? These are the questions that help in designing the directions and format
of the questionnaire.

d. Eliciting honest replies: Are the instructions and questions phrased and commanded in
such a way as to remove any fear, suspicion, embarrassment or hostility on the part of
the respondent? for personal questions, is there a guarantee of anonymity or a guarantee
that the answers will be strictly confidential? Are any questions colored or worded to elicit
responses that support the researcher's beliefs? Are respondents being asked for
information on topics about which they have little or no knowledge? Are specific questions
asked to verify the truthfulness of answers to general questions? Are parallel questions
asked to check consistency of answers? Satisfactory answers to all these questions can
be sought if the following question writing criteria are strictly followed.
Forms of Questionnaire
You can construct questions in the form of closed open, pictorial and scale items, you can
use only one type of questionnaire or a combination of them when structuring the
questionnaire. The nature of the problem and the nature of the respondents determine
which form or forms are most likely to provide the required data.

a. Closed form The closed form of the questionnaire usually consists of a prepared list of
specific questions and a selection of possible answers. To indicate their answer, the
respondent simply indicates "yes" or "no"; or ticks one or more items from the answer list.
The "don't know" alternative is often provided in items seeking opinion on highly
controversial issues. For example: Do you think that a person who is known for his strong
views against maintaining a peaceful atmosphere in educational institutions should be
allowed to speak on this topic in your city?
• Yes
• No
• I don't know
Sometimes respondents are asked to rank a series of statements/reasons/factors etc. in
order of importance or interest. An example is given below: Why did you choose to study
EPM at this university? Please list three reasons in order of importance, using 1 for most
important, 2 for second most important, and 3 for third most important.
• comfort during transportation
• advice from a friend
• reputation of the institution
• cost factors
• scholarship support
• other (specify)
Closed-ended questionnaires are easy to complete and help keep respondents' minds
focused on the topic at hand. However, they often do not reveal the respondent's motives
(why they answer the way they do), they do not always obtain information of sufficient
scope and depth, and they may not distinguish subtler shades of meaning. Fixed
alternative answers can make respondents take a position on questions about which they
do not have a strong opinion, or force them to give answers that do not accurately express
their thoughts. Let's look at the following items from a questionnaire sent to leading
educators in the country; There should be no restriction on the expression of opinion by
student unions on any political issue. YES/NO
All English medium institutions should apply immediately. YES/NO
Obviously, only supporters or opponents of the 'Students' Union' and 'England Medium
Institutions' could answer 'yes' or 'no' to these questions. Moreover, one would benefit
more from a detailed statement on various aspects of the related issues from leading
educators. Despite the mentioned shortcomings of the dosed form of the questionnaire,
it is a completely satisfactory tool for collecting certain types of information. In addition, it
is easy to fill out, takes little time, keeps the respondent on topic, is relatively objective
and can be processed into tables and analyzed relatively easily.

b. Open form Rather than forcing respondents to choose between strictly limited
responses, an open-ended or open-ended type of questionnaire requires a free response
in the respondent's own words. For example, the following open form items look for the
same type of information as the closed form items.
Why did you decide to do a master's degree in EPM at this particular university?
What policy should be adopted regarding unrestricted expression of views on political
issues by student unions?
What should be done about English media institutions that may want to be dosed? Note
that no tracks are given. Respondents are free to express their opinion. This allows for
greater depth of response from respondents who can reveal their frame of reference and
possibly the reasons behind their responses. As it requires more effort on the part of the
respondent, it is difficult to obtain a large number of completed questionnaires. This type
of item is sometimes difficult to interpret, tabulate and summarize in a research report. A
special type of open question is the funnel. Actually As is a set of questions aimed at
eliciting information about a single important topic or a single set of related topics. The
journey begins with a broad question and gradually narrows down to an important specific
point. Another form of funneling starts with an open general question and uses a follow-
up and specific type of closed questions. After asking a broad general question about
student union politics, the questionnaire might include the following:
• prevent all demonstrations outside the premises of the institution. Yes No
• prevent demonstrations that could disrupt our relations with a foreign country. Yes No
• prevent a demonstration outside foreign embassies. Yes No
This tool has some disadvantages. For example, when respondents answer a general
question and have no cues to guide their thinking, they may inadvertently leave out
important information or fail to notice sufficient detail. If subjects are not sufficiently
articulate and willing to spend considerable time and critical thinking on the questions,
they cannot provide useful data. if they were able to provide relevant information, their
detailed and exhaustive answers may cause problems. However, if you frame, write and
use these questions correctly, these disadvantages can be minimized. Open-ended
questions are flexible, have depth options, and have the ability to foster collaboration and
rapport and better gauge respondents' true intentions, beliefs, and attitudes. Answers to
open-ended questions can suggest possible relationships and hypotheses. Respondents
sometimes give unexpected answers that may indicate the existence of relationships that
you did not initially anticipate when developing the questionnaire.

c. Pictorial form: Some questionnaires present the respondent with drawings and
photographs rather than a written statement from which he should choose answers. They
may also give verbal rather than written instructions. This form of questionnaire is a
particularly suitable tool for collecting data from children and children. adults with limited
reading ability. Pictures often grab respondents' attention more easily than printed words,
reducing subject resistance to answering and stimulating interest in the questions.
Sometimes they clearly depict situations that cannot be easily described verbally,
sometimes they make it possible to reveal attitudes or gather information that cannot be
obtained by other methods. However, imaging techniques have at least two limitations:
1) their use must be limited to situations involving distinguishable and understandable
visual characteristics and 2) they are difficult to standardize, especially when the images
are photographs of human beings. .
d. Scale Items: A scale item is a question with which the respondent expresses his
agreement or disagreement at different levels. Scale items have fixed alternatives and
the respondent indicates where they are on the scale. Thus, the item relating to English
medium institutions may be presented as follows: All English medium institutions should
be closed immediately.
• I definitely agree
• I agree
• Undecided
• I do not agree
• I strongly disagree