1. What do you understand by term, "per capita demand"?

What are the factors influencing

the selection of a method of population forecasting. What are intakes? What are the
important considerations which govern the selection of site of an intake?

1. Per Capita Demand

The average water consumption per person per day, expressed in liters per capita per day
(lpcd). It depends on climate, lifestyle, industrialization, and water system efficiency.

2. Factors Influencing Population Forecasting

• City size and growth rate

• Historical data and future development
• Economic and industrial growth
• Planning horizon and government policies

3. Intakes

Structures designed to withdraw water from natural sources (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) for
supply to treatment plants.

4. Considerations for Intake Site Selection

• Hydrological: Sufficient water, good quality, stable flow.

• Environmental: Avoid erosion, stable soil, clean surroundings.
• Economic: Accessible, cost-effective, near treatment plants.
• Legal/Social: Compliance with laws, minimal community impact.

2. What is Mass Curve Analysis? What do you understand by Filtration? What actions take
place during filtration? Write four major differences between slow sand and rapid sand
filters?

Mass Curve Analysis:

Mass curve analysis is a graphical method used in hydrology to evaluate the cumulative
inflow or outflow of water over time. It is often applied to design storage reservoirs,
ensuring that water demands are met during periods of low flow.
• Procedure:
o A mass curve is plotted with cumulative inflow on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.
o The reservoir capacity is determined by the largest vertical difference between the
mass curve (representing cumulative inflow) and the demand line (representing
cumulative water usage).
Filtration:
Filtration is the process of removing suspended impurities, microorganisms, and undesirable
chemical substances from water by passing it through a porous medium, such as sand or
activated carbon. It is a critical step in water treatment to produce potable water.
 Actions During Filtration:
1. Mechanical Straining:
Larger suspended particles are trapped in the pores of the filter medium.
2. Sedimentation:
Heavier particles settle within the filter bed due to gravity.
3. Adsorption:
Fine particles, organic matter, and microorganisms adhere to the surface of the filter
medium.
4. Biological Action (in slow sand filters):
A biofilm or "schmutzdecke" layer forms on the surface, which breaks down organic
impurities and pathogens.

Differences Between Slow Sand Filters and Rapid Sand Filters:

Aspect Slow Sand Filters Rapid Sand Filters

Filtration Rate Low (0.1–0.4 m³/m²/hour) High (4–21 m³/m²/hour)

Relies on biological action Relies primarily on

Mechanism mechanical straining
and mechanical straining

Manual scraping of top layer Backwashing with water or

Cleaning Method air
("schmutzdecke")

Maintenance Low frequency of cleaning High frequency of cleaning

Frequency (weeks to months) (days)

Suitable for large-scale,

Suitable for small-scale water high-demand water
Application
treatment treatment

3. For a huge quantity of public water supply, what type of sources you will prefer? Justify your
answer.

For a huge quantity of public water supply, the preferred sources are:

1. Surface Water Sources:

• Rivers: Provide a continuous and large quantity of water. Suitable for large
populations if properly treated.
• Reservoirs/Dams: Reliable during dry seasons, as they store water.
• Lakes: Good for steady and large supplies if well-maintained.

Justification:
• Abundant and readily accessible.
• Capable of meeting high demands for urban areas.
 • Easier to draw and transport compared to groundwater.
• Suitable for treatment and distribution.

2. Groundwater Sources (Limited Use):

• Deep wells and aquifers can supplement the supply, especially in areas with
low surface water availability.

Justification:
• High quality and naturally filtered.
• However, not ideal for huge demand due to limited recharge rates and over
extraction risks.

4. Mention the factors which may affect the settlement of a particle in water by using the
Stoke's equation. Briefly explain the Type 1 and Type 2 settling.

Factors Affecting Particle Settlement Using Stoke's Equation:

Stoke's equation for the settling velocity (Vs) of a particle in a fluid is given by:
vs=g⋅(dp2)⋅(ρp−ρf)18μv_s = \frac{g \cdot (d_p^2) \cdot (\rho_p - \rho_f)}{18\mu}vs
=18μg⋅(dp2)⋅(ρp−ρf)
where:
• vsv_svs: Settling velocity of the particle.
• ggg: Acceleration due to gravity.
• dpd_pdp: Diameter of the particle.
• ρp\rho_pρp: Density of the particle.
• ρf\rho_fρf: Density of the fluid.
• μ\muμ: Dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
The following factors influence the settling velocity:
1. Particle Size (dpd_pdp):
Larger particles settle faster since settling velocity is proportional to the square of the
particle diameter.
2. Particle Density (ρp\rho_pρp):
Denser particles experience greater gravitational force, leading to faster settlement.
3. Fluid Density (ρf\rho_fρf):
Higher fluid density reduces the effective gravitational force on the particle, slowing its
settlement.
4. Fluid Viscosity (μ\muμ):
Increased viscosity resists the motion of the particle, reducing the settling velocity.
5. Acceleration Due to Gravity (ggg):
Higher gravitational acceleration increases the settling velocity.

Type 1 Settling (Discrete Settling):

• Definition:
In Type 1 settling, particles settle independently without interaction. Each particle follows its
settling velocity governed by Stoke's law.
• Characteristics:
o Occurs in low-concentration suspensions.
o Particle motion is unaffected by other particles.
o Typically observed in primary sedimentation tanks.

Type 2 Settling (Flocculent Settling):

• Definition:
In Type 2 settling, particles interact, collide, and coalesce to form larger aggregates (flocs).
These flocs have higher settling velocities than individual particles.
• Characteristics:
o Occurs in higher-concentration suspensions.
o Particle interaction enhances settlement efficiency.
o Typically observed in secondary sedimentation tanks or systems using coagulants.

5. What is an equivalent pipe? what is purpose of determining equivalent pipes in water

distribution system?

An equivalent pipe is a hypothetical single pipe that has the same hydraulic properties (such
as flow rate and head loss) as a combination of multiple pipes connected in series or parallel
in a pipeline system. By replacing a complex pipeline network with an equivalent pipe,
hydraulic analysis becomes simpler and more manageable.

Purpose of Determining Equivalent Pipes in Water Distribution Systems

1. Simplification of Complex Systems:
o Complex pipeline networks often involve multiple pipes with varying diameters,
lengths, and roughness.
o Determining an equivalent pipe reduces the system to a single pipe, making
calculations easier.
2. Uniform Flow Conditions:
o Ensures that the simplified system accurately represents the flow rate and head loss
of the original system.
3. Ease of Hydraulic Calculations:
o Allows engineers to use standard formulas like the Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-
Williams equation on a simplified system.
4. Optimization and Design:
o Helps in designing efficient and cost-effective pipeline systems by understanding
overall system behavior.
5. Problem Diagnosis:
o Simplifies troubleshooting by representing the network as a single pipe when
analyzing pressure drops or flow distribution.
 Equivalent Pipe Formulas
1. For Pipes in Series:
When pipes are connected end-to-end (series), the equivalent pipe length and diameter can
be calculated as:
Leq=L1+L2+L3+…L_{\text{eq}} = L_1 + L_2 + L_3 + \dotsLeq=L1+L2+L3+…
and the head loss is cumulative:
heq=h1+h2+h3+…h_{\text{eq}} = h_1 + h_2 + h_3 + \dotsheq=h1+h2+h3+…
2. For Pipes in Parallel:
When pipes are connected side-by-side (parallel), the equivalent pipe diameter can be
determined from:
1Deq5=1D15+1D25+…\frac{1}{D_{\text{eq}}^5} = \frac{1}{D_1^5} + \frac{1}{D_2^5} +
\dotsDeq51=D151+D251+…
where DeqD_{\text{eq}}Deq is the equivalent diameter, assuming all pipes have the same
length.

6. Define water pollution.

Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies (such as rivers, lakes, oceans,
aquifers, and groundwater) due to the introduction of harmful substances or pollutants,
which degrade water quality and render it unfit for its intended use. These pollutants can
affect the ecosystem, human health, and the environment.

Key Components of Water Pollution

1. Sources of Pollutants:
o Point Sources: Direct sources such as industrial discharge pipes or sewage outlets.
o Non-Point Sources: Diffuse sources such as agricultural runoff, stormwater, or urban
runoff.
2. Types of Pollutants:
o Chemical Pollutants: Heavy metals, pesticides, industrial chemicals, and oils.
o Biological Pollutants: Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
o Physical Pollutants: Sediments, thermal pollution, and plastic waste.
3. Impacts:
o Depletion of oxygen in water bodies.
o Harmful effects on aquatic ecosystems.
o Health hazards for humans consuming contaminated water.
o Disruption of natural water cycles.
7. How the leakages can be detected of a pipe line?

Methods of Detecting Pipeline Leaks:

1. Visual Inspection: Check for visible signs like water pooling or damp soil around the pipeline.
2. Pressure Testing: Monitor for pressure drops after pressurizing the pipeline to detect leaks.
3. Acoustic Detection: Use microphones or sensors to detect sounds generated by escaping
fluids.
4. Electronic Leak Detection: Measure changes in the electrical properties of the pipeline to
identify leaks.
5. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Use radar signals to detect underground anomalies
indicating leaks.
6. Infrared Thermography: Use thermal cameras to detect temperature variations caused by
leaks.
7. Tracer Gas Method: Inject tracer gas (helium or hydrogen) and detect its escape to locate
leaks.
8. Fiber Optic Monitoring: Install fiber optics to detect physical changes such as vibrations or
temperature shifts.
9. Smart Pigging: A device (pig) travels through the pipeline, measuring internal conditions to
detect leaks.
10. Satellite & Aerial Surveillance: Use drones or satellites with sensors for remote monitoring
of large pipelines.
11. Flow Monitoring: Compare input and output volumes to detect discrepancies indicating a
leak.
12. Fiber Optic DAS: Use distributed fiber optics to detect vibrations caused by leaks in real-
time.
 Short notes:

• Types of Tubewells
Tubewells are structures used to extract groundwater by installing a tube or pipe into the
aquifer. Based on their design and purpose, tubewells can be classified into the following
types:

1. Shallow Tubewells:
o Purpose: Extract water from shallow aquifers (up to 50 meters deep).
o Application: Commonly used for irrigation and domestic purposes in areas with a
high water table.
o Features: Require small pumps, typically operated by hand or low-power motors.
2. Deep Tubewells:
o Purpose: Extract water from deep aquifers (up to several hundred meters deep).
o Application: Used for municipal water supply, industries, and large-scale irrigation.
o Features: Require powerful pumps and heavy machinery for installation.
3. Strainer Tubewells:
o Purpose: Installed in areas where the aquifer is composed of loose, unconsolidated
sands or gravels.
o Application: Used for irrigation and drinking water supply.
o Features: Fitted with strainers (perforated sections) to prevent sand and debris from
entering.
4. Cavity Tubewells:
o Purpose: Installed in hard rock formations or areas with fissured aquifers.
o Application: Used where water availability is limited and aquifers are confined.
o Features: Do not use strainers; rely on natural cavities in the rock for water flow.
5. Slotted Tubewells:
o Purpose: Suitable for areas where aquifers consist of layers of fine sand or silt.
o Application: Typically used for domestic and irrigation purposes.
o Features: Use slotted pipes to allow water inflow while preventing fine particles
from entering.
6. Pressure Tubewells:
o Purpose: Installed in confined aquifers where water is under natural pressure.
o Application: Used in areas where water rises to the surface due to artesian
conditions.
o Features: Requires minimal pumping effort if the pressure is sufficient.
7. Collector Wells (Radial Tubewells):
o Purpose: Used to extract large volumes of water.
o Application: Suitable for municipal and industrial water supply.
o Features: Multiple horizontal perforated pipes extend radially from a central well to
collect water from a wide area.
 • Infiltration Gallery

An infiltration gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal structure, typically a system of

perforated or slotted pipes, installed below the ground level in an aquifer to collect water. It
allows water from the surrounding soil or aquifer to seep in through perforations and flow
to a collection chamber.
Key Features:
1. Location: Installed below the water table in permeable soil.
2. Structure: Consists of a series of interconnected pipes or channels with perforations.
3. Function: Collects groundwater that infiltrates through the surrounding soil.
4. Applications: Commonly used for supplying drinking water, especially in areas near rivers or
in floodplains.
Advantages:
• Provides a natural filtration process, improving water quality.
• Suitable for large-scale water extraction without major pumping.
Disadvantages:
• Limited to areas with high groundwater levels and permeable soil.
• Vulnerable to clogging from fine particles and organic matter.

• Infiltration Well

An infiltration well is a vertical structure, typically a deep well, designed to allow surface
water to seep into the ground and recharge the underlying aquifer. It facilitates the direct
infiltration of water into the groundwater system.
Key Features:
1. Location: Installed in areas with declining groundwater levels.
2. Structure: Comprises a vertical shaft filled with gravel or coarse sand, often with a
perforated casing.
3. Function: Allows surface runoff or treated water to infiltrate into the aquifer.
4. Applications: Used for groundwater recharge, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
Advantages:
• Helps replenish aquifers and combat groundwater depletion.
• Reduces the risk of surface flooding by managing stormwater.
Disadvantages:
• Requires clean water to avoid clogging and contamination of the aquifer.
• Not suitable for impermeable soils.
 • Grit Chamber

A grit chamber is a primary treatment unit in wastewater management designed to remove

heavy inorganic particles like sand, gravel, silt, and other coarse solids from sewage or
industrial wastewater. These particles, referred to as "grit," can cause wear and tear on
equipment, reduce the efficiency of downstream processes, and lead to blockages if not
removed.

Key Features:
1. Purpose:
o Prevents damage to pumps and mechanical equipment.
o Reduces sedimentation in pipelines and tanks.
2. Design:
o Long, narrow channels or tanks where wastewater flows at controlled velocities.
o Velocity is adjusted to allow grit to settle while keeping organic materials in
suspension.
3. Mechanism:
o Utilizes sedimentation principles: heavier particles settle at the bottom, while lighter
particles remain in the flow.
4. Types:
o Horizontal-flow grit chambers: Wastewater flows in a horizontal direction.
o Aerated grit chambers: Air is introduced to enhance grit removal efficiency.
o Vortex grit chambers: Uses centrifugal forces to separate grit.

Applications:
• Used in municipal wastewater treatment plants.
• Suitable for industrial wastewater containing abrasive materials.

Advantages:
1. Protects downstream treatment units from abrasion and wear.
2. Reduces maintenance costs and operational issues.
3. Enhances the overall efficiency of the wastewater treatment process.

Disadvantages:
1. Ineffective for very fine particles or organic matter.
2. Requires regular cleaning and maintenance of the chamber.
 • Forms of Chlorination

Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine or chlorine compounds to water to disinfect

and eliminate pathogens, making it safe for consumption or use. Different forms of
chlorination are applied depending on the treatment requirements:

i. Plain Chlorination: Direct addition of chlorine to disinfect water with low turbidity,
often used in emergencies.
ii. Pre-Chlorination: Chlorine is added before filtration to control algae and improve
coagulation.
iii. Post-Chlorination: Chlorine is added after treatment to ensure water remains
disinfected during distribution.
iv. Break-Point Chlorination: Chlorine is added until organic matter and ammonia are
oxidized, ensuring complete disinfection and eliminating chloramines.
v. Super-Chlorination: High doses of chlorine are used for shock treatment in cases of
severe contamination.
vi. De-Chlorination: Removal of excess chlorine post-treatment to prevent health risks
or damage to systems.
vii. Chloramination: Chlorine is combined with ammonia to create chloramines, offering
longer-lasting disinfection with less odor and taste.

• Plumbing System of Drainage

A drainage plumbing system is designed to efficiently remove wastewater and sewage from
a building, ensuring hygiene and preventing contamination. It directs waste from sinks,
toilets, showers, and other fixtures to municipal sewer lines or septic tanks.

Key Components:
1. Drainage Pipes:
o Carry wastewater and sewage. Types include soil pipes (toilets), waste pipes (sinks),
and vent pipes (airflow).
2. Sewers:
o Main channels for transporting waste from the building to the municipal system or
septic tanks.
3. Traps:
o U-shaped bends in pipes that hold water to prevent foul gases from entering the
building.
4. Clean-Outs:
o Access points for clearing blockages in the system.
5. Ventilation System:
o Ensures smooth water flow by equalizing pressure and preventing airlocks.
6. Septic Tank (for individual systems):
o Stores and treats wastewater in rural or off-grid areas.

Types of Drainage Systems:

1. Domestic: For residential buildings.
2. Stormwater: Manages rainwater to prevent flooding.
3. Industrial: Handles wastewater from industrial activities.
4. Sanitary: Focuses on removing human waste and ensuring sanitation.

Importance:
• Health & Hygiene: Prevents the spread of disease.
• Water Damage Prevention: Reduces risks of flooding and leakage.
• Code Compliance: Meets local regulations for safety and effectiveness.

• Types of Pipes

1. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Pipes: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, used for water supply and
drainage.
2. CPVC (Chlorinated PVC) Pipes: Heat-resistant, used for hot and cold water systems.
3. PPR (Polypropylene) Pipes: Heat and chemical-resistant, used in plumbing and heating
systems.
4. Galvanized Steel Pipes: Coated with zinc, used for water supply but prone to rust over time.
5. Copper Pipes: Durable, corrosion-resistant, used for hot and cold water systems.
6. Cast Iron Pipes: Strong and durable, used for drainage and waste systems.
7. Ductile Iron Pipes: Stronger and more flexible than cast iron, used for water and sewage
systems.
8. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) Pipes: Flexible, corrosion-resistant, used in water and gas
systems.
9. Concrete Pipes: Heavy-duty, used for large-scale sewer and stormwater systems.
10. ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) Pipes: Shock-resistant, used in drainage and waste
systems.
11. Polyethylene (PE) Pipes: Flexible, resistant to corrosion, used for water and gas distribution.
12. Stainless Steel Pipes: Corrosion-resistant, used in high-pressure and industrial systems.

• Point Source Pollution:

• Definition: Pollution that comes from a single, identifiable source or location, such as a pipe,
factory, or wastewater treatment plant.
• Characteristics: Easier to trace and regulate because the pollutant's origin is specific and
measurable.
• Examples: Discharge from industrial factories, sewage treatment plants, or stormwater
outfalls.
• Control: Easier to control through permits, regulations, and monitoring.
 o Non-Point Source Pollution:

• Definition: Pollution that originates from diffuse sources, not a single point, and is often
carried by runoff over large areas.
• Characteristics: Harder to trace and manage due to its widespread nature.
• Examples: Agricultural runoff, urban runoff from streets, and pollution from construction
sites.
• Control: More challenging to control, requiring broad land-use management, better farming
practices, and pollution prevention strategies.

o Indicator Organism

An indicator organism is a microorganism used to detect and estimate the level of contamination,
particularly in water. These organisms are not necessarily harmful themselves but are found in the
same environment as harmful pathogens, making them useful for assessing water quality.

Key Characteristics:

1. Presence Indicates Contamination: The presence of indicator organisms suggests potential

contamination by pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses) that may be harmful.

2. Easy to Detect: They are easier and faster to detect than actual pathogens, making them
useful for routine water testing.

3. Non-Harmful: Typically not pathogenic to humans, but their presence serves as a warning
sign for possible disease-causing microorganisms.

Common Indicator Organisms:

1. Total Coliforms: Used as a general indicator of sanitary quality.

2. Fecal Coliforms: More specific, indicating contamination from human or animal waste.

3. Escherichia coli (E. coli): A type of fecal coliform that is commonly used as a direct indicator
of fecal contamination.