UNIT II

METEOROLOGY
Meteorology
Meteorology is the study of the changes in temperature, air pressure, moisture, and wind
direction in the troposphere. It is a science that studies atmospheric phenomena, especially those
that relate to weather.
Meteorological factors
Air movements influence the fate of air pollutants. So any study of air pollution should include a
study of the local weather patterns (meteorology).

If the air is calm and pollutants cannot disperse, then the concentration of these pollutants will
build up. On the other hand, when strong, turbulent winds blow, pollutants disperse quickly,
resulting in lower pollutant concentrations.

Meteorological data helps:

 identify the source of pollutants

 predict air pollution events such as inversions and high-pollutant concentration days
 Simulate and predict air quality using computer models.

Factors influencing air pollution

 wind speed and direction

 temperature
 humidity
 rainfall
 solar radiation.

Wind speed and direction

When high pollutant concentrations occur at a monitoring station, wind data records can
determine the general direction and area of the emissions. Identifying the sources means
planning to reduce the impacts on air quality can take place.

An instrument called an anemometer measures wind speed.

For example Sonic Anemometer.

A sonic anemometer operates on the principle that the speed of wind affects the time it takes for
sound to travel from one point to another. Sound travelling with the wind will take less time than
sound travelling into the wind. By measuring sound wave speeds in 2 different directions at the
same time, sonic anemometers can measure both wind speed and direction.
Temperature
Measuring temperature supports air quality assessment, air quality modelling and forecasting
activities.

Temperature and sunlight (solar radiation) play an important role in the chemical reactions that
occur in the atmosphere to form photochemical smog from other pollutants.

Favourable conditions can lead to increased concentrations of smog.

The most common way of measuring temperature is to use a material with a resistance that
changes with temperature, such as platinum wire. A sensor measures this change and converts it
into a temperature reading.

Humidity
Like temperature and solar radiation, water vapour plays an important role in many thermal and
photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. As water molecules are small and highly polar, they
can bind strongly to many substances. If attached to particles suspended in the air they can
significantly increase the amount of light scattered by the particles (measuring visibility). If the
water molecules attach to corrosive gases, such as sulfur dioxide, the gas will dissolve in the
water and form an acid solution that can damage health and property.

Water vapour content of air is reported as a percentage of the saturation vapour pressure of water
at a given temperature. This is the relative humidity. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere is highly variable—it depends on geographic location, how close water bodies are,
wind direction and air temperature. Relative humidity is generally higher during summer when
temperature and rainfall are also at their highest.

Measuring humidity uses the absorption properties of a polymer film. The film either absorbs or
loses water vapour as the relative humidity of the ambient air changes. A sensor measures these
changes and converts them into a humidity reading.

Rainfall
Rain has a 'scavenging' effect when it washes particulate matter out of the atmosphere and
dissolves gaseous pollutants. Removing particles improves visibility. Where there is frequent
high rainfall, air quality is generally better.

If the rain dissolves gaseous pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide, it can form acid rain resulting in
potential damage to materials or vegetation.

A common method to measure rainfall is to use a tipping bucket rain gauge

Tipping bucket rain gauge
The gauge registers rainfall by counting small amounts of rain collected. When rain falls into the
funnel, it runs into a container (the tipping bucket) divided into 2 equal compartments by a
partition.

The design of the tipping bucket makes one compartment tilt downward and rest against a stop
when it is empty, positioning the other compartment under the funnel ready to receive rain water.

When a set amount of rain has drained from the funnel into the upper compartment the bucket
tilts the opposite way so that the compartment containing the rain comes to rest against the stop
on the opposite side. The collected water then empties out and the other compartment starts to
fill.

The instrument calculates the quantity and intensity of rainfall using with the area of the funnel
and the number and rate of bucket movements.

Solar radiation
It is important to monitor solar radiation for use in modelling photochemical smog events, as the
intensity of sunlight has an important influence on the rate of the chemical reactions that produce
the smog. The cloudiness of the sky, time of day and geographic location all affect sunlight
intensity.

An instrument called a pyranometer measures solar radiation from the output of a type of silicon
cell sensor.
 Lapse Rate (LR) is decrease in temperature with increase in altitude. It will be Negative LR
is temperature increase with altitude and positive if it decreases with altitude. Thus in all
zones its NLR and PLR.
There are two types of lapse rate:
 Environmental lapse rate – which refers to the actual change of temperature with
altitude for the stationary atmosphere.
 The adiabatic lapse rates – which refer to the change in temperature of a mass of air as
it moves upwards. There are two adiabatic rates
o Dry adiabatic lapse rate
o Moist adiabatic lapse rate

Atmospheric stability

Lapse Rate/ Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)

The rate at which temperature actually changes with increase in altitude at any given time
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
Approx 1oC decrease in temperature with every 100m
Lapse rate = - 9.8 oC per Km
It means if we vertically go up than after every one kilometer; approximately 10 degrees Celcius
decrease in temperature will be observed.
DALR as per international convention of USA 0.66oC per 100m

Based on the changes in the ELR the stability conditions are divided into four main
categories:
Significance in meteorology
The varying environmental lapse rates throughout the earth's atmosphere are of critical
importance in meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. They are used to determine if
the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having
formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether
these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds (thunder clouds).
Super-adiabatic Lapse Rate
The condition is said to be super adiabatic when actual decrease in temperature is more than dry
adiabatic lapse rate. (ELR>DALR). The environment becomes strongly unstable and favours
dispersion of pollutants.
For example in graph given below; if at height 1 km ELR and DALR = 20 0C; at 2km ELR=70C
whereas DALR = 100C. The decrease in ELR temperature is 13 whereas decrease in DALR
temperature in 10; it means ELR>DALR. It does not deal with temperature but the rate of
decrease in temperature.

Let us assume a parcel of pollutant; plume moving in Environment (on ELR). At 2km altitude
the parcel is at 7 degree Celcius temperature however the surrounding air is at 10 degree.
Therefore the hot air will take the parcel up in the air and will disperse properly.
Thus, the condition is good for dispersion as the plume will go up in the air.
The equal value of actual environmental lapse rate and dry adiabatic lapse rate makes the
environment neutral for dispersion of pollutants (ELR=DALR).
Let us assume a parcel of pollutant; plume moving in Environment (on ELR). At 2km altitude
the parcel and surrounding air both are at same temperature, therefore the plume will neither
move up nor down.
Thus, the condition is not very suitable for dispersion.
Sub-adiabatic Lapse Rate
The actual decrease in temperature in environment is slightly less than dry adiabatic lapse rate.
The condition favours less vertical mixing of pollutants (ELR<DALR).

In the diagram you can see; DALR as always is fixed. At 2km altitude ELR = 13 whereas
DALR=10. This means that decrease in temperature at DALR is more that ELR.
Let us assume a parcel of pollutant; plume moving in Environment (on ELR). At 2km altitude
the parcel is at 13 degree Celcius temperature however the surrounding air is at 10 degree.
Therefore the cold air will sink the parcel down.
Thus, the condition is not good for dispersion as the plume will come down.
1. Absolutely unstable : if the environmental lapse rate is greater than 9.8 C per
kilometer (i.e. greater than the dry adiabatic rate), then any rising parcel,
saturated or not, will be warmer than it's envirnoment. The parcel will be
buoyant in this case, and so the atmosphere is characterized as absolutely
unstable.

Favorable conditions: Large environmental lapse rate

1. Cooling the air aloft: cold winds, cloud IR radiation

2. Heating the air below: solar heating; warm air advection; wind
over a warm surface, forest fires

2. Conditionally unstable : if the environmental lapse rate lies in the range

between 4 C per kilometer and 9.8 C per kilometer, then the atmosphere is
characterizeds as conditionally unstable. A rising parcel could become buoyant
if at some point it becomes saturated. Whether it becomes saturated depends on
the surface temperature and humidity.
 The environmental lapse rate is smaller than the dry but larger than the moist
adiabatic lapse rate.

3. Absolutely stable : if the environmental lapse rate is less than 4 C per

kilometer, then any rising air parcel will be colder than the environment, and
will sink back down. The atmosphere is characterized as absolutely stable
because no matter if the parcel is saturated or not, it cannot become buoyant.
Favorable conditions:

 Temperature inversions: warm air above cold air.

 Small environmental lapse rate
 Heating the air aloft.
 Cooling the air below: radiational cooling; cold advection; air
moving over a cold surface

Observed phenomena: fog, haze.

When forced to rise, stable air spreads out horizontally: clouds form in thin
layers with flat tops and bases.

Summary
 Inversion
When reverse condition prevails that is temperature increase with increase in altitude. The
condition restricts the movement of air parcel and thus dispersion.

In the diagram you can see; DALR as always is fixed. At 2km altitude ELR = 25 whereas
DALR=10. The condition is opposite to lapse rate.
Let us assume a parcel of pollutant; plume moving in Environment (on ELR). At 2km altitude
the parcel is at 25 degree Celcius temperature however the surrounding air is at 10 degree.
Therefore, there is lot of difference in temperature and cold air will not let the parcel disperse
and will sink the parcel down.
Thus, the condition is not good for dispersion as the plume will come down. The condition
is very prevalent in winters which also leads to smog.

Reasons for Inversion Conditions

 Radiation Inversion
 Subsidence Inversion
 Frontal/advective Inversion

Radiation Inversion: Inversion due to difference in solar radiation. Earth cools during night by
radiating thermal energy into space. In morning, air near surface becomes cooler than the air
above, creating thermal inversion. The condition is very common and frequent, but less
problematic and persistent. The inversion layer breaks with the intensity of sunlight and heating
of earth surface.
Subsidence Inversion: this type of inversion occurs due to pressure difference in the
atmosphere. High pressure mass of air moves towards earth. The air in center gets compressed
and heated. The condition is more common in summers and prevails for long time thus restricts
pollution dispersion.

Frontal/advective Inversion:
This type of inversion occures due to movement of warm and cold air.
Frontal Inversion: occurs when warm air overrides cooler air.
Advective Inversion: occurs when warm air flows over a cold surface or cold air.
 Plume Dispersion
A plume is a distribution of pollutant from a continuous source. e.g. smoke from a chimney
stack. The dispersion of a plume is influenced by various plume properties including:
 rate of release
 temperature of release (buoyancy)
 height of release

and also by environmental properties including

 windspeed
 turbulence
 atmospheric stability

Based on the above mentioned plume and environmental properties, the plumes are broadly
divided into six main categories:

Looping Plume
In a well-mixed turbulent boundary layer on a hot day (forced by buoyancy), the turbulent eddies
may be large and intense enough effectively disperse the plume in the air.
Conditions:
 Super-adiabatic conditions
 Strong solar heating
 Light wind speed
 Unstable atmosphere
 Clear day
 Coning Plume
This is the kind of form assumed for a Gaussian plume, when the boundary layer is well-mixed
and turbulent eddies are smaller than the plume scale. The plume forms a cone downstream.
Conditions:
 Weakly stable condition
 Moderate to strong winds
 Cloudy day
 Wet condition
 Fanning Plume
In a stable boundary layer, the plume spreads out horizontally at its level of neutral buoyancy.
Vertical motion is weak, so there is little upward spread, but the plume forms a `fan' when
viewed from above. The plume is not well-mixed in the vertical, which implies relatively slow
dilution, but there are not likely to be high plume concentrations at the ground. Unfortunately,
this kind of plume may be the precursor to a `fumigation' event if the inversion is subsequently
mixed to ground level.
Conditions:
 Inversion Condition
 Early morning
 Light winds & light turbulence
 Temperature gradient is positive
 Lofting Plume
At early evening, if a surface inversion is developing, vertical motion may be inhibited below the
plume while remaining active above: the plume is diluted but does not reach the ground. This is a
favourable situation.

Conditions:
 Inversion Condition below
 Early morning
 Light winds & light turbulence
 Temperature gradient is positive
 Fumigation Plume
There is a strong inversion restricting mixing above, and the plume is mixed throughout the
boundary layer. This can occur quite rapidly. For example, after sunrise when the nocturnal
inversion is being eroded from below by buoyant eddies, plume-level air of high concentration
may be brought down to the surface over a wide area.
Conditions:
 Inversion Condition above
 Early morning after a stable inversion night
 Increase Ground Level Concentration (GLC)
 Trapping Plume
There is a relatively well-mixed layer with inversions above and below it which trap the plume
at a particular height. This might occur at night when there is a low-level inversion above the
NBL and a higher level inversion left over from the previous days CBL. In between is the
relatively well mixed residual layer.
Conditions:
 Inversion layer exist both above and below the stack
 Diffuses within limited vertical height
Uses of Wind Rose Diagram
 In industries for environmental monitoring and for keeping an eye on the air pollution
levels.
 To monitor the climate and may be used in airports for guiding flights to take off in the
right direction where there will be minimum interference by wind.
 used to monitor the wind patterns and predict harsh climatic conditions such as tornadoes
or hurricanes, as well as to monitor the air quality.

Air Quality Modeling

 Air quality models use mathematical and numerical techniques to simulate the physical
and chemical processes that affect air pollutants as they disperse and react in the
atmosphere.
Purposes

 Establishing emission control legislation, i.e. determining the maximum allowable

emission rates that will meet fixed air quality standards
 Evaluating proposed emission control techniques and strategies i.e. evaluating the
impacts of future control
 Selecting locations of future sources of pollutants (e.g. industries), in order to
minimize their environmental impacts
  Planning the control of air pollution episodes, ie. Defining immediate intervention
strategies.
 Evaluating present source-receptor relationships.

Mathematical Modeling Approaches

Deterministic Model
Based on fundamental mathematical description of atmospheric processes, in which
effects (ie, air pollution) are generated by causes (ie, emission).
•Ex. Diffusion models (e.g. Gaussian Plume model)
•Statistical Model
Based upon semi-empirical statistical relationship among available data and
measurements.
•Ex. Forecast of the concentration in the next few hours as a statistical function of :
(i) current measurements, and
(ii)Past correlation between there measurements and concentration trends.

Types of Air Quality Models

 i) Dispersion/Diffusion Modeling:
uses mathematical formulations to characterize atmospheric processes that disperse a
pollutant emitted by a source.
 ii) Photochemical Modeling:
Long-range air quality models that simulate the changes of pollutant concentrations in the
atmosphere due to the chemical and physical processes in the atmosphere.
 iii) Receptor Modeling:
Mathematical or statistical procedure for identifying and quantifying the source of air
pollutants at a receptor location.
 Example:- Chemical Mass Balance Method

Dispersion Modeling
It is an attempt to describe relationship between emission, occurring concentration and
deposition. It gives complete analysis of what emission sources have lead to concentration
depositions. Mathematical models use analytical and numerical formulations, usually
implemented on computers.

Uses of dispersion modeling

 To predict ambient air concentrations which will result from an emission source.
 To plan and execute cost effective air pollution control program
 To find optimal stack height and diameter.
 To plan control of air pollution during accidents (eg gas leak)
 To evaluate the performance of emission control techniques.
Input data required for dispersion models
 Meterological conditions
 Emission parameters
 Terrain elevation at source and receptor location.
 Obstructions if any (e.g. tall buildings)

Fick’s Law of Turbulent diffusion

General equation on which dispersion model depends

= + + + Q x, y, z

• Kx Ky Kz eddy coefficients in three directions

• Qx y z represents source or sink expressed in appropriate terms

Types of air pollution dispersion models

 Box model
 Gaussian model
 Eulerian model
 Lagrangian model
 Dense gas model
Lagrangian model
Point Source Gaussian Plume Model – Effective Stack Height
Point Source Gaussian Plume Model – Stability Categories

A Extremely Unstable B Moderately Unstable C Slightly Unstable

D Neutral E Slightly Stable F Moderately Stable

Problems
• A stack in an urban area is emitting 80 g/s of NO. It has an effective stack height of
100 m. The wind speed is 4 m/s at 10 m. It is a clear summer day with the sun nearly
overhead. Estimate the ground level concentration at a) 2 km downwind on the
centerline and b) 2 km downwind, 0.1 km off the centerline.

Solution:
Determine stability class
Assume wind speed is 4 m/s at ground surface. Description suggests strong solar
radiation.
Stability class B

Estimate the wind speed at the effective stack height

Note: effective stack height given – no need to calculate using Holland’s formula
 = 5.65 m/s

Determine σy and σz
σy = 290 σz = 220
Determine concentration using Eq a. x = 2000, y = 0

C(2000,0) = 6.43´10-5 g/m3 = 64.3 μg/m3

b. x = 2000, y = 0.1 km = 100 m

C(2000,0) = 6.06 ´10-5 g/m3 = 60.6 μg/m3