1.

1900
Walter Reed , Reed
.
Walter Reed
, miasma
. Walter Reed
.
miasma
.

. ,
,
.
.
.
2. .

.
.

,
(peer review) .

.
,
.
, ,
, , ,
4 .
3. John Snow .
 .
miasma John Snow
. John Snow
Broad Street

. Broad Street

. John Snow
Broad Street
. Broad Street
. ,
2 ,
.

.
4. .
,

,
.
.
5. .
.
,
.
6. . LDL HDL
.
,
.
(Membrane Fluidity)
 .
,
,
. plague
plague
, plague LDL . LDL
Low Density Lipo-protein, HDL High Density Lipo-protein
. LDL bag , HDL bag
. LDL HDL bag
.
7. 1 .

. &
.

. .
,
.
, .
1 .

. ,
. ATP
ADP ,
. Protein Kinase
. Protein Kinase .
Protein
Phosphatase . ,

0 100
.
 100 0
.
3 2
. +,
- .
1
.

,1
ATP
.
** .
,
.

. water potential ψ
MPa . water potential solute potential ψ s

ψp
.ψ s
.ψ p

.
ψ p
0 water potential ψ s

.
***
.
,

.
local signaling ,
paracrine signaling
synaptic signaling .
soma, soma dendrite,
soma axon, axon
axon terminal . axon
dendrite , soma
axon .

8. .
toxin
. toxin A subunit B subunit
, B subunit toxin
. toxin ER
toxin A subunit ATP cAMP
. cAMP PKA ,
PKA
. toxin
cAMP
,
.

.
9. 1347 , ,
.
1/4 .

. ,

.
,

.
** ,
 .

, .

.
10. Louis Simond
.
Louis Simond
.

,
,
. ,
.
, .
.
11. Gram negative bacteria Gram positive bacteria
.
Gram Staining ,
. . Gram
positive 1
, Gram negative
.
Gram positive
Gram negative
.
.
12.
.

.
 .

( )
.
13.
.

. 1 3 ,
.

.
frameshift
.
AAA AAG lysine
, UAA UAG, UGA
.
.
, .
.
Loss-of-function mutation
, Gain-of-
function mutation .
14. .
DNA DNA

. DNA
Euchromatin , DNA

Heterochromatin .
DNA
, DNA
 .
15. DNA .
DNA DNA ,
.
DNA . Helicase DNA
DNA
,
Single-strand binding protein
. DNA RNA
primer . RNA primer Primase . RNA
primer DNA 3
DNA RNA
primer . RNA primer DNA
1 RNA DNA , DNA ligase
. RNA primer
DNA , DNA
3’ RNA primer DNA
DNA . RNA primer
.
DNA primer 3’
DNA ,
DNA
.
DNA
.
16. PCR annealing ,
.
PCR DNA DNA
. DNA
(denaturation). DNA primer
primer (annealing).
dNTP
DNA elongation .
 taq DNA .
DNA .
17. Variolation vaccination .
Variolation Variola
. Variola
.

.
vaccination Jenner

.
.
18. .

.
,
,
.
19. .
Y heavy chain light chain
. heavy chain light chain
constant ,Y
variable .
variable antigen-binding site
.
** ,
Macrophage
.
(complement system) .
20.
. .
heavy chain light chain ,
chian . heavy chain
V, D, J , light
chain V, J .
V, D, J
1 .

.
21. COVID-19 .
. .
MHC(Major Histochemical complex)
, APC(Antigen
Presenting cell) MHC T cell
T cell
. T cell B cell ,
B cell B cell
. B cell 7-80% plasma cell
, 20%
memory cell .

, .
22. (attenuation)
.

.
 .
,
.